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[ { "content": "Title: Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling Content: The Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling ( CPOM ) is a centre for research into polar region processes which may affect : polar atmosphere and ocean circulation ; the Earth 's albedo ; and global sea levels . It is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council , a UK Research Council . CPOM comprises research groups from 3 Universities : University College London , University of Bristol , and University of Edinburgh . In 2006 , research carried out by CPOM resulted in the press report `` Secret rivers found in Antarctic '' . The survey used the European Space Agency 's ERS-2 satellite radar to measure a region in East Antarctica with some of the oldest , thickest ice on the continent . The survey revealed synchronous changes in ice surface height ( both rise and falls ) at locations hundreds of kilometres apart . According to CPOM Director , Duncan Wingham , the only conceivable mechanism for the observations was the movement of water .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Centre_for_Polar_Observation_&_Modelling", "rank": 1, "score": 180622 }, { "content": "Title: International Arctic Research Center Content: The International Arctic Research Center , or IARC , established in 1999 , is a research institution focused on integrating and coordinating study of climate change in the Arctic . The primary partners in IARC are Japan and the United States . Participants include organizations from Canada , China , Denmark , Germany , Japan , Norway , Russia , the United Kingdom , and the United States . The Center is located at the University of Alaska Fairbanks , in the Syun-Ichi Akasofu Building . The Keith B. Mather Library is the science library housed in the Akasofu Building , serving IARC and the Geophysical Institute of UAF . The building also houses the UAF atmospheric sciences department , the Center for Global Change and the Fairbanks forecast office of the National Weather Service . Study projects are focused within four major themes : Arctic ocean models and observation Arctic atmosphere : feedbacks , radiation , and weather analysis Permafrost/Frozen soil models and observations Arctic biota/vegetation ( ecosystem models ) IARC is devoting specific effort to answering the following three questions : To what extent is climate change due to natural vs man-made causes ? What parameters , processes and interactions are needed to understand and predict future climate change ? What are the likely impacts of climate change ?", "qid": "2838", "docid": "International_Arctic_Research_Center", "rank": 2, "score": 179030 }, { "content": "Title: International Arctic Buoy Program Content: The International Arctic Buoy Program is headquartered at the Polar Science Center , Applied Physics Laboratory , University of Washington , in Seattle , Washington , United States . The program 's objectives include to provide meteorological and oceanographic data in order to support operations and research for UNESCO 's World Climate Research Programme and the World Weather Watch Programme of the United Nations ' World Meteorological Organization . IABP participating countries include Canada , China , France , Germany , Japan , Norway , Russia , and the United States . Together , they share the costs of the program . The IABP has deployed more than 700 buoys since it began operations in 1991 , succeeding the Arctic Ocean Buoy Program ( operational since 1979-01-19 ) . Commonly , 25 to 40 buoys operate at any given time and provide real-time position , pressure , temperature , and interpolated ice velocity . In support of the International Polar Year , the IABP will deploy over 120 buoys , at over 80 different locations , during the period of April-August 2008 . The organization 's annual meeting provides discussion on instrumentation , forecasting , observations , and outlook .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "International_Arctic_Buoy_Program", "rank": 3, "score": 177533 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic oscillation Content: The Arctic oscillation ( AO ) or Northern Annular Mode/Northern Hemisphere Annular Mode ( NAM ) is an index ( which varies over time with no particular periodicity ) of the dominant pattern of non-seasonal sea-level pressure variations north of 20N latitude , and it is characterized by pressure anomalies of one sign in the Arctic with the opposite anomalies centered about 37 -- 45N . The AO is believed by climatologists to be causally related to , and thus partially predictive of , weather patterns in locations many thousands of miles away , including many of the major population centers of Europe and North America . NASA climatologist Dr. James E. Hansen explained the mechanism by which the AO affects weather at points so distant from the Arctic , as follows : `` The degree to which Arctic air penetrates into middle latitudes is related to the AO index , which is defined by surface atmospheric pressure patterns . When the AO index is positive , surface pressure is low in the polar region . This helps the middle latitude jet stream to blow strongly and consistently from west to east , thus keeping cold Arctic air locked in the polar region . When the AO index is negative , there tends to be high pressure in the polar region , weaker zonal winds , and greater movement of frigid polar air into middle latitudes . '' This zonally symmetric seesaw between sea level pressures in polar and temperate latitudes was first identified by Edward Lorenz and named in 1998 by David W.J. Thompson and John Michael Wallace . The North Atlantic oscillation ( NAO ) is a close relative of the AO and there exist arguments about whether one or the other is more fundamentally representative of the atmosphere 's dynamics ; Ambaum et al. argue that the NAO can be identified in a more physically meaningful way . Over most of the past century , the Arctic Oscillation alternated between its positive and negative phases . Starting in the 1970s the oscillation has trended to more of a positive phase when averaged using a 60-day running mean , though it has trended to a more neutral state in the last decade . The oscillation still fluctuates stochastically between negative and positive values on daily , monthly , seasonal and annual time scales , although , despite its stochastic nature , meteorologists have attained high levels of predictive accuracy in recent times , at least for the shorter term forecasts . ( The correlation between actual observations and the 7-day mean GFS ensemble AO forecasts is approximately 0.9 , a figure at the high end for that statistic . ) The National Snow and Ice Data Center describes the effects of the AO in some detail : `` In the positive phase , higher pressure at midlatitudes drives ocean storms farther north , and changes in the circulation pattern bring wetter weather to Alaska , Scotland and Scandinavia , as well as drier conditions to the western United States and the Mediterranean . In the positive phase , frigid winter air does not extend as far into the middle of North America as it would during the negative phase of the oscillation . This keeps much of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains warmer than normal , but leaves Greenland and Newfoundland colder than usual . Weather patterns in the negative phase are in general `` opposite '' to those of the positive phase . '' Climatologists are now routinely invoking the Arctic Oscillation in their official public explanations for extremes of weather . The following statement from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Climatic Data Center : State of the Climate December 2010 which uses the phrase `` negative Arctic Oscillation '' four times , is very representative of this increasing tendency : `` Cold arctic air gripped western Europe in the first three weeks of December . Two major snowstorms , icy conditions , and frigid temperatures wreaked havoc across much of the region ... The harsh winter weather was attributed to a negative Arctic Oscillation , which is a climate pattern that influences weather in the Northern Hemisphere . A very persistent , strong ridge of high pressure , or ` blocking system ' , near Greenland allowed cold Arctic air to slide south into Europe . Europe was not the only region in the Northern Hemisphere affected by the Arctic Oscillation . A large snow storm and frigid temperatures affected much of the Midwest United States on December 10 -- 13 ... '' A further , quite graphic illustration of the effects of the negative phase of the oscillation occurred in February 2010 . In that month , the Arctic Oscillation reached its most negative monthly mean value , − 4.266 , in the entire post-1950 era ( the period of accurate record-keeping ) . That month was characterized by three separate historic snowstorms that occurred in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States . The first storm dumped 25 in on Baltimore , Maryland , on February 5 -- 6 , and then a second storm dumped 19.5 in on February 9 -- 10 . In New York City , a separate storm deposited 20.9 in on February 25 -- 26 . This kind of snowstorm activity is as anomalous and extreme as the negative AO value itself . Similarly , the greatest negative value for the AO since 1950 in January was − 3.767 in 1977 , which coincided with the coldest mean January temperature in New York City , Washington , D.C. , Baltimore , and many other mid-Atlantic locations in that span of time . And though the January AO has been negative only 60.6 % of the time between 1950 and 2010 , 9 of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York City since 1950 have coincided with negative AOs . However , the correlation between sharply negative Arctic Oscillations and excessive winter cold and snow in regions vulnerable in that way to these negative AOs should not be overstated . It is by no means a simple , one-to-one equivalence . An extreme Arctic Oscillation does not necessarily mean extreme weather will occur . For example , since 1950 , eight out of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York did not coincide with the 10 lowest January AO values . And the fourth warmest January there since 1950 coincided with one of those 10 most negative AOs . So , although many climatologists believe that the Arctic Oscillation affects the probability of certain weather events occurring in certain places , the heightened chance of a phenomenon by no means assures it , nor does the lessened likelihood exclude it . Further , the precise value of the AO index only imperfectly reflects the severity of the weather associated with it .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_oscillation", "rank": 4, "score": 175266 }, { "content": "Title: Exchange for Local Observations and Knowledge of the Arctic Content: The Exchange for Local Observations and Knowledge of the Arctic , or ELOKA , is an Arctic research data management program that combines local traditional knowledge ( LTK ) and local observations data from Indigenous Arctic residents utilizing effective and appropriate western methods to properly share Arctic Indigenous Knowledge . The LTK data the program stewards consists of observations of sea ice , weather , wildlife and comes in many forms such as written interview transcripts , audio or video tapes and files , photographs , artwork , illustrations and maps . Housed at the National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) at the University of Colorado Boulder Cooperative Institute for Research and Environmental Sciences ( CIRES ) , ELOKA is a National Science Foundation ( NSF ) Arctic Observing Network ( AON ) research program that came out of the 2007-2008 International Polar Year ( IPY ) .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Exchange_for_Local_Observations_and_Knowledge_of_the_Arctic", "rank": 5, "score": 173513 }, { "content": "Title: Polar ecology Content: Polar ecology is the relationship between plants and animals in a polar environment . Polar environments are in the Arctic and Antarctic regions . Arctic regions are in the Northern Hemisphere , and it contains land and the islands that surrounds it . Antarctica is in the Southern Hemisphere and it also contains the land mass , surrounding islands and the ocean . Polar regions also contain the subantarctic and subarctic zone which separate the polar regions from the temperate regions . Antarctica and the Arctic lie in the polar circles . The polar circles are not visible on the earth but it is shown on maps to be the areas that receives less sunlight due to less radiation . These areas either receive sunlight ( midnight sun ) or shade ( polar night ) 24 hours a day because of the earth 's tilt . Plants and animals in the polar regions are able to withstand living in harsh weather conditions but are facing environmental threats that limit their survival .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Polar_ecology", "rank": 6, "score": 173047 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Centre, University of Lapland Content: The Arctic Centre , University of Lapland is Finland 's national institute for Arctic expertise . It is based at the University of Lapland , the northernmost university in Finland and the EU , and is located in the Arktikum building by the Ounasjoki river in Rovaniemi near the Arctic Circle . The Centre conducts multidisciplinary and participatory research on impacts of the development and climate change in the Arctic . Besides research and science communications , it maintains a science exhibition , a library and provides education . The Northern Institute for Environmental and Minority Law ( NIEM ) is a part of the Centre . The Centre is committed to research so as to better understand the natural and physical environment of the Arctic and its forms of life . Such research spans the arts , humanities and natural sciences and its products take many forms from scientific papers and monographs to books , exhibitions , audiovisual material , artworks and films . It is a place where researchers , planners and artists collaborate within and outside the university . The community of researchers at the centre comes with diverse scientific , national , cultural and linguistic backgrounds . The centre has strong local orientation and it provides an international research environment that allows and fosters the multidisciplinary approach . This includes participating in several IPY research projects including : CAVIAR ( Community Adaptation and Vulnerability in Arctic Regions ) MOVE-INNOCOM ( Place , mobility and viability in INdustrial , NOrthern COmmunities ) DAMOCLES ( Developing Arctic Modeling and Observing Capabilities for Long-Term Environmental Studies ) CIGSAC ( The Capability of International Governance Systems in the Arctic to Contribute to the Mitigation of Climate Change and Adjust to its Consequences ) Greening of Arctic/Application of space based technologies to land use and cover change The `` Arctic in Change '' , a science exhibition , promotes the natural beauty and the cultural richness of the Arctic , while it informs the visitors about the ongoing rapid social and environmental changes occurring in the fragile Arctic . Set up in a friendly environment , the exhibition combines multimedia shows , interactive stations , artefacts and photos . The exhibition revolves around the ongoing changes in the Arctic and illuminates the relationship between global and local issues .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_Centre,_University_of_Lapland", "rank": 7, "score": 172173 }, { "content": "Title: National Snow and Ice Data Center Content: The National Snow and Ice Data Center , or NSIDC , is a United States information and referral center in support of polar and cryospheric research . NSIDC archives and distributes digital and analog snow and ice data and also maintains information about snow cover , avalanches , glaciers , ice sheets , freshwater ice , sea ice , ground ice , permafrost , atmospheric ice , paleoglaciology , and ice cores . NSIDC is part of the University of Colorado Boulder Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences ( CIRES ) , and is affiliated with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) National Geophysical Data Center through a cooperative agreement . NSIDC serves as one of twelve Distributed Active Archive Centers funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration to archive and distribute data from NASA 's past and current satellites and field measurement programs . NSIDC also supports the National Science Foundation through the Exchange For Local Observations and Knowledge of the Arctic ( ELOKA ) and other scientific research grants . NSIDC is also a member of the ICSU World Data System . Mark Serreze is the director of NSIDC .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "National_Snow_and_Ice_Data_Center", "rank": 8, "score": 167465 }, { "content": "Title: North American Arctic Content: The North American Arctic comprises the northern portions of Alaska ( USA ) , Northern Canada and Greenland . Major bodies of water include the Arctic Ocean , Hudson Bay , the Gulf of Alaska and North Atlantic Ocean . The western limit is the Seward Peninsula and the Bering Strait . The southern limit is the Arctic Circle latitude of 66 ° 33 'N , which is the approximate limit of the midnight sun and the polar night . The region is defined by environmental limits where the average temperature for the warmest month ( July ) is below 10 C . The northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region . The area has tundra and polar vegetation .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "North_American_Arctic", "rank": 9, "score": 166203 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 10, "score": 165142 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment", "rank": 11, "score": 162370 }, { "content": "Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Polar_High", "rank": 12, "score": 162039 }, { "content": "Title: Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research Content: The Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research is a climate research centre in Bergen , Norway . The centre has a special focus on Northern Europe and the Polar regions . The centre was started in 2000 and is a co-operation between University of Bergen , Institute of Marine Research , the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center and Uni Research . The centre was part of Research Council of Norway 's Centre of Excellence program from 2003 to 2013 . Eystein Jansen headed the centre from 2000 to 2013 , while Tore Furevik has been director since 2014 . Researchers from the Bjerknes Centre have taken part in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessment reports ; Eystein Jansen as one of the lead authors in the fourth report and upcoming fifth report . It is named after Vilhelm Bjerknes and his son Jacob Bjerknes .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Bjerknes_Centre_for_Climate_Research", "rank": 13, "score": 161984 }, { "content": "Title: List of Arctic research programs Content: This is a list of Arctic research programs : Arctic Centre , University of Lapland Arctic Institute of North America Arctic Research Consortium of the United States ( ARCUS ) Arctic Research Foundation Arctic Research Office Arctic Submarine Laboratory Arctic Technology Centre Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute Byrd Polar Research Center Canadian High Arctic Ionospheric Network Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling Circumarctic Environmental Observatories Network Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research EISCAT Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research Institute of Arctic Biology Institute of Arctic Studies ( Dartmouth ) Institute of the North International Arctic Buoy Program International Arctic Research Center International Arctic Science Committee International Laboratory for the Multidisciplinary Study of Representations of the North North Greenland Ice Core Project North Pacific Research Board ( NPRB ) Northern Research Network National Snow and Ice Data Center QUEEN ( project ) SCICEX Scott Polar Research Institute Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean United States Arctic Research Commission University of the Arctic", "qid": "2838", "docid": "List_of_Arctic_research_programs", "rank": 14, "score": 160703 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Circle Content: The Arctic Circle is the most northerly of the abstract five major circles of latitude as shown on maps of the Earth . It marks the northernmost point at which the noon sun is just visible on the northern winter solstice and the southernmost point at which the midnight sun is just visible on the northern summer solstice . The region north of this circle is known as the Arctic , and the zone just to the south is called the Northern Temperate Zone . North of the Arctic Circle , the sun is above the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore visible at midnight ) and below the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore not visible at noon ) ; this is also true within the equivalent polar circle in the Southern Hemisphere , the Antarctic Circle . The position of the Arctic Circle is not fixed ; as of , it runs north of the Equator . Its latitude depends on the Earth 's axial tilt , which fluctuates within a margin of 2 ° over a 40,000-year period , due to tidal forces resulting from the orbit of the Moon . Consequently , the Arctic Circle is currently drifting northwards at a speed of about 15 m per year .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_Circle", "rank": 15, "score": 159441 }, { "content": "Title: Subarctic Content: The subarctic is a region in the Northern Hemisphere immediately south of the true Arctic and covering much of Alaska , Canada , Iceland , the north of Scandinavia , Siberia , and the Shetland Islands . Generally , subarctic regions fall between 50 ° N and 70 ° N latitude , depending on local climates .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Subarctic", "rank": 16, "score": 157478 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of the Arctic Content: The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer . The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Climate_of_the_Arctic", "rank": 17, "score": 157057 }, { "content": "Title: Southern Hemisphere Auroral Radar Experiment Content: The Southern Hemisphere Auroral Radar Experiment ( SHARE ) , started 1988 , is an Antarctic research project designed to observe velocities and irregularities of electrical fields in the ionosphere and magnetosphere . SHARE is operated jointly by the University of Natal , Potchefstroom University , the British Antarctic Survey and Johns Hopkins University and operates out of British Halley Station , South African SANAE IV Station and Japanese Showa Station . Using a total of 16 antennas , each mounted on a 12 m tower and radiating on fixed frequencies in the 8 -- 20 MHz range , SHARE transmits an RF pulse into the upper atmosphere every two minutes . The three stations ' ranges overlap to cover most of the Antarctic continent . SHARE is part of the international Super Dual Auroral Radar Network ( SuperDARN ) . It supplies valuable data to track space weather . Category : Meteorology research and field projects Category : Radio frequency propagation Category : Plasma physics Category : Ground radars Category : Science and technology in Antarctica Category : Astronomy in the Antarctic", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Southern_Hemisphere_Auroral_Radar_Experiment", "rank": 18, "score": 156883 }, { "content": "Title: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium Content: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium is an annual high level international event where top researchers and politicians , senior business executives , representatives of NGOs and other decision makers meet to share experiences and to discuss climate change solutions . The topics are related to the challenges of climate change , other environmental issues , and issues directly connected to the Arctic and the Northern areas which could have major global consequences . Participation is limited to 45 people , by invitation only . The Symposium takes place on Svalbard at 79 degrees north . It is the world 's northernmost permanent settlement and is only 1200 km from the North Pole . The Norwegian Government has transformed this former mining community into a major base for scientific research and environmental monitoring in the Arctic . The base hosts scientists from more than 20 nations and plays an important role in international climate change research . It is owned and operated by the governmental company Kings Bay AS , a coal mining company in earlier days . The scenery is exceptional , with a backdrop of unspoiled Arctic nature . The purpose of the Symposium is to exchange knowledge , improve the understanding and seek solutions of the challenging impacts these issues have both on the Arctic regions and internationally . The Symposium is organized by Kings Bay AS in cooperation with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research , the Ministry of the Environment -RSB- , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , the Ministry of Trade and Industry , the Ministry of Justice and the Police , and the -LSB- Research Council of Norway -RSB- . Statkraft AS is a co-organizer and sponsor of the Symposium . The secretariat is by CICERO Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo . His Royal Highness Crown Prince Haakon of Norway is patron of the Symposium . The first Symposium was arranged in March 2006 . The main themes for the symposia have been : 2006 - The changing Arctic - new opportunities and challenges 2007 - The changing Arctic - global climate change - the need for action 2008 - Global climate change and research challenges 2009 - Climate change : Understanding global politics towards Copenhagen and beyond 2010 - The Changing Arctic and Its Global Implications 2011 - cancelled due to volcanic ash cloud 2012 - Towards a green economy : the role of technology 2013 - The Changing Arctic - Opportunity or Threat 2014 - Breaking the Climate Stalemate", "qid": "2838", "docid": "The_Ny-Ålesund_Symposium", "rank": 19, "score": 156177 }, { "content": "Title: Measurement of sea ice Content: Measurement of sea ice is important for safety of navigation and for monitoring the environment , particularly the climate . Sea ice extent interacts with large climate patterns such as the North Atlantic oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation , to name just two , and influences climate in the rest of the globe . The amount of sea ice coverage in the arctic has been of interest for centuries , as the Northwest Passage was of high interest for trade and seafaring . There is a longstanding history of records and measurements of some effects of the sea ice extent , but comprehensive measurements were sparse till the 1950s and started with the satellite era in the late 1970s . Modern direct records include data about ice extent , ice area , concentration , thickness , and the age of the ice . The current trends in the records show a significant decline in Northern hemisphere sea ice and a small but statistically significant increase in the winter Southern hemisphere sea ice . Furthermore , current research comprises and establishes extensive sets of multi-century historical records of arctic and subarctic sea ice and uses , among others high-resolution paleo-proxy sea-ice records . The arctic sea ice is a dynamic climate-system component and is linked to the Atlantic multidecadal variability and the historical climate over various decades . There are circular changes of sea ice patterns but so far no clear patterns based on modeling predictions .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Measurement_of_sea_ice", "rank": 20, "score": 156074 }, { "content": "Title: David H. Bromwich Content: David H. Bromwich is a member of the Byrd Polar Research Center and a professor at the Department of Geography , The Ohio State University . His work has involved the evaluation and diagnosis of polar weather and climate variability . He received his Ph.D. in meteorology from the University of Wisconsin , Madison . In 1979 he joined Ohio State 's Byrd Polar Research Center as a research scientist . His research has focused on the variability of precipitation over Antarctica , Greenland , and the Arctic Ocean , thus contributing to the understanding of climate and potential sea level changes . He has made contributions to defining aspects of U.S. science policy . Having helped identify the need to improve numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) for the Antarctic , Bromwich has been influential in the development and evaluation of the Antarctic Mesoscale Prediction System ( AMPS ) . In April 2001 AMPS was one of four weather models used to predict a window of opportunity for the emergency medical evacuation of Ronald Shemenski from the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station . Flights to the base are normally halted from late February until November because of the extreme winter cold and darkness . But the airlift was successfully completed and pilot Sean Loutitt confirmed the reliance on the forecasts , stating `` The weather was the biggest concern '' .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "David_H._Bromwich", "rank": 21, "score": 155582 }, { "content": "Title: Alaska Satellite Facility Content: The Alaska Satellite Facility is a data processing facility and satellite-tracking ground station within the Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska Fairbanks . The facility 's mission is to make remote-sensing data accessible Its work is central to polar processes research including wetlands , glaciers , sea ice , climate change , permafrost , flooding and land cover such as changes in the Amazon rainforest .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Alaska_Satellite_Facility", "rank": 22, "score": 153519 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Ocean Content: The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean . Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 23, "score": 152716 }, { "content": "Title: Middle latitudes Content: The middle latitudes ( mid-latitudes , sometimes midlatitudes ) are between 23 ° 26 ' 22 '' North and 66 ° 33 ' 39 '' North , and between 23 ° 26 ' 22 '' South and 66 ° 33 ' 39 '' South latitude , or , the Earth 's temperate zones between the tropics and the Arctic and Antarctic polar regions . Weather fronts and extratropical cyclones are usually found in this area , as well as occasional tropical cyclones which have traveled from their areas of formation closer to the equator . The prevailing winds in the middle latitudes are often very strong . These parts of the world also see a wide variety of fast-changing weather as cold air masses from the poles and warm air masses from the tropics push up and down over them , sometimes alternating within hours of each other , especially in the roaring forties ( between 40 and 50 degrees latitude in both hemispheres ) . There are four types of epic mid-latitude climates : mediterranean , humid subtropical , marine west coast , and humid continental .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Middle_latitudes", "rank": 24, "score": 152095 }, { "content": "Title: Polar circle Content: A polar circle is either the Arctic Circle or the Antarctic Circle . On Earth , the Arctic Circle is located at a latitude of N , and the Antarctic Circle is located at a latitude of S. Areas inside each polar circle and its associated pole ( North Pole or South Pole ) , known geographically as the frigid zones , would theoretically experience at least one 24-hour period when the sun is continuously above the horizon and at least one 24-hour period when the sun is continuously below the horizon annually . However , due to atmospheric refraction and the Sun being an extended object rather than a point source , the continuous daylight area is somewhat extended while the continuous darkness area is somewhat reduced . The latitude of the polar circles is 90 degrees minus the axial tilt of the Earth 's axis of daily rotation relative to the ecliptic , the plane of the Earth 's orbit . This tilt varies slightly , a phenomenon described as nutation . Therefore , the latitudes noted above are calculated by averaging values of tilt observed over many years . The axial tilt also exhibits long-term variations as described in the reference article ( a difference of 1 second of arc in the tilt is equivalent to change of about 31 metres north or south in the positions of the polar circles on the Earth 's surface ) .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Polar_circle", "rank": 25, "score": 150597 }, { "content": "Title: Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research Content: The Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research is designed to be a focal point for interactions between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) / Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and the Arctic research community through the University of Alaska for research related to the Western Arctic/Bering Sea region . ( CIFAR ) was established through a Memorandum of Understanding between NOAA and the University of Alaska . CIFAR is exclusively concerned with Arctic research . They work closely with NOAA 's Arctic Research Office and the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory ( PMEL ) . Partnerships with NOAA also include the National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) , the National Ocean Service ( NOS ) , and an emerging relationship with the National Weather Service .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Cooperative_Institute_for_Arctic_Research", "rank": 26, "score": 150569 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Peter_Thejll", "rank": 27, "score": 149950 }, { "content": "Title: Norwegian Polar Institute Content: The Norwegian Polar Institute ( in Norwegian : Norsk Polarinstitutt ) is Norway 's national institution for polar research . It is run under the auspices of the Norwegian Ministry of Climate and Environment . The institute conducts research in the polar regions , provides management relevant knowledge for the Norwegian authorities , and organizes expeditions to the Arctic and Antarctic regions . The institute runs year-round the Sverdrup research station in Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard and the Troll station in Antarctica . In addition the Norvegia station which is located on the Bouvet Island in the Southern Ocean and the Tor Field Station on Antarctica are used for shorter term work . Its offices are in Tromsø and Longyearbyen , Svalbard , in addition to the research stations in Queen Maud Land and Svalbard , and employs approximately 150 persons . It has the responsibility to enforce international treaties regarding Antarctic activities by Norwegian citizens or corporations . The institute was founded as Norges Svalbard - og Ishavsundersøkelser by Adolf Hoel in 1928 .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Norwegian_Polar_Institute", "rank": 28, "score": 149907 }, { "content": "Title: Polar see-saw Content: The polar see-saw ( also : Bipolar seesaw ) is the phenomenon that temperature changes in the northern and southern hemispheres may be out of phase . The theory ( or hypothesis ) states that large changes , f.e. when the glaciers are intensely growing or depleting , in the formation of ocean bottom water in both poles take a long time to exert their effect in the other hemisphere . Estimates of the period of delay vary , one typical estimate is 1500 years . This is usually studied in the context of ice-cores taken from Antarctica and Greenland .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Polar_see-saw", "rank": 29, "score": 148699 }, { "content": "Title: European Climate Assessment and Dataset Content: The European Climate Assessment and Dataset ( ECA&D ) is a database of daily meteorological station observations across Europe and is gradually being extended to countries in the Middle East and North Africa . ECA&D has attained the status of Regional Climate Centre for high-resolution observation data in World Meteorological Organization Region VI ( Europe and the Middle East ) -RSB- . The objective of ECA&D is to monitor and analyze climate and changes in climate with a focus on climate extremes while making the data publicly available to download . Included in the database is a collection of daily series observations obtained from climatological divisions of National Meteorological and Hydrological Services ( NMHSs ) , observatories and research centres throughout Europe and the Mediterranean . The daily series of observations is combined with quality control and analysis of extremes via climate change indices . The ECA&D project is initiated by the European Climate Support Network ( ECSN ) and is coordinated at the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute ( Dutch : Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut or KNMI ) which now funds the project after it was initially funded by the Network of European Meteorological Services ( EUMETNET ) .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "European_Climate_Assessment_and_Dataset", "rank": 30, "score": 147940 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment", "rank": 31, "score": 147181 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Meteorological Research Center Content: The Antarctic Meteorological Research Center ( AMRC ) is an Antarctic research program funded by the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) that is based out of the Space Science and Engineering Center ( SSEC ) at the University of Wisconsin . The AMRC was founded as a link between the UW-Madison automatic weather station ( AWS ) project and the Man computer Interactive Data Access System ( McIDAS ) project , also at UW-Madison . The need for satellite imagery from geostationary and polar-orbiting satellites over the Antarctic led to the formation of the AMRC . Today , the AMRC continues to create Antarctic satellite composites and conduct research with those composites and other observational data sets , such as those from UW-Madison 's AWS program . In addition , the AMRC also collects , distributes , and archives Antarctic data , and promotes Antarctic science through educational outreach activities . The AMRC is one of the primary archives of meteorological data from Antarctica and its surrounding geographic areas . The Antarctic Meteorological Forecast Center ( AMFC ) at UW-Madison was devised during the same time as the founding of the AMRC as a provider of weather forecasts for research vessels operating in the vicinity of Antarctica . After several years of operation at UW-Madison , the National Science Foundation ended this program and transferred the AMFC 's responsibilities to the United States Naval Warfare System Center ( SPAWAR ) Office of Polar Programs .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Antarctic_Meteorological_Research_Center", "rank": 32, "score": 147145 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic (journal) Content: Arctic is a quarterly , peer-reviewed , multidisciplinary , scientific journal , published by the Arctic Institute of North America . The focus of Arctic is original research articles on all topics about or related to the northern Polar and sub-polar regions of the world . Additional published formats are book reviews , profiles of notable persons , specific geographic locations , notable northern events , commentaries , letters to the editor , and a general interest section consisting of essays and institute news . Mutltidisciplinary coverage encompasses physical sciences , social sciences , biological sciences , humanities , engineering , and technology . The journal was first published in spring of 1948 .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_(journal)", "rank": 33, "score": 146871 }, { "content": "Title: 2013 extreme weather events Content: The 2013 extreme weather events included several all-time temperature records in Northern and Southern Hemisphere . The February extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North America was above average , while the extent of Arctic ice in the same month was 4,5 % below the 1981 -- 2010 average . The Northern Hemisphere weather extremes have been linked to the melting of Arctic sea ice , which alters atmospheric circulation in a way that leads to more snow and ice . By January 11 , 233 weather-related deaths were reported in India . Elsewhere , particularly in Russia , the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom , low temperatures affected wildlife , delaying bird breeding and disrupting the bird migration . On January 10 Bangladesh faced the lowest temperature since country 's independence , at 3.0 ° C in Saidpur . While Finland and most of Northern European countries got the record high , and even the highest temperatures at Europe during May and June , Western - and Middle Europe faced much cooler weather and even their wettest May and June ever . During summer prolonged heat waves in the Northern Hemisphere set new record high temperatures . On March 24 , 2014 , the secretary-general of the World Meteorological Organization Michel Jarraud announced that `` many of the extreme events of 2013 were consistent with what we would expect as a result of human-induced climate change '' .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "2013_extreme_weather_events", "rank": 34, "score": 146423 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Region Supercomputing Center Content: The Arctic Region Supercomputing Center ( ARSC ) was from 1993 to 2015 a research facility organized under the University of Alaska Fairbanks . Located on the University of Alaska Fairbanks ( UAF ) campus , the Arctic Region Supercomputing Center ( ARSC ) offered high-performance computing ( HPC ) and mass storage to the UAF and State of Alaska research communities . Funding for ARSC operations was primarily supplied by UAF , with augmentation through external grants and contracts from various sources such as the National Science Foundation and Lockheed Martin ( through the Department of Defense High Performance Computing Modernization Program . ) In general , the research supported with ARSC resources focused on the Earth 's arctic region . Common projects included arctic weather modeling , Alaskan summer smoke forecasting , arctic sea ice analysis and tracking , arctic ocean systems , volcanic ash plume prediction , and tsunami forecasting and modeling .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_Region_Supercomputing_Center", "rank": 35, "score": 146256 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic dipole anomaly Content: The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America , and a low pressure on the Eurasia region . This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation . It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change . The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic ocean resulting in more ice melting . The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September . The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe , but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia , Europe and the eastern half of North America .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_dipole_anomaly", "rank": 36, "score": 145525 }, { "content": "Title: Polar low Content: A polar low is a small-scale , short-lived atmospheric low pressure system ( depression ) that is found over the ocean areas poleward of the main polar front in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres . The systems usually have a horizontal length scale of less than 1000 km and exist for no more than a couple of days . They are part of the larger class of mesoscale weather systems . Polar lows can be difficult to detect using conventional weather reports and are a hazard to high-latitude operations , such as shipping and gas and oil platforms . Such winter storms can cause bitter cold and crop freezes . Polar lows have been referred to by many other terms , such as polar mesoscale vortex , Arctic hurricane , Arctic low , and cold air depression . Today the term is usually reserved for the more vigorous systems that have near-surface winds of at least 17 m/s ( 38 mph ) .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Polar_low", "rank": 37, "score": 143631 }, { "content": "Title: Institute of Arctic Biology Content: The Institute of Arctic Biology or IAB of the University of Alaska Fairbanks , is located in Fairbanks , Alaska , USA . The institute was established in 1963 by the Board of Regents of the University of Alaska , with Laurence Irving serving as its founding director . The mission of IAB is to advance basic and applied knowledge of high-latitude biological systems through research , education , and service . The Institute supports faculty , post-doctoral , and graduate research in wildlife biology and management , ecology , evolutionary biology , physiology , genetics , biomedicine , bioinformatics , and computational biology . IAB faculty hold joint appointments within other departments at UAF in the College of Natural Science and Mathematics and the School of Natural Resources and Agricultural Sciences . Important facilities and research programs that the Institute of Arctic Biology supports are : The Toolik Field Station , part of the LTER network , is a world-renowned Arctic climate change research station located in the northern foothills of the Brooks Range , Alaska , USA . The Center for Alaska Native Health Research The Alaska Basic Neuroscience Program Center for Molecular and Genetic Studies of Hibernation The Alaska Geobotany Center The Resilience and Adaptation Program The Bonanza Creek Long-Term Ecological Research Site The Alaska Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit , administered by IAB , began in 1950 and is part of a nationwide cooperative program to promote research and graduate student training in the ecology and management of fish , wildlife , and their habitats .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Institute_of_Arctic_Biology", "rank": 38, "score": 143295 }, { "content": "Title: Mark Serreze Content: Mark Clifford Serreze ( born 1960 ) is an American geographer and the director of the National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) , a project of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder . He officially became the NSIDC 's director in August 2009 . Serreze is primarily known for his expertise in the Arctic sea ice decline that has occurred over the last few decades due to global warming , a topic about which he has expressed serious concern .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Mark_Serreze", "rank": 39, "score": 143118 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic-Alpine Botanic Garden Content: The Arctic-Alpine Botanic Garden ( Arktisk alpin Botanisk hage ) is the world 's northernmost botanic garden . It is located in Tromsø , Norway , and is run by the Tromsø University Museum . It opened in 1994 , and is open from late May to early October . The garden displays Arctic and alpine plants from all over the northern hemisphere . Entrance is free of charge . The garden is located to the southeast of the University of Tromsø Campus , commanding a view of the mountains to the east and south . The location , corresponding to the north coast of Alaska , invites thought of an extreme Arctic climate . However , a branch of the Gulf Stream sweeping up the coast of North Norway provides a moderating influence , and the climate of Tromsø is one of relatively mild winters ( January average -4.4 ° C ) and cool summers ( July average 11.7 ° C ) . From May 15 until July 27 , the sun is continuously above the horizon in Tromsø . The two months of midnight sun provide some compensation to the plants for the short growing season and the low temperatures . In the months of May , June and July the theoretically possible number of hours of sunshine is 623 , 720 and 695 , respectively . The average hours of actual sunshine is about 200 for each of these months . From November 21 until January 17 the sun never rises . Snow generally covers the ground from October or November on , and will accumulate until the beginning of April . Snow then gradually melts and the ground will usually be bare around mid May at sea level , while lingering on far into the summer at higher altitudes . The season in the Botanic Garden is usually from end of May until mid October . Special Collections : Rhododendron ( e.g. R. Lapponicum ) , Meconopsis , Aster , Polemonium , Erigeron , Codonopsis , Rose Cultivars , Allium , Saxifraga , Silene , Tellima , Heu", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic-Alpine_Botanic_Garden", "rank": 40, "score": 142166 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Asia Content: The Climate of Asia is wet across southeast sections , and dry across much of the interior . Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia . The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections , due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer . Southwestern sections of the continent experience low relief as a result of the subtropical high pressure belt ; they are hot in the summer , warm to cool in winter , and may snow at higher altitudes . Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere , and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America . The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan , and the phase of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation modulates where in Asia landfall is more likely to occur ,", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Climate_of_Asia", "rank": 41, "score": 141518 }, { "content": "Title: Quaternary Environment of the Eurasian North Content: Quaternary Environment of the Eurasian North , abbreviated QUEEN was an international and interdisciplinary research programme in the Arctic . QUEEN was established to understand the processes involved in environmental changes in the Arctic region by studying past environmental changes during the Late Cenozoic era . A primary objective of QUEEN was to make the environmental record and the history of glaciation during the last 250,000 years as complete for Eurasia as elsewhere . Regions of particular importance for understanding the Arctic 's role in global climate change are the Eurasian shelves and the land masses south of these , including Siberian permafrost . The ice sheets in these regions are key elements in paleoclimatic models and play a vital role in the reconstruction of a continuous paleoenvironmental record . Special effort was devoted to the correlation of records from different sources across the Arctic . The programme was running between 1996 and 2003 under the umbrella of the European Science Foundation ( ESF ) and was coordinated by Prof. Dr. Jörn Thiede .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Quaternary_Environment_of_the_Eurasian_North", "rank": 42, "score": 141411 }, { "content": "Title: Norbert Untersteiner Content: Norbert Untersteiner ( February 24 , 1926 -- March 14 , 2012 ) was one of the pioneers of modern polar science research , a professor of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Washington , and an AAAS Fellow . Born in Merano , Italy , he led the Arctic Ice Dynamics Joint Experiment ( AIDJEX ) in the early 1970s . In 1979 , he formed the Arctic Buoy Program as a contribution to the Global Atmospheric Research Program . He then formed the Polar Science Center ( PSC ) at the University of Washington and directed it from 1981 until 1988 . Untersteiner died of prostate cancer in March 2012 , in Seattle , Washington .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Norbert_Untersteiner", "rank": 43, "score": 140898 }, { "content": "Title: John Michael Wallace Content: John Michael Wallace ( born October 28 , 1940 ) , is a professor of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Washington , as well as the former director of the Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean ( JISAO ) -- a joint research venture between the University of Washington and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research concerns understanding global climate and its variations using observations and covers the quasi biennial oscillation , Pacific decadal oscillation and the annular modes of the Arctic oscillation and the Antarctic oscillation , and the dominant spatial patterns in month-to-month and year-to-year climate variability , including the one through which El Niño phenomenon in the tropical Pacific influences climate over North America . He is also the coauthor with Peter V. Hobbs of what is generally considered the standard introductory textbook in the field : Atmospheric Science : An Introductory Survey . He was the third most cited geoscientist during the period 1973 -- 2007 .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "John_Michael_Wallace", "rank": 44, "score": 140822 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 45, "score": 140622 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Peter_Doran", "rank": 46, "score": 140474 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic oscillation Content: The Antarctic oscillation ( AAO , to distinguish it from the Arctic oscillation or AO ) is a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the southern hemisphere . It is also known as the Southern Annular Mode ( SAM ) . It is defined as a belt of westerly winds or low pressure surrounding Antarctica which moves north or south as its mode of variability . In its positive phase , the westerly wind belt contracts towards Antarctica , while its negative phase involves this belt moving towards the Equator . In 2014 , Dr Nerilie Abram used a network of temperature-sensitive ice core and tree growth records to reconstruct a 1000-year history of the Southern Annular Mode . This work suggests that the Southern Annular Mode is currently in its most extreme positive phase over at least the last 1000 years , and that recent positive trends in the SAM are attributed to increasing greenhouse gas levels and later stratospheric ozone depletion .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Antarctic_oscillation", "rank": 47, "score": 139800 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Content: The Arctic ( -LSB- ˈɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth . The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean , adjacent seas , and parts of Alaska ( United States ) , Canada , Finland , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Iceland , Norway , Russia and Sweden . Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover , with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places . The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems . For example , the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions . In recent years , Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming . Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice , zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds , land animals , plants and human societies . Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic", "rank": 48, "score": 139519 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research Content: Arctic , Antarctic , and Alpine Research is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research ( University of Colorado Boulder ) . It covers research on all aspects of Arctic , Antarctic , and alpine environments , including subarctic , subantarctic , subalpine , and paleoenvironments . It was established in 1969 as Arctic and Alpine Research and obtained its current name in 1999 . The editors-in-chief are Anne E. Jennings and Bill Bowman ( University of Colorado Boulder ) .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic,_Antarctic,_and_Alpine_Research", "rank": 49, "score": 139494 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Satellite Composite Project Content: The Arctic Satellite Composite Project , a grant funded by the Arctic Sciences division of the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) , is a project dedicated to developing satellite composite images , of various wavelengths , over the Arctic polar region of the globe . The project , based out of the Space Science and Engineering Center ( SSEC ) at the University of Wisconsin , is headed by Principal Investigator ( PI ) Dr. Matthew Lazzara , with assistance from co-PI Shelley Knuth . Since the project 's inception in 2007 , composite images in the infrared , water vapor , short-wave , and long-wave wavelengths have been generated over the region . The images are produced every three hours , on the synoptic hour . To generate the composite images , swaths of satellite images from geo-stationary and polar-orbiting satellites are collected within + / - 50 minutes of the top of the hour , and `` spliced '' together to form one image of the entire region . The images are centered at the North Pole , and extend as far south as 45 ° . The images have a resolution of 5 km . The Arctic satellite composites have already been used in their earliest form to support studies of Arctic pollution . They have been used operationally to support the polar study using aircraft , remote sensing , surface measurements and models of climate , chemistry , aerosols and transport ( POLARCAT ) , and Arctic research of the composition of the troposphere from aircraft and satellites ( ARCTAS ) campaigns during the International Polar Year . Future work on the generation of the satellite composite imagery will include visible composite generation as well as hourly composite generation . It is anticipated this work will be completed in 2010 .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_Satellite_Composite_Project", "rank": 50, "score": 139155 }, { "content": "Title: Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station Content: The Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station 2007 ( APLIS07 ) is an U.S.A. and Japanese laboratory dedicated to the study of global climate change , located about 300km south of the Arctic Circle , Alaska on the West Ridge of the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Applied_Physics_Laboratory_Ice_Station", "rank": 51, "score": 139009 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Institute of North America Content: The Arctic Institute of North America is a multi-disciplinary research institute and educational organization located in the University of Calgary . It is mandated to study the North American and circumpolar Arctic in the areas of natural science , social science , arts and the humanities . In addition , it acquires , preserves and disseminates information on environmental , physical , and social conditions in the North . The institute was created in 1945 by a Canadian Act of Parliament as a non-profit membership organization , and also incorporated in the State of New York .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_Institute_of_North_America", "rank": 52, "score": 138846 }, { "content": "Title: Polar regions of Earth Content: The polar regions of Earth , also known as Earth 's frigid zones , are the regions of Earth surrounding its geographical poles ( the North and South Poles ) . These regions are dominated by Earth 's polar ice caps , the northern resting on the Arctic Ocean and the southern on the continent of Antarctica .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Polar_regions_of_Earth", "rank": 53, "score": 138292 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Research Office Content: The Arctic Research Office ( ARO ) a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) run under the auspices of the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . ARO is the focal point for NOAA 's research in the Arctic , Bering Sea , North Pacific and North Atlantic regions . In 1996 , the Congress of the United States appropriated one million USD to support an Arctic Research Initiative within NOAA . In cooperation with the Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research , NOAA 's Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research used those funds to support research projects in two principal areas : natural variability of the Western Arctic/Bering Sea ecosystem , and anthropogenic influences on the Western Arctic/Bering Sea ecosystem . Support for the Arctic Research Initiative is ongoing . The office administers the funds from the Arctic Research Initiative . It represents NOAA on the Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee , leads U.S. involvement in the Arctic Monitoring & Assessment Programme , and provides a point of contact between NOAA and the Cooperative Institute and Assessment Program and the International Arctic Research Center .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_Research_Office", "rank": 54, "score": 137914 }, { "content": "Title: Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research Content: The Alfred Wegener Institute , Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research ( German : Alfred-Wegener-Institut , Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar - und Meeresforschung ) is located in Bremerhaven , Germany , and a member of the Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres . It conducts research in the Arctic , in the Antarctic and in the high and mid latitude oceans . Additional research topics are : North Sea research , marine biological monitoring and technical marine developments . The institute was founded in 1980 and is named after meteorologist , climatologist and geologist Alfred Wegener .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Alfred_Wegener_Institute_for_Polar_and_Marine_Research", "rank": 55, "score": 137734 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute Content: The Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute , or AARI ( Арктический и антарктический научно-исследовательский институт , abbreviated as ААНИИ ) is the oldest and largest Russian research institute in the field of comprehensive studies of Arctic and Antarctica . It is located in Saint Petersburg . The AARI was founded on 3 March 1920 as the Northern Research and Trade Expedition under the Scientific and Technical Department of the All-Union Council of State Economy . In 1925 , the expedition was reorganized into the Institute of Northern Studies and five years later - into the All-Union Arctic Institute . In 1932 , the institute was integrated into the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route . In 1948 , they established the Arctic Geology Research Institute ( Научно-исследовательский институт геологии Арктики , or НИИГА ) on the basis of the geology department of the All-Union Arctic Institute , which would subordinate to the Ministry of Geology of the USSR . In 1958 , the All-Union Arctic Institute was renamed Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute . In 1963 , the AARI was incorporated into the Chief Administration of the Hydrometeorological Service under the Council of Ministers of the USSR ( now Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring of Russia ) . Throughout its history , the AARI has organized more than a thousand Arctic expeditions , including dozens of high-latitude aerial expeditions , which transported 34 manned drifting ice stations Severniy Polyus ( '' Северный полюс '' , or North Pole ) to Central Arctic . In 1955 , the AARI participated in the organization of Antarctic research . In 1958 , it began to organize and lead all of the Soviet Antarctic expeditions , which would later make many geographic discoveries . In 1968 , the institute engaged in research of the areas of the Atlantic Ocean contiguous to the Arctic and Antarctica . The AARI has numerous departments , such as those of oceanography , glaciology , meteorology , hydrology or Arctic river mouths and water resources , geophysics , polar geography , and others . It also has its own computer center , ice research laboratory , experimental workshops , and a museum ( the Arctic and Antarctic Museum ) . Scientists , such as Alexander Karpinsky , Alexander Fersman , Yuly Shokalsky , Nikolai Knipovich , Lev Berg , Otto Schmidt , Rudolf Samoylovich , Vladimir Vize , Nikolai Zubov , Pyotr Shirshov , Nikolai Urvantsev , and Yakov Gakkel have all made their valuable contributions to the work of the AARI . In 1967 , AARI was awarded the Order of Lenin .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_and_Antarctic_Research_Institute", "rank": 56, "score": 137466 }, { "content": "Title: Aurora Content: An aurora , sometimes referred to as a polar lights or northern lights , is a natural light display in the sky , predominantly seen in the high latitude ( Arctic and Antarctic ) regions . Auroras are produced when the magnetosphere is sufficiently disturbed by the solar wind that the trajectories of charged particles in both solar wind and magnetospheric plasma , mainly in the form of electrons and protons , precipitate them into the upper atmosphere ( thermosphere/exosphere ) , where their energy is lost . The resulting ionization and excitation of atmospheric constituents emits light of varying color and complexity . The form of the aurora , occurring within bands around both polar regions , is also dependent on the amount of acceleration imparted to the precipitating particles . Precipitating protons generally produce optical emissions as incident hydrogen atoms after gaining electrons from the atmosphere . Proton auroras are usually observed at lower latitudes .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Aurora", "rank": 57, "score": 136556 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of the United States Content: The climate of the United States varies due to differences in latitude , and a range of geographic features , including mountains and deserts . West of the 100th meridian , much of the US is semi-arid to desert in the far southwestern US , and Mediterranean along the California coast . East of the 100th meridian , the climate is humid continental in the northern areas east through New England , to humid subtropical in the Gulf and South Atlantic regions . Southern Florida is tropical , as is Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands . Higher-elevation areas of the Rocky Mountains , the Wasatch , Sierra Nevada , and Cascade Range are alpine . The West Coast areas in coastal Oregon and Washington are oceanic climate . The state of Alaska , on the northwestern corner of the North American continent , is largely subarctic climate , but with a subpolar oceanic climate in the southeast ( Alaska Panhandle ) , southwestern peninsula and Aleutian Islands . The primary drivers of weather in the contiguous United States are the seasonal change in the solar angle , the migration north/south of the subtropical highs , and the seasonal change in the position of the polar jet stream . In the Northern Hemisphere summer the Subtropical high pressure systems move northward and closer to the United States mainland . In the Atlantic Ocean , the `` Bermuda High '' creates a south-southwest flow of warm , humid air over the eastern , southern and central United States - resulting in warm to hot temperatures , high humidity and occasional thunderstorm activity . In the Pacific Ocean high pressure builds toward the California coast resulting in a northwesterly airflow creating the typical sunny , dry , and stable weather conditions along the West Coast . In the Northern Hemisphere winter , the subtropical highs retreat southward . The polar jet stream ( and associated conflict zone between cold , dry air masses from Canada and warm , moist air masses from the Gulf of Mexico ) drops further southward into the United States - bringing more precipitation and periods of disturbed weather , as well as colder or mild air masses . Areas in the southern US ( Florida , the Gulf Coast , the Desert Southwest , and southern California ) however , often have more stable weather , as the polar jet stream 's impact does not usually reach that far south . Weather systems , be they high-pressure systems ( anticyclones ) , low-pressure systems ( cyclones ) or fronts ( boundaries between air masses of differing temperature , humidity and most commonly , both ) are faster-moving and more intense in the winter/colder months than in the summer/warmer months , when the belt of lows and storms generally move into southern Canada . The Gulf of Alaska is the origination area of many storms that enter the United States . Such `` North Pacific lows '' enter the US through the Pacific Northwest , then move eastward across the northern Rocky Mountains , northern Great Plains , upper Midwest , Great Lakes and New England states . Across the central states from late fall to spring , `` Panhandle hook '' storms move from the central Rockies into the Oklahoma/Texas panhandle areas , then northeast toward the Great Lakes . They generate unusually large temperature contrasts , and often bring heavy Gulf moisture northward , resulting sometimes in cold conditions and possibly-heavy snow or ice north and west of the storm track , and warm conditions , heavy rains and potentially-severe thunderstorms south and east of the storm track - often simultaneously . Across the northern states in winter usually from Montana eastward , `` Alberta clipper '' storms track east and bring light to moderate snowfalls from the Great Lakes to New England , and often , windy and severe Arctic outbreaks behind them . When winter-season Canadian cold air masses drop unusually far southward , `` Gulf lows '' can develop in or near the Gulf of Mexico , then track eastward or northeastward across the Southern states , or nearby Gulf or South Atlantic waters . They often bring rain , but on rare occasions can bring ice to areas of the interior southern states . In the cold season ( generally November to March ) , most precipitation occurs in conjunction with organized low-pressure systems and associated fronts . In the summer , storms are much more localized , with short-duration thunderstorms common in many areas east of the 100th meridian . In the warm season , storm systems affecting a large area are less frequent , and weather conditions are more solar -LCB- sun -RCB- controlled , with the greatest chance for thunderstorm and severe weather activity during peak heating hours , mostly between 3 PM and 9 PM local time . From May to August especially , often-overnight mesoscale-convective-system ( MCS ) thunderstorm complexes , usually associated with frontal activity , can deliver significant to flooding rainfall amounts from the Dakotas/Nebraska eastward across Iowa/Minnesota to the Great Lakes states . From late summer into fall ( mostly August to October ) , tropical cyclones sometimes approach or cross the Gulf and Atlantic states , bringing high winds , heavy rainfall , and storm surges ( often topped with battering waves ) to coastal areas .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Climate_of_the_United_States", "rank": 58, "score": 135494 }, { "content": "Title: Polar seas Content: Polar seas is a collective term for the Arctic Ocean ( about 4-5 percent of Earth 's oceans ) and the southern part of the Southern Ocean ( south of Antarctic Convergence , about 10 percent of Earth 's oceans ) . In the coldest years , sea ice can cover around 13 percent of the Earth 's total surface at its maximum , but out of phase in the two hemispheres . The polar seas contain a huge biome with many organisms . Among the species that inhabit various polar seas and surrounding land areas are polar bear , penguin , reindeer ( caribou ) , muskox , wolverine , ermine , lemming , Arctic hare , Arctic ground squirrel , whale , harp seal , and walrus . These species have unique adaptations to the extreme conditions . Many might be endangered if they can not adapt to changing conditions . Contrary to popular opinion , the World Wildlife Fund studies for polar bears show that this species has prospered since 1950 , attaining five times the numbers found in 1950 . In general , Arctic ecosystems are relatively fragile and slow to recover from serious damage .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Polar_seas", "rank": 59, "score": 135317 }, { "content": "Title: Midnight sun Content: The midnight sun is a natural phenomenon that occurs in the summer months in places north of the Arctic Circle or south of the Antarctic Circle , when the sun remains visible at the local midnight . Around the summer solstice ( approximately 21 June in the Northern Hemisphere and 22 December in the Southern Hemisphere ) the sun is visible for the full 24 hours , given fair weather . The number of days per year with potential midnight sun increases the farther towards either pole one goes . Although approximately defined by the polar circles , in practice the midnight sun can be seen as much as 55 miles ( 90 km ) outside the polar circle , as described below , and the exact latitudes of the farthest reaches of midnight sun depend on topography and vary slightly year-to-year . Because there are no permanent human settlements south of the Antarctic Circle , apart from research stations , the countries and territories whose populations experience the midnight sun are limited to those crossed by the Arctic Circle : Canada ( Yukon , Northwest Territories , and Nunavut ) , Greenland , Iceland , Finland , Norway , Russia , Sweden , and the United States ( Alaska ) . A quarter of Finland 's territory lies north of the Arctic Circle , and at the country 's northernmost point the sun does not set at all for 60 days during summer . In Svalbard , Norway , the northernmost inhabited region of Europe , there is no sunset from approximately 19 April to 23 August . The extreme sites are the poles , where the sun can be continuously visible for half the year . North Pole has midnight sun for Least 6 months from late March to late September . The opposite phenomenon , polar night , occurs in winter , when the sun stays below the horizon throughout the day . Since the axial tilt of the Earth is considerable ( approximately 23 degrees 27 minutes ) , the sun does not set at high latitudes in local summer . The duration of sunlight increases from one day during the summer solstice at the polar circle , to several weeks only 100 km closer to the pole , to six months at the poles . At extreme latitudes , the midnight sun is usually referred to as polar day . At the poles themselves , the sun rises and sets only once each year . During the six months that the sun is above the horizon , it spends the days continuously moving in circles around the observer , gradually spiralling higher and reaching its highest circuit of the sky at the summer solstice . Because of atmospheric refraction , and also because the sun is a disc rather than a point , the midnight sun may be experienced at latitudes slightly below the polar circle , though not exceeding one degree ( depending on local conditions ) . For example , Iceland is known for its midnight sun , even though most of it ( Grímsey is the exception ) is slightly south of the Arctic Circle . For the same reasons , the period of sunlight at the poles is slightly longer than six months . Even the northern extremities of Scotland ( and places at similar latitudes , such as St. Petersburg ) experience twilight throughout the night in the northern sky at around the summer solstice . Observers at heights appreciably above sea level can experience extended periods of midnight sun as a result of the `` dip '' of the horizon viewed from altitude .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Midnight_sun", "rank": 60, "score": 134907 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic ecology Content: Arctic ecology is the scientific study of the relationships between biotic and abiotic factors in the arctic , the region north of the Arctic Circle ( 66 33 ' ) . This is a region characterized by stressful conditions as a result of extreme cold , low precipitation , a limited growing season ( 50 -- 90 days ) and virtually no sunlight throughout the winter . The Arctic consists of taiga ( or boreal forest ) and tundra biomes , which also dominate very high elevations , even in the tropics . Sensitive ecosystems exist throughout the Arctic region , which are being impacted dramatically by global warming . The earliest inhabitants of the Arctic were the Neanderthals . Since then , many indigenous populations have inhabited the region , which continues to this day . Since the early 1900s , when Vilhjalmur Stefansson led the first major Canadian Arctic Expedition , the Arctic has been a valued area for ecological research . In 1946 , The Arctic Research Laboratory was established in Point Barrow , Alaska under the contract of the Office of Naval Research . This launched an interest in exploring the Arctic examining animal cycles , permafrost and the interactions between indigenous peoples and the Arctic ecology . During the Cold War , the Arctic became a place where the United States , Canada , and the Soviet Union performed significant research that has been essential to the study of climate change in recent years . A major reason why research in the Arctic is essential for the study of climate change is because the effects of climate change will be felt more quickly and more drastically in higher latitudes of the world as above average temperatures are predicted for Northwest Canada and Alaska . From an anthropological point of view , researchers study the native Inuit peoples of Alaska as they have become extremely accustomed to adapting to ecological and climate variability .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_ecology", "rank": 61, "score": 134121 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Circle Content: The Antarctic Circle is the most southerly of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the Earth . The region south of this circle is known as the Antarctic , and the zone immediately to the north is called the Southern Temperate Zone . South of the Antarctic Circle , the sun is above the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore visible at midnight ) and ( at least partially ) below the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore not fully visible at noon ) ; this is also true within the equivalent polar circle in the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Circle . The position of the Antarctic Circle is not fixed ; as of , it runs south of the Equator . Its latitude depends on the Earth 's axial tilt , which fluctuates within a margin of 2 ° over a 40,000-year period , due to tidal forces resulting from the orbit of the Moon . Consequently , the Antarctic Circle is currently drifting southwards at a speed of about 15 m per year .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Antarctic_Circle", "rank": 62, "score": 134096 }, { "content": "Title: Polar exploration Content: Polar exploration is the process of exploration of the polar regions of the Earth - the Arctic region and Antarctica - particularly with the goal of reaching the North Pole and South Pole , respectively . Historically , this was accomplished by explorers making often arduous travels on foot or by sled in these regions , known as a polar expedition . More recently , exploration has been accomplished with technology , particularly with satellite imagery . From 600 BC to 300 BC Greek Philosophers theorized that the planet was a Spherical Earth with North and South Polar regions . By 150 AD Ptolemy published Geographia , which notes a hypothetical Terra Australis Incognita . However , due to harsh weather conditions , the poles themselves would not be reached for centuries after that . When they finally were reached , the achievement was realized only a few years apart . There are two claims , both disputed , about who was the first person to reach the geographic North Pole . Frederick Cook , accompanied by two Inuit men , Ahwelah and Etukishook claimed to have reached the Pole on April 21 , 1908 , although this claim is generally doubted . On April 6 , 1909 , Robert Peary claimed to be the first person in recorded history to reach the North Pole , accompanied by his employee Matthew Henson and four Inuit men Ootah , Seegloo , Egingway , and Ooqueah ( although whether he actually reached the Pole is doubted by some ) . Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen had planned to reach the North Pole by means of an extended drift in an icebound ship . He obtained the use of Fridtjof Nansen 's polar exploration ship Fram , and undertook extensive fundraising . Preparations for this expedition were disrupted when Cook and Peary each claimed to have reached the North Pole . Amundsen then changed his plan and began to prepare for a conquest of the geographic South Pole ; uncertain of the extent to which the public and his backers would support him , he kept this revised objective secret . When he set out in June 1910 , he led even his crew to believe they were embarking on an Arctic drift , and revealed their true Antarctic destination only when Fram was leaving their last port of call , Madeira . Amundsen 's South Pole expedition , with Amundsen and four others , arrived at the pole on 14 December 1911 , five weeks ahead of a British party led by Robert Falcon Scott as part of the Terra Nova Expedition . Amundsen and his team returned safely to their base , and later learned that Scott and his four companions had died on their return journey .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Polar_exploration", "rank": 63, "score": 134059 }, { "content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm", "rank": 64, "score": 133992 }, { "content": "Title: University of the Arctic Content: The University of the Arctic ( UArctic ) is an international cooperative network based in the Circumpolar Arctic region , consisting of universities , colleges , and other organizations with an interest in promoting education and research in the Arctic region . UArctic was launched on June 12 , 2001 , endorsed by the Arctic Council and in conjunction with the 10th anniversary of the Rovaniemi Process and the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy . The overall goal of the University of the Arctic is to create a strong , sustainable Circumpolar Arctic region by empowering indigenous peoples and other northerners through education , mobility and shared knowledge .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "University_of_the_Arctic", "rank": 65, "score": 133480 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Technology Centre Content: The Arctic Technology Centre , commonly called Artek , was formally established in 2001 to teach and provide in-service training for Greenlandic and Danish students and businessmen in Arctic technology . Artek also runs courses and seminars about Arctic conditions and contributes to research into Arctic technology . As a forerunner to the centre , various courses have been held about Arctic conditions over the last couple of years . The centre will be run by Sanaartornermik Ilinniarfik ( the Building and Construction School ) in Sisimiut and the Technical University of Denmark ( DTU ) in Kongens Lyngby . In financial terms , Arctic Technology Centre is considered a DTU department with all the ensuing potential sources of revenue dependent on the number of students ( the valueadded scheme ) . During the start-up phase , other grants will be made available by the Greenland Parliament and the Danish Ministry of Research and Education . The set-up phase -- especially equipment and refurbishment expenses - will cost approximately DKK 14 million , DKK 6 million in Greenland and DKK 8 million at DTU . The funding will come from the Greenland Government and from private foundations .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_Technology_Centre", "rank": 66, "score": 133430 }, { "content": "Title: Weather satellite Content: The weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and climate of the Earth . Satellites can be polar orbiting , covering the entire Earth asynchronously , or geostationary , hovering over the same spot on the equator . Meteorological satellites see more than clouds and cloud systems . City lights , fires , effects of pollution , auroras , sand and dust storms , snow cover , ice mapping , boundaries of ocean currents , energy flows , etc. . Other types of environmental information are collected using weather satellites . Weather satellite images helped in monitoring the volcanic ash cloud from Mount St. Helens and activity from other volcanoes such as Mount Etna . Smoke from fires in the western United States such as Colorado and Utah have also been monitored . Other environmental satellites can detect changes in the Earth 's vegetation , sea state , ocean color , and ice fields . For example , the 2002 Prestige oil spill off the northwest coast of Spain was watched carefully by the European ENVISAT , which , though not a weather satellite , flies an instrument ( ASAR ) which can see changes in the sea surface . El Niño and its effects on weather are monitored daily from satellite images . The Antarctic ozone hole is mapped from weather satellite data . Collectively , weather satellites flown by the U.S. , Europe , India , China , Russia , and Japan provide nearly continuous observations for a global weather watch .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Weather_satellite", "rank": 67, "score": 132849 }, { "content": "Title: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean Content: The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean ( SHEBA ) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean , where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time . The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models , which scientists use to study global climate change .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Surface_Heat_Budget_of_the_Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 68, "score": 132421 }, { "content": "Title: Ian Stirling (biologist) Content: Ian Stirling ( born September 26 , 1941 ) is a research scientist emeritus with Environment and Climate Change Canada and an adjunct professor in the University of Alberta Department of Biological Sciences . His research has focused mostly on Arctic and Antarctic zoology and ecology , and he is one of the world 's top authorities on polar bears . Stirling has written five books and more than 150 articles published in peer-reviewed scientific journals . He has written and spoken extensively about the danger posed to polar bears by global warming .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Ian_Stirling_(biologist)", "rank": 69, "score": 132381 }, { "content": "Title: Polar vortex Content: A polar vortex is an upper level low-pressure area lying near the Earth 's pole . There are two polar vortices in the Earth 's atmosphere , which overlie the North , and South Poles . Each polar vortex is a persistent , large-scale , low pressure zone that rotates counter-clockwise at the North Pole ( called a cyclone ) , and clockwise at the South Pole . The bases of the two polar vortices are located in the middle and upper troposphere and extend into the stratosphere . Beneath that lies a large mass of cold , dense arctic air . The vortices weaken and strengthen from year to year . When the vortex of the arctic is strong it is well defined , there is a single vortex and the arctic air is well contained ; when weaker , which it generally is , it will break into two or more vortices ; when very weak , the flow of arctic air becomes more disorganized and masses of cold arctic air can push equatorward , bringing with it a rapid and sharp temperature drop . The interface between the cold dry air mass of the pole and the warm moist air mass further south defines the location of the polar front . The polar front is centered , roughly at 60 ° latitude . A polar vortex strengthens in the winter and weakens in the summer due to its dependence on the temperature difference between the equator and the poles . The vortices span less than 1,000 kilometers ( 620 miles ) in diameter within which they rotate counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere , and in a clockwise fashion in the Southern Hemisphere . As with other cyclones , their rotation is driven by the Coriolis effect . When the polar vortex is strong , there is a single vortex with a jet stream that is `` well constrained '' near the polar front . When the northern vortex weakens , it separates into two or more vortices , the strongest of which are near Baffin Island , Canada and the other over northeast Siberia . The Antarctic vortex of the Southern Hemisphere is a single low pressure zone that is found near the edge of the Ross ice shelf near 160 west longitude . When the polar vortex is strong , the mid-latitude Westerlies ( winds at the surface level between 30 ° and 60 ° latitude from the west ) increase in strength and are persistent . When the polar vortex is weak , high pressure zones of the mid latitudes may push poleward , moving the polar vortex , jet stream , and polar front equatorward . The jet stream is seen to `` buckle '' and deviate south . This rapidly brings cold dry air into contact with the warm , moist air of the mid latitudes , resulting in a rapid and dramatic change of weather known as a `` cold snap '' . Ozone depletion occurs within the polar vortices -- particularly over the Southern Hemisphere -- reaching a maximum depletion in the spring .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Polar_vortex", "rank": 70, "score": 131743 }, { "content": "Title: Dan Lubin Content: Dan Lubin is a research physicist and senior lecturer at the Scripps Institute of Oceanography since 1990 . He is a member of the American Geophysical Union , as well as Sigma Pi Sigma . He was a member of the National Ozone Expedition , and also participated in SHEBA . The general area of his research focuses on polar remote sensing and using global climate models to simulate climate change in the Arctic . In addition to a large number of scientific papers , he has written a textbook about the interactions between polar ice packs and the atmosphere . On October 17 , 2012 , Lubin gave a talk about solar activity and climate change at the SETI Institute .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Dan_Lubin", "rank": 71, "score": 131300 }, { "content": "Title: Comer Range Content: The Comer Range is a mountain range , 3 nmi long , running southwest to northeast and rising to 600 meters to the west of Harbour Glacier in Wiencke Island , Palmer Archipelago . From south to north the range includes Jabet Peak and Noble Peak . Named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2007 after Gary Comer ( 1927-2006 ) , an American philanthropist and founder of the Lands ' End company whose association with polar research stems from his 2001 trip through the Northwest Passage in the vessel Turmoil . The ease of his passage in comparison to that of numerous experienced sailors previously convinced him that climate change was occurring . To research the issue Comer contacted distinguished scientists Wallace S. Broecker , Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory , and F. Sherwood Rowland , University of California , Irvine , and engaged their help in sponsoring a fellowship/mentorship program that he would fund . Comer 's investments in climate and environmental change research in the Arctic , and in particular the polar science internship program that he developed and supported , represents a substantial contribution to the advancement of polar science . The new intellectual capital represented by the cadre of new scientists trained through his internship program has already made substantial contributions to knowledge of the Arctic and this in turn represents a significant contribution to improving the global glacial-geologic and glaciological context that is essential for understanding climate change work in the Antarctic .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Comer_Range", "rank": 72, "score": 131054 }, { "content": "Title: University of Copenhagen Arctic Station Content: University of Copenhagen Arctic Station is a year-round , environmental research facility in central West Greenland . Located about 300 m northeast of Qeqertarsuaq , it faces Disko Bay and the Davis Strait on the south coast of Disko Island with the Blæsedalen valley to the north . The main building and the laboratory are within a nature sanctuary . Arctic Station is owned by the University of Copenhagen Faculty of Science . It was founded in 1906 by the botanist Morten Pedersen Porsild .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "University_of_Copenhagen_Arctic_Station", "rank": 73, "score": 130855 }, { "content": "Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Ice_cap_climate", "rank": 74, "score": 130713 }, { "content": "Title: Boreal ecosystem Content: A boreal ecosystem is an ecosystem with a subarctic climate in the Northern Hemisphere , roughly between latitude 60 ° to 70 ° N. Boreal forests are also known as the taiga , particularly in Europe and Asia . The Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study ( BOREAS ) was a major international research program in the Canadian boreal forest . NASA sponsored the program , and most research took place between 1994 and 1996 . Its primary goals were to determine how the boreal forest interacts with the atmosphere , how climate change will affect the forest , and how changes in the forest affect weather and climate . The ecosystems that lie immediately to the south ( in the Northern Hemisphere ) of boreal zones are often called hemiboreal . The Köppen symbols of boreal ecosystems are Dfc , Dwc , Dfd , and Dwd .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Boreal_ecosystem", "rank": 75, "score": 130683 }, { "content": "Title: Study of Environmental Arctic Change Content: Study of Environmental ARctic CHange ( SEARCH ) is an interdisciplinary , multiscale program , managed at the Arctic Research Consortium of the U.S. in Fairbanks , Alaska , USA . Eight U.S. federal agencies participate in SEARCH , including the National Science Foundation , National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , and NASA . One of the core aims of SEARCH is to understand and predict change in the arctic system . Major topics of study include sea ice , permafrost , land ice , and implications for society and policy .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Study_of_Environmental_Arctic_Change", "rank": 76, "score": 130568 }, { "content": "Title: Joint Polar Satellite System Content: Joint Polar Satellite System ( JPSS ) is the latest generation of U.S. polar-orbiting , non-geosynchronous , environmental satellites . JPSS will provide the global environmental data used in numerical weather prediction models for forecasts , and scientific data used for climate monitoring . JPSS will aid in fulfilling the mission of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , an agency of the Department of Commerce . Data and imagery obtained from the JPSS will increase timeliness and accuracy of public warnings and forecasts of climate and weather events , thus reducing the potential loss of human life and property and advancing the national economy . The JPSS is developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , who is responsible for operation of JPSS . Two satellites are planned for the JPSS constellation of satellites . JPSS satellites will be flown and the scientific data from JPSS will be processed by the JPSS - Common Ground System ( JPSS-CGS ) .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Joint_Polar_Satellite_System", "rank": 77, "score": 130438 }, { "content": "Title: Yellow River Station (Arctic) Content: The Arctic Yellow River Station was established by the Polar Research Institute of China in Ny-Ålesund , on Svalbard , in 2003 . Scientists at the station conducted research into the Aurora Borealis and microbes in the ice-pack , glacier monitoring , atmospheric research .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Yellow_River_Station_(Arctic)", "rank": 78, "score": 130192 }, { "content": "Title: Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies Content: __ NOTOC __ The Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies ( CIMSS ) is a research institute where scientists study the use of data from geostationary and polar orbit weather satellites to improve forecasts of weather ( including tropical cyclones and severe storms . CIMSS was formed through a Memorandum of Understanding between the University of Wisconsin -- Madison , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) . CIMSS parent organization , the Space Science and Engineering Center ( SSEC ) is a primary developer and operator of environmental satellite technologies . It is one of 16 NOAA Cooperative Institutes ( CIs ) .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Cooperative_Institute_for_Meteorological_Satellite_Studies", "rank": 79, "score": 130137 }, { "content": "Title: Cold-weather warfare Content: Cold-weather warfare , also known as Arctic warfare or winter warfare , encompasses military operations affected by snow , ice , thawing conditions or cold , both on land and at sea . Cold-weather conditions occur year-round at high elevation or at high latitudes , and elsewhere materialise seasonally during the winter period . Mountain warfare often takes place in cold weather or on terrain that is affected by ice and snow , such as the Alps and the Himalayas . Historically , most such operations have been during winter in the Northern Hemisphere . Some have occurred above the Arctic Circle where snow , ice and cold may occur throughout the year . At times , cold or its aftermath -- thaw -- has been a decisive factor in the failure of a campaign , as with Napoleon 's invasion of Russia in 1812 and the Nazi invasion of Russia .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Cold-weather_warfare", "rank": 80, "score": 130037 }, { "content": "Title: Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory Content: The Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory ( CRREL ) is a United States Army Corps of Engineers , Engineer Research and Development Center research facility headquartered in Hanover , New Hampshire , that provides scientific and engineering support to the U.S. government and its military with a core emphasis on cold environments . CRREL also provides technical support to non-government customers . CRREL arose from a consolidation of three antecedent organizations whose purpose was to understand frozen ground , permafrost , snow and ice as factors which were important in strategic northern areas during the Cold War . In its first 25 years CRREL researchers contributed to the understanding of polar ice caps , permafrost , and the engineering technology for developing natural resources in cold climates , such as Alaska . More recently , CRREL researchers have made contributions to science in climate change , the understanding of wave propagation for sensor systems , the control of snow on structures and ice in navigable waterways , and the environmental remediation of military installations .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Cold_Regions_Research_and_Engineering_Laboratory", "rank": 81, "score": 129957 }, { "content": "Title: University of Tromsø Content: The University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway ( Universitetet i Tromsø -- Norges arktiske universitet is the world 's northernmost university . Located in the city of Tromsø , Norway , it was established in 1968 , and opened in 1972 . It is one of eight universities in Norway . The University of Tromsø is the largest research and educational institution in northern Norway . The University 's location makes it a natural venue for the development of studies of the region 's natural environment , culture , and society . The main focus of the University 's activities is on the Auroral light research , Space science , Fishery science , Biotechnology , Linguistics , Multicultural societies , Saami culture , Telemedicine , epidemiology and a wide spectrum of Arctic research projects . The close vicinity of the Norwegian Polar Institute , the Norwegian Institute of Marine Research and the Polar Environmental Centre gives Tromsø added weight and importance as an international centre for Arctic research . Research activities , however , are not limited to Arctic studies . The University researchers work within a broad range of subjects and are recognised both nationally and internationally . On January 1 , 2009 the University of Tromsø merged with Tromsø University College . On August 1 , 2013 the university merged with Finnmark University College to form Universitetet i Tromsø -- Norges arktiske universitet ( The University of Tromsø -- The Arctic University of Norway ) , thereby adding campuses in Alta , Hammerfest and Kirkenes . On January 1 , 2016 Narvik University College and Harstad University College merged with UiT - The Arctic University of Norway . As of January 2016 the university now has 6 campus locations in northern Norway , the main campus being Tromsø .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "University_of_Tromsø", "rank": 82, "score": 129646 }, { "content": "Title: Polar Research Institute of China Content: The Polar Research Institute of China ( PRIC ) is the main Chinese research institute for the study of the Earth 's polar regions . It is based in Shanghai , China . The Institute manages four polar research stations ( three in Antarctica and one in the Arctic ) , as well as the icebreaking research vessel Xuě Lóng .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Polar_Research_Institute_of_China", "rank": 83, "score": 129626 }, { "content": "Title: Poverty in the Arctic Content: The Arctic is a vast polar region comprising the northern most parts of Canada , Norway , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Sweden , Finland , the United States ( Alaska ) , Iceland and Russia . In recent years , the Arctic has been at the forefront of political and social issues . Several matters have risen surrounding the issues of poverty and global warming and their effects on indigenous people in this region . Indigenous people in the Arctic statistically fall below their nation 's poverty line . Indigenous populations that were once largely self-sufficient and relatively food secure in the Arctic 's harsh environment are today struggling to sustain themselves as a result of poverty and also the impacts of climate change . Currently , they are facing an overwhelming amount of issues in relation to poverty including cultural loss , high rates of chronic illness and chronic disease , mental health disorders , lack of basic health needs and housing shortages . In Canada 's arctic region , for example , infant mortality rate is 3.5 times higher than the national rate while life expectancy is 12 years lower . In Greenland , life expectancy is 70 years for women and 65 years for men whereas in Denmark life expectancy for women is 80.59 and 75.8 for men . Specifically , in the territory of Nunavut , unemployment rates range from 15 to 72 % . In 2010 , 9.9 % of Alaskan households fell below their respective poverty thresholds .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Poverty_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 84, "score": 129598 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Satellite_temperature_measurements", "rank": 85, "score": 129270 }, { "content": "Title: Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica Content: The Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica is a research program consisting of two overland traverses of East Antarctica : the first from the Norwegian Troll Station to the South Pole in the 2007/2008 season ; and a return traverse via a different route in 2008/2009 . The main research focus of the program is climate change , the stated goals being to : Investigate climate variability in Dronning Maud Land of East Antarctica on time scales of years to a thousand years . Establish spatial and temporal variability in snow accumulation over this area of Antarctica to understand its impact on sea level . Investigate the impact of atmospheric and oceanic variability on the chemical composition of firn and ice in the region . Revisit areas and sites first explored by traverses in the 1960s , for detection of possible changes and to establish benchmark data sets for future research efforts . The program is part of Trans-Antarctic Scientific Traverse Expeditions -- Ice Divide of East Antarctica ( TASTE-IDEA ) , and the International Partners in Ice Coring Sciences ( IPICS ) , both of which have ISCU-WMO endorsement for the International Polar Year 2007-2009 .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Norwegian-U.S._Scientific_Traverse_of_East_Antarctica", "rank": 86, "score": 128907 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 87, "score": 128573 }, { "content": "Title: Thomas R. Karl Content: Thomas R. Karl ( Born 22 November 1951 , Evergreen Park , Illinois ) is the former director of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Centers for Environmental Information ( NCEI ) . He joined the National Climate Centre in 1980 , and when that became the National Climatic Data Center , he continued as a researcher , becoming a Lab Chief , Senior Scientist and ultimately Director of the Center . When it merged with other centers to become NCEI in 2015 , he became its first director . He retired on 4 August 2016 .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Thomas_R._Karl", "rank": 88, "score": 128145 }, { "content": "Title: Lady Franklin Bay Expedition Content: The 1881 -- 1884 Lady Franklin Bay Expedition ( officially the International Polar Expedition ) into the Canadian Arctic was led by Lt. Adolphus Greely and was promoted by the United States Army Signal Corps . Its purpose was threefold : to establish a meteorological-observation station as part of the First International Polar Year , to collect astronomical data , and polar magnetic data . During the expedition , two members of the crew reached a new `` Farthest North '' record . The expedition was under the auspices of the Signal Corps at a time when the Corps ' Chief Disbursements Officer , Henry W. Howgate , was arrested for embezzlement . However , that did not deter the planning and execution of the voyage .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Lady_Franklin_Bay_Expedition", "rank": 89, "score": 127950 }, { "content": "Title: Vertical distribution of ice in Arctic clouds Content: Vertical Distribution of Ice in Arctic Clouds ( VERDI ) is the name of a German research project on the topic of Arctic clouds . Measurements within this project were conducted in April and May 2012 around Inuvik , Canada , organized by the University of Leipzig . The project aims at an improvement of knowledge about the effects of clouds in the Arctic climate system . The main question within VERDI is the distribution of ice crystals and liquid water droplets within the clouds . That distribution depends on various parameters , such as temperature and the cloud 's life cycle .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Vertical_distribution_of_ice_in_Arctic_clouds", "rank": 90, "score": 127690 }, { "content": "Title: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Content: The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ( ISCCP ) was established as the first project of the World Climate Research Program ( WCRP ) . Since its inception in 1982 , there have been two phases , 1983 -- 1995 and 1995 -- 2009 . The project is responsible for collection and analysis of weather satellite radiance measurements . It infers clouds ' global distribution and properties , along with their diurnal , seasonal , and interannual variations . The results are studied to understand clouds in climate , including their effects on radiative energy exchanges , plus their role in the global water cycle . These datasets provide a systematic view of cloud behavior . The ISCCP headquarters are located at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City . ISCCP data is stored at the ISCCP Central Archive and at NASA . While the data are typically used for climate study , they are also a valuable resource for astronomical pursuits . From 1983 , institutions from around the world have collected and analyzed satellite radiance measurements from two polar orbiting and five geostationary satellites .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "International_Satellite_Cloud_Climatology_Project", "rank": 91, "score": 127626 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Report Card Content: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Arctic Report Card presents annually updated , peer-reviewed information on recent observations of environmental conditions in the Arctic relative to historical records . The annual updates are released during a press conference at the December American Geophysical Society meeting . Key highlights are featured on the current report card home page , previous report cards are available online , and each report card is summarized in a short YouTube video The audience for the Arctic Report Card is wide , including scientists , students , teachers , decision makers and the general public interested in Arctic environment and science .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_Report_Card", "rank": 92, "score": 127140 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 93, "score": 126922 }, { "content": "Title: Polar Research and Policy Initiative Content: Polar Research and Policy Initiative , commonly known as PRPI or The Polar Connection , is an independent , international foreign policy think-tank dedicated primarily to the Arctic and the Antarctic , as well as Nordic , Baltic , energy and environment issues . PRPI is headquartered in London , United Kingdom , and has 75 members affiliated with it : 35 as research fellows and 40 as advisers . PRPI specialises in facilitating both within the UK and globally a high-level , high-impact dialogue and cross-disciplinary , multi-sectoral cooperation between experts , policymakers , indigenous peoples , journalists , explorers , and the public , private and third sectors , about the most important issues facing the Polar Regions .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Polar_Research_and_Policy_Initiative", "rank": 94, "score": 126887 }, { "content": "Title: Meteor-3M No.1 Content: The Meteor-3M No. 1 , was the first and only of the Meteor-3M series polar-orbit weather satellites . It was launched on 10 December 2001 at 17:18:57 UTC from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan . The satellite was in a sun-synchronous orbit with an ascending node time of about 9 AM . An APT transmission was planned to only have a reduced resolution ( 2 km ) visible channel data . The status of any APT capability on this satellite is unclear , but it is thought not to have an APT transmitter . No APT transmissions have been received from this satellite . SLR mission support began on 1 May 2002 . Secondary mission objective is the flight testing of the novel-type spherical retroreflector for precise laser ranging . ILRS Mission Support Status : SLR will be used for precise orbit determination and retroreflector research . Instrumentation : SAGE III Spherical retroreflector Other weather monitoring instruments RetroReflector Array ( RRA ) Characteristics : The retroreflector is a glass ball 60 mm in diameter , fastened in a holder providing observation from Earth at elevations more than 30 ° ( the retroreflector field of view is centered in the Nadir direction ) . The spherical retroreflector with it holder is fixed to the Meteor-3M No. 1 spacecraft . The expected return signal strength level is between LAGEOS and ETALON .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Meteor-3M_No.1", "rank": 95, "score": 126859 }, { "content": "Title: Polar climate Content: The polar climate regions are characterized by a lack of warm summers . Every month in a polar climate has an average temperature of less than 10 C. Regions with polar climate cover more than 20 % of the Earth . The sun shines for long hours in the summer , and for many fewer hours in the winter . A polar climate results in treeless tundra , glaciers , or a permanent or semi-permanent layer of ice . It has cool summers and very cold winters .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Polar_climate", "rank": 96, "score": 126727 }, { "content": "Title: Marsupella arctica Content: Marsupella arctica , commonly known as Arctic rustwort , is a species of liverwort found in the Northern Hemisphere . It is present in Alaska and Greenland and has a European distribution confined to Scotland and Svalbard . The Scottish population was first discovered in 1989 and is restricted to two sites in the Cairngorm mountains - the Lairig Ghru and Beinn a ' Bhùird . The species occupies montane and alpine habitats , and in Britain is classified as a `` Vulnerable '' .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Marsupella_arctica", "rank": 97, "score": 126507 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Research Centre Content: The Antarctic Research Centre ( ARC ) is part of the School of Geography , Environment and Earth Sciences at Victoria University of Wellington . Its mission is to research `` Antarctic climate history and processes , and their influence on the global climate system . '' Its current director is Professor Tim Naish .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Antarctic_Research_Centre", "rank": 98, "score": 126293 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic front Content: The Arctic front is the semipermanent , semi-continuous weather front between the cold arctic air mass and the warmer air of the polar cell . It can also be defined as the southern boundary of the Arctic air mass . Mesoscale cyclones known as polar lows can form along the arctic front in the wake of extratropical cyclones . Arctic air masses in their wake are shallow with a deep layer of stable air above the shallow cold cool .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "Arctic_front", "rank": 99, "score": 126219 }, { "content": "Title: UAH satellite temperature dataset Content: The UAH satellite temperature dataset , developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from satellite measurements of radiance . It was the first global temperature datasets developed from satellite information and has been used as a tool for research into surface and atmospheric temperature changes . The dataset is published by John Christy et al. and formerly jointly with Roy Spencer .", "qid": "2838", "docid": "UAH_satellite_temperature_dataset", "rank": 100, "score": 125983 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 1, "score": 216485 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland ice sheet Content: The Greenland ice sheet ( Grønlands indlandsis , Sermersuaq ) is a vast body of ice covering 1710000 km ² , roughly 80 % of the surface of Greenland . It is the second largest ice body in the world , after the Antarctic ice sheet . The ice sheet is almost 2400 km long in a north-south direction , and its greatest width is 1100 km at a latitude of 77 ° N , near its northern margin . The mean altitude of the ice is 2135 m . The thickness is generally more than 2 km and over 3 km at its thickest point . It is not the only ice mass of Greenland -- isolated glaciers and small ice caps cover between 76000 and around the periphery . If the entire 2850000 km3 of ice were to melt , it would lead to a global sea level rise of 7.2 m . The Greenland Ice Sheet is sometimes referred to under the term inland ice , or its Danish equivalent , indlandsis . It is also sometimes referred to as an ice cap .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Greenland_ice_sheet", "rank": 2, "score": 189482 }, { "content": "Title: Ice sheet Content: An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2 , thus also known as continental glacier . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland ; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America , the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America . Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers . Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap . An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery . Although the surface is cold , the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat . In places , melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly . This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet -- these are ice streams . The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms . The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a small ice cap ( maybe several ) in the early Oligocene , but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene , when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica . The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene , but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation . This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Ice_sheet", "rank": 3, "score": 185629 }, { "content": "Title: Ice shelf Content: An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters . In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica . Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss . Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf . The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica . The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Ice_shelf", "rank": 4, "score": 181550 }, { "content": "Title: Glacial earthquake Content: Glacial earthquakes are earthquakes as large as magnitude 5.1 that occur in glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one kilometer per year . The number of glacial earthquakes in Greenland shows a peak every year in July , August and September , and the number is increasing over time . In a study using data from January 1993 through October 2005 , more events were detected every year since 2002 , and twice as many events were recorded in 2005 as there were in any other year . This increase in the numbers of glacial earthquakes in Greenland may be a response to global warming . Seismic waves are also generated by the Whillans Ice Stream , a large , fast-moving river of ice pouring from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet into the Ross Ice Shelf . Two bursts of seismic waves are released every day , each one equivalent to a magnitude 7 earthquake , and are seemingly related to the tidal action of the Ross Sea . During each event a 96 by 193 kilometer ( 60 by 120 mile ) region of the glacier moves as much as .67 meters ( 2.2 feet ) over about 25 minutes , remains still for 12 hours , then moves another half-meter . The seismic waves are recorded at seismographs around Antarctica , and even as far away as Australia , a distance of more than 6,400 kilometers . Because the motion takes place of such a long period of time 10 to 25 minutes , it can not be felt by scientists standing on the moving glacier . It is not known if these events are related to global warming .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Glacial_earthquake", "rank": 5, "score": 177330 }, { "content": "Title: King Oscar Glacier Content: King Oscar Glacier ( Kong Oscar Gletscher ) is one of several glaciers that drain the north-western part of the Greenland Ice Sheet into Melville Bay . As part of a comprehensive survey of Greenland 's glaciers that was published in 2006 , scientists documented that the mass balance -- the sum of gains through snow accumulation and losses through iceberg calving and melting -- of Kong Oscar and Greenland 's other north-western glaciers was strongly negative between 1996 and 2005 : they lost more ice than they gained . The pattern was similar to the ice sheet as a whole , which has been losing ice mass at an accelerating pace in the past decade .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "King_Oscar_Glacier", "rank": 6, "score": 175321 }, { "content": "Title: North Ice Content: North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "North_Ice", "rank": 7, "score": 172652 }, { "content": "Title: Konrad Steffen Content: Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Konrad_Steffen", "rank": 8, "score": 167647 }, { "content": "Title: Mittivakkat Glacier Content: The Mittivakkat Glacier is located in southeast Greenland , and is part of the largest ice field on Ammassalik Island . This glacier has been in retreat ( negative net mass balance ) throughout most of recorded history ( 1898 -- 2008 ) . Reindeer bones were recovered from the retreating glacier in 2005 , and dated to about 1200-1300 AD .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Mittivakkat_Glacier", "rank": 9, "score": 161791 }, { "content": "Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Quaternary_glaciation", "rank": 10, "score": 159064 }, { "content": "Title: Jøkulkyrkja Mountain Content: Jøkulkyrkja Mountain ( `` the Glacier Church '' ) , also known as Massiv Yakova Gakkelya , is a broad , ice-topped mountain with several radial rock spurs , standing east of Lunde Glacier in the Mühlig-Hofmann Mountains of Queen Maud Land , East Antarctica . At 3148 m elevation , it is the highest elevation in Queen Maud Land , and also the highest elevation within the claims of Norway . The mountain is located on the Princess Astrid Coast of the Norwegian Antarctic Territory . Håhellerskarvet ( `` shark cave mountain '' ) , 2910 m , is located to the southwest ; the two peaks are separated by the 25-mile-long Lunde Glacier , which flows to the northwest .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Jøkulkyrkja_Mountain", "rank": 11, "score": 157131 }, { "content": "Title: Dome A Content: Dome A or Dome Argus is the loftiest ice dome on the Antarctic Plateau , located 1200 km inland . It is thought to be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth ; scientists believe that temperatures can sometimes even drop below -102 ° C in the winter . It is the highest ice feature in Antarctica , consisting of an ice dome or eminence of 4093 m elevation above sea level . It is located near the center of East Antarctica , approximately midway between the enormous head of Lambert Glacier and the geographic South Pole , within the Australian claim .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Dome_A", "rank": 12, "score": 155671 }, { "content": "Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Ice_cap_climate", "rank": 13, "score": 155499 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 14, "score": 154608 }, { "content": "Title: Echelmeyer Ice Stream Content: The Echelmeyer Ice Stream , formerly known as Ice Stream F , is a glaciological feature of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . It is an ice stream flowing west to the Shirase Coast to the north of the MacAyeal Ice Stream , and is one of several major ice streams draining from Marie Byrd Land into the Ross Ice Shelf . The ice streams were investigated and mapped by U.S. Antarctic Research Program personnel in a number of field seasons from 1983 -- 84 and originally named Ice Stream A , B , C , etc. , according to their position from south to north . The name was changed from Ice Stream F by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2002 to honor Dr. Keith A. Echelmeyer of the Geophysical Institute , University of Alaska , Fairbanks , who studied the flow of Marie Byrd Land ice streams , 1992 -- 93 and 1994 -- 95 , as well as the fast flow of surging glaciers in Alaska and Greenland . Dr. Echelmeyer was a student of Barclay Kamb for whom Kamb Ice Stream is named .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Echelmeyer_Ice_Stream", "rank": 15, "score": 154307 }, { "content": "Title: Hans Tausen Iskappe Content: Hans Tausen Iskappe is an ice cap in northern Greenland . It is about 75 km from north to south and 50 km from east to west and sits on a 1000 m high plateau . Ice cores show it is around 3500 -- 4000 years old . It formed since the Holocene climatic optimum of 6000-8000 BP . It is the source of many glaciers , including Ymer Gletscher , Lurgletscher and the Tjalfe Gletscher . It is a well studied ice cap , and is important to understanding the last Climactic Optimum . ( Holocene climatic optimum )", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Hans_Tausen_Iskappe", "rank": 16, "score": 154102 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet", "rank": 17, "score": 153673 }, { "content": "Title: Zachariae Isstrom Content: Zachariae Isstrom ( Zachariæ Isstrøm Isstrøm being the Danish word for ice stream ) is a large glacier located in King Frederick VIII Land , northeast Greenland .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Zachariae_Isstrom", "rank": 18, "score": 153659 }, { "content": "Title: Ice calving Content: Ice calving , also known as glacier calving or iceberg calving , is the breaking of ice chunks from the edge of a glacier . It is a form of ice ablation or ice disruption and is normally caused by the glacier expanding . It is the sudden release and breaking away of a mass of ice from a glacier , iceberg , ice front , ice shelf , or crevasse . The ice that breaks away can be classified as an iceberg , but may also be a growler , bergy bit , or a crevasse wall breakaway . Calving of glaciers is often accompanied by a loud cracking or booming sound before blocks of ice up to 60 m high break loose and crash into the water . The entry of the ice into the water causes large , and often hazardous waves . The waves formed in locations like Johns Hopkins Glacier can be so large that boats can not approach closer than 3 km . These events have become major tourist attractions in locations such as Alaska . Many glaciers terminate at oceans or freshwater lakes which results naturally with the calving of large numbers of icebergs . Calving of Greenland 's glaciers produce 12,000 to 15,000 icebergs each year alone . Calving of ice shelves is usually preceded by a rift . These events are not often observed . Etymologically , calving is cognatic with calving as in bearing a calf .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Ice_calving", "rank": 19, "score": 152897 }, { "content": "Title: Ice core Content: An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet , most commonly from the polar ice caps of Antarctica , Greenland or from high mountain glaciers elsewhere . As the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow , lower layers are older than upper , and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years . The properties of the ice and the recrystallized inclusions within the ice can then be used to reconstruct a climatic record over the age range of the core , normally through isotopic analysis . This enables the reconstruction of local temperature records and the history of atmospheric composition . Ice cores contain an abundance of information about climate . Inclusions in the snow of each year remain in the ice , such as wind-blown dust , ash , pollen , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . The length of the record depends on the depth of the ice core and varies from a few years up to 800 kyr ( 800,000 years ) for the EPICA core . The time resolution ( i.e. the shortest time period which can be accurately distinguished ) depends on the amount of annual snowfall , and reduces with depth as the ice compacts under the weight of layers accumulating on top of it . Upper layers of ice in a core correspond to a single year or sometimes a single season . Deeper into the ice the layers thin and annual layers become indistinguishable . An ice core from the right site can be used to reconstruct an uninterrupted and detailed climate record extending over hundreds of thousands of years , providing information on a wide variety of aspects of climate at each point in time . It is the simultaneity of these properties recorded in the ice that makes ice cores such a powerful tool in paleoclimate research .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Ice_core", "rank": 20, "score": 152423 }, { "content": "Title: European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica Content: The European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica ( EPICA ) is a multinational European project for deep ice core drilling in Antarctica . Its main objective is to obtain full documentation of the climatic and atmospheric record archived in Antarctic ice by drilling and analyzing two ice cores and comparing these with their Greenland counterparts ( GRIP and GISP ) . Evaluation of these records will provide information about the natural climate variability and mechanisms of rapid climatic changes during the last glacial epoch . The European Science Foundation EPICA Programme ( 1996 -- 2005 ) provides co-ordination for EPICA drilling activities at Dome Concordia and Kohnen Station , which are supported by the European Commission and by national contributions from Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . Deep drilling took place at two sites in Antarctica : Concordia Station at Dome C and Kohnen Station . In 2008 the project received the Descartes Prize for Research .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "European_Project_for_Ice_Coring_in_Antarctica", "rank": 21, "score": 151671 }, { "content": "Title: Pine Island Glacier Content: Pine Island Glacier ( PIG ) is a large ice stream glacier , and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica , responsible for about 25 % of Antarctica 's ice loss . The glacier ice streams flow west-northwest along the south side of the Hudson Mountains into Pine Island Bay , Amundsen Sea , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and United States Navy ( USN ) air photos , 1960 -- 66 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in association with Pine Island Bay . The area drained by Pine Island Glacier comprises about 10 % of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Satellite measurements have shown that the Pine Island Glacier Basin has a greater net contribution of ice to the sea than any other ice drainage basin in the world and this has increased due to recent acceleration of the ice stream . The ice stream is extremely remote , with the nearest continually occupied research station at Rothera , nearly 1300 km away . The area is not claimed by any nations and the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any new claims while it is in force .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Pine_Island_Glacier", "rank": 22, "score": 150937 }, { "content": "Title: Extreme Ice Survey Content: The Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) , based in Boulder , Colorado , uses time-lapse photography , conventional photography and video to document the effects of global warming on glacial ice . It is the most wide-ranging glacier study ever conducted using ground-based , real-time photography . Starting in 2007 the EIS team installed as many as 43 time-lapse cameras at a time at 18 glaciers in Greenland , Iceland , Alaska , Canada , the Nepalese Himalaya ( where cameras were installed at Mount Everest in 2010 ) , and the Rocky Mountains of the U.S. . The cameras shoot year-round , every half hour of daylight . The team supplements the time-lapse record by occasionally repeating shots at fixed locations in Iceland , Bolivia , the Canadian province of British Columbia and the French and Swiss Alps . Collected images are being used for scientific evidence and as part of a global outreach campaign aimed at educating the public about the effects of climate change . EIS imagery has appeared in time-lapse videos displayed in the terminal at Denver International Airport ; in media productions such as the 2009 NOVA Extreme Ice documentary on PBS ; and is the focus of the feature-length film Chasing Ice , directed by Jeff Orlowski , which premiered at the Sundance film festival in Utah on January 23 , 2012 . Major findings were published in 2012 in Ice : Portraits of the World 's Vanishing Glaciers by James Balog ( Rizzoli Publishing ) .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Extreme_Ice_Survey", "rank": 23, "score": 149805 }, { "content": "Title: Julie Palais Content: Julie Michelle Palais ( * September 2 , 1956 in Massachusetts ) is an award-winning polar glaciologist who has made great contributions to climate change research studying volcanic fallout in ice cores from both Greenland and Antarctica . Since 1990 , she has played a pivotal role working at the National Science Foundation as Program Director of the Antarctic Glaciology Program in the Division of Polar Programs . Both the Palais Glacier and Palais Bluff in Antarctica were named in her honor . She has made twenty-eight trips to Antarctica and three trips to Greenland , and was the co-recipient of the Explorer Club 's Lowell Thomas Award .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Julie_Palais", "rank": 24, "score": 149758 }, { "content": "Title: Jøkulfallet Content: Jøkulfallet is a steep ice slope on the north side of Jokulkyrkja Mountain in the Mühlig-Hofmann Mountains of Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . It was plotted from surveys and air photos by the Sixth Norwegian Antarctic Expedition ( 1956 -- 60 ) and named Jøkulfallet ( the glacier fall ) .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Jøkulfallet", "rank": 25, "score": 147445 }, { "content": "Title: South Ice Content: South Ice was a British support base 560 km from the South Pole at 82 ° 05 'S , 30 ° 00 ' W in Edith Ronne Land , Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year , established by Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition , where three men overwintered during the Antarctic winter of 1957 . In the same winter , men overwintered for the first time at the South Pole . The name of the station contrasts to North Ice which was a British research station in Greenland .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "South_Ice", "rank": 26, "score": 146942 }, { "content": "Title: Fahnestock Glacier Content: Fahnestock Glacier is a glacier about 30 nmi long draining to the Sulzberger Ice Shelf . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Mark A. Fahnestock , a faculty member of the University of New Hampshire , who was a field and theoretical researcher in Greenland and in the West Antarctic Ice Stream area from the 1980s onwards .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Fahnestock_Glacier", "rank": 27, "score": 146881 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-sheet dynamics Content: Ice sheet dynamics describe the motion within large bodies of ice , such those currently on Greenland and Antarctica . Ice motion is dominated by the movement of glaciers , whose gravity-driven activity is controlled by two main variable factors : the temperature and strength of their bases . A number of processes alter these two factors , resulting in cyclic surges of activity interspersed with longer periods of inactivity , on both hourly and centennial time scales . Ice-sheet dynamics are of interest in modelling future sea level rise . __ TOC __", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Ice-sheet_dynamics", "rank": 28, "score": 146797 }, { "content": "Title: Joughin Glacier Content: Joughin Glacier is a glacier east of the Watson Peaks , flowing southeast into Wright Inlet on the Lassiter Coast . Named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2008 after Ian Joughin , an electrical engineer who pioneered the use of interferometric synthetic aperture radar to estimate surface motion and topography of ice sheets both in Antarctica and Greenland . He has used remote sensing , field work , and modeling to study ice dynamics since the early 1990s .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Joughin_Glacier", "rank": 29, "score": 146632 }, { "content": "Title: Massam Glacier Content: Massam Glacier is a glacier , 11 nmi long , flowing north between the Waldron Spurs and Longhorn Spurs to enter the Ross Ice Shelf , Antarctica , just east of the mouth of Shackleton Glacier . It was named by the Southern Party of the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition ( 1963 -- 64 ) for D. Massam , a member of that party .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Massam_Glacier", "rank": 30, "score": 145619 }, { "content": "Title: Jakobshavn Glacier Content: Jakobshavn Glacier , also known as Sermeq Kujalleq ( in Greenlandic ) and the Jakobshavn Isbræ ( in Danish ) , is a large outlet glacier in West Greenland . It is located near the Greenlandic town of Ilulissat ( Jakobshavn ) and ends at the sea in the Ilulissat Icefjord . Jakobshavn Glacier drains 6.5 % of the Greenland ice sheet and produces around 10 % of all Greenland icebergs . Some 35 billion tonnes of icebergs calve off and pass out of the fjord every year . Icebergs breaking from the glacier are often so large ( up to a kilometer in height ) that they are too tall to float down the fjord and lie stuck on the bottom of its shallower areas , sometimes for years , until they are broken up by the force of the glacier and icebergs further up the fjord . Studied for over 250 years , Jakobshavn Glacier has helped develop our understanding of climate change and icecap glaciology . Ilulissat Icefjord ( Ilulissat Kangerlua ) was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004 .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Jakobshavn_Glacier", "rank": 31, "score": 145426 }, { "content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Abrupt_climate_change", "rank": 32, "score": 145236 }, { "content": "Title: Nioghalvfjerdsbrae Content: Nioghalvfjerdsbrae , sometimes referred to as `` 79 N Glacier '' , is a large glacier located in northeast Greenland . It drains an area of 103,314 km2 of the Greenland Ice Sheet with a flux ( quantity of ice moved from the land to the sea ) of 14.3 km3 per year , as measured for 1996 .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Nioghalvfjerdsbrae", "rank": 33, "score": 144284 }, { "content": "Title: Queen Elizabeth Islands Content: The Queen Elizabeth Islands ( Îles de la Reine-Élisabeth formerly Parry Islands or Parry Archipelago ) are the northernmost cluster of islands in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago , split between Nunavut and Northwest Territories in Northern Canada . The Queen Elizabeth Islands contain approximately 14 % of the global glacier and ice cap area . ( excluding the inland and shelf ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica ) .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Queen_Elizabeth_Islands", "rank": 34, "score": 143627 }, { "content": "Title: West Ice Content: The West Ice is a patch of the Greenland Sea covered by pack ice during winter time . It is located north of Iceland , between Greenland and Jan Mayen island . The West Ice is a major breeding ground for seals , especially harp seals and hooded seals . It was discovered in the early 18th century by British whalers . At the time , whalers were not interested in seal hunting as long as there was ample stock of bowhead whales in the area . However , after the 1750s , the whale population had been depleted in the area , and systematic seal hunting started , first by British ships and then by German , Dutch , Danish , Norwegian , and Russian ships . The annual catches were 120,000 animals around 1900 , mostly by Norway and Russia , and rose to 350,000 by the 1920s . They then declined , first because of imposed restrictions on total allowable catch and then in response to decreasing market demand . Nevertheless , the seal population in the West Ice was rapidly falling , from an estimated 1,000,000 in 1956 to 100,000 in the 1980s . In the 1980s -- 1990s , takings of harp seals totaled 8,000 -- 10,000 , and annual catches of hooded seals totaled a few thousand between 1997 and 2001 . Norway accounts for all recent seal hunting in the West Ice , as Russia has not hunted hooded seals since 1995 , and catches harp seals at the East Ice in the White Sea -- Barents Sea . Seal hunting in the West Ice was a dangerous occupation , as floating ice , storms and winds posed constant threat to the ships ; in the 19th century , the hunters often encountered frozen human bodies on the West Ice . A major accident occurred around 5 April 1952 when a sudden storm surprised 53 ships hunting in the area . Seven of them sank and five vanished , namely Ringsel , Brattind and Vårglimt from Troms and Buskøy and Pels from Sunnmøre , with 79 men on board . The search for them involved ships and planes and continued for many days , but no trace of the missing boats was found .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "West_Ice", "rank": 35, "score": 143228 }, { "content": "Title: Harald Moltke Glacier Content: The Harald Moltke Glacier is located in the far northwest of Greenland , to the north of the Thule Air Base . It is one of four large glaciers which feeds the Wolstenholme Fjord ( sometimes referred to as `` the world 's largest ice machine '' ) . The other glaciers are the Salisbury Glacier , the Chamberlin Glacier , and the Knud Rasmussen Glacier . The Harald Moltke Glacier is over 5 km in length and is approximately 1500 m in width .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Harald_Moltke_Glacier", "rank": 36, "score": 143114 }, { "content": "Title: Heard Island glaciers Content: The Heard Island glaciers covered 79 percent of Heard Island itself , in 1947 , covering 288 km2 ; by 1988 , this had decreased by 11 percent to 257 km2 . The glaciers fall under the Antarctic Environmental Gradient , which spans 30 degrees of latitude and includes a range of macro-climatic zones from cool temperate islands to the frigid and arid Antarctic continent . Glaciers extend from 2745 m to sea level , with ice up to 150 m deep.The geologic movement of the glaciers can appear fast-flowing due to the steep slope and high precipitation , and are particularly sensitive to climatic fluctuations . Measurements between 1947 and 1980 show glacial retreat , particularly on the eastern flanks , is correlated with changes in weather patterns . A 29 % reduction in area of the Brown Glacier from 1947-2003 was observed . The volcano Big Ben , from which all the glaciers drain , has shown no sign of changing geothermal output to cause the melting ; a 1 degree Celsius warming has occurred over the same time period . Glaciologists continue to study the Brown Glacier , detailing surveys of the glacier 's snout and surface , which determine if glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated . Measurements on the mass balance of the glacier , as well as more detailed ice thickness measurements using a portable radar echo sounder , were undertaken . Monitoring of climatic conditions continues , with emphasis on the impact of Foehn winds on glacier mass balance . An expedition by scientists from the Australian Antarctic Division recently visited the volcanic island in 2009 , observing glaciers that had retreated 50 metres in three years . Repairs were made to an automatic weather station established in November 2000 . Glaciologist Dr. Ian Allison cites that the latest aerial surveys that show continuous rapid melt and that satellite imagery shows the island double in size due to volcanic activity .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Heard_Island_glaciers", "rank": 37, "score": 142696 }, { "content": "Title: Waltershausen Glacier Content: Waltershausen Glacier ( Waltershausen Gletscher ) is one of the major glaciers in Greenland . It has its terminus on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet . This glacier was named after German geologist Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen by the Second German North Polar Expedition led by Carl Koldewey that first surveyed and partially explored the Kaiser Franz Joseph Fjord in 1869 -- 70 .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Waltershausen_Glacier", "rank": 38, "score": 142686 }, { "content": "Title: Knud Rasmussen Glacier Content: The Knud Rasmussen Glacier is located in the far northwest of Greenland , to the north of the Thule Air Base . It is one of four large glaciers which feeds the Wolstenholme Fjord ( sometimes referred to as `` the world 's largest ice machine '' ) . The other glaciers are the Salisbury Glacier , the Chamberlin Glacier , and the Harald Moltke Glacier . The Knud Rasmussen Glacier is over 3 km in length and is approximately 900 m in width .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Knud_Rasmussen_Glacier", "rank": 39, "score": 142054 }, { "content": "Title: Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Content: Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf is an ice shelf about 250 miles ( 400 km ) long on the coast of Queen Maud Land , extending from Cape Norvegia in the north to Lyddan Island and Stancomb-Wills Glacier in the south . Parts of the ice shelf were sighted by William Speirs Bruce in 1904 , Ernest Shackleton in 1915 , and Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen in 1930 . Most of it was photographed from the air in 1951-52 by the Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition ( NBSAE ) and delineated from these photos . Additional delineation of the southern and landward margins of the feature was accomplished from air photos taken , by USN Operation Deep Freeze from 1967 to 1969 . The feature was named by Norway for Capt. Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen , who explored the area in the late 1920s and early 1930s .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Riiser-Larsen_Ice_Shelf", "rank": 40, "score": 141899 }, { "content": "Title: K.J.V. Steenstrup Glacier Content: K.J.V. Steenstrup Glacier is one of the major glaciers in King Christian IX Land , by the eastern coast of Greenland , Sermersooq municipality . This ice formation includes two nearly parallel glaciers , the Northern K.J.V. Steenstrup Glacier ( K.I.V. Steenstrups Nordre Bræ ) and the Southern K.J.V. Steenstrup Glacier ( K.I.V. Steenstrups Søndre Bræ ) . These glaciers were named after Danish geologist and explorer of Greenland K. J. V. Steenstrup ( 1842 - 1913 ) .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "K.J.V._Steenstrup_Glacier", "rank": 41, "score": 141743 }, { "content": "Title: Hinrich Johannes Rink Content: Dr. Hinrich Johannes Rink ( first name sometimes as Henrik ) ( 26 August 1819 -- 15 December 1893 ) was a Danish geologist , one of the pioneers of glaciology , and the first accurate describer of the inland ice of Greenland . Rink , who first came to Greenland in 1848 , spent 16 winters and 22 summers in the Arctic region , and became notable for Greenland 's development . Becoming a Greenlandic scholar and administrator , he served as Royal Inspector of South Greenland and went on to become Director of the Royal Greenland Trading Department . With `` Forstanderskaber '' , Rink introduced the first steps towards Greelandic home rule . Rink carried out and printed in four volumes the first systematic collection of Greenlandic oral tradition stories . He was the founder of Atuagagdliutit , the first Kalaallisut language newspaper .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Hinrich_Johannes_Rink", "rank": 42, "score": 141021 }, { "content": "Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Ice_age", "rank": 43, "score": 140872 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Antarctic_sea_ice", "rank": 44, "score": 140563 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland Content: Greenland ( -LSB- ˈɡriːnlənd -RSB- Kalaallit Nunaat -LSB- kaˈlaːɬit ˈnunaːt -RSB- Grønland -LSB- ˈɡ̊ʁɶnˌlanˀ -RSB- ) is an autonomous constituent country within the Kingdom of Denmark between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans , east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago . Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America , Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe ( specifically Norway and Denmark , the colonial powers , as well as the nearby island of Iceland ) for more than a millennium . The majority of its residents are Inuit , whose ancestors began migrating from the Canadian mainland in the 13th century , gradually settling across the island . Greenland is the world 's largest island ( Australia , although larger , is generally considered to be a continental landmass rather than an island ) . Three-quarters of Greenland is covered by the only permanent ice sheet outside Antarctica . With a population of about 56,480 ( 2013 ) , it is the least densely populated country in the world . The Arctic Umiaq Line ferry acts as a lifeline for western Greenland , connecting the various cities and settlements . Greenland has been inhabited off and on for at least the last 4,500 years by Arctic peoples whose forebears migrated there from what is now Canada . Norsemen settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century , and Inuit peoples arrived in the 13th century . The Norse colonies disappeared in the late 15th century . Soon after their demise , beginning in 1499 , the Portuguese briefly explored and claimed the island , naming it Terra do Lavrador ( later applied to Labrador in Canada ) . In the early 18th century , Scandinavian explorers reached Greenland again . To strengthen trading and power , Denmark-Norway affirmed sovereignty over the island . Denmark -- Norway claimed Greenland for centuries . Greenland was settled by Vikings ( of Norwegian origin ) more than a thousand years ago , who had previously settled Iceland to escape persecution from the King of Norway and his central government . Vikings set sail from Greenland and Iceland , encountering North America nearly 500 years before Columbus reached the Caribbean islands . They attempted to colonize land . Though under continuous influence of Norway and Norwegians , Greenland was not formally under the Norwegian crown until 1262 . The Kingdom of Norway was extensive and a military power until the mid-14th century . Norway was dramatically hit with a larger death toll than Denmark by the Black Death , forcing Norway to accept a union in which the central government , university and other fundamental institutions were located in Copenhagen . Thus , the two kingdoms ' resources were directed at creating Copenhagen . Norway became the weaker part and lost sovereignty over Greenland in 1814 when the union was dissolved . Greenland became a Danish colony in 1814 , and was made a part of the Danish Realm in 1953 under the Constitution of Denmark . In 1973 , Greenland joined the European Economic Community with Denmark . However , in a referendum in 1982 , a majority of the population voted for Greenland to withdraw from the EEC which was effected in 1985 . Greenland contains the world 's largest and most northernly national park , Northeast Greenland National Park ( Kalaallit Nunaanni nuna eqqissisimatitaq ) . Established in 1974 and expanded to its present size in 1988 , it protects 972001 km2 of the interior and northeastern coast of Greenland and is bigger than all but twenty-nine countries in the world . Greenland is divided into four municipalities - Sermersooq , Kujalleq , Qaasuitsup , and Qeqqata . In 1979 , Denmark had granted home rule to Greenland , and in 2008 , Greenlanders voted in favour of the Self-Government Act , which transferred more power from the Danish royal government to the local Greenlandic government . Under the new structure , in effect since 21 June 2009 , Greenland can gradually assume responsibility for policing , judicial system , company law , accounting , and auditing ; mineral resource activities ; aviation ; law of legal capacity , family law and succession law ; aliens and border controls ; the working environment ; and financial regulation and supervision , while the Danish government retains control of foreign affairs and defence . It also retains control of monetary policy , providing an initial annual subsidy of DKK 3.4 billion , which is planned to diminish gradually over time . Greenland expects to grow its economy based on increased income from the extraction of natural resources . The capital , Nuuk , held the 2016 Arctic Winter Games . At 70 % , Greenland has one of the highest shares of renewable energy in the world , mostly coming from hydropower .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Greenland", "rank": 45, "score": 140373 }, { "content": "Title: List of glaciers of Iceland Content: The glaciers and ice caps of Iceland cover 11.1 % of the land area of the country ( about 11,400 km ² out of the total area of 103,125 km ² ) and have a considerable impact on its landscape and meteorology . An ice cap is a mass of glacial ice that covers less than 50,000 km ² of land area covering a highland area and they feed outlet glaciers . Glaciers are also contributing to the Icelandic economy , with tourists flocking to the country to see glaciers on snowmobiles and on glacier hiking tours . Many Icelandic ice caps and glaciers lie above volcanoes , such as Grímsvötn and Bárðarbunga , which lie under the largest ice cap , Vatnajökull . The caldera of Grímsvötn is 100 km ² in area , and Bárðarbunga is 60 km ² . When volcanic activity occurs under the glacier , the resulting meltwater can lead to a sudden glacial lake outburst flood , known in Icelandic as jökulhlaup , but jökulhlaups are most often caused by accumulation of meltwater due to geothermal activity underneath the glacier . Such jökulhlaups have occasionally triggered volcanic eruptions through the sudden release of pressure . Iceland is losing ice due to climate change . Okjökull glacier in Borgarfjörður , West Iceland , has lost its glacier title and is now simply known as `` Ok '' . In order to fit the criteria glaciers need to be thick enough to sink and move under their own weight , which Ok is not . Ok is the first Icelandic glacier to lose its title . The Icelandic word for glacier is jökull #Icelandic .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "List_of_glaciers_of_Iceland", "rank": 46, "score": 140373 }, { "content": "Title: Hutchinson Glacier Content: The Hutchinson Glacier ( Hutchinson Gletscher ) is a large active glacier on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet . This glacier was named after American aviator George R. Hutchinson who crash-landed and was stranded in the area in 1932 during an attempted around-the-world flight with his family and was rescued and brought to Ammasalik by a fishing trawler .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Hutchinson_Glacier", "rank": 47, "score": 140368 }, { "content": "Title: Ferrigno Ice Stream Content: Ferrigno Ice Stream is an ice Stream more than 15 nmi long flowing into Eltanin Bay southwest of Wirth Peninsula , Antarctica . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Jane G. Ferrigno of the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) . Ferrigno has been a specialist for some decades from the 1970s in the use of satellite imagery for glacier studies and map compilation , co-leader of the USGS team that compiled the 1:5,000,000 - scale radiometer maps of Antarctica , and task leader of the team that is compiling 25 glaciological and coastal-change maps of Antarctica . Beneath the glacier lies the Ferrigno Rift , a rift valley some 1.5 km deep , 10 km wide , and at least 100 km long . The rift valley was discovered using ice-penetrating radar during a survey of the glacier in 2010 by a team from the British Antarctic Survey and the University of Aberdeen investigating ice-melt on the glacier that had been measured using satellites . The ice-filled rift valley is connected to the ocean and is believed to impact ice loss on the West Antarctic Ice Sheet .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Ferrigno_Ice_Stream", "rank": 48, "score": 140357 }, { "content": "Title: Dakshin Gangotri Glacier Content: The Dakshin Gangotri Glacier is a small tongue of the polar continental ice sheet impinging on the Schirmacher Oasis of central Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . It was discovered by the Second Indian Expedition to Antarctica in 1983 , and named for India 's first Antarctic research station . Since then its snout , and the area around it , has been regularly monitored and it has become a valuable site for tracking the impact of global warming through changes in the movement of the Antarctic ice sheet . The site is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area ( ASPA ) No. 163 .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Dakshin_Gangotri_Glacier", "rank": 49, "score": 140292 }, { "content": "Title: East Antarctic Ice Sheet Content: The East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) is one of two large ice sheets in Antarctica , and the largest on the entire planet . The EAIS lies between 45 ° west and 168 ° east longitudinally . The EAIS is considerably larger in area and mass than the West Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) . It is separated from the WAIS by the Transantarctic Mountains . The EAIS rests upon a large land mass , contrary to that of the WAIS , which rests mainly on bedrock below sea level . The EAIS is also home to the thickest ice on the frozen white continent , at 15,700 ft ( 4,800 m ) . More well known , however , is that the EAIS is home to the geographic South Pole as well as of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet", "rank": 50, "score": 140165 }, { "content": "Title: Petermann Glacier Content: Petermann Glacier is a large glacier located in North-West Greenland to the east of Nares Strait . It connects the Greenland ice sheet to the Arctic Ocean near 81 degrees north latitude . It is named after the German cartographer August Heinrich Petermann", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Petermann_Glacier", "rank": 51, "score": 139978 }, { "content": "Title: Kuivinen Ridge Content: Kuivinen Ridge is a transverse ridge extending southwest-northeast across the Saint Johns Range between an unnamed glacier and the Ringer Glacier in Victoria Land . The ridge is 5 nmi long and rises to 1750 m at Lanyon Peak . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2005 after ice coring specialist Karl C. Kuivinen , University of Nebraska-Lincoln ( UNL ) , 1974-2003 ; Field Operations Manager , Ross Ice Shelf Project Management Office , UNL , for the 1974-1978 season ; Director , Polar Ice Coring Office , UNL , 1979-1989 and 1994-2001 ; 15 summer field seasons in Antarctica , between 1968 and 2000 ; and 24 summer field seasons in Greenland and Alaska between 1974-99 .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Kuivinen_Ridge", "rank": 52, "score": 139587 }, { "content": "Title: David Glacier Content: David Glacier is the most imposing outlet glacier in Victoria Land , Antarctica , fed by two main flows which drain an area larger than 200,000 square kilometres of the East Antarctic plateau , with an estimated ice discharge rate of 7.8 + / - 0.7 km ³ / year . The northern flow drains from Talos Dome to the Ross Sea , but the main branch of the stream is fed by a network of tributaries which drain a common area of the inner plateau around Dome C and converge in a spectacular icefall normally known as the David Cauldron . The north wall of David Glacier near its terminus is named D'Urville Wall after Admiral Jules Dumont d'Urville . As the David Glacier flows into the Ross Sea , it forms a floating mass known as the Drygalski Ice Tongue . Hughes Bluff lies nearby .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "David_Glacier", "rank": 53, "score": 139407 }, { "content": "Title: Bredebrae Content: Bredebrae ( Bredebræ `` Broad Glacier '' ) , sometimes also known as `` Brede Glacier '' , is a large glacier in northeastern Greenland . It has its terminus on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Bredebrae", "rank": 54, "score": 139101 }, { "content": "Title: Wordie Glacier Content: Wordie Glacier ( Wordie Gletscher ) is a glacier in northeastern Greenland . It has its terminus on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet . This glacier was named after Scottish polar explorer James Wordie ( 1890 -- 1962 ) by the 1926 -- 27 expedition led by Lauge Koch .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Wordie_Glacier", "rank": 55, "score": 138835 }, { "content": "Title: Frederikshaab Glacier Content: Frederikshaab Glacier is a glacier on the southwest coast of Greenland in the Sermersooq municipality . It flows from Greenland 's ice sheet and at its mouth melts into various ponds and channels that empty into Davis Strait . The nearest major town is Paamiut , roughly 110 km to the south , although some smaller settlements are closer . Category : Glaciers of Greenland", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Frederikshaab_Glacier", "rank": 56, "score": 138391 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland ice core project Content: The Greenland Ice Core Project ( GRIP ) was a multinational European research project , organized through the European Science Foundation . Funding came from 8 nations ( Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Iceland , Italy , Switzerland , and United Kingdom ) , and from the European Union . The project ran from 1989 to 1995 , with drilling seasons from 1990 to 1992 . GRIP successfully drilled a 3029-metre ice core to the bed of the Greenland ice sheet at Summit , Central Greenland from 1989 to 1992 at . Studies of isotopes and various atmospheric constituents in the core have revealed a detailed record of climatic variations reaching more than 100,000 years back in time . The results indicate that Holocene climate has been remarkably stable and have confirmed the occurrence of rapid climatic variation during the last ice age ( the Wisconsin ) . Delta-O-18 variations observed in the core part believed to date from the Eemian Stage have not been confirmed by other records including the NGRIP core and are now believed not to represent climate events : the interglacial climate of Eemian Stage appears to have been as stable as the Holocene .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Greenland_ice_core_project", "rank": 57, "score": 138283 }, { "content": "Title: Pimpirev Glacier Content: Pimpirev Glacier ( Pimpirev Lednik \\ pim - ` pi-rev ` led-nik \\ ) on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands , Antarctica is situated south of the glacial divide between the Drake Passage and Bransfield Strait , southeast of Tundzha Glacier , southwest of Saedinenie Snowfield , west of Perunika Glacier and east-northeast of Kamchiya Glacier . The feature extends 5.5 km in a southeast-northwest direction , and 1.8 km in northwest-southeast direction . The glacier drains southeastwards towards Pimpirev Beach , mostly terminating on the shore , and on several occasions penetrating the South Bay waters east-northeast of Ereby Point . The feature is named for Christo Pimpirev , geologist in the First Bulgarian Antarctic Expedition in 1987/88 and leader of subsequent national Antarctic campaigns . The original name Pimpirev Ice Wall was given on October 29 , 1996 to the 50-m high rectilinear ice scarp-slope running parallelly to and some 100 m inland from the coast of South Bay northeast of Ereby Point . Reflecting subsequent changes in the ice cap configuration , the present name form was approved for the relevant glacier on November 4 , 2005 .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Pimpirev_Glacier", "rank": 58, "score": 138221 }, { "content": "Title: West Antarctic Ice Sheet Content: The Western Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) is the segment of the continental ice sheet that covers West ( or Lesser ) Antarctica , the portion of Antarctica on the side of the Transantarctic Mountains which lies in the Western Hemisphere . The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet , meaning that its bed lies well below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves . The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf , the Ronne Ice Shelf , and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea . It is estimated that the volume of the Antarctic ice sheet is about 25.4 million km3 ( 6.1 million cu mi ) , and the WAIS contains just under 10 % of this , or 2.2 million km3 ( 530,000 cu mi ) . The weight of the ice has caused the underlying rock to sink by between 0.5 and 1 kilometres ( 0.31 -- 0.62 mi ) in a process known as isostatic depression . Under the force of its own weight , the ice sheet deforms and flows . The interior ice flows slowly over rough bedrock . In some circumstances , ice can flow faster in ice streams , separated by slow-flowing ice ridges . The inter-stream ridges are frozen to the bed while the bed beneath the ice streams consists of water-saturated sediments . Many of these sediments were deposited before the ice sheet occupied the region , when much of West Antarctica was covered by the ocean . The rapid ice-stream flow is a non-linear process still not fully understood ; streams can start and stop for unclear reasons . When ice reaches the coast , it either calves or continues to flow outward onto the water . The result is a large , floating ice shelf affixed to the continent .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet", "rank": 59, "score": 138094 }, { "content": "Title: Muller Ice Shelf Content: Muller Ice Shelf , also known as Müller Ice Shelf according to the original German spelling of the family name Müller , was an ice shelf lying southwest of Hooke Point in southwest Lallemand Fjord , Arrowsmith Peninsula , Loubet Coast . It was nurtured by Bruckner Glacier and Antevs Glacier . It collapsed `` recently '' ( as at late March 2008 ) . The name was given by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) in 1981 in memory of Fritz Muller ( 1926 -- 80 ) , a Swiss glaciologist , who carried out research in Switzerland , Greenland , the Canadian Arctic , and the Himalayas .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Muller_Ice_Shelf", "rank": 60, "score": 137964 }, { "content": "Title: West Svartisen Ice-cap Content: The West Svartisen Ice-cap is an ice cap glacier , occupying 201 km2 of the coastal area of central Norway , just inside the Arctic Circle . Most of the glacier is around 1000 metres above sea level on a high plateau . The ice-cap owes its existence to the high snowfall rates in the region , rather than the cold temperatures , similar to other glacier close by such as the Jostedalsbreen glacier . The surface on the top of the plateau feeds many outlet glaciers , including the Engabreen glacier . The status of the glacier is unknown , although some of the outlet glaciers are advancing and gaining ice mass .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "West_Svartisen_Ice-cap", "rank": 61, "score": 137819 }, { "content": "Title: Dye 3 Content: Dye 3 is an ice core site and previously part of the Distant Early Warning ( DEW ) line , located at ( , 2480 masl ) in Greenland . As a DEW line base , it was disbanded in years 1990/1991 . An ice core is a core sample from the accumulation of snow and ice that has re-crystallized and trapped air bubbles over many years . The composition of these ice cores , especially the presence of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes , provides a picture of the climate at the time . Ice cores contain an abundance of climate information . Inclusions in the snow , such as wind-blown dust , ash , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances , remain in the ice . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . Typical ice cores are removed from an ice sheet such as the ice cap internal to Greenland . Greenland is , by area , the world 's largest island . The Greenland ice sheet covers about 1.71 million km2 and contains about 2.6 million km3 of ice .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Dye_3", "rank": 62, "score": 137754 }, { "content": "Title: Williams Ice Stream Content: Williams Ice Stream is an ice stream about fifteen miles ( 24 km ) long flowing into Venable Ice Shelf just east of Fletcher Peninsula . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) after Richard S. Williams , Jr. , senior research geologist , United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , Woods Hole , Massachusetts , authority in aerial and satellite investigations of geomorphic processes and the fluctuations of glaciers on a global basis , particularly in Iceland and Antarctica ; project leader of the team that is compiling 25 Glaciological and Coastal-Change Maps of Antarctica , and that compiled the 1:5,000,000 - scale Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer maps of Antarctica .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Williams_Ice_Stream", "rank": 63, "score": 137644 }, { "content": "Title: Sermitsiaq Glacier Content: Sermitsiaq Glacier is a tidewater glacier in the Qeqqata municipality in western Greenland . It drains Maniitsoq ice cap into two fjords flowing towards Davis Strait : Kangaamiut Kangerluarsuat Fjord in the north , and the longer Kangerlussuatsiaq Fjord in the south .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Sermitsiaq_Glacier", "rank": 64, "score": 137430 }, { "content": "Title: West Ice accidents Content: The West Ice accidents ( Ulykkene i Vestisen ) occurred around April 5 , 1952 when the five Norwegian seal hunting vessels Ringsel , Brattind and Vårglim from Troms and Buskøy and Pels from Sunnmøre with a total crew of 78 men vanished in the midst of a severe storm in the area of the West Ice in the Greenland Sea east of Greenland . Despite search and rescue operations for many days involving planes and naval ships , no traces of the missing boats were discovered . During Easter that year 53 Norwegian vessels were participating in seal hunting in the West Ice Pack . Of these 7 shipwrecked , 5 disappeared without a trace . The first vessel to shipwreck was the Møre boat `` Vestis '' , however the crew of this boat was rescued .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "West_Ice_accidents", "rank": 65, "score": 137189 }, { "content": "Title: Jutulstraumen Glacier Content: Jutulstraumen Glacier is a large glacier in Queen Maud Land , Antarctica , about 120 nmi long , draining northward to the Fimbul Ice Shelf between the Kirwan Escarpment , Borg Massif and Ahlmann Ridge on the west and the Sverdrup Mountains on the east . It was mapped by Norwegian cartographers from surveys and air photos by the Norwegian -- British -- Swedish Antarctic Expedition ( 1949 -- 52 ) and air photos by the Norwegian expedition ( 1958 -- 59 ) and named Jutulstraumen ( the giant 's stream ) . More specifically jutulen are troll-like figures from Norwegian folk tales . The ice stream reaches speeds of around 4 metres per day near the coast where it is heavily crevassed .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Jutulstraumen_Glacier", "rank": 66, "score": 137178 }, { "content": "Title: Russell Glacier (Greenland) Content: Russell Glacier ( Russells Gletscher ) is a glacier in the Qeqqata municipality in central-western Greenland . It flows from the Greenland ice sheet ( Sermersuaq ) in the western direction . The front of the glacier is located 25 km east of Kangerlussuaq . It is active , advancing 25 m every year , and due to easy approach it remains a popular tourist target .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Russell_Glacier_(Greenland)", "rank": 67, "score": 137108 }, { "content": "Title: Axel Heiberg Glacier Content: The Axel Heiberg Glacier in Antarctica is a valley glacier , 48 km long , descending from the high elevations of the Antarctic Plateau into the Ross Ice Shelf ( nearly at sea level ) between the Herbert Range and Mount Don Pedro Christophersen in the Queen Maud Mountains . This huge glacier was discovered in November 1911 by the Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen , and named by him for Axel Heiberg , a Norwegian businessman and patron of science who contributed to numerous Norwegian polar expeditions . Amundsen used this glacier as his route up onto the polar plateau during his successful expedition to the South Pole . Unlike the big `` outlet '' glaciers such as the Beardmore , Shackleton and Liv , the Axel Heiberg is in effect an alpine glacier , cut off from the Plateau by a dolerite rim and fed entirely from the uncharacteristically heavy snow falling within its own catchment . It falls over 9,000 ft in only 20 mi , most of it over just 7 mi .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Axel_Heiberg_Glacier", "rank": 68, "score": 136519 }, { "content": "Title: Central Swedish ice-edge zone Content: The central Swedish ice-edge zone was formed when the melting of inland ice slowed down during a cold period approximately 12,000 years ago and the ice edge stood relatively still for around 800 years . This occurred during the cold part of the Younger Dryas period . The central Swedish ice-edge zone contains many terminal moraines , including moraine ridges . The zone is therefore sometimes referred to as the central Swedish terminal moraines . The area also features many sandy delta areas and other ice river deposits of stones , gravel and sand . The zone stretches from southern Norway , through Dalsland , Västergötland , Östergötland and up through Södermanland . The area then continues with terminal moraines through southern Finland ( where it is known as Salpausselkä ) and into Russia along a curve up towards the Arctic Ocean .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Central_Swedish_ice-edge_zone", "rank": 69, "score": 136421 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic resources race Content: The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) . The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Arctic_resources_race", "rank": 70, "score": 135725 }, { "content": "Title: Kangerlussuaq Glacier Content: Kangerlussuaq Glacier ( Kangerlussuaq , meaning ` large fjord ' ; old spelling Kangerdlugssuaq ) is the largest glacier on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet . It flows into the head of the Kangerlussuaq Fjord , the second largest fjord in East Greenland .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Kangerlussuaq_Glacier", "rank": 71, "score": 135621 }, { "content": "Title: Chasing Ice Content: Chasing Ice is a 2012 documentary film about the efforts of nature photographer James Balog and his Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) to publicize the effects of climate change , directed by Jeff Orlowski . It was released in the United States on November 16 , 2012 . The documentary includes scenes from a glacier calving event that took place at Jakobshavn Glacier in Greenland , lasting 75 minutes , the longest such event ever captured on film . Two EIS videographers waited several weeks in a small tent overlooking the glacier , and were finally able to witness 7.4 km3 of ice crashing off the glacier . `` The calving of a massive glacier believed to have produced the ice that sank the Titanic is like watching a city break apart . ''", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Chasing_Ice", "rank": 72, "score": 135514 }, { "content": "Title: Surge (glacier) Content: Glacial surges are short-lived events where a glacier can advance substantially , moving at velocities up to 100 times faster than normal . Surging glaciers cluster around a few areas . High concentrations of surging glaciers occur in Svalbard , the Canadian Arctic islands , Alaska and Iceland . In some glaciers , surges can occur in fairly regular cycles , with 15 to 100 or more surge events per year . In other glaciers , surging remains unpredictable . In some glaciers , however , the period of stagnation and build-up between two surges typically lasts 10 to 200 years and is called the quiescent phase . During this period the velocities of the glacier are significantly lower , and the glaciers can retreat substantially .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Surge_(glacier)", "rank": 73, "score": 135450 }, { "content": "Title: Sosa Icefalls Content: Sosa Icefalls is a line of icefalls nearly 200 m high at the south margin of Chapman Snowfield , Churchill Mountains . The icefalls extend southwest for 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ) from Mount Massam , ending near the head of Starshot Glacier . Named after Ezekiel R. Sosa , United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) topographic engineer with the Topo North-Topo South survey expedition in these mountains , 1961-62 . Category : Icefalls of Antarctica Category : Landforms of Oates Land", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Sosa_Icefalls", "rank": 74, "score": 135239 }, { "content": "Title: Uunartoq Qeqertaq Content: Uunartoq Qeqertaq , Greenlandic for `` The Warming Island '' , is an island off the east central coast of Greenland , 550 km north of the Arctic Circle . It became recognised as an island only in September 2005 , by US explorer Dennis Schmitt . It was attached to the mainland of Liverpool Land by glacial ice even in 2002 , when the ice shelves began retreating rapidly in this area , so that by 2005 it was no longer attached to the mainland . Members of the scientific community believe this newly discovered island is a direct result of global warming . The island has three large peninsulas , and thus resembles the letter W , or the Chinese character 山 .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Uunartoq_Qeqertaq", "rank": 75, "score": 135176 }, { "content": "Title: Storstrommen (Greenland) Content: Storstrommen ( Storstrømmen `` Large Stream '' ) , is one of the major glaciers in northeastern Greenland . It was named Storstrømmen because of its size by the ill-fated 1906 -- 08 Denmark Expedition ( Danmark-Ekspeditionen ) led by Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Storstrommen_(Greenland)", "rank": 76, "score": 135121 }, { "content": "Title: Salisbury Glacier Content: The Salisbury Glacier is located in the far northwest of Greenland , to the north of the Thule Air Base . It is one of four large glaciers which feeds the Wolstenholme Fjord ( sometimes referred to as `` the world 's largest ice machine '' ) . The other glaciers are the Chamberlin Glacier , the Knud Rasmussen Glacier , and the Harald Moltke Glacier . The Salisbury Glacier is over 3 km in length and is approximately 450 m in width .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Salisbury_Glacier", "rank": 77, "score": 135049 }, { "content": "Title: Amundsen Icefall Content: Amundsen Icefall is a steep and turbulent icefall where the Axel Heiberg Glacier descends from the polar plateau between Mount Fridtjof Nansen and Mount Don Pedro Christophersen , in the Queen Maud Mountains of Antarctica . Named by the Southern Party of the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition ( 1961 -- 62 ) for Captain Roald Amundsen , who ascended Axel Heiberg Glacier en route to the South Pole in 1911 .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Amundsen_Icefall", "rank": 78, "score": 134900 }, { "content": "Title: Akuliarutsip Sermerssua Content: Akuliarutsip Sermerssua , also known as Nordenskiold Glacier , ( Nordenskiöld Gletscher ) , is a large glacier located on the east coast of Greenland .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Akuliarutsip_Sermerssua", "rank": 79, "score": 134716 }, { "content": "Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Glacier_mass_balance", "rank": 80, "score": 134469 }, { "content": "Title: Jøkulhest Dome Content: Jøkulhest Dome is the high icecapped summit of Jokulkyrkja Mountain , in the Mühlig-Hofmann Mountains of Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . It was plotted from surveys and air photos by the Sixth Norwegian Antarctic Expedition ( 1956 -- 60 ) and named Jøkulhest ( the glacier horse ) .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Jøkulhest_Dome", "rank": 81, "score": 134360 }, { "content": "Title: Giesecke Glacier Content: Giesecke Glacier ( Giesecke brær ) is a glacier in the Qaasuitsup municipality in northwestern Greenland . Its outflow is split in the center by a nunatak . Through two tongues it drains the Greenland ice sheet westwards into Kangerlussuaq Icefjord . The northern tongue ( Qeqertarsuup Sermia ) reaches the fjord at . The southern tongue ( Kakiffait Sermiat ) reaches the fjord at .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Giesecke_Glacier", "rank": 82, "score": 134272 }, { "content": "Title: ICESat Content: ICESat ( Ice , Cloud , and land Elevation Satellite ) , part of NASA 's Earth Observing System , was a satellite mission for measuring ice sheet mass balance , cloud and aerosol heights , as well as land topography and vegetation characteristics . ICESat was launched 13 January 2003 on a Delta II rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California into a near-circular , near-polar orbit with an altitude of approximately 600 km . It operated for seven years before being retired in February 2010 , after its scientific payload shut down and scientists were unable to restart it . The ICESat mission was designed to provide elevation data needed to determine ice sheet mass balance as well as cloud property information , especially for stratospheric clouds common over polar areas . It provides topography and vegetation data around the globe , in addition to the polar-specific coverage over the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets . The satellite was found useful in assessing important forest characteristics , including tree density .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "ICESat", "rank": 83, "score": 134222 }, { "content": "Title: Aviator Glacier Content: Aviator Glacier is major valley glacier in Antarctica that is over 60 miles ( 96 km ) long and 5 miles ( 8 km ) wide , descending generally southward from the plateau of Victoria Land along the west side of Mountaineer Range , and entering Lady Newnes Bay between Cape Sibbald and Hayes Head where it forms the Aviator Glacier Tongue . A glacier is a mass of ice with sufficient thickness to flow away from the source area in lobes , tongues or masses . Glaciers are usually found at high altitudes or high elevations . The glacier was photographed from the air by Capt. W.M. Hawkes , US Navy , on the historic first flight from New Zealand to McMurdo Sound on December 17 , 1955 . An attempt to reconnoiter it by helicopter and to land a party of the NZGSAE on it had to be abandoned when the USS Glacier was damaged in pressure ice in December 1958 . Named by NZGSAE , 1958 -- 59 , as a tribute to the hazardous work of pilots and other airmen in Antarctic exploratory and scientific operations .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Aviator_Glacier", "rank": 84, "score": 134093 }, { "content": "Title: Kjer Glacier Content: Kjer Glacier is a tidewater glacier in the Qaasuitsup municipality , located on the northwestern shore of Greenland . It drains the Greenland ice sheet ( Sermersuaq ) southwestwards into Melville Bay . The glacier front is located to the northwest of the Tuttulikassak nunatak , with the glacier constituting the northern end of Upernavik Archipelago .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Kjer_Glacier", "rank": 85, "score": 133771 }, { "content": "Title: National Ice Core Laboratory Content: The National Ice Core Laboratory ( NICL ) located at the Denver Federal Center is the primary repository for ice cores collected by the United States . The facility is managed by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , and jointly funded by the USGS , National Science Foundation , and the University of New Hampshire . NICL currently houses ~ 17,000 m of ice cores collected from Greenland and Antarctica , including the GISP2 , Siple Dome , and portions of the Vostok cores . The facility is also the lead organization for the handling and storage of the upcoming West Antarctic Ice Sheet ice core . In addition to providing a large storage facility , maintained at -35 ° C , NICL also has one of the largest sub-zero research and sample preparation spaces in the world . NICL is responsible for distributing samples of ice cores in their collection to researchers around the world , following approved research proposals . In addition to research activities , NICL also participates in public outreach and gives ~ 100 tours per year .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "National_Ice_Core_Laboratory", "rank": 86, "score": 133734 }, { "content": "Title: Icebreaker Glacier Content: Icebreaker Glacier is a large valley glacier 10 mi northeast of Mount Monteagle that flows southeast from the Mountaineer Range to Lady Newnes Bay , Victoria Land , Antarctica . Below Hermes Point its flow coalesces with that of Fitzgerald Glacier . The glacier was named by the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition , 1958 -- 59 , as a tribute to the work of the complements of U.S. Navy , and U.S. Coast Guard icebreakers in Antarctic exploration , in supporting scientists and in aiding other ships .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Icebreaker_Glacier", "rank": 87, "score": 133578 }, { "content": "Title: Twickler Cone Content: Twickler Cone is a cone-shaped peak in the Asgard Range , Victoria Land , rising to 1,950 m on the ridge separating the upper reaches of Bartley Glacier and Newall Glacier . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in 1997 after Mark S. Twickler , a specialist in recovery , analysis , and interpretation of ice core records , with many seasons in Antarctica and Greenland , 1984 -- 95 ; Executive Director , National Ice Core Laboratory-Science Management Office , from 1997 . As a member of a University of New Hampshire field party , 1988 -- 89 , Twickler participated in glaciochemical investigations that collected two ice cores , 150 and 175 m deep , from upper Newall Glacier , in proximity of this peak . Category : Mountains of Victoria Land Category : McMurdo Dry Valleys", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Twickler_Cone", "rank": 88, "score": 133464 }, { "content": "Title: Christian IV Glacier Content: Christian IV Glacier ( Christian IV Gletscher or Kong Christian den IV 's Gletscher ) is a large glacier on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet . It is named after King Christian IV of Denmark ( 1577 -- 1648 ) . Administratively this glacier is part of the Sermersooq Municipality . The area surrounding Christian IV Glacier is uninhabited .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Christian_IV_Glacier", "rank": 89, "score": 133458 }, { "content": "Title: Illullip Sermia Content: Illullip Sermia is a tidewater glacier in the Qaasuitsup municipality on the northwestern shore of Greenland . It drains the Greenland ice sheet southwestwards into Inussulik Bay , an inlet of Baffin Bay . The glacier front is located between the Sanningassorsuaq Peninsula in the north , and the base of Illulissuaq Peninsula in the south . The glacier front is located at .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Illullip_Sermia", "rank": 90, "score": 133362 }, { "content": "Title: Amundsen Bay Content: Amundsen Bay , also known as Ice Bay , is a long embayment 24 mi wide , close west of the Tula Mountains in Enderby Land , Antarctica . The bay was seen as a large pack-filled recession in the coastline by Sir Douglas Mawson on January 14 , 1930 . Seen by Captain Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen in charge of a Norwegian expedition during an airplane flight on January 15 and subsequently mapped nearer its true position by the Norwegians . The bay was mapped in detail by an Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions party landed by aircraft in 1956 and another landed by launch from Thala Dan in February 1958 . It was named by Mawson after Roald Amundsen , the Norwegian explorer who was first to reach the South Pole .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Amundsen_Bay", "rank": 91, "score": 133052 }, { "content": "Title: Mount Grytøyr Content: Mount Grytøyr is a broad ice-topped mountain , 2,695 m high , between Flogeken Glacier and Stuttflog Glacier in the Mühlig-Hofmann Mountains of Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . It was mapped by Norwegian cartographers from surveys and air photos by the Sixth Norwegian Antarctic Expedition ( 1956 -- 60 ) and named for B. Grytøyr , a meteorologist with the expedition ( 1956 -- 58 ) .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Mount_Grytøyr", "rank": 92, "score": 133011 }, { "content": "Title: Upernavik Glacier Content: Upernavik Glacier ( Sermeq , Upernavik isstrøm ) is a large tidewater glacier in the Qaasuitsup municipality on the northwestern shore of Greenland . It drains a large portion of the Greenland ice sheet westwards into Upernavik Icefjord .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Upernavik_Glacier", "rank": 93, "score": 132991 }, { "content": "Title: Fimbul Ice Shelf Content: The Fimbul Ice Shelf is an ice shelf about 200 km long and 100 km wide , nourished by Jutulstraumen Glacier , bordering the coast of Queen Maud Land from 3 ° W to 3 ° E . It was photographed from the air by the Third German Antarctic Expedition ( 1938 -- 39 ) , mapped by Norwegian cartographers from surveys and air photos by the Norwegian -- British -- Swedish Antarctic Expedition ( 1949 -- 1952 ) and from air photos by the Norwegian expedition ( 1958 -- 59 ) and named Fimbulisen ( the giant ice ) .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Fimbul_Ice_Shelf", "rank": 94, "score": 132916 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal", "rank": 95, "score": 132833 }, { "content": "Title: Phippsia Content: Phippsia is a genus of Arctic and alpine plants in the grass family . The genus is named in honour of Constantine Phipps , 2nd Baron Mulgrave , 1744-1792 a Royal Navy officer and Arctic explorer , and is commonly known as `` Ice grass '' or `` Snow grass '' . Species Phippsia algida - Scandinavia ( incl Iceland + Svalbard ) , Russia ( northern European Russia , Krasnoyarsk , Western Siberia , Yakutia , Kamchatka , Khabarovsk , Magadan ) , Greenland , Canada ( 3 Arctic territories , British Columbia , Alberta , Ontario , Quebec , Labrador ) , United States ( Alaska , Montana , Wyoming , Colorado ) Phippsia concinna - Norway incl Svalbard , Sweden , Greenland , Quebec , Alaska , Russia ( Magadan , Yakutia , Western Siberia , Krasnoyarsk , northern European Russia ) Phippsia wilczekii - Mendoza Province in Argentina formerly included numerous species now considered better suited to other genera : Catabrosa Colpodium Puccinellia", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Phippsia", "rank": 96, "score": 132759 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-sheet model Content: In climate modelling , Ice-sheet models use numerical methods to simulate the evolution , dynamics and thermodynamics of ice sheets , such as the Greenland ice sheet , the Antarctic ice sheet or the large ice sheets on the northern hemisphere during the last glacial period . They are used for a variety of purposes , from studies of the glaciation of Earth over glacial -- interglacial cycles in the past to projections of ice-sheet decay under future global warming conditions .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Ice-sheet_model", "rank": 97, "score": 132729 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland's Grand Canyon Content: Greenland 's Grand Canyon or Grand Canyon of Greenland is a tentative canyon of record length discovered underneath the Greenland ice sheet as reported in the journal Science on 30 August 2013 ( submitted 29 April 2013 ) , by scientists from the University of Bristol , University of Calgary , and University of Urbino , who described it as a mega-canyon . Ice-penetrating radar data collected during NASA 's Operation IceBridge showed a huge subglacial canyon running from the central region of the island northward into the Arctic Ocean , to the fjord of the Petermann Glacier . The bottom of the canyon is below sea level ; the canyon is likely to have influenced basal water flow from the ice sheet interior to the margin . Jonathan Bamber , a geographer at University of Bristol , stated , `` The distinctive V-shaped walls and flat bottom suggests water carved the buried valley , not ice . '' The canyon is more than 750 km long , up to 800 m deep and 10 km wide , making it the longest canyon discovered on the Earth to date . There are , however , many canyons -- including Arizona 's Grand Canyon and Tibet 's Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon , previously the world 's longest -- that are deeper . The canyon predates ice sheet inception and has influenced basal hydrology in Greenland over past glacial cycles .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Greenland's_Grand_Canyon", "rank": 98, "score": 132646 }, { "content": "Title: DEN/ICE Agreements Content: The DEN/ICE Agreements are a series of multilateral treaties that provide for the joint financing of air traffic control , communications , and meteorological services in Greenland , Iceland , and the Faroe Islands for civil aircraft crossing the North Atlantic Ocean above the 45th parallel north . The agreements were negotiated and are implemented within the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) , a specialized agency of the United Nations .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "DEN/ICE_Agreements", "rank": 99, "score": 132617 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "2839", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 100, "score": 132471 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 1, "score": 176384 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 2, "score": 169854 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic ice pack Content: The Arctic ice pack is the ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity . The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring and summer , reaches a minimum around mid-September , then increases during fall and winter . Summer ice cover in the Arctic is about 50 % of winter cover . Some of the ice survives from one year to the next . Currently 28 % of Arctic basin sea ice is multi-year ice , thicker than seasonal ice : up to 3 - thick over large areas , with ridges up to 20 m thick . As well as the regular seasonal cycle there has been an underlying trend of declining sea ice in the Arctic in recent decades .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_ice_pack", "rank": 3, "score": 159679 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic resources race Content: The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) . The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_resources_race", "rank": 4, "score": 152610 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 5, "score": 149113 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 6, "score": 147366 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Antarctic_sea_ice", "rank": 7, "score": 141769 }, { "content": "Title: Sea ice Content: Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Sea_ice", "rank": 8, "score": 139340 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Ocean Content: The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean . Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 9, "score": 135236 }, { "content": "Title: Polar seas Content: Polar seas is a collective term for the Arctic Ocean ( about 4-5 percent of Earth 's oceans ) and the southern part of the Southern Ocean ( south of Antarctic Convergence , about 10 percent of Earth 's oceans ) . In the coldest years , sea ice can cover around 13 percent of the Earth 's total surface at its maximum , but out of phase in the two hemispheres . The polar seas contain a huge biome with many organisms . Among the species that inhabit various polar seas and surrounding land areas are polar bear , penguin , reindeer ( caribou ) , muskox , wolverine , ermine , lemming , Arctic hare , Arctic ground squirrel , whale , harp seal , and walrus . These species have unique adaptations to the extreme conditions . Many might be endangered if they can not adapt to changing conditions . Contrary to popular opinion , the World Wildlife Fund studies for polar bears show that this species has prospered since 1950 , attaining five times the numbers found in 1950 . In general , Arctic ecosystems are relatively fragile and slow to recover from serious damage .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Polar_seas", "rank": 10, "score": 133844 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice ecology and history Content: The Arctic sea ice covers less area in the summer than in the winter . The multi-year ( i.e. perennial ) sea ice covers nearly all of the central deep basins . The Arctic sea ice and its related biota are unique , and the year-round persistence of the ice has allowed the development of ice endemic species , meaning species not found anywhere else . There are differing scientific opinions about how long perennial sea ice has existed in the Arctic . Estimates range from 120,000 , 700,000 or 4 million years ago .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_ecology_and_history", "rank": 11, "score": 133244 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 12, "score": 131664 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic methane emissions Content: Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas . The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits . Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_methane_emissions", "rank": 13, "score": 128374 }, { "content": "Title: Transpolar Drift Stream Content: The Transpolar Drift Stream is a major ocean current of the Arctic Ocean , transporting sea ice from the Laptev Sea and the East Siberian Sea towards Fram Strait . Drift experiments with ships like Fram or Tara showed that the drift takes between two and four years . In 1937 , Pyotr Shirshov at the Soviet drift ice station North Pole-1 described this drift . The stream conveys water in roughly two major routes to the northern Atlantic Ocean at a rate of about 1.5 mi per day . Primarily wind-driven , it flows roughly from the northern coast of Russia and Alaska , sometimes curving toward the Beaufort Sea before exiting to the Atlantic Ocean . It has been cited as a major factor in the North Atlantic Oscillation and Arctic oscillation atmospheric changes . The drift typically takes one of two paths before exiting into the northern Atlantic Ocean . On decadal and longer timescales , the North Atlantic Oscillation ( NAO ) and the Arctic Oscillation ( AO ) indices affect the flow pattern of the transpolar drift stream . During times of positive NAO ( NAO + ) and positive AO ( AO + ) , there is a weak Arctic high and the associated surface winds produce a cyclonic ( anti-clockwise ) ice drift motion in eastern Arctic Ocean . In this case , the drift flows from the Laptev Sea towards the Beaufort Sea before exiting the Arctic Ocean through the Fram Strait . Conversely , during periods of NAO - and AO - , there is a strong Arctic high and ice motion flows in an anticyclonic ( clockwise ) motion in the Eurasian Basin . In this phase , the drift flows directly from the Laptev Sea through the Fram Strait .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Transpolar_Drift_Stream", "rank": 14, "score": 128191 }, { "content": "Title: Measurement of sea ice Content: Measurement of sea ice is important for safety of navigation and for monitoring the environment , particularly the climate . Sea ice extent interacts with large climate patterns such as the North Atlantic oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation , to name just two , and influences climate in the rest of the globe . The amount of sea ice coverage in the arctic has been of interest for centuries , as the Northwest Passage was of high interest for trade and seafaring . There is a longstanding history of records and measurements of some effects of the sea ice extent , but comprehensive measurements were sparse till the 1950s and started with the satellite era in the late 1970s . Modern direct records include data about ice extent , ice area , concentration , thickness , and the age of the ice . The current trends in the records show a significant decline in Northern hemisphere sea ice and a small but statistically significant increase in the winter Southern hemisphere sea ice . Furthermore , current research comprises and establishes extensive sets of multi-century historical records of arctic and subarctic sea ice and uses , among others high-resolution paleo-proxy sea-ice records . The arctic sea ice is a dynamic climate-system component and is linked to the Atlantic multidecadal variability and the historical climate over various decades . There are circular changes of sea ice patterns but so far no clear patterns based on modeling predictions .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Measurement_of_sea_ice", "rank": 15, "score": 127895 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Content: The Arctic ( -LSB- ˈɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth . The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean , adjacent seas , and parts of Alaska ( United States ) , Canada , Finland , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Iceland , Norway , Russia and Sweden . Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover , with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places . The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems . For example , the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions . In recent years , Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming . Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice , zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds , land animals , plants and human societies . Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic", "rank": 16, "score": 127881 }, { "content": "Title: Wiesław Masłowski Content: Wiesław Masłowski is a research professor at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey , California since 2009 . He obtained his MS from the University of Gdańsk in 1987 , and his PhD from the University of Alaska , Fairbanks in 1994 with a dissertation entitled `` Numerical modeling study of the circulation of the Greenland Sea '' . He became well known in 2007 for stating that the Arctic Ocean might be nearly ice free in the summer as early as 2013 , based on projection of the declining ice volume trend . While later revised to 2016 + / - 3 years based on computer modeling , this prediction became controversial when the Arctic was not sea-ice free in 2013 , having increased from the record low set in 2012 .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Wiesław_Masłowski", "rank": 17, "score": 127126 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet", "rank": 18, "score": 126252 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-curtain effect Content: The zero-curtain effect occurs in cold ( particularly periglacial ) environments where the phase transition of water to ice is slowed down due to latent heat release . The effect is notably found in arctic and alpine permafrost sediments , and occurs where the air temperature falls below 0 ° C ( the freezing point of water ) followed by a rapid drop in soil temperature . Because of this effect , the lowering of temperature in moist , cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate . The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes , and latent heat is released . This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen , at which point temperatures can continue to fall . Therefore , for as long as water is available to the system ( for example , through cryosuction/capillary action ) the temperature of the sediment will remain at a constant temperature .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Zero-curtain_effect", "rank": 19, "score": 126095 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment", "rank": 20, "score": 125932 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback", "rank": 21, "score": 125865 }, { "content": "Title: Sympagic ecology Content: A sympagic environment is one where water exists mostly as a solid , ice , such as a polar ice cap or glacier . Solid sea ice is permeated with channels filled with salty brine . These briny channels and the sea ice itself have its ecology , referred to as `` sympagic ecology '' . Residents of temperate or tropical climates often assume , mistakenly , that ice and snow are devoid of life . In fact , a number of varieties of algae such as diatoms engage in photosynthesis in arctic and alpine regions of Earth . Other energy sources include Aeolian dust and pollen swept in from other regions . These ecosystems also include bacteria and fungi , as well as animals like flatworms and crustaceans . A number of sympagic worm species are commonly called ice worms . Additionally , the ocean has abundant plankton , and prolific algal blooms occur in the polar regions each summer as well as in high mountain lakes , bringing nutrients to those parts of the ice in contact with the water . In the spring , krill can scrape off the green lawn of ice algae from the underside of the pack ice .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Sympagic_ecology", "rank": 22, "score": 123923 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 23, "score": 122527 }, { "content": "Title: Grease ice Content: Grease ice is a very thin , soupy layer of frazil crystals clumped together , which makes the ocean surface resemble an oil slick . Grease ice is the second stage in the formation of solid sea ice after ice floes and then frazil ice . New sea ice formation takes place throughout the winter in the Arctic . The first ice that forms in a polynya are loose ice crystals called frazil ice . If the level of turbulence is sufficient , the frazil ice will be mixed down into the upper layer and form a surface layer of grease ice . The term ` grease ice ' follows World Meteorological Organization nomenclature . Grease ice differs from ` slush ' , where slush is similarly created by snow falling into the top layer of an ocean basin , river , or lake . The two terms are related due to the process of ice crystals being blown into a polynya which can be the initiation of the grease ice layer , given a minimum level of mixing and cooling of the ocean surface .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Grease_ice", "rank": 24, "score": 122385 }, { "content": "Title: Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 Content: The Great Arctic Cyclone , or `` Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 , '' was an extratropical cyclone which centered on the Arctic Ocean in early August , 2012 . Such storms are rare in the Arctic summer , although common in the winter . The Great Arctic Cyclone was the strongest summer storm and the 13th strongest storm observed at any time since satellite observations began in 1979 . Although the Great Arctic Cyclone did not cause the record melting of sea ice which occurred in 2012 , turbulence resulting from the storm is believed to have contributed to melting of sea ice due to the rise of warmer saltier water from below .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Great_Arctic_Cyclone_of_2012", "rank": 25, "score": 122364 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic dipole anomaly Content: The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America , and a low pressure on the Eurasia region . This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation . It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change . The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic ocean resulting in more ice melting . The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September . The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe , but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia , Europe and the eastern half of North America .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_dipole_anomaly", "rank": 26, "score": 122047 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment", "rank": 27, "score": 120680 }, { "content": "Title: East Siberian Sea Content: The East Siberian Sea ( Russian : -LSB- Восто́чно - Сиби́рское мо́ре , r = Vostochno-Sibirskoye more -RSB- ) is a marginal sea in the Arctic Ocean . It is located between the Arctic Cape to the north , the coast of Siberia to the south , the New Siberian Islands to the west and Cape Billings , close to Chukotka , and Wrangel Island to the east . This sea borders on the Laptev Sea to the west and the Chukchi Sea to the east . This sea is one of the least studied in the Arctic area . It is characterized by severe climate , low water salinity , and a scarcity of flora , fauna and human population , as well as shallow depths ( mostly less than 50 m ) , slow sea currents , low tides ( below 25 cm ) , frequent fogs , especially in summer , and an abundance of ice fields which fully melt only in August -- September . The sea shores were inhabited for thousands of years by indigenous tribes of Yukaghirs , Chukchi and then Evens and Evenks , which were engaged in fishing , hunting and reindeer husbandry . They were then absorbed by Yakuts and later by Russians . Major industrial activities in the area are mining and navigation within the Northern Sea Route ; commercial fishing is poorly developed . The largest city and port is Pevek , the northernmost city of mainland Russia .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "East_Siberian_Sea", "rank": 28, "score": 119581 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of the Arctic Content: The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer . The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Climate_of_the_Arctic", "rank": 29, "score": 119534 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Glacier Content: Arctic Glacier is a manufacturer of packaged ice in Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada . The company was founded in 1996 and has rapidly grown to become the largest producer of ice for the Canadian market and one of the largest for the American market . The company operates 36 production and 50 distribution facilities , and employs more than 1,100 people year-round . Employment increases to 2,400 employees during the summer to meet the increased seasonal demand . Corporate headquarters are located in Winnipeg and employ 85 people . The company declared bankruptcy in March 2012 . It was delisted from the TSX in October 2011 . In April 2012 , its main rival Reddy Ice also declared bankruptcy in a pre-packaged bankruptcy backed by creditor Centerbridge Partners . H.I.G. Capital agreed to acquire Arctic Glacier in May 2012 . The sale was completed July 27 , 2012 .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_Glacier", "rank": 30, "score": 119078 }, { "content": "Title: Terence Edward Armstrong Content: Terence Edward Armstrong MA PhD ( 7 April 1920 -- 21 February 1996 ) , was a British polar geographer , sea ice specialist , writer , and expert on the Russian Arctic .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Terence_Edward_Armstrong", "rank": 31, "score": 117036 }, { "content": "Title: Konrad Steffen Content: Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Konrad_Steffen", "rank": 32, "score": 117014 }, { "content": "Title: MV Arctic Sea Content: The MV Arctic Sea is a merchant vessel cargo ship , formerly registered in Malta that was reported as missing between late July and mid August 2009 en route from Finland to Algeria . On July 24 , the Arctic Sea , manned by a Russian crew and carrying a cargo of what was declared to consist solely of timber , was allegedly boarded by hijackers off the coast of Sweden . The incident was not immediately reported , and contact with the ship was apparently lost on , or after , July 30 . The Arctic Sea did not arrive at its scheduled port in Algeria , and on August 14 the ship was located near Cape Verde instead . On August 17 it was seized by the Russian Navy . An investigation into the incident is underway amidst speculation regarding the ship 's actual cargo , and allegations of a cover-up by Russian authorities . The Arctic Sea was towed into harbour in the Maltese capital of Valletta on October 29 , 2009 . The ship 's hijacking and subsequent events remain mysterious as no credible explanation exists of its disappearance and Russia 's conduct during and after capturing the ship . If confirmed to be an act of piracy , the hijacking of Arctic Sea would be the first known of its kind in Northern European waters for centuries . Although by March 2011 all the hijackers had officially been found guilty of piracy , this has not led to -- in the words of BBC correspondent Daniel Sandford -- being `` closer to knowing what actually happened '' .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "MV_Arctic_Sea", "rank": 33, "score": 116450 }, { "content": "Title: MV Arctic Sunrise Content: Arctic Sunrise is an ice-strengthened vessel operated by Greenpeace . The vessel was built in 1975 and has a gross tonnage of 949 , a length of 50.5 m and a maximum speed of 13 kn . She is classified by Det Norske Veritas as a `` 1A1 icebreaker '' ( the second highest ice strengthening notation at the time of construction ) . Under the original name of Polarbjørn ( `` polar bear '' ) , she was used as a sealing ship . The vessel was subsequently used by the French government . Greenpeace purchased the ship in 1995 . When Greenpeace approached the previous ( Norwegian ) owners , they said they would not sell the vessel to Greenpeace . Greenpeace responded by forming a `` shell company '' called Arctic Sunrise Ventures Ltd , to subvert the previous owner 's sale restrictions .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "MV_Arctic_Sunrise", "rank": 34, "score": 116108 }, { "content": "Title: Cold-weather warfare Content: Cold-weather warfare , also known as Arctic warfare or winter warfare , encompasses military operations affected by snow , ice , thawing conditions or cold , both on land and at sea . Cold-weather conditions occur year-round at high elevation or at high latitudes , and elsewhere materialise seasonally during the winter period . Mountain warfare often takes place in cold weather or on terrain that is affected by ice and snow , such as the Alps and the Himalayas . Historically , most such operations have been during winter in the Northern Hemisphere . Some have occurred above the Arctic Circle where snow , ice and cold may occur throughout the year . At times , cold or its aftermath -- thaw -- has been a decisive factor in the failure of a campaign , as with Napoleon 's invasion of Russia in 1812 and the Nazi invasion of Russia .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Cold-weather_warfare", "rank": 35, "score": 114805 }, { "content": "Title: Arcticaborg Content: Arcticaborg is an icebreaking platform supply vessel operated by Wagenborg Kazakhstan in the Caspian Sea . She and her sister ship , Antarcticaborg , were built by Kværner Masa-Yards in Helsinki , Finland , in 1998 . They are the first full developments of the double acting ship concept and among the first icebreakers equipped with Azipods , electric azimuth thrusters manufactured by ABB .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arcticaborg", "rank": 36, "score": 114530 }, { "content": "Title: Wandel Sea Content: The Wandel Sea ( also known as McKinley Sea ) is a body of water in the Arctic Ocean , stretching from northeast of Greenland to Svalbard . It is obstructed by ice most of the year . This sea is named after Danish polar explorer and hydrographer , Vice Admiral Carl Frederick Wandel ( 1843-1930 ) , who in the years 1895-96 explored the coastal waters of Greenland as part of the Danish Ingolf Expedition .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Wandel_Sea", "rank": 37, "score": 114313 }, { "content": "Title: 1985 Polar Sea controversy Content: The 1985 Polar Sea controversy was a diplomatic event triggered by plans for the navigation of through the Northwest passage from Greenland to Alaska without formal authorization from the Canadian government . It was the United States ' position that the Northwest Passage was an international strait open to shipping and it sought only to notify Canada rather than ask for permission . Publication of the plans enraged the Canadian public opinion as it was regarded as a breach and disregard of sovereignty and prompted the government to take preventive measures in defending Canada 's arctic territories . The U.S. never recognized Canada 's claim over the Northwest passage but nevertheless , the two countries reached an agreement two years later which stipulated that in the future , the U.S. would ask permission before navigating the disputed waters . Canada 's sovereignty over the region 's waters was still a contentious issue as of 2010 and is likely to become of increasing importance as climate change in the Arctic has the potential to render those waters more accessible to commercial ships and the thawing of the sea ice of making oil drilling easier .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "1985_Polar_Sea_controversy", "rank": 38, "score": 114254 }, { "content": "Title: 1031 Arctica Content: 1031 Arctica , provisional designation , is a dark asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 75 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 6 June 1924 , by Soviet − Russian astronomer Sergey Belyavsky at Simeiz Observatory on the Crimean peninsula . It was named for the Arctic Sea .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "1031_Arctica", "rank": 39, "score": 114220 }, { "content": "Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Marine_transgression", "rank": 40, "score": 114075 }, { "content": "Title: Laptev Sea Content: The Laptev Sea ( мо́ре Ла́птевых , more Laptevykh ) is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean . It is located between the northern coast of Siberia , the Taimyr Peninsula , Severnaya Zemlya and the New Siberian Islands . Its northern boundary passes from the Arctic Cape to a point with co-ordinates of 79 ° N and 139 ° E , and ends at the Anisiy Cape . The Kara Sea lies to the west , the East Siberian Sea to the east . The sea is named after the Russian explorers Dmitry Laptev and Khariton Laptev ; formerly , it had been known under various names , the last being Nordenskiöld Sea , after explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld . The sea has a severe climate with temperatures below 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) over more than 9 months per year , low water salinity , scarcity of flora , fauna and human population , and low depths ( mostly less than 50 meters ) . It is frozen most of the time , though generally clear in August and September . The sea shores were inhabited for thousands of years by indigenous tribes of Yukaghirs and then Evens and Evenks , which were engaged in fishing , hunting and reindeer husbandry . They were then settled by Yakuts and later by Russians . Russian explorations of the area started in the 17th century . They came from the south via several large rivers which empty into the sea , such as the prominent Lena River , the Khatanga , the Anabar , the Olenyok , the Omoloy and the Yana . The sea contains several dozen islands , many of which contain well-preserved mammoth remains . Major human activities in the area are mining and navigation on the Northern Sea Route ; fishing and hunting are practised but have no commercial significance . The largest settlement and port is Tiksi .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Laptev_Sea", "rank": 41, "score": 114014 }, { "content": "Title: Weddell Polynya Content: The Weddell Polynya or Weddell Sea Polynya is a polynya or irregular area of open water surrounded by sea ice in the Weddell Sea of the Southern Ocean off Antarctica and near the Maud Rise . The size of New Zealand , it re-occurred each winter between 1974 and 1976 . These were the first three austral winters observed by the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer ( ESMR ) . Since 1976 , the polynya has never been seen again . Since the 1970s , the polar Southern Ocean south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has freshened and stratified , likely a result of anthropogenic climate change . Such stratification may be responsible for suppressing the return of the Weddell Sea polynya .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Weddell_Polynya", "rank": 42, "score": 113353 }, { "content": "Title: West Siberian Glacial Lake Content: The West Siberian Glacial Lake , also known as West Siberian Lake or Mansiyskoe Lake , was a periglacial lake formed when the Arctic Ocean outlets for each of the Ob and Yenisei rivers were blocked by the Barents-Kara Ice Sheet during the Weichselian Glaciation , approximately 80,000 years ago . At its maximum extent the lake 's surface area was more than twice that of the present-day Caspian Sea . It is theorized that although drainage to the Arctic Ocean basin ( e.g. by the Ob and Yenisei Rivers ) was prevented , the lake would eventually overflow to the Mediterranean Sea through a circuitous route that would include the Aral Sea , the Caspian Sea , and the Black Sea . This would have resulted in water from the Selenga River and Lake Baikal draining over a course of some 6000 mi , considerably longer than any river 's course today . See Mangerud et al. ( 2004 ) for diagrams and descriptions of the lake as well as postulated drainage patterns .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "West_Siberian_Glacial_Lake", "rank": 43, "score": 113101 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Bridge Content: The Arctic Bridge or Arctic Sea Bridge is a seasonal sea route approximately 6700 km long linking Russia to Canada , specifically the Russian port of Murmansk to the Hudson Bay port of Churchill , Manitoba . Churchill is the principal seaport on Canada 's northern coast and has rail and air ( but no road ) connections to the rest of Canada . It is the northern terminus of the Hudson Bay Railway and is a useful link in the export of grain from the Canadian Prairies to European markets . The port of Murmansk on the ice-free Kola Bay is linked by the Russian gauge Murmansk Railway to Saint Petersburg and the rest of Europe . Murmansk is also linked to the rest of Russia by the M18 Kola Motorway . Russia has shown a keen interest in developing the Arctic Bridge route . If developed ( along with the Northwest Passage ) it could serve as a major trade route between Europe and North America . According to the Russian Federation 's Ottawa press attaché , Sergey Khuduiakov , the opening of the trade route has been enabled by the retreat of Arctic ice . Now , the route is only easily navigable about four months of the year , but it will become more and more viable as the climate warms . The concept of an `` Arctic Bridge '' , with a hub in Churchill , was proposed by Canadians in the early 1990s . In 1997 the port of Churchill was sold to Denver-based OmniTRAX , a major railroad operator . In 2004 , OmniTRAX entered into talks with the Murmansk Shipping Company to promote the Arctic Bridge concept . While the Canadian Wheat Board ( CWB ) had been able to keep Churchill a viable port , exporting nearly 400,000 tons ( 15 million bushels ) of wheat each year , OmniTRAX has had difficulty in landing imports at Churchill . On 17 October 2007 , the first shipment of fertilizer from Murmansk arrived at the Port of Churchill . Two separate 9000 tonne imports of Russian fertilizer took place in 2008 , purchased by the Farmers of North America cooperative of Saskatoon from Kaliningrad . The port of Churchill exported 710,000 tonnes of grain in 1977 , 621,000 tonnes in 2007 , and 529,000 tonnes in 2009 . The CWB was sold off to Saudi Company , G3 Global Grain Group in 2015 and the Churchill Port suffered as grain shipments were slowly ceased . Omnitrax then closed the rail-line and port , citing profitability of the operations . They then entered into initial talks to sell the port and rail-line to a local indigenous consortium of Manitoba First Nations , Missnippi Rail Consortium .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_Bridge", "rank": 44, "score": 112080 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Circle (organization) Content: The Arctic Circle is a nonprofit organization introduced by President Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson of Iceland on April 15 , 2013 , at the National Press Club in Washington . The organization 's mission is to facilitate dialogue among political and business leaders , environmental experts , scientists , indigenous representatives , and other international stakeholders to address issues facing the Arctic as a result of climate change and melting sea ice . The organization is led by Ólafur , who serves as chairman of the honorary board , and by Alaska Dispatch publisher and Arctic Imperative Summit founder Alice Rogoff , who chairs the advisory board .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_Circle_(organization)", "rank": 45, "score": 112020 }, { "content": "Title: Polar Sea Content: Polar Sea may refer to : The Arctic Ocean The Southern Ocean USCGC Polar Sea ( WAGB-11 ) , a United States Coast Guard icebreaker The Open Polar Sea , a hypothesized ice-free ocean surrounding the North Pole", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Polar_Sea", "rank": 46, "score": 111785 }, { "content": "Title: Queen Victoria Sea Content: The Queen Victoria Sea ( Море королевы Виктории , Morye Korolevy Viktorii ) is a body of water in the Arctic Ocean , stretching from northeast of Svalbard to northwest Franz Josef Land . It is obstructed by ice most of the year . This sea is named after Queen Victoria . Russian Arctic explorer Valentin Akkuratov claimed that a branch of the Gulf Stream reached as far north as the Queen Victoria Sea .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Queen_Victoria_Sea", "rank": 47, "score": 111693 }, { "content": "Title: Ice shelf Content: An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters . In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica . Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss . Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf . The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica . The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Ice_shelf", "rank": 48, "score": 111331 }, { "content": "Title: Beaufort Sea Content: The Beaufort Sea ( mer de Beaufort ) is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean , located north of the Northwest Territories , the Yukon , and Alaska , west of Canada 's Arctic islands . The sea is named after hydrographer Sir Francis Beaufort . The major Mackenzie River empties into the Canadian part of the sea , west of Tuktoyaktuk , which is one of the few permanent settlements on the sea shores . The sea , characterized by severe climate , is frozen over most of the year . Historically , only a narrow pass up to 100 km opened in August -- September near its shores , but recently due to climate change in the Arctic the ice-free area in late summer has greatly enlarged . Claims that the seacoast was populated about 30,000 years ago have been largely discredited ( see below ) ; present population density is very low . The sea contains significant resources of petroleum and natural gas under its shelf , such as the Amauligak field . They were discovered in the period between the 1950s and 1980s , and their exploration became the major human activity in the area since the 1980s . The traditional occupations of fishery and whale and seal hunting are practiced only locally , and have no commercial significance . As a result , the sea hosts one of the largest colonies of beluga whales , and there is no sign of overfishing . To prevent overfishing in its waters , the US adopted precautionary commercial fisheries management plan in August 2009 . In April 2011 the Canadian government signed a memorandum of understanding with the Inuvialuit as a first step in developing a larger ocean management plan . The Canadian government announced in October 2014 that no new commercial fisheries in the Beaufort Sea will be considered until research has shown sustainable stocks that would be made available to Inuvialuit first . The Canadian government has set a new block of the Beaufort Sea off the Parry Peninsula in the Amundsen as a Marine Protected Area ( MPA ) . The protected area is set to protect species and habits for the Inuvialuit community .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Beaufort_Sea", "rank": 49, "score": 111285 }, { "content": "Title: Arctica (disambiguation) Content: Arctica or Arktika may refer to Arctica , an ancient continent which formed approximately 2.5 billion years ago in the Neoarchean era Arctica ( genus ) , a bivalve genus in the family Arcticidae Arctica ( song ) , an Amberian Dawn single Sonata Arctica , a Finnish power metal band 1031 Arctica , a dark asteroid Arktika-class icebreakers , a Soviet and later Russian class of nuclear icebreakers Arktika ( 1972 nuclear icebreaker ) ( 1975 -- 2008 ) , the lead ship of her class Arktika ( 2016 nuclear icebreaker ) the lead ship of the LK-60Ya-class icebreakers , former Project 22220 nuclear-powered icebreaker , expected to enter service in 2017 Arktika 2007 , a Russian expedition involving a crewed descent to the ocean bottom at the North Pole Azimut Hotel Murmansk in Russia , known as Arktika before 2014", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctica_(disambiguation)", "rank": 50, "score": 111131 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 51, "score": 111088 }, { "content": "Title: Lincoln Sea Content: Lincoln Sea is a body of water in the Arctic Ocean , stretching from Cape Columbia , Canada , in the west to Cape Morris Jesup , Greenland , in the east . The northern limit is defined as the great circle line between those two headlands . It is covered with sea ice throughout the year , the thickest sea ice in the Arctic Ocean , which can be up to 15 m thick . Water depths range from 100 m to 300 m. Water and ice from Lincoln Sea empty into Robeson Channel , the northernmost part of Nares Strait , most of the time . The sea was named after Robert Todd Lincoln , then United States Secretary of War , on Adolphus W. Greely 's 1881 -- 1884 Arctic expedition into Lady Franklin Bay . Alert , the northernmost station of Canada , is the only populated place on the shore of Lincoln Sea . The body of water to the east of Lincoln Sea ( east of Cape Morris Jesup ) is Wandel Sea .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Lincoln_Sea", "rank": 52, "score": 111068 }, { "content": "Title: Heard Island glaciers Content: The Heard Island glaciers covered 79 percent of Heard Island itself , in 1947 , covering 288 km2 ; by 1988 , this had decreased by 11 percent to 257 km2 . The glaciers fall under the Antarctic Environmental Gradient , which spans 30 degrees of latitude and includes a range of macro-climatic zones from cool temperate islands to the frigid and arid Antarctic continent . Glaciers extend from 2745 m to sea level , with ice up to 150 m deep.The geologic movement of the glaciers can appear fast-flowing due to the steep slope and high precipitation , and are particularly sensitive to climatic fluctuations . Measurements between 1947 and 1980 show glacial retreat , particularly on the eastern flanks , is correlated with changes in weather patterns . A 29 % reduction in area of the Brown Glacier from 1947-2003 was observed . The volcano Big Ben , from which all the glaciers drain , has shown no sign of changing geothermal output to cause the melting ; a 1 degree Celsius warming has occurred over the same time period . Glaciologists continue to study the Brown Glacier , detailing surveys of the glacier 's snout and surface , which determine if glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated . Measurements on the mass balance of the glacier , as well as more detailed ice thickness measurements using a portable radar echo sounder , were undertaken . Monitoring of climatic conditions continues , with emphasis on the impact of Foehn winds on glacier mass balance . An expedition by scientists from the Australian Antarctic Division recently visited the volcanic island in 2009 , observing glaciers that had retreated 50 metres in three years . Repairs were made to an automatic weather station established in November 2000 . Glaciologist Dr. Ian Allison cites that the latest aerial surveys that show continuous rapid melt and that satellite imagery shows the island double in size due to volcanic activity .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Heard_Island_glaciers", "rank": 53, "score": 110841 }, { "content": "Title: Sea smoke Content: Sea smoke , frost smoke , or steam fog , is fog which is formed when very cold air moves over warmer water . Arctic sea smoke is sea smoke forming over small patches of open water in sea ice . It forms when a light wind of very cold air mixes with a shallow layer of saturated warm air immediately above the warmer water . The warmer air is cooled beyond the dew point and can no longer hold as much water vapor , so the excess condenses out . The effect is similar to the `` steam '' produced over a hot bath or a hot drink , or even an exercising person . Sea smoke has a turbulent appearance and may form spiralling columns . It is usually not very high and lookouts on ships can usually see over it ( but small boats may have very poor visibility ) because the fog is confined to the layer of warm air above the sea . However , sea smoke columns 20 -- 30 metres high have been observed . Because this type of fog requires very low air temperatures , it is uncommon in temperate climates , but is common in the Arctic and Antarctic .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Sea_smoke", "rank": 54, "score": 110573 }, { "content": "Title: Arcticibacter eurypsychrophilus Content: Arcticibacter eurypsychrophilus is a Gram-negative and rod-shaped bacterium from the genus of Arcticibacter which has been isolated from the ice core of the Muji Glacier .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arcticibacter_eurypsychrophilus", "rank": 55, "score": 110112 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland Sea Content: The Greenland Sea is a body of water that borders Greenland to the west , the Svalbard archipelago to the east , Fram Strait and the Arctic Ocean to the north , and the Norwegian Sea and Iceland to the south . The Greenland Sea is often defined as part of the Arctic Ocean , sometimes as part of the Atlantic Ocean . However , definitions of the Arctic Ocean and its seas tend to be imprecise or arbitrary . In general usage the term `` Arctic Ocean '' would exclude the Greenland Sea . In oceanographic studies the Greenland Sea is considered part of the Nordic Seas , along with the Norwegian Sea . The Nordic Seas are the main connection between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans and , as such , could be of great significance in a possible shutdown of thermohaline circulation . In oceanography the Arctic Ocean and Nordic Seas are often referred to collectively as the `` Arctic Mediterranean Sea '' , a marginal sea of the Atlantic . The sea has Arctic climate with regular northern winds and temperatures rarely rising above 0 ° C . It previously contained the Odden ice tongue ( or Odden ) area , which extended eastward from the main East Greenland ice edge in the vicinity of 72 -- 74 ° N during the winter and acted as a key winter ice formation area in the Arctic . The West Ice forms in winter in the Greenland Sea , north of Iceland , between Greenland and Jan Mayen island . It is a major breeding ground of harp seal and hooded seal that has been used for seal hunting for more than 200 years .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Greenland_Sea", "rank": 56, "score": 110047 }, { "content": "Title: Boreogadus saida Content: Boreogadus saida , known as the polar cod or as the Arctic cod , is a fish of the cod family Gadidae , related to the true cod ( genus Gadus ) . Another fish species for which both the common names Arctic cod and polar cod are used is Arctogadus glacialis . B. saida has a slender body , a deeply forked tail , a projecting mouth , and a small whisker on its chin . It is plainly coloured with brownish spots and a silvery body . It grows to a length of 40 cm . This species is found further north than any other fish ( beyond 84 ° N ) with a distribution spanning the Arctic seas off northern Russia , Alaska , Canada , and Greenland . This fish is most commonly found at the water 's surface , but is also known to travel at depths greater than 900 m . The polar cod is known to frequent river mouths . It is a hardy fish that survives best at temperatures of 0 -- 4 ° C , but may tolerate colder temperatures owing to the presence of antifreeze protein compounds in its blood . They group in large schools in ice-free waters . B. saida feeds on plankton and krill . It is in turn the primary food source for narwhals , belugas , ringed seals , and seabirds . They are fished commercially in Russia .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Boreogadus_saida", "rank": 57, "score": 109915 }, { "content": "Title: Kara Sea Content: The Kara Sea ( Ка́рское мо́ре , Karskoye more ) is part of the Arctic Ocean north of Siberia . It is separated from the Barents Sea to the west by the Kara Strait and Novaya Zemlya , and the Laptev Sea to the east by the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago . It is named for the Kara River ( flowing into Baydaratskaya Bay ) , which is now relatively insignificant but which played an important role in the Russian conquest of northern Siberia . The Kara River name is derived from Nenets word meaning `` hummocked ice '' . The Kara Sea 's northern limit is marked geographically by a line running from Cape Kohlsaat in Graham Bell Island , Franz Josef Land , to Cape Molotov ( Arctic Cape ) , the northernmost point of Komsomolets Island in Severnaya Zemlya . The Kara Sea is roughly 1,450 kilometres long and 970 kilometres wide with an area of around 880000 km ² and a mean depth of 110 m. Compared to the Barents Sea , which receives relatively warm currents from the Atlantic , the Kara Sea is much colder , remaining frozen for over nine months a year . The Kara receives a large amount of fresh water from the Ob , Yenisei , Pyasina , and Taimyra rivers , so its salinity is variable . Its main ports are Novy Port and Dikson and it is important as a fishing ground although the sea is ice-bound for all but two months of the year . Significant discoveries of petroleum and natural gas , the East-Prinovozemelsky field , an extension of the West Siberian Oil Basin , have been made but have not yet been developed . In 2014 , US government sanctions resulted in Exxon having until September 26 to discontinue its operations in the Kara Sea .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Kara_Sea", "rank": 58, "score": 109484 }, { "content": "Title: West Svartisen Ice-cap Content: The West Svartisen Ice-cap is an ice cap glacier , occupying 201 km2 of the coastal area of central Norway , just inside the Arctic Circle . Most of the glacier is around 1000 metres above sea level on a high plateau . The ice-cap owes its existence to the high snowfall rates in the region , rather than the cold temperatures , similar to other glacier close by such as the Jostedalsbreen glacier . The surface on the top of the plateau feeds many outlet glaciers , including the Engabreen glacier . The status of the glacier is unknown , although some of the outlet glaciers are advancing and gaining ice mass .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "West_Svartisen_Ice-cap", "rank": 59, "score": 109275 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Cordillera Content: The Arctic Cordillera is a vast , deeply dissected chain of mountain ranges extending along the northeastern flank of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago from Ellesmere Island to the northeasternmost part of the Labrador Peninsula in northern Labrador and northern Quebec , Canada . It spans most of the eastern coast of Nunavut with high glaciated peaks rising through icefields and some of Canada 's largest ice caps , including the Penny Ice Cap on Baffin Island . It is bounded to the east by Baffin Bay , Davis Strait and the Labrador Sea while its northern portion is bounded by the Arctic Ocean .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_Cordillera", "rank": 60, "score": 109040 }, { "content": "Title: Yoldia Sea Content: Yoldia Sea is a name given by geologists to a variable brackish-water stage in the Baltic Sea basin that prevailed after the Baltic ice lake was drained to sea level during the Weichsel glaciation . Dates for the Yoldia sea are obtained mainly by radiocarbon dating material from ancient sediments and shore lines and from clay-varve chronology . They tend to vary by as much as a thousand years , but a good estimate is 10,300 -- 9500 radiocarbon years BP , equivalent to ca 11,700-10 ,700 calendar years BP . The sea ended gradually when isostatic rise of Scandinavia closed or nearly closed its effluents , altering the balance between saline and fresh water . The Yoldia Sea became Ancylus Lake . The Yoldia Sea stage had three phases of which only the middle phase had brackish water . The name of the sea is adapted from the obsolete name of the bivalve , Portlandia arctica ( previously known as Yoldia arctica ) , found around Stockholm . This bivalve requires cold saline water . It characterizes the middle phase of the Yoldia Sea , during which saline water poured into the Baltic , before the acceleration of glacial melting .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Yoldia_Sea", "rank": 61, "score": 108945 }, { "content": "Title: Pingo Content: A pingo , also called a hydrolaccolith , is a mound of earth-covered ice found in the Arctic and subarctic that can reach up to 70 m in height and up to 600 m in diameter . The term originated as the Inuvialuktun word for a small hill . The plural form is `` pingos '' . A pingo is a periglacial landform , which is defined as a nonglacial landform or process linked to colder climates . `` Periglacial '' suggests an environment located on the margin of past glaciers . However , freeze and thaw cycles influence landscapes outside areas of past glaciation . Therefore , periglacial environments are anywhere that freezing and thawing modify the landscape in a significant manner . They are essentially formed by ground ice which develops during the winter months as temperatures fall .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Pingo", "rank": 62, "score": 108831 }, { "content": "Title: Poverty in the Arctic Content: The Arctic is a vast polar region comprising the northern most parts of Canada , Norway , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Sweden , Finland , the United States ( Alaska ) , Iceland and Russia . In recent years , the Arctic has been at the forefront of political and social issues . Several matters have risen surrounding the issues of poverty and global warming and their effects on indigenous people in this region . Indigenous people in the Arctic statistically fall below their nation 's poverty line . Indigenous populations that were once largely self-sufficient and relatively food secure in the Arctic 's harsh environment are today struggling to sustain themselves as a result of poverty and also the impacts of climate change . Currently , they are facing an overwhelming amount of issues in relation to poverty including cultural loss , high rates of chronic illness and chronic disease , mental health disorders , lack of basic health needs and housing shortages . In Canada 's arctic region , for example , infant mortality rate is 3.5 times higher than the national rate while life expectancy is 12 years lower . In Greenland , life expectancy is 70 years for women and 65 years for men whereas in Denmark life expectancy for women is 80.59 and 75.8 for men . Specifically , in the territory of Nunavut , unemployment rates range from 15 to 72 % . In 2010 , 9.9 % of Alaskan households fell below their respective poverty thresholds .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Poverty_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 63, "score": 108805 }, { "content": "Title: Exchange for Local Observations and Knowledge of the Arctic Content: The Exchange for Local Observations and Knowledge of the Arctic , or ELOKA , is an Arctic research data management program that combines local traditional knowledge ( LTK ) and local observations data from Indigenous Arctic residents utilizing effective and appropriate western methods to properly share Arctic Indigenous Knowledge . The LTK data the program stewards consists of observations of sea ice , weather , wildlife and comes in many forms such as written interview transcripts , audio or video tapes and files , photographs , artwork , illustrations and maps . Housed at the National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) at the University of Colorado Boulder Cooperative Institute for Research and Environmental Sciences ( CIRES ) , ELOKA is a National Science Foundation ( NSF ) Arctic Observing Network ( AON ) research program that came out of the 2007-2008 International Polar Year ( IPY ) .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Exchange_for_Local_Observations_and_Knowledge_of_the_Arctic", "rank": 64, "score": 108800 }, { "content": "Title: Fletcher's Ice Island Content: Fletcher 's Ice Island or T-3 was an iceberg discovered by U.S. Air Force Colonel Joseph O. Fletcher . Between 1952 and 1978 it was used as a manned scientific drift station that included huts , a power plant , and a runway for wheeled aircraft . The iceberg was a thick tabular sheet of glacial ice that drifted throughout the central Arctic Ocean in a clockwise direction . First inhabited in 1952 as an arctic weather report station , it was abandoned in 1954 but reinhabited on two subsequent occasions . The station was inhabited mainly by scientists along with a few military crewmen and was resupplied during its existence primarily by military planes operating from Barrow , Alaska . The iceberg was later occupied by the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory , and served as a base of operations for the Navy 's arctic research projects such as sea bottom and ocean swell studies , seismographic activities , meteorological studies and other classified projects under the direction of the Department of Defense . Before the era of satellites , the research station on T-3 had been a valuable site for measurements of the atmosphere in the Arctic .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Fletcher's_Ice_Island", "rank": 65, "score": 108742 }, { "content": "Title: Mark Serreze Content: Mark Clifford Serreze ( born 1960 ) is an American geographer and the director of the National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) , a project of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder . He officially became the NSIDC 's director in August 2009 . Serreze is primarily known for his expertise in the Arctic sea ice decline that has occurred over the last few decades due to global warming , a topic about which he has expressed serious concern .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Mark_Serreze", "rank": 66, "score": 108471 }, { "content": "Title: Sea ice thickness Content: Sea ice thickness spatial extent , and open water within ice packs can vary rapidly in response to weather and climate . Sea ice concentration are measured by satellites , with the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder ( SSMIS ) , and the European Space Agency 's Cryosat-2 satellite to map the thickness and shape of the Earth 's polar ice cover . The sea ice volume is calculated with the Pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System ( PIOMAS ) , which blends satellite-observed data , such as sea ice concentrations into model calculations to estimate sea ice thickness and volume . Sea ice thickness determines a number of important fluxes such as heat flux between the air and ocean surface -- see below -- as well as salt and fresh water fluxes between the ocean since saline water ejects much of its salt content when frozen -- see sea ice growth processes . It is also important for navigators on icebreakers since there is an upper limit to the thickness of ice any ship can sail through .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Sea_ice_thickness", "rank": 67, "score": 108308 }, { "content": "Title: Vladimir Ignatyuk (icebreaker) Content: Vladimir Ignatyuk ( formerly MV Arctic Kalvik ) is a diesel icebreaker that was built in 1983 at the Victoria Yard of the Burrard Yarrows Corporation located in Victoria , British Columbia , Canada for Beaudril Limited , an oil-drilling subsidiary of Gulf Canada Resources Ltd. , for use in anchor handling and ice breaking in the Beaufort Sea . Two other Class 4 icebreakers were built for Beaudril by Burrard Yarrows Co. , Terry Fox and Miscaroo .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Vladimir_Ignatyuk_(icebreaker)", "rank": 68, "score": 108307 }, { "content": "Title: Vertical distribution of ice in Arctic clouds Content: Vertical Distribution of Ice in Arctic Clouds ( VERDI ) is the name of a German research project on the topic of Arctic clouds . Measurements within this project were conducted in April and May 2012 around Inuvik , Canada , organized by the University of Leipzig . The project aims at an improvement of knowledge about the effects of clouds in the Arctic climate system . The main question within VERDI is the distribution of ice crystals and liquid water droplets within the clouds . That distribution depends on various parameters , such as temperature and the cloud 's life cycle .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Vertical_distribution_of_ice_in_Arctic_clouds", "rank": 69, "score": 108248 }, { "content": "Title: Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station Content: The Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station 2007 ( APLIS07 ) is an U.S.A. and Japanese laboratory dedicated to the study of global climate change , located about 300km south of the Arctic Circle , Alaska on the West Ridge of the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Applied_Physics_Laboratory_Ice_Station", "rank": 70, "score": 108175 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Basin Content: The Arctic Basin ( also North Polar Basin ) is an oceanic basin in the Arctic Ocean , consisting of two main parts separated by the Lomonosov Ridge , a mid-ocean ridge running between north Greenland and the New Siberian Islands . The basin is bordered by the continental shelves of Eurasia and North America . The Eurasian Basin ( also Norwegian Basin ) consists of the Nansen Basin ( formerly : Fram Basin ) and the Amundsen Basin The Amerasian Basin consists of the Canada Basin and the Makarov Basin", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_Basin", "rank": 71, "score": 107931 }, { "content": "Title: Jim McNeill Content: Jim McNeill is a British polar explorer , presenter and keynote speaker , with over 30 years of experience travelling in the polar regions . He founded the Ice Warrior project in 2001 . He has trained and guided many groups to the Arctic , including BBC film crews . His expeditions , travelling thousands of miles across the Arctic , give him regular opportunities to monitor polar bear populations for the Norwegian Polar Institute , as well as putting together a yearly scientific program for scientists to monitor the effects of climate change . He is an ambassador for Hauser Bears , a charitable organization committed to the conservation of bears worldwide . He is Vice president - Arctic Expeditions for Sea Research Society .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Jim_McNeill", "rank": 72, "score": 107901 }, { "content": "Title: MV Arctic Content: MV Arctic is an icebreaking cargo ship built in 1978 at the Port Weller Dry Docks in St. Catharines , Ontario , Canada . The ship is owned and operated by the Fednav Group . Designed to carry both oil and ore , the vessel is not only ice strengthened with a Finnish-Swedish ice class 1A Super , but has a CASPPR Class 3 or CAC 4 rating . This means it is powerful enough to navigate through many ice-covered waters without escort . Arctic previously serviced mines in the high Canadian Arctic such as Polaris and Nanisivik . Once those mines closed she was shifted to service the Raglan mine in northern Quebec and the Voisey 's Bay mine in Labrador . Arctic was extensively rebuilt by Port Weller Dry Dock during winter 1985 -- 1986 . The ship received a new icebreaker bow which improved its icebreaking capability and the ice strengthening in the sides and bottom was increased so that the ice class could be upgraded from CAC 2 to CAC 4 .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "MV_Arctic", "rank": 73, "score": 107657 }, { "content": "Title: Rutford Ice Stream Content: Rutford Ice Stream is a major Antarctic ice stream , about 180 miles long and over 15 miles wide , which drains southeastward between the Sentinel Range , Ellsworth Mountains and Fletcher Ice Rise into the southwest part of Ronne Ice Shelf . Named by US-ACAN for geologist Robert Hoxie Rutford , a member of several USARP expeditions to Antarctica ; leader of the University of Minnesota Ellsworth Mountains Party , 1963-1964 . Rutford served as Director of the Division of Polar Programs , National Science Foundation , 1975-1977 . The ice stream is situated in a deep trough which is a tectonic feature between the Ellsworth Mountains and the Fletcher Promontory . Because of this the ice stream position may have been stable for millions of years . The bed of the ice stream reaches 2000 m below sea level . Therefore , between the bed of the ice stream and the height of the Ellsworth Mountains there is a vertical relief of 7 km over a distance of only 40 km . At the upper ( inland ) end of the ice stream the ice thickness reaches 3100 m falling to around 2300 m in the trough . Flow speed reaches a maximum of around 400 metres per year about 40 km inland from where the ice stream meets the Ronne Ice Shelf and starts to float on the sea . The speed of the Rutford ice stream varies by as much as 20 % every two weeks , in response to variations in the tides .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Rutford_Ice_Stream", "rank": 74, "score": 107591 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic oscillation Content: The Arctic oscillation ( AO ) or Northern Annular Mode/Northern Hemisphere Annular Mode ( NAM ) is an index ( which varies over time with no particular periodicity ) of the dominant pattern of non-seasonal sea-level pressure variations north of 20N latitude , and it is characterized by pressure anomalies of one sign in the Arctic with the opposite anomalies centered about 37 -- 45N . The AO is believed by climatologists to be causally related to , and thus partially predictive of , weather patterns in locations many thousands of miles away , including many of the major population centers of Europe and North America . NASA climatologist Dr. James E. Hansen explained the mechanism by which the AO affects weather at points so distant from the Arctic , as follows : `` The degree to which Arctic air penetrates into middle latitudes is related to the AO index , which is defined by surface atmospheric pressure patterns . When the AO index is positive , surface pressure is low in the polar region . This helps the middle latitude jet stream to blow strongly and consistently from west to east , thus keeping cold Arctic air locked in the polar region . When the AO index is negative , there tends to be high pressure in the polar region , weaker zonal winds , and greater movement of frigid polar air into middle latitudes . '' This zonally symmetric seesaw between sea level pressures in polar and temperate latitudes was first identified by Edward Lorenz and named in 1998 by David W.J. Thompson and John Michael Wallace . The North Atlantic oscillation ( NAO ) is a close relative of the AO and there exist arguments about whether one or the other is more fundamentally representative of the atmosphere 's dynamics ; Ambaum et al. argue that the NAO can be identified in a more physically meaningful way . Over most of the past century , the Arctic Oscillation alternated between its positive and negative phases . Starting in the 1970s the oscillation has trended to more of a positive phase when averaged using a 60-day running mean , though it has trended to a more neutral state in the last decade . The oscillation still fluctuates stochastically between negative and positive values on daily , monthly , seasonal and annual time scales , although , despite its stochastic nature , meteorologists have attained high levels of predictive accuracy in recent times , at least for the shorter term forecasts . ( The correlation between actual observations and the 7-day mean GFS ensemble AO forecasts is approximately 0.9 , a figure at the high end for that statistic . ) The National Snow and Ice Data Center describes the effects of the AO in some detail : `` In the positive phase , higher pressure at midlatitudes drives ocean storms farther north , and changes in the circulation pattern bring wetter weather to Alaska , Scotland and Scandinavia , as well as drier conditions to the western United States and the Mediterranean . In the positive phase , frigid winter air does not extend as far into the middle of North America as it would during the negative phase of the oscillation . This keeps much of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains warmer than normal , but leaves Greenland and Newfoundland colder than usual . Weather patterns in the negative phase are in general `` opposite '' to those of the positive phase . '' Climatologists are now routinely invoking the Arctic Oscillation in their official public explanations for extremes of weather . The following statement from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Climatic Data Center : State of the Climate December 2010 which uses the phrase `` negative Arctic Oscillation '' four times , is very representative of this increasing tendency : `` Cold arctic air gripped western Europe in the first three weeks of December . Two major snowstorms , icy conditions , and frigid temperatures wreaked havoc across much of the region ... The harsh winter weather was attributed to a negative Arctic Oscillation , which is a climate pattern that influences weather in the Northern Hemisphere . A very persistent , strong ridge of high pressure , or ` blocking system ' , near Greenland allowed cold Arctic air to slide south into Europe . Europe was not the only region in the Northern Hemisphere affected by the Arctic Oscillation . A large snow storm and frigid temperatures affected much of the Midwest United States on December 10 -- 13 ... '' A further , quite graphic illustration of the effects of the negative phase of the oscillation occurred in February 2010 . In that month , the Arctic Oscillation reached its most negative monthly mean value , − 4.266 , in the entire post-1950 era ( the period of accurate record-keeping ) . That month was characterized by three separate historic snowstorms that occurred in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States . The first storm dumped 25 in on Baltimore , Maryland , on February 5 -- 6 , and then a second storm dumped 19.5 in on February 9 -- 10 . In New York City , a separate storm deposited 20.9 in on February 25 -- 26 . This kind of snowstorm activity is as anomalous and extreme as the negative AO value itself . Similarly , the greatest negative value for the AO since 1950 in January was − 3.767 in 1977 , which coincided with the coldest mean January temperature in New York City , Washington , D.C. , Baltimore , and many other mid-Atlantic locations in that span of time . And though the January AO has been negative only 60.6 % of the time between 1950 and 2010 , 9 of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York City since 1950 have coincided with negative AOs . However , the correlation between sharply negative Arctic Oscillations and excessive winter cold and snow in regions vulnerable in that way to these negative AOs should not be overstated . It is by no means a simple , one-to-one equivalence . An extreme Arctic Oscillation does not necessarily mean extreme weather will occur . For example , since 1950 , eight out of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York did not coincide with the 10 lowest January AO values . And the fourth warmest January there since 1950 coincided with one of those 10 most negative AOs . So , although many climatologists believe that the Arctic Oscillation affects the probability of certain weather events occurring in certain places , the heightened chance of a phenomenon by no means assures it , nor does the lessened likelihood exclude it . Further , the precise value of the AO index only imperfectly reflects the severity of the weather associated with it .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_oscillation", "rank": 75, "score": 107504 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Exercise 2009 Content: Ice Exercise 2009 ( ICEX ) was a two-week US naval military exercise that took place in March 2009 . Its aim was to test submarine operability and war-fighting capability in Arctic conditions . The polar region has become the subject of increased attention on the part of the Arctic Circle countries because of potential competition for its natural resources .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Ice_Exercise_2009", "rank": 76, "score": 107378 }, { "content": "Title: Brusilov Expedition Content: The Brusilov Expedition ( Экспедиция Брусилова , Ekspeditsiya Brusilova ) was a Russian maritime expedition to the Arctic led by Captain Georgy Brusilov , which set out in 1912 to explore and map a route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific via a northeast passage known as the Northern Sea Route . The expedition was ill-planned and ill-executed by Brusilov , and disappeared without a trace . Earlier searches were unsuccessful , and its fate was not known until 2010 . The expedition set out from Alexandrovsk on 28 August 1912 in the gunvessel Svyataya Anna , so late in the summer that in October the ship became locked in the polar ice of the Kara Sea off the Yamal Peninsula . Supplies were abundant , and officers and crew prepared themselves for wintering over , hoping to be freed in the following year 's thaw . However , during 1913 the sea remained completely frozen . By early 1914 the Svyataya Anna had drifted far north in lazy zigzags with the Arctic ice . In the summer that year she reached 83 ° of latitude , NW of Franz Josef Land , and had no chance to be freed in 1914 either . To make matters worse , captain and crew had succumbed to scurvy . Navigator and second-in-command Valerian Albanov , believing that their position was hopeless , requested permission from Captain Brusilov to be relieved from his duties as second-in-command in order to leave the ship and attempt to return to civilization on foot . Albanov hoped to reach Eva Island in Hvidtenland , the northeasternmost island of Franz Josef Land . He used Fridtjof Nansen 's inaccurate map , full of dotted lines where the archipelago was still unexplored . After a gruesome ordeal , Albanov and Alexander Konrad , one of the crewmen of the Svyataya Anna , finally made it back to Russia . They were the only two survivors . One of the members of the expedition was the second Russian woman to go to the Arctic , Yerminia Zhdanko , a 22-year-old nurse and daughter of a general who was a hero in the Russo-Japanese War . The Svyataya Anna was never seen again . She may have sunk , crushed by the polar ice . It was thought she may have been carried by the polar ice drift until she broke free on the other side of the Arctic ( like the Fram ) . In 1914-15 Otto Sverdrup led a search-and-rescue expedition aboard ship Eklips in the Kara Sea on behalf of the Russian Imperial Navy . He aimed to find two missing arctic expeditions , those of Captain Brusilov on the Svyataya Anna and Vladimir Rusanov on the Gerkules , but found no trace of either expedition . Valerian Albanov made repeated requests to Arctic explorer and Admiral Alexander Kolchak to launch a search expedition for the Svyataya Anna . In December 1919 Albanov traveled to Omsk to confer with Kolchak , but the political turmoil in Russia at the time made a relief mission impossible , and the fate of the expedition was unknown until 2010 . Explorers announced in 2010 that they had found the bones of a crew-member of Brusilov 's expedition . Later in 2010 , a crew-member 's logbook and various other artifacts were found , also on Franz Josef Land .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Brusilov_Expedition", "rank": 77, "score": 107355 }, { "content": "Title: International Arctic Buoy Program Content: The International Arctic Buoy Program is headquartered at the Polar Science Center , Applied Physics Laboratory , University of Washington , in Seattle , Washington , United States . The program 's objectives include to provide meteorological and oceanographic data in order to support operations and research for UNESCO 's World Climate Research Programme and the World Weather Watch Programme of the United Nations ' World Meteorological Organization . IABP participating countries include Canada , China , France , Germany , Japan , Norway , Russia , and the United States . Together , they share the costs of the program . The IABP has deployed more than 700 buoys since it began operations in 1991 , succeeding the Arctic Ocean Buoy Program ( operational since 1979-01-19 ) . Commonly , 25 to 40 buoys operate at any given time and provide real-time position , pressure , temperature , and interpolated ice velocity . In support of the International Polar Year , the IABP will deploy over 120 buoys , at over 80 different locations , during the period of April-August 2008 . The organization 's annual meeting provides discussion on instrumentation , forecasting , observations , and outlook .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "International_Arctic_Buoy_Program", "rank": 78, "score": 107131 }, { "content": "Title: Eismitte Content: Eismitte , in English also called Mid-Ice , was the site of an Arctic expedition in the interior of Greenland that took place from July 1930 through August 1931 , and claimed the life of noted German scientist Alfred Wegener . The name `` Eismitte '' means Ice-Center in German , and the campsite was located 402 km from the coast at an estimated altitude of 3,000 meters ( 9,843 feet ) . The coldest temperature recorded during the expedition was − 64.9 ° C ( − 85 ° F ) , while the warmest temperature noted was − 2.8 ° C ( 27 ° F ) . For the 12-month period beginning September 1 , 1930 and ending August 31 , 1931 , the warmest month , July , had a mean monthly temperature of − 12.2 ° C ( 10 ° F ) , while the coldest month , February , averaged − 47.2 ° C ( − 53 ° F ) . Over the same period a total of 110 millimeters ( 4.33 inches ) of water-equivalent precipitation was recorded , with most of it , rather surprisingly , being received in winter . At the latitude of the camp , the sun does not set between May 13 and July 30 each year , and does not rise between November 23 and January 20 .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Eismitte", "rank": 79, "score": 106464 }, { "content": "Title: Nuclear-powered icebreaker Content: A nuclear-powered icebreaker is a nuclear-powered ship purpose-built for use in waters covered with ice . The only country constructing nuclear-powered icebreakers is Russia . Nuclear-powered icebreakers have been constructed by the USSR and later Russia primarily to aid shipping along the Northern Sea Route in the frozen Arctic waterways north of Siberia . Nuclear-powered icebreakers are much more powerful than their diesel-powered counterparts , and although nuclear propulsion is expensive to install and maintain , very heavy fuel demands and limitations on range can make diesel vessels less practical and economical overall for these ice-breaking duties . During the winter , the ice along the Northern Sea Route varies in thickness from 1.2 to 2.0 metres ( 3.9 to 6.5 feet ) . The ice in central parts of the Arctic Ocean is on average 2.5 metres ( 8.2 ft ) thick . Nuclear-powered icebreakers can force through this ice at speeds up to 10 knots ( 19 km/h , 12 mph ) . In ice-free waters the maximum speed of the nuclear-powered icebreakers is as much as 21 knots ( 39 km/h , 24 mph ) . In August 2012 Russia 's state-owned nuclear corporation , Rosatom , signed a contract to begin construction on what will be the world 's largest nuclear icebreaker , a `` universal '' vessel that could navigate both shallower rivers and the freezing depths of the Arctic .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Nuclear-powered_icebreaker", "rank": 80, "score": 106308 }, { "content": "Title: Polar-class icebreaker Content: Polar-class icebreakers , are heavy icebreakers operated by the United States Coast Guard ( USCG ) . These cutters , specifically designed for icebreaking , have reinforced hulls , special icebreaking bows , and a system that allows rapid shifting of ballast to increase the effectiveness of their icebreaking . The vessels conduct Arctic and Antarctic research and are the primary icebreakers that clear the channel into McMurdo Station for supply ships . All are homeported in Seattle , Washington . In addition to the two Polar-class icebreakers , the USCG has a third polar-capable icebreaker , . Both Polar Star and Polar Sea are near the end of their effective lifetimes , and have spent years moored because they were in need of expensive and unbudgeted upgrades . In November 2013 four Senators proposed an amendment to the 2014 Defense Appropriations Act authorizing the construction of four new Polar class vessels , at a cost of $ 850 million each . The four Senators sponsoring the amendment were Maria Cantwell and Patty Murray , from Washington , and Mark Begich and Lisa Murkowski , from Alaska . According to the Seattle Times the chances that the amendment will survive into the bill , as passed , are slim . On February 22 , 2017 the U.S Coast Guard announced it had awarded five fixed-price contracts worth $ 20 million for the future heavy polar icebreaker design studies and analysis . On May 18 , 2017 Adm. Paul Zukunft said that due to changes in the Arctic , the Coast Guard may have to increase the number of the future icebreakers and the future icebreakers may have a requirement for space , weight , and power reserved for offensive and defensive weaponry which may include an anti-ship missile package .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Polar-class_icebreaker", "rank": 81, "score": 106286 }, { "content": "Title: Lead (sea ice) Content: A lead ( -LSB- ˈliːd -RSB- ) is a large fracture within an expanse of sea ice , defining a linear area of open water that can be used for navigation purposes . Leads vary in width from meters to hundreds of meters . As is the case for polynyas ( another sea ice feature involving open water ) , leads allow the direct interaction between the atmosphere and the ocean , and are important for Arctic sea ice ecology . Additionally it has been lately found that ice leads contribute significantly to the amount of mercury deposited onto surface and leaked into the ocean . If the air is cold enough ( typically in the winter ) , the water within a lead quickly refreezes , such that in many cases , leads are partly or entirely covered by a thin layer of new ice .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Lead_(sea_ice)", "rank": 82, "score": 106021 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic policy of the United States Content: The Arctic policy of the United States refers to the foreign policy of the United States in regard to the Arctic region . In addition , the United States ' domestic policy toward Alaska is part of its Arctic policy . Since March 30 , 1867 ( when the United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire ) , the United States of America has been one of the eight Arctic nations and one of the five Arctic Ocean littoral countries . The United States has been a member of the Arctic Council since its inception in 1996 and assumed the Chairmanship ( from Canada ) in April 2015 . 4 of the Arctic Council 's 6 Permanent Participant indigenous organizations have representatives in Alaska . The United States is also an observer of the Conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region . Since 1880 , the global temperature has risen 0.8 ° C ; but the temperature in the Arctic has warmed twice as much , leading to much less sea ice coverage and greater accessibility to natural resources , transport passages and fisheries . The goals stated in the United States Arctic Policy released in NSPD-66 on January 9 , 2009 are as follows : Meet national security and homeland security needs relevant to the Arctic region ; Protect the Arctic environment and conserve its biological resources ; Ensure that natural resource management and economic development in the region are environmentally sustainable ; Strengthen institutions for cooperation among the eight Arctic nations ( the United States , Canada , Denmark , Finland , Iceland , Norway , the Russian Federation , and Sweden ) ; Involve the Arctic 's indigenous communities in decisions that affect them ; and Enhance scientific monitoring and research into local , regional , and global environmental issues . On May 10 , 2013 , the Obama White House released the National Strategy for the Arctic Region , emphasizing three areas : advancing U.S. security interests , pursuing responsible Arctic region stewardship , and strengthening international cooperation . Canada is the United States ' closest partner in Arctic affairs , due to geographic proximity and similar Arctic policy directives . The countries work together on scientific research , including mapping the Arctic sea floor . Two significant disagreements are the border dispute in the Beaufort Sea and the legal designation ( international or internal waters ) of the Northwest Passage .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_policy_of_the_United_States", "rank": 83, "score": 105957 }, { "content": "Title: National Snow and Ice Data Center Content: The National Snow and Ice Data Center , or NSIDC , is a United States information and referral center in support of polar and cryospheric research . NSIDC archives and distributes digital and analog snow and ice data and also maintains information about snow cover , avalanches , glaciers , ice sheets , freshwater ice , sea ice , ground ice , permafrost , atmospheric ice , paleoglaciology , and ice cores . NSIDC is part of the University of Colorado Boulder Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences ( CIRES ) , and is affiliated with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) National Geophysical Data Center through a cooperative agreement . NSIDC serves as one of twelve Distributed Active Archive Centers funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration to archive and distribute data from NASA 's past and current satellites and field measurement programs . NSIDC also supports the National Science Foundation through the Exchange For Local Observations and Knowledge of the Arctic ( ELOKA ) and other scientific research grants . NSIDC is also a member of the ICSU World Data System . Mark Serreze is the director of NSIDC .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "National_Snow_and_Ice_Data_Center", "rank": 84, "score": 105857 }, { "content": "Title: North American Arctic Content: The North American Arctic comprises the northern portions of Alaska ( USA ) , Northern Canada and Greenland . Major bodies of water include the Arctic Ocean , Hudson Bay , the Gulf of Alaska and North Atlantic Ocean . The western limit is the Seward Peninsula and the Bering Strait . The southern limit is the Arctic Circle latitude of 66 ° 33 'N , which is the approximate limit of the midnight sun and the polar night . The region is defined by environmental limits where the average temperature for the warmest month ( July ) is below 10 C . The northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region . The area has tundra and polar vegetation .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "North_American_Arctic", "rank": 85, "score": 105815 }, { "content": "Title: Vaygach (1909 icebreaker) Content: Icebreaker Vaygach was an icebreaking steamer of moderate size built for the Russian Imperial Navy at St. Petersburg in 1909 . She was named after Vaygach Island in the Russian Arctic . Vaygach and her sister ship Taymyr were built for the purpose of thoroughly exploring the uncharted areas of the Northern Sea Route . This venture became known as the Arctic Ocean Hydrographic Expedition . The first of a series of surveys began in the autumn of 1910 , when Vaygach and Taymyr left Vladivostok . They entered the Chukchi Sea with scientists on board and began their exploration . For the next five years , these icebreakers went on sounding and carrying on vital surveys during the thaw . Before every winter , when ice conditions became too bad , they returned to Vladivostok and waited for the spring . In 1911 the scientists and crew aboard Vaygach and Taymyr made the first Russian landing on Wrangel Island . In 1914 , led by Colonel I. Sergeev , Vaygach sailed together with Taymyr , whose captain was Boris Vilkitsky . Together , they tried to force the whole Northern Passage in order to reach Archangelsk . Severe weather and ice conditions , however , did not allow them to cross the Kara Sea and they were forced to winter at Bukhta Dika , close to the Firnley Islands . Thus they were able to complete the passage only in 1915 . Some of the biggest successes of the expedition were the accurate charting of the Northern Sea Route and the discovery of Severnaya Zemlya in 1913 . Taymyr and Vaygach were considered the best icebreakers in the world at the time .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Vaygach_(1909_icebreaker)", "rank": 86, "score": 105717 }, { "content": "Title: Arctogadus glacialis Content: Arctogadus glacialis , known also with ambiguous common names Arctic cod and polar cod , is an Arctic species of fish in the cod family Gadidae , related to the true cod ( genus Gadus ) . Arctogadus glacialis is found in icy water . They grow to about 30 cm long , and are favorite food of narwhals and other arctic whales .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctogadus_glacialis", "rank": 87, "score": 105504 }, { "content": "Title: Stefan Ice Piedmont Content: Stefan Ice Piedmont is a small ice piedmont at the northwest extremity of Pernik Peninsula , Loubet Coast in Graham Land , overlying the coast between Cape Rey and Holdfast Point . Mapped from air photos taken by Falkland Islands and Dependencies Aerial Survey Expedition ( FIDASE ) ( 1956 -- 57 ) . Named by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) for Josef Stefan ( 1835 -- 1893 ) , Austrian physicist who in 1889 pioneered the theory of heat flow in a freezing ice layer ( see Stefan problem ) and first used it to calculate rates of sea ice growth in the Arctic .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Stefan_Ice_Piedmont", "rank": 88, "score": 104893 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Basin Marine Ecozone (CEC) Content: The Arctic Basin Marine Ecozone , as defined by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation ( CEC ) , is a Canadian marine ecozone encompassing the northwestern areas of waters on the Arctic continental shelf . It is bitterly cold and permanently covered in ice . Polar nights and the midnight sun may last months in this region , which has come to characterize the stereotype of the north . Its only land contact is with the northern coast of Ellesmere Island . Because of this , there are no inhabitants in this zone . All human activity here involves scientific excursions , petroleum exploration , rare hunting groups and extreme adventurers .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_Basin_Marine_Ecozone_(CEC)", "rank": 89, "score": 104613 }, { "content": "Title: Severnaya Zemlya Content: Severnaya Zemlya ( Се́верная Земля́ ( Northern Land ) , -LSB- ˈsʲevʲɪrnəjə zʲɪˈmlʲa -RSB- ) is a 37,000 km2 archipelago in the Russian high Arctic . It lies off Siberia 's Taymyr Peninsula , separated from the mainland by the Vilkitsky Strait . This archipelago separates two marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean , the Kara Sea in the west and the Laptev Sea in the east . The largest glacier in the Russian Federation , the Academy of Sciences Glacier , is located in Severnaya Zemlya . Severnaya Zemlya was first noted in 1913 and first charted in 1930 -- 32 , making it the last sizeable archipelago on Earth to be explored . Administratively , the islands form part of Russia 's Krasnoyarsk Krai federal subject . In Soviet times there were a number of research stations in different locations , but currently there are no human inhabitants in Severnaya Zemlya except for the Prima Polar Station near Cape Baranov . Severnaya Zemlya is notable in connection with the ongoing multi-year Arctic sea ice decline . Until recently , ice joined the islands to Eurasia even at its smallest extent during the late summer melt season , blocking the Northeast Passage between the Atlantic and Pacific . By the late summer of 2012 , however , the permanent ice had reached a record low extent and open water appeared to the north of the archipelago .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Severnaya_Zemlya", "rank": 90, "score": 104513 }, { "content": "Title: Aartsenia arctica Content: Aartsenia arctica is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Pyramidellidae , the pyrams and their allies . The species is one of the two species within the Aartsenia genus , with the exception of the other related species being Aartsenia candida .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Aartsenia_arctica", "rank": 91, "score": 104502 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Circle Content: The Arctic Circle is the most northerly of the abstract five major circles of latitude as shown on maps of the Earth . It marks the northernmost point at which the noon sun is just visible on the northern winter solstice and the southernmost point at which the midnight sun is just visible on the northern summer solstice . The region north of this circle is known as the Arctic , and the zone just to the south is called the Northern Temperate Zone . North of the Arctic Circle , the sun is above the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore visible at midnight ) and below the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore not visible at noon ) ; this is also true within the equivalent polar circle in the Southern Hemisphere , the Antarctic Circle . The position of the Arctic Circle is not fixed ; as of , it runs north of the Equator . Its latitude depends on the Earth 's axial tilt , which fluctuates within a margin of 2 ° over a 40,000-year period , due to tidal forces resulting from the orbit of the Moon . Consequently , the Arctic Circle is currently drifting northwards at a speed of about 15 m per year .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctic_Circle", "rank": 92, "score": 104318 }, { "content": "Title: Ice shove Content: An ice shove , ice surge , ice heave , ivu , or shoreline ice pileup is a surge of ice from an ocean or large lake onto the shore . Ice shoves are caused by ocean currents , strong winds , or temperature differences pushing ice onto the shore , creating piles up to 12 metres ( 40 feet ) high . Some have described them as ` ice tsunamis ' , but the phenomenon works like an iceberg . Witnesses have described the shove 's sound as being like that of a train or thunder . Ice shoves can damage buildings and plants that are near to the body of water . Arctic communities can be affected by ice shoves .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Ice_shove", "rank": 93, "score": 104284 }, { "content": "Title: Fast ice Content: Fast ice ( also called land-fast ice , landfast ice , and shore-fast ice ) is sea ice that is `` fastened '' to the coastline , to the sea floor along shoals or to grounded icebergs . Fast ice may either grow in place from the sea water or by freezing pieces of drifting ice to the shore or other anchor sites . Unlike drift ( or pack ) ice , fast ice does not move with currents and winds . The width ( and the presence ) of this ice zone is usually seasonal and depends on ice thickness , topography of the sea floor and islands . It ranges from a few meters to several hundred kilometers . Seaward expansion is a function of a number of factors , notably water depth , shoreline protection , time of year and pressure from the pack ice . The topography of the fast ice varies from smooth and level to rugged ( when submitted to large pressures ) . The ice foot refers to ice that has formed at the shoreline , through multiple freezing of water between ebb tides , and is separated by the remainder of the fast ice surface by tidal cracks . Further away from the coastline , the ice may become anchored to the sea bottom -- it is then referred to as bottomfast ice . Fast ice can survive one or more melting seasons ( i.e. summer ) , in which case it can be designated following the usual age-based categories : first-year , second-year , multiyear . The fast ice boundary is the limit between fast ice and drift ( or pack ) ice -- in places , this boundary may coincide with a shear ridge . Fast ice may be delimited or enclose pressure ridges which extend sufficiently downward so as to be grounded -- these features are known as stamukhi .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Fast_ice", "rank": 94, "score": 104108 }, { "content": "Title: Mark Meier Content: Mark F. Meier ( 1925 -- November 25 , 2012 ) was an American glaciologist who was considered a leading expert on the study of rising sea levels due to the melting of glaciers . Meier was the Director of the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research ( INSTAAR ) from 1985 to 1994 and remained the institute 's director emeritus until his death in 2012 . He was also a professor of geological sciences at the University of Colorado - Boulder . Meier was born and raised in Iowa . He resided in Boulder , Colorado , since 1985 . In 1956 , Meier founded the U.S. Geological Survey 's department of glaciology . He obtained doctorate in 1957 from the California Institute of Technology . Meier served as the director of the U.S. Geological Survey 's Project Office of Glaciology in Tacoma , Washington , until he became the director of INSTAAR in 1985 . Meier was one of the first glaciologists to use remote sensing to study glaciers and rates of melting . He headed several studies of tidewater glacier dynamics in the U.S. state of Alaska . Meier organized the systematic measurement and assessment of glacier mass balance within North America to mark the International Geophysical Year and International Hydrological Decade , which was observed from 1965 to 1975 . His numerous recognitions and awards included the Seligman Crystal from the International Glaciological Society in 1993 , the Robert E. Horton Medal in 1996 , three medals from the USSR Academy of Sciences ( now the Russian Academy of Sciences ) and the United States Department of the Interior 's Distinguished Service Award . Meier died in Boulder , Colorado , on November 25 , 2012 , at the age of 86 . He is survived by his wife , Barbara , his children , Lauren Meier , Gretchen Meier , and Mark S. Meier , and his seven grandchildren .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Mark_Meier", "rank": 95, "score": 104108 }, { "content": "Title: Arctica Content: Arctica or Arctida was an ancient continent which formed approximately 2.565 billion years ago in the Neoarchean era . It was made of Archaean cratons , including the Aldan and Anabar/Angara cratons in Siberia and the Slave , Wyoming , Superior , and North Atlantic cratons in North America . Arctica was named by because the Arctic Ocean formed by the separation of the North American and Siberian cratons . Russian geologists writing in English call the continent `` Arctida '' since it was given that name in 1987 , alternatively the Hyperborean craton , in reference to the hyperboreans in Greek mythology . Nikolay Shatsky was the first to assume that the crust in the Arctic region was of continental origin . Shatsky , however , was a `` fixist '' and , erroneously , explained the presence of Precambrian and Paleozoic metamorphic rocks on the New Siberian , Wrangel , and De long Islands with subduction . `` Mobilists '' , on the other hand , also erroneously , proposed that North America had rifted from Eurasia and that the Arctic basins had opened behind a retreating Alaska .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Arctica", "rank": 96, "score": 104054 }, { "content": "Title: Bering Sea Content: The Bering Sea is a marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean . It comprises a deep water basin , which then rises through a narrow slope into the shallower water above the continental shelves The Bering Sea is separated from the Gulf of Alaska by the Alaska Peninsula . It covers over 2,000,000 km2 and is bordered on the east and northeast by Alaska , on the west by Russian Far East and Kamchatka Peninsula , on the south by the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands and on the far north by the Bering Strait , which connects the Bering Sea to the Arctic Ocean 's Chukchi Sea . Bristol Bay is the portion of the Bering Sea which separates the Alaska Peninsula from mainland Alaska . The Bering Sea is named for Vitus Bering , a Danish navigator in Russian service , who in 1728 was the first European to systematically explore it , sailing from the Pacific Ocean northward to the Arctic Ocean . The Bering Sea ecosystem includes resources within the jurisdiction of the United States and Russia , as well as international waters in the middle of the sea ( known as the `` Donut Hole '' ) . The interaction between currents , sea ice , and weather makes for a vigorous and productive ecosystem .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Bering_Sea", "rank": 97, "score": 103811 }, { "content": "Title: ICEX: US Navy Mission in Arctic Content: Ice Exercise was a United States Navy mission in the Arctic Ocean . On March 2 , 2016 , the United States Navy set course bound for the Arctic region . Roughly two weeks later two Los Angeles-Class Submarines arrived at US Navy Ice Camp Sargo , which is a temporary camp stationed on top of a floating ice sheet . Their objective was to carry out the US Navy 's Ice X exercise to evaluate the readiness of the Navy 's submarine force and pursue further interest into scientific fields of the Arctic region . The 2016 ICE X took place over a five-week period and included over 200 participants from the four nations : the United States , Canada , United Kingdom , and Norway . The Arctic Submarine Laboratory will also be participating . The Arctic Submarine Laboratory is responsible for the construction of Camp SARGO , conducting tests and evaluations under Arctic operations , and acts as a liaison between the civilian science community and submarine operations . The submarines will conduct Arctic transits in which they will surface and break the ice ( usually 60-90 cm or 2 -- 3 feet thick ) , collect data , and run other training exercise to gain experience working in this region . The United States ' first ICE X exercise in which a submarine surfaced and broke the ice was in 1958 . Since then , the United States has conducted more than 26 Arctic exercises , including the Ice Exercise 2009 . The importance of this exercise is that `` the submarine operations to the North Pole provides the required training broaden our knowledge of an extremely challenging region that is very different than any other ocean in the world , '' said Cmdr. Scott Luers . Other than collecting data and training in this region the ICE X exercise also shows the US Navy 's Arctic defense capabilities and readiness for roles in this region , increases the experience of sailing and working in the area , and gathering broader knowledge about this region .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "ICEX:_US_Navy_Mission_in_Arctic", "rank": 98, "score": 103639 }, { "content": "Title: Chukchi Plateau Content: The Chukchi Plateau or Chukchi Cap is a large subsea formation extending north from the Alaskan margin into the Arctic Ocean . The ridge is normally covered by ice year-round , and reaches an approximate bathymetric prominence of 3,400 m with its highest point at 246 m below sea level . As a subsea ridge extending from the continental shelf of the United States north of Alaska , the Chukchi Plateau is an important feature in maritime law of the Arctic Ocean and has been the subject of significant geographic research . The ridge has been extensively mapped by the USCGC Healy , and by the Canadian icebreaker CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent ( with the Healy ) in 2011 and RV Marcus Langseth , a National Science Foundation vessel operated by the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Chukchi_Plateau", "rank": 99, "score": 102748 }, { "content": "Title: Ice dune Content: An ice dune ( also called an ice ridge or an ice foot ) is a formation of ice that accumulates on the shores of many arctic beaches and is also common along the shores of the Great Lakes during the winter .", "qid": "2840", "docid": "Ice_dune", "rank": 100, "score": 102631 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Antarctic_sea_ice", "rank": 1, "score": 200788 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment", "rank": 2, "score": 183504 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 3, "score": 166339 }, { "content": "Title: Sea ice Content: Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Sea_ice", "rank": 4, "score": 165220 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet", "rank": 5, "score": 165049 }, { "content": "Title: Ice shelf Content: An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters . In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica . Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss . Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf . The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica . The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Ice_shelf", "rank": 6, "score": 154243 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal", "rank": 7, "score": 153887 }, { "content": "Title: Weddell Polynya Content: The Weddell Polynya or Weddell Sea Polynya is a polynya or irregular area of open water surrounded by sea ice in the Weddell Sea of the Southern Ocean off Antarctica and near the Maud Rise . The size of New Zealand , it re-occurred each winter between 1974 and 1976 . These were the first three austral winters observed by the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer ( ESMR ) . Since 1976 , the polynya has never been seen again . Since the 1970s , the polar Southern Ocean south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has freshened and stratified , likely a result of anthropogenic climate change . Such stratification may be responsible for suppressing the return of the Weddell Sea polynya .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Weddell_Polynya", "rank": 8, "score": 153849 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 9, "score": 153511 }, { "content": "Title: Polar see-saw Content: The polar see-saw ( also : Bipolar seesaw ) is the phenomenon that temperature changes in the northern and southern hemispheres may be out of phase . The theory ( or hypothesis ) states that large changes , f.e. when the glaciers are intensely growing or depleting , in the formation of ocean bottom water in both poles take a long time to exert their effect in the other hemisphere . Estimates of the period of delay vary , one typical estimate is 1500 years . This is usually studied in the context of ice-cores taken from Antarctica and Greenland .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Polar_see-saw", "rank": 10, "score": 150753 }, { "content": "Title: Polar seas Content: Polar seas is a collective term for the Arctic Ocean ( about 4-5 percent of Earth 's oceans ) and the southern part of the Southern Ocean ( south of Antarctic Convergence , about 10 percent of Earth 's oceans ) . In the coldest years , sea ice can cover around 13 percent of the Earth 's total surface at its maximum , but out of phase in the two hemispheres . The polar seas contain a huge biome with many organisms . Among the species that inhabit various polar seas and surrounding land areas are polar bear , penguin , reindeer ( caribou ) , muskox , wolverine , ermine , lemming , Arctic hare , Arctic ground squirrel , whale , harp seal , and walrus . These species have unique adaptations to the extreme conditions . Many might be endangered if they can not adapt to changing conditions . Contrary to popular opinion , the World Wildlife Fund studies for polar bears show that this species has prospered since 1950 , attaining five times the numbers found in 1950 . In general , Arctic ecosystems are relatively fragile and slow to recover from serious damage .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Polar_seas", "rank": 11, "score": 149273 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic oscillation Content: The Antarctic oscillation ( AAO , to distinguish it from the Arctic oscillation or AO ) is a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the southern hemisphere . It is also known as the Southern Annular Mode ( SAM ) . It is defined as a belt of westerly winds or low pressure surrounding Antarctica which moves north or south as its mode of variability . In its positive phase , the westerly wind belt contracts towards Antarctica , while its negative phase involves this belt moving towards the Equator . In 2014 , Dr Nerilie Abram used a network of temperature-sensitive ice core and tree growth records to reconstruct a 1000-year history of the Southern Annular Mode . This work suggests that the Southern Annular Mode is currently in its most extreme positive phase over at least the last 1000 years , and that recent positive trends in the SAM are attributed to increasing greenhouse gas levels and later stratospheric ozone depletion .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Antarctic_oscillation", "rank": 12, "score": 145679 }, { "content": "Title: Geography of Antarctica Content: The geography of Antarctica is dominated by its south polar location and , thus , by ice . The Antarctic continent , located in the Earth 's southern hemisphere , is centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle . It is washed by the Southern ( or Antarctic ) Ocean or , depending on definition , the southern Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans . It has an area of more than 14 million km ² . Some 98 % of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , the world 's largest ice sheet and also its largest reservoir of fresh water . Averaging at least 1.6 km thick , the ice is so massive that it has depressed the continental bedrock in some areas more than 2.5 km below sea level ; subglacial lakes of liquid water also occur ( e.g. , Lake Vostok ) . Ice shelves and rises populate the ice sheet on the periphery .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Geography_of_Antarctica", "rank": 13, "score": 144940 }, { "content": "Title: Southern Ocean Content: The Southern Ocean , also known as the Antarctic Ocean or the Austral Ocean , comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean , generally taken to be south of 60 ° S latitude and encircling Antarctica . As such , it is regarded as the fourth-largest of the five principal oceanic divisions : smaller than the Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans but larger than the Arctic Ocean . This ocean zone is where cold , northward flowing waters from the Antarctic mix with warmer subantarctic waters . By way of his voyages in the 1770s , Captain James Cook proved that waters encompassed the southern latitudes of the globe . Since then , geographers have disagreed on the Southern Ocean 's northern boundary or even existence , considering the waters part of the Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans , instead . This remains the current official policy of the International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) , since a 2000 revision of its definitions including the Southern Ocean as the waters south of the 60th parallel has not yet been adopted . Others regard the seasonally-fluctuating Antarctic Convergence as the natural boundary .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Southern_Ocean", "rank": 14, "score": 144210 }, { "content": "Title: Amundsen Sea Content: The Amundsen Sea , an arm of the Southern Ocean off Marie Byrd Land in western Antarctica , lies between Cape Flying Fish ( the northwestern tip of Thurston Island ) to the east and Cape Dart on Siple Island to the west . Cape Flying Fish marks the boundary between the Amundsen Sea and the Bellingshausen Sea . West of Cape Dart there is no named marginal sea of the Southern Ocean between the Amundsen and Ross Seas . The Norwegian expedition of 1928 -- 1929 under Captain Nils Larsen named the body of water for the Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen while exploring this area in February 1929 . The sea is mostly ice-covered , and the Thwaites Ice Tongue protrudes into it . The ice sheet which drains into the Amundsen Sea averages about 3 km in thickness ; roughly the size of the state of Texas , this area is known as the Amundsen Sea Embayment ( ASE ) ; it forms one of the three major ice-drainage basins of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Amundsen_Sea", "rank": 15, "score": 143697 }, { "content": "Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Ice_cap_climate", "rank": 16, "score": 141909 }, { "content": "Title: Ross Gyre Content: The Ross Gyre is one of the two gyres that exist within the Southern Ocean . The gyre is located in the Ross Sea , and rotates clockwise . The gyre is formed by interactions between the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and the Antarctic Continental Shelf . Sea ice has been noted to persist in the central area of the gyre . There is some evidence that global warming has resulted in some decrease of the salinity of the waters of the Ross Gyre since the 1950s .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Ross_Gyre", "rank": 17, "score": 141139 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Wadhams Content: Peter Wadhams ScD ( born 14 May 1948 ) , is professor of Ocean Physics , and Head of the Polar Ocean Physics Group in the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics , University of Cambridge . He is best known for his work on sea ice . He is the president of the International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Oceans Commission on Sea Ice and Coordinator for the International Programme for Antarctic Buoys . Wadhams has been the leader of 40 polar field expeditions . Wadhams advocates for the use of climate engineering to mitigate climate change .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Peter_Wadhams", "rank": 18, "score": 139258 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Circumpolar Current Content: The Antarctic Circumpolar Current ( ACC ) is an ocean current that flows clockwise from west to east around Antarctica . An alternative name for the ACC is the West Wind Drift . The ACC is the dominant circulation feature of the Southern Ocean and has a mean transport of 100-150 Sverdrups ( Sv , million m ³ / s ) , making it the largest ocean current . More recent research even puts this number at over 173 Sv . The current is circumpolar due to the lack of any landmass connecting with Antarctica and this keeps warm ocean waters away from Antarctica , enabling that continent to maintain its huge ice sheet . Associated with the Circumpolar Current is the Antarctic Convergence , where the cold Antarctic waters meet the warmer waters of the subantarctic , creating a zone of upwelling nutrients . These nurture high levels of phytoplankton with associated copepods and krill , and resultant foodchains supporting fish , whales , seals , penguins , albatrosses and a wealth of other species . The ACC has been known to sailors for centuries ; it greatly speeds up any travel from west to east , but makes sailing extremely difficult from east to west ; though this is mostly due to the prevailing westerly winds . The circumstances preceding the mutiny on the Bounty and Jack London 's story `` Make Westing '' poignantly illustrated the difficulty it caused for mariners seeking to round Cape Horn on the clipper ship route between New York and California . The clipper route , which is the fastest sailing route around the world , follows the ACC around three continental capes -- Cape Agulhas ( Africa ) , South East Cape ( Australia ) and Cape Horn ( South America ) . The current creates the Ross and Weddell gyres .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current", "rank": 19, "score": 138953 }, { "content": "Title: Weddell Sea Content: The Weddell Sea is part of the Southern Ocean and contains the Weddell Gyre . Its land boundaries are defined by the bay formed from the coasts of Coats Land and the Antarctic Peninsula . The easternmost point is Cape Norvegia at Princess Martha Coast , Queen Maud Land . To the east of Cape Norvegia is the King Haakon VII Sea . Much of the southern part of the sea is covered by a permanent , massive ice shelf field , the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf ( not pack ice ) . The sea is contained within the two overlapping Antarctic territorial claims of Argentina , ( Argentine Antarctica ) and Britain ( British Antarctic Territory ) , and also resides partially within the territorial claim of Chile ( Antarctic Chilean Territory ) . At its widest the sea is around 2,000 km across , and its area is around 2.8 e6km2 . Various ice shelves , including the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf , fringe the Weddell sea . Some of the ice shelves on the east side of the Antarctic Peninsula , which formerly covered roughly 3900 sqmi of the Weddell Sea , had completely disappeared by 2002 ; see . Whilst a dramatic event , the area that disappeared was far smaller than the total area of ice shelf that remains . The Weddell Sea has been deemed by scientists to have the clearest water of any sea . Dutch researchers from the German Alfred Wegener Institute , on finding a Secchi disc visible at a depth of 262 ft on 13 October 1986 , ascertained that the clarity corresponded to that of distilled water . In his 1950 book The White Continent , historian Thomas R. Henry writes : He continues for an entire chapter , relating myths of the green-haired merman sighted in the sea 's icy waters , the inability of crews to navigate a path to the coast until 1949 , and treacherous `` flash freezes '' that left ships , such as Ernest Shackleton 's Endurance , at the mercy of the ice floes .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Weddell_Sea", "rank": 20, "score": 138511 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 21, "score": 137619 }, { "content": "Title: Konrad Steffen Content: Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Konrad_Steffen", "rank": 22, "score": 135922 }, { "content": "Title: Pine Island Glacier Content: Pine Island Glacier ( PIG ) is a large ice stream glacier , and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica , responsible for about 25 % of Antarctica 's ice loss . The glacier ice streams flow west-northwest along the south side of the Hudson Mountains into Pine Island Bay , Amundsen Sea , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and United States Navy ( USN ) air photos , 1960 -- 66 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in association with Pine Island Bay . The area drained by Pine Island Glacier comprises about 10 % of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Satellite measurements have shown that the Pine Island Glacier Basin has a greater net contribution of ice to the sea than any other ice drainage basin in the world and this has increased due to recent acceleration of the ice stream . The ice stream is extremely remote , with the nearest continually occupied research station at Rothera , nearly 1300 km away . The area is not claimed by any nations and the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any new claims while it is in force .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Pine_Island_Glacier", "rank": 23, "score": 135426 }, { "content": "Title: ANDRILL Content: ANDRILL ( ANtarctic DRILLing Project ) is a scientific drilling project in Antarctica gathering information about past periods of global warming and cooling . The project involves scientists from Germany , Italy , New Zealand , and the United States . At two sites in 2006 and 2007 , ANDRILL team members drilled through ice , seawater , sediment and rock to a depth over more than 1,200 m and recovered a virtually continuous core record from the present to nearly 20 million years ago . The project is based at McMurdo Station in Antarctica . In studying the cores , ANDRILL scientists from various disciplines are gathering detailed information about past periods of global warming and cooling . A major goal of the project is to significantly improve the understanding of Antarctica 's impact on the world 's oceans currents and the atmosphere by reconstructing the behavior of Antarctic sea-ice , ice-shelves , glaciers and sea currents over tens of millions of years . Initial results imply rapid changes and dramatically different climates at various times on the southernmost continent.Quirin Scheirmeier , `` Sediment cores reveal Antarctica 's warmer past , '' Nature News , April 24 , 2008 . The $ 30 million project has achieved its operational goal of retrieving a continuous core record of the last 17 million years , filling crucial gaps left by previous drilling projects . Making use of knowledge gained through prior Antarctic drilling projects , ANDRILL employed novel techniques to reach record depths at its two drilling sites . Among the innovations deployed were a hot-water drilling system that allowed for easier ice-boring and a flexible drill pipe that could accommodate tidal oscillations and strong currents . On December 16 , 2006 , ANDRILL broke the previous record of 999.1 m set in 2000 by the Ocean Drilling Program 's drill ship , the Joides Resolution . The Antarctic-record 1285 m of core ANDRILL went on to recover represents geologic time to about 13 million years ago . In 2007 , drilling at the Southern McMurdo Sound , ANDRILL scientists recovered another 1138 meters ( 3733.6 ft ) of core . One goal in 2006 was to look at a period of around 3 to 5 million years ago in the Pliocene , which scientists know to be warmer . The team 's sedimentologists identified more than 60 cycles in which ice sheets or glaciers advanced and retreated across McMurdo Sound .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "ANDRILL", "rank": 24, "score": 135423 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 25, "score": 135191 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic silverfish Content: Pleuragramma antarcticum , the Antarctic silverfish , is a species of cod icefish native to the Southern Ocean . Pleuragramma antarcticum is a keystone species in the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean . While widely distributed around the Antarctic , the species appears to have largely disappeared from the western side of the northern Antarctic Peninsula , based on a 2010 research cruise funded by the National Science Foundation under the US Antarctic Program .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Antarctic_silverfish", "rank": 26, "score": 134271 }, { "content": "Title: Notothenia Content: Notothenia is a genus of cod icefishes native to the Southern Ocean and other waters around Antarctica . These fish have some adaptations that allow them to thrive in such inhospitable habitat , like antifreeze proteins in their blood and ample fat to insulate them against heat loss and to offset their lack of a swim bladder .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Notothenia", "rank": 27, "score": 134079 }, { "content": "Title: West Antarctica Content: West Antarctica , or Lesser Antarctica , one of the two major regions of Antarctica , is the part of that continent that lies within the Western Hemisphere , and includes the Antarctic Peninsula . It is separated from East Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains and is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . It lies between the Ross Sea ( partly covered by the Ross Ice Shelf ) , and the Weddell Sea ( largely covered by the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf ) . It may be considered a giant peninsula stretching from the South Pole towards the tip of South America . West Antarctica is largely covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , but there have been signs that climate change is having some effect and that this ice sheet may have started to shrink slightly . The coasts of the Antarctic Peninsula are the only parts of West Antarctica that become ( in summer ) ice-free . These constitute the Marielandia Antarctic tundra and have the warmest climate in Antarctica . The rocks are clad in mosses and lichens that can cope with the intense cold of winter and the short growing-season .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "West_Antarctica", "rank": 28, "score": 133567 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Bottom Water Content: The Antarctic bottom water ( AABW ) is a type of water mass in the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica with temperatures ranging from − 0.8 to 2 ° C ( 35 ° F ) , salinities from 34.6 to 34.7 psu . Being the densest water mass of the oceans , AABW is found to occupy the depth range below 4000 m of all ocean basins that have a connection to the Southern Ocean at that level . The major significance of Antarctic bottom water is that it is the coldest bottom water , giving it a significant influence on the movement of the world 's oceans . Antarctic bottom water also has a high oxygen content relative to the rest of the oceans ' deep waters . This is due to the oxidation of deteriorating organic content in the rest of the deep oceans . Antarctic bottom water has thus been considered the ventilation of the deep ocean .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Antarctic_Bottom_Water", "rank": 29, "score": 133049 }, { "content": "Title: Karoo Ice Age Content: The Karoo Ice Age from 360 -- 260 million years ago ( Mya ) was the second major ice age of the Phanerozoic Eon . It is named after the tillite ( Dwyka Group ) found in the Karoo region of South Africa ( and adjacent areas ) , where evidence for this ice age was first clearly identified in the 19th century . The tectonic assembly of the continents of Euramerica ( later with the Uralian orogeny , into Laurasia ) and Gondwana into Pangaea , in the Hercynian-Alleghany Orogeny , made a major continental land mass within the Antarctic region , and the closure of the Rheic Ocean and Iapetus Ocean saw disruption of warm-water currents in the Panthalassa Ocean and Paleotethys Sea , which led to progressive cooling of summers , and the snowfields accumulating in winters , causing mountainous alpine glaciers to grow , and then spread out of highland areas , making continental glaciers which spread to cover much of Gondwana . At least two major periods of glaciation have been discovered : The first glacial period was associated with the Mississippian subperiod ( 359.2 -- 318.1 Mya ) : ice sheets expanded from a core in southern Africa and South America . The second glacial period was associated with the Pennsylvanian subperiod ( 318.1 -- 299 Mya ) ; ice sheets expanded from a core in Australia and India . The extent of ancient glaciations in Antarctica is not well known , because the present ice sheet hides the evidence .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Karoo_Ice_Age", "rank": 30, "score": 132918 }, { "content": "Title: Chionodraco rastrospinosus Content: The ocellated icefish ( Chionodraco rastrospinosus ) is a fish of the family Channichthyidae . It lives in the cold waters off Antarctica and is known for having transparent haemoglobin-free blood . C. rastrospinosus live in the Southern Ocean up to a depth of 1 km . They grow up to 52 cm and average 30 cm . The adults feed on krill and other fish . Larvae are 17 mm long when they hatch , and grow by about 2 mm a week . The larval stage lasts for up to 18 months during which they feed mainly on krill . They become sexually mature at four years , and normally live up to about eight years , but sometimes as long as twelve . In the Antarctic autumn , adult C. rastrospinosus migrate to shallow waters to spawn at a depth of 200 -- 300 m . The eggs are scattered and hatch six months later around April .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Chionodraco_rastrospinosus", "rank": 31, "score": 132655 }, { "content": "Title: Brinicle Content: A brinicle ( brine icicle , also known as ice stalactite ) is a downward growing hollow tube of ice enclosing a plume of descending brine that is formed beneath developing sea ice . As sea water freezes in the polar oceans , salt brine concentrates are expelled from the sea ice , creating a downward flow of dense , extremely cold and saline water with a lower freezing point than the surrounding water . When this plume comes into contact with the neighboring ocean water , its extremely cold temperature causes ice to instantly be formed around the flow . This creates a hollow stalactite or icicle , referred to as a brinicle .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Brinicle", "rank": 32, "score": 131865 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Intermediate Water Content: Antarctic Intermediate Water ( AAIW ) is a cold , relatively low salinity water mass found mostly at intermediate depths in the Southern Ocean . The AAIW is formed at the ocean surface in the Antarctic Convergence zone or more commonly called the Antarctic Polar Front zone . This convergence zone is normally located between 50 ° S and 60 ° S , hence this is where almost all of the AAIW is formed .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Antarctic_Intermediate_Water", "rank": 33, "score": 131574 }, { "content": "Title: Ice sheet Content: An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2 , thus also known as continental glacier . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland ; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America , the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America . Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers . Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap . An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery . Although the surface is cold , the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat . In places , melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly . This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet -- these are ice streams . The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms . The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a small ice cap ( maybe several ) in the early Oligocene , but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene , when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica . The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene , but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation . This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Ice_sheet", "rank": 34, "score": 130915 }, { "content": "Title: Ferrigno Ice Stream Content: Ferrigno Ice Stream is an ice Stream more than 15 nmi long flowing into Eltanin Bay southwest of Wirth Peninsula , Antarctica . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Jane G. Ferrigno of the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) . Ferrigno has been a specialist for some decades from the 1970s in the use of satellite imagery for glacier studies and map compilation , co-leader of the USGS team that compiled the 1:5,000,000 - scale radiometer maps of Antarctica , and task leader of the team that is compiling 25 glaciological and coastal-change maps of Antarctica . Beneath the glacier lies the Ferrigno Rift , a rift valley some 1.5 km deep , 10 km wide , and at least 100 km long . The rift valley was discovered using ice-penetrating radar during a survey of the glacier in 2010 by a team from the British Antarctic Survey and the University of Aberdeen investigating ice-melt on the glacier that had been measured using satellites . The ice-filled rift valley is connected to the ocean and is believed to impact ice loss on the West Antarctic Ice Sheet .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Ferrigno_Ice_Stream", "rank": 35, "score": 130431 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 36, "score": 130308 }, { "content": "Title: Riiser-Larsen Sea Content: The Riiser-Larsen Sea is a marginal sea in the Southern Ocean . It is bordered by the Lazarev Sea to the west and the Cosmonauts Sea to the east , or between 14 ° E and 30 ° E. Its northern border is defined to be the 65th parallel south . The name , proposed by the Soviet Union , was never officially approved by the International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) . The Riiser-Larsen Sea was named in 1962 by the Soviet Antarctic Expedition in honor of Norwegian aviation pioneer and polar explorer Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen ( 1890 -- 1965 ) . The IHO 2002 draft was never approved by the IHO ( or any other organization ) , and the 1953 IHO document ( which does not contain the name ) remains currently in force . Leading geographic authorities and atlases do not use the name , including the 2014 10th edition World Atlas from the United States ' National Geographic Society and the 2014 12th edition of the British Times Atlas of the World . But Soviet and Russian-issued maps do . Depths exceed 3,000 meters in most of the waters here . The area is covered with drifting ice almost year-round . It would stretch over an area of 1,138,000 km ² . There are many icebergs . To the south of this area lies the Princess Astrid Coast and Princess Ragnhild Coast of Queen Maud Land . In the western part is the Lazarev Ice Shelf , and further east are Erskine Iceport and Godel Iceport , and the former Belgian Roi-Baudouin Station .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Riiser-Larsen_Sea", "rank": 37, "score": 130162 }, { "content": "Title: Extreme points of Antarctica Content: The tallest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson rising 4,892 metres ( 16,050 feet ) above sea level . The lowest point in Antarctica is within the Bentley Subglacial Trench , which reaches 2,555 metres below sea level . This is also the lowest place on Earth not covered by ocean ( although it is covered by ice ) . The lowest accessible point in Antarctica is the shore of Deep Lake , Vestfold Hills , which is 50 m beneath sea level . The point on land farthest from any coastline on the Antarctic Continent is located at . This is also known as the South Pole of inaccessibility . Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth . The Geographical South Pole lies on the Polar Plateau at . It is here that the southernmost human habitation on Earth is located : Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station ( U.S. Administered Base ) . Vostok Station is the most isolated research base on the continent ( located at ) , and it is situated over the southernmost lake in the world , Lake Vostok , a subglacial lake 4,000 metres ( 13,000 feet ) under the surface of the ice where the station sits . Formerly administrated by the Soviets , it is now operated by Russia . The southernmost volcano on the planet -- Mount Erebus -- is in Antarctica on the world 's southernmost island reachable from the sea : Ross Island . The southernmost island is Berkner Island . It is embedded in the ice shelf , fully covered by ice and fully below sea level . The Ross Sea is the southernmost sea in the world , with its southernmost extremity ( Gould Coast ) at the foot of the Horlick Mountains approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the Geographic South Pole . However , this area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf . The southernmost open sea is also part of Ross Sea , namely Bay of Whales at 78 ° 30 'S , at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf . The northernmost extremity of the Antarctic mainland ( without nearshore islands ) is Prime Head , at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula at . The Antarctic Peninsula is the largest contiguous part of the continent projecting north of the Antarctic Circle and thus has many of the continent 's research bases . Prime Head is 609 mi ( 980 km ) from Cape Horn . The northernmost research base on the mainland is Esperanza Base .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Extreme_points_of_Antarctica", "rank": 38, "score": 129857 }, { "content": "Title: Stefan Ice Piedmont Content: Stefan Ice Piedmont is a small ice piedmont at the northwest extremity of Pernik Peninsula , Loubet Coast in Graham Land , overlying the coast between Cape Rey and Holdfast Point . Mapped from air photos taken by Falkland Islands and Dependencies Aerial Survey Expedition ( FIDASE ) ( 1956 -- 57 ) . Named by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) for Josef Stefan ( 1835 -- 1893 ) , Austrian physicist who in 1889 pioneered the theory of heat flow in a freezing ice layer ( see Stefan problem ) and first used it to calculate rates of sea ice growth in the Arctic .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Stefan_Ice_Piedmont", "rank": 39, "score": 129754 }, { "content": "Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Quaternary_glaciation", "rank": 40, "score": 129720 }, { "content": "Title: Wildlife of Antarctica Content: The wildlife of Antarctica are extremophiles , having to adapt to the dryness , low temperatures , and high exposure common in Antarctica . The extreme weather of the interior contrasts to the relatively mild conditions on the Antarctic Peninsula and the subantarctic islands , which have warmer temperatures and more liquid water . Much of the ocean around the mainland is covered by sea ice . The oceans themselves are a more stable environment for life , both in the water column and on the seabed . There is relatively little diversity in Antarctica compared to much of the rest of the world . Terrestrial life is concentrated in areas near the coast . Flying birds nest on the milder shores of the Peninsula and the subantarctic islands . Eight species of penguins inhabit Antarctica and its offshore islands . They share these areas with seven pinniped species . The Southern Ocean around Antarctica is home to 10 cetaceans , many of them migratory . There are very few terrestrial invertebrates on the mainland , although the species that do live there have high population densities . High densities of invertebrates also live in the ocean , with Antarctic krill forming dense and widespread swarms during the summer . Benthic animal communities also exist around the continent . Over 1000 fungi species have been found on and around Antarctica . Larger species are restricted to the subantarctic islands , and the majority of species discovered have been terrestrial . Plants are similarly restricted mostly to the subantarctic islands , and the western edge of the Peninsula . Some mosses and lichens however can be found even in the dry interior . Many algae are found around Antarctica , especially phytoplankton , which form the basis of many of Antarctica 's food webs . Human activity has caused introduced species to gain a foothold in the area , threatening the native wildlife . A history of overfishing and hunting has left many species with greatly reduced numbers . Pollution , habitat destruction , and climate change pose great risks to the environment . The Antarctic Treaty System is a global treaty designed to preserve Antarctica as a place of research , and measures from this system are used to regulate human activity in Antarctica .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Wildlife_of_Antarctica", "rank": 41, "score": 129638 }, { "content": "Title: East Antarctic Ice Sheet Content: The East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) is one of two large ice sheets in Antarctica , and the largest on the entire planet . The EAIS lies between 45 ° west and 168 ° east longitudinally . The EAIS is considerably larger in area and mass than the West Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) . It is separated from the WAIS by the Transantarctic Mountains . The EAIS rests upon a large land mass , contrary to that of the WAIS , which rests mainly on bedrock below sea level . The EAIS is also home to the thickest ice on the frozen white continent , at 15,700 ft ( 4,800 m ) . More well known , however , is that the EAIS is home to the geographic South Pole as well as of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet", "rank": 42, "score": 128357 }, { "content": "Title: Ross Sea Content: The Ross Sea is a deep bay of the Southern Ocean in Antarctica , between Victoria Land and Marie Byrd Land . It derives its name from the British explorer James Ross who visited this area in 1841 . To the west of the sea lies Ross Island and to the east Roosevelt Island , while the southernmost part is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf , and is about 200 mi from the South Pole . The underlying rocks are of upper Precambrian to lower Paleozoic age and are partly composed of calcium carbonate . The circulation of the Ross Sea is dominated by a wind-driven ocean gyre and the flow is strongly influenced by three submarine ridges that run from southwest to northeast . The circumpolar deep water current is a relatively warm , salty and nutrient-rich water mass that flows onto the continental shelf at certain locations . The Ross Sea is covered with ice for most of the year . The nutrient-laden water supports an abundance of plankton and this encourages a rich marine fauna . At least ten mammal species , six bird species and 95 fish species are found here , as well as many invertebrates , and the sea remains relatively unaffected by human activities . New Zealand has claimed that the sea comes under their jurisdiction as part of the Ross Dependency , but this is disputed by other nations . Marine biologists consider the sea to have a high level of biological diversity and it is the site of much scientific research . It is also the focus of some environmentalist groups who have campaigned to have the area proclaimed as a world marine reserve .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Ross_Sea", "rank": 43, "score": 128281 }, { "content": "Title: Getz Ice Shelf Content: The Getz Ice Shelf is the largest Antarctic ice shelf along the SE Pacific-Antarctic coastline , over 300 mi long and from 20 to wide , bordering the Hobbs and Bakutis Coasts of Marie Byrd Land between the McDonald Heights and Martin Peninsula . Several large islands are partially or wholly embedded in the ice shelf , pinning the calving front . Summer temperature and salinity measurements from 1994 to 2010 show the shelf is subject to more changeable oceanic forcing than other Antarctic shelves . Beneath cold surface waters , the thermocline was ∼ 200 m shallower in 2007 than in 2000 , indicative of shifting access of deep water to the continental shelf and ice shelf base . The calculated area-average basal melt rates was between 1.1 and 4.1 m of ice per year , making Getz the largest source of meltwater to the Southern Ocean . The ice shelf westward of Siple Island was discovered by the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) in December 1940 . The portion eastward of Siple Island was first delineated from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump , 1946 -- 47 . The entire feature was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy air photos of 1962 -- 65 . It was named by the USAS ( 1939 -- 41 ) for George F. Getz of Chicago , Illinois , who helped furnish the seaplane for the expedition .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Getz_Ice_Shelf", "rank": 44, "score": 128150 }, { "content": "Title: RV Laurence M. Gould Content: The RV Laurence M. Gould is an icebreaker used by researchers from the United States ' National Science Foundation . for research in the Southern Ocean . The vessel is named after Laurence McKinley Gould a widely recognized American scientist , who had explored both the Arctic and Antarctic . He was second in command of Admiral Richard E. Byrd 's first expedition to Antarctica from 1928 to 1930 . He helped to set up an exploration base at Little America on the Ross Ice Shelf at the Bay of Whales . Gould , an international figure with 25 honorary degrees , and a principal architect of the Antarctic Treaty , died in 1995 at the age of 98 . That same year , the National Science Foundation initiated the charter for the services of this ice-strengthened vessel to further its studies and knowledge of the Antarctic Peninsula and Southern Ocean . The ARSV Laurence M. Gould is operated by the Antarctic Support Contract ( ASC ) on a long-term charter from Edison Chouest Offshore ( ECO ) . ASC staffs the vessel with a charter representative to coordinate cruise planning and scheduling , and with a technical staff to support science operations . ECO provides the vessel master , ice pilot and crew . The Gould , completed in 1998 , is 230 feet long and is ice-classed ABS-A1 , capable of breaking one foot of level ice with continuous forward motion . The Gould can accommodate 37 scientists and staff in one and two-person staterooms . The Gould acts as a resupply ship and does long term environmental research ( LTER ) in the Drake Passage and the Antarctic Peninsula , shuttling between Punta Arenas , Chile and Palmer Station , Antarctica . She replaced the RV Polar Duke as the main supply ship to Palmer Station .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "RV_Laurence_M._Gould", "rank": 45, "score": 127792 }, { "content": "Title: Ice and the Sky Content: Ice and the Sky ( La Glace et le ciel , also known as Antarctica : Ice and Sky ) is a 2015 French documentary film directed by Luc Jacquet about the work of Claude Lorius , who began studying Antarctic ice in 1957 , and , in 1965 , was the first scientist to be concerned about global warming . The film was selected to close the 2015 Cannes Film Festival .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Ice_and_the_Sky", "rank": 46, "score": 127753 }, { "content": "Title: South Ice Content: South Ice was a British support base 560 km from the South Pole at 82 ° 05 'S , 30 ° 00 ' W in Edith Ronne Land , Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year , established by Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition , where three men overwintered during the Antarctic winter of 1957 . In the same winter , men overwintered for the first time at the South Pole . The name of the station contrasts to North Ice which was a British research station in Greenland .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "South_Ice", "rank": 47, "score": 127636 }, { "content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850", "rank": 48, "score": 127546 }, { "content": "Title: Dome A Content: Dome A or Dome Argus is the loftiest ice dome on the Antarctic Plateau , located 1200 km inland . It is thought to be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth ; scientists believe that temperatures can sometimes even drop below -102 ° C in the winter . It is the highest ice feature in Antarctica , consisting of an ice dome or eminence of 4093 m elevation above sea level . It is located near the center of East Antarctica , approximately midway between the enormous head of Lambert Glacier and the geographic South Pole , within the Australian claim .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Dome_A", "rank": 49, "score": 127307 }, { "content": "Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Last_Glacial_Maximum", "rank": 50, "score": 127248 }, { "content": "Title: Southern Cross Expedition Content: The Southern Cross Expedition , officially known as the British Antarctic Expedition 1898 -- 1900 , was the first British venture of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration , and the forerunner of the more celebrated journeys of Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton . The brainchild of the Norwegian-born , half-British explorer and schoolmaster Carsten Borchgrevink , it was the first expedition to over-winter on the Antarctic mainland , the first to visit the Great Ice Barrier since James Clark Ross 's expedition of 1839 to 1843 , and the first to effect a landing on the Barrier 's surface . It also pioneered the use of dogs and sledges in Antarctic travel . The expedition was privately financed by the British magazine publisher Sir George Newnes . Borchgrevink 's party sailed in the ship Southern Cross , and spent the southern winter of 1899 at Cape Adare , the northwest extremity of the Ross Sea coastline . Here they carried out an extensive programme of scientific observations , although opportunities for inland exploration were severely restricted by the mountainous and glaciated terrain surrounding the base . In January 1900 the party left Cape Adare in Southern Cross to explore the Ross Sea , following the route taken by Ross sixty years earlier . They reached the Great Ice Barrier , where a team of three made the first sledge journey on the Barrier surface , during which a new Farthest South record latitude was established at 78 ° 50 ′ S. On its return to England the expedition was coolly received by London 's geographical establishment which was resentful of the pre-emption of a role they envisaged for their own National Antarctic ( Discovery ) Expedition . There were also questions about Borchgrevink 's leadership qualities , and criticism of the limited amounts of scientific information which the expedition provided . Despite the groundbreaking achievements in Antarctic survival and travel , Borchgrevink was never accorded the heroic status of Scott or Shackleton , and his expedition was soon forgotten in the dramas which surrounded these and other Heroic Age explorers . However , Roald Amundsen , conqueror of the South Pole in 1911 , acknowledged that Borchgrevink 's expedition had removed the greatest obstacles to Antarctic travel , and had opened the way for all the expeditions that followed .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Southern_Cross_Expedition", "rank": 51, "score": 127215 }, { "content": "Title: West Antarctic Ice Sheet Content: The Western Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) is the segment of the continental ice sheet that covers West ( or Lesser ) Antarctica , the portion of Antarctica on the side of the Transantarctic Mountains which lies in the Western Hemisphere . The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet , meaning that its bed lies well below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves . The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf , the Ronne Ice Shelf , and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea . It is estimated that the volume of the Antarctic ice sheet is about 25.4 million km3 ( 6.1 million cu mi ) , and the WAIS contains just under 10 % of this , or 2.2 million km3 ( 530,000 cu mi ) . The weight of the ice has caused the underlying rock to sink by between 0.5 and 1 kilometres ( 0.31 -- 0.62 mi ) in a process known as isostatic depression . Under the force of its own weight , the ice sheet deforms and flows . The interior ice flows slowly over rough bedrock . In some circumstances , ice can flow faster in ice streams , separated by slow-flowing ice ridges . The inter-stream ridges are frozen to the bed while the bed beneath the ice streams consists of water-saturated sediments . Many of these sediments were deposited before the ice sheet occupied the region , when much of West Antarctica was covered by the ocean . The rapid ice-stream flow is a non-linear process still not fully understood ; streams can start and stop for unclear reasons . When ice reaches the coast , it either calves or continues to flow outward onto the water . The result is a large , floating ice shelf affixed to the continent .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet", "rank": 52, "score": 126689 }, { "content": "Title: Bald notothen Content: Pagothenia borchgrevinki , the bald notothen or bald rockcod is a species of cod icefish native to the Southern Ocean where it is found in the Weddell Sea , the Ross Sea , the Davis Sea , in Vincennes Bay , and around the Budd Coast , the Antarctic Peninsula , South Orkneys and South Shetland Islands . It can be found at depths of from the surface to 550 m though it is much rarer below 30 m . This species is often found along the under surfaces of ice foraging for prey such as sympagic copepods and krill . In turn , it is known to be preyed upon by the ploughfish , Gymnodraco acuticeps and the Antarctic toothfish , Dissostichus mawsoni . Antifreeze proteins in its blood prevent it freezing in the subzero water temperatures of Antarctica . Growing to a maximum length of about 28 cm TL , it is yellow with dark spots and irregular crossbars . Its dorsal and caudal fins may occasionally also be spotted .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Bald_notothen", "rank": 53, "score": 126500 }, { "content": "Title: Nototheniidae Content: The cod icefishes or nothothens are the family Nototheniidae of acanthopterygian fishes . They are traditionally placed in the perciform assemblage together with their relatives , but like every lineage in the `` Perciformes '' , their actual relationships are not yet determined with certainty . They are largely found in the Southern Ocean and off the coast of Antarctica . As the dominant Antarctic fish taxa , they occupy both sea-bottom and water-column ecological niches . Although lacking a gas bladder , they have undergone a depth-related diversification , such as increased fatty tissues and reduced mineralization of the bones , resulting in a body density approaching neutral , to fill a variety of niches . The spleen may be used to remove ice crystals from circulating blood . As the chilly subantarctic waters averages -- 1 to 4 ° C , most Antarctic species have antifreeze glycoproteins in their blood and other body fluids . Some species exhibit polymorphism , for example , the circum-Antarctic Trematomus newnesi exists as two morphs in the Ross Sea , the typical morph and a large-mouthed/broad-headed morph . As the major fish resource in the Southern Ocean , notothens are under increasing pressure from commercial fishing .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Nototheniidae", "rank": 54, "score": 126497 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica Content: Antarctica ( UK English -LSB- ænˈtɑːktɪkə -RSB- or -LSB- ænˈtɑːtɪkə -RSB- , US English -LSB- æntˈɑːrktɪkə -RSB- ) is Earth 's southernmost continent . It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere , almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle , and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean . At 14000000 km2 , it is the fifth-largest continent . For comparison , Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia . About 98 % of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness , which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula . Antarctica , on average , is the coldest , driest , and windiest continent , and has the highest average elevation of all the continents . Antarctica is a desert , with annual precipitation of only 200 mm ( 8 in ) along the coast and far less inland . The temperature in Antarctica has reached − 89.2 ° C ( − 128.6 ° F ) , though the average for the third quarter ( the coldest part of the year ) is − 63 ° C ( − 81 ° F ) . Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent . Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae , bacteria , fungi , plants , protista , and certain animals , such as mites , nematodes , penguins , seals and tardigrades . Vegetation , where it occurs , is tundra . Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ( `` Southern Land '' ) date back to antiquity , Antarctica is noted as the last region on Earth in recorded history to be discovered and colonised by humans , being only first sighted in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny , who sighted the Fimbul ice shelf . The continent , however , remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment , lack of easily accessible resources , and isolation . In 1895 , the first confirmed landing was conducted by a team of Norwegians . Antarctica is a de facto condominium , governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status . Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 , and thirty-eight have signed it since then . The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining , prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal , supports scientific research , and protects the continent 's ecozone . Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Antarctica", "rank": 55, "score": 126464 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Content: The Antarctic ( US English -LSB- æntˈɑrktɪk -RSB- , UK English -LSB- ænˈtɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- æntˈɑrtɪk -RSB- and -LSB- ænˈtɑrtɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ænˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region , specifically the region around the Earth 's South Pole , opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole . The Antarctic comprises in the strict sense the continent of Antarctica and the island territories located on the Antarctic Plate . In a broader sense the Antarctic region include the ice shelves , waters , and island territories in the Southern Ocean situated south of the Antarctic Convergence , a zone approximately 32 to wide varying in latitude seasonally . The region covers some 20 % of the Southern Hemisphere , of which 5.5 % ( 14 million km2 ) is the surface area of the Antarctic continent itself . All of the land and ice shelves south of 60 ° S latitude are administrated under the Antarctic Treaty System . In a biogeographic sense , the Antarctic ecozone is one of eight ecozones of the Earth 's land surface .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Antarctic", "rank": 56, "score": 125150 }, { "content": "Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Ice_age", "rank": 57, "score": 125045 }, { "content": "Title: Measurement of sea ice Content: Measurement of sea ice is important for safety of navigation and for monitoring the environment , particularly the climate . Sea ice extent interacts with large climate patterns such as the North Atlantic oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation , to name just two , and influences climate in the rest of the globe . The amount of sea ice coverage in the arctic has been of interest for centuries , as the Northwest Passage was of high interest for trade and seafaring . There is a longstanding history of records and measurements of some effects of the sea ice extent , but comprehensive measurements were sparse till the 1950s and started with the satellite era in the late 1970s . Modern direct records include data about ice extent , ice area , concentration , thickness , and the age of the ice . The current trends in the records show a significant decline in Northern hemisphere sea ice and a small but statistically significant increase in the winter Southern hemisphere sea ice . Furthermore , current research comprises and establishes extensive sets of multi-century historical records of arctic and subarctic sea ice and uses , among others high-resolution paleo-proxy sea-ice records . The arctic sea ice is a dynamic climate-system component and is linked to the Atlantic multidecadal variability and the historical climate over various decades . There are circular changes of sea ice patterns but so far no clear patterns based on modeling predictions .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Measurement_of_sea_ice", "rank": 58, "score": 124623 }, { "content": "Title: Bay of Whales Content: The Bay of Whales was a natural ice harbor , or iceport , indenting the front of Ross Ice Shelf just north of Roosevelt Island , Antarctica . It is the southernmost point of open ocean not only of the Ross Sea , but worldwide . The Ross Sea extends much further south -- as far as the Gould Coast , some 320 km from the South Pole -- but most of that area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf rather than open sea .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Bay_of_Whales", "rank": 59, "score": 124568 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 60, "score": 124222 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Plate Content: The Antarctic Plate is a tectonic plate containing the continent of Antarctica and extending outward under the surrounding oceans . After breakup from Gondwana ( the southern part of the supercontinent Pangea ) , the Antarctic plate began moving the continent of Antarctica south to its present isolated location causing the continent to develop a much colder climate . The Antarctic Plate is bounded almost entirely by extensional mid-ocean ridge systems . The adjoining plates are the Nazca Plate , the South American Plate , the African Plate , the Indo-Australian Plate , the Pacific Plate , and , across a transform boundary , the Scotia Plate . The Antarctic plate has an area of about 60,900,000 km2 . It is the Earth 's fifth largest plate . The Antarctic plate 's movement is estimated to be at least 1 cm per year towards the Atlantic Ocean .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Antarctic_Plate", "rank": 61, "score": 123970 }, { "content": "Title: Ice core Content: An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet , most commonly from the polar ice caps of Antarctica , Greenland or from high mountain glaciers elsewhere . As the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow , lower layers are older than upper , and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years . The properties of the ice and the recrystallized inclusions within the ice can then be used to reconstruct a climatic record over the age range of the core , normally through isotopic analysis . This enables the reconstruction of local temperature records and the history of atmospheric composition . Ice cores contain an abundance of information about climate . Inclusions in the snow of each year remain in the ice , such as wind-blown dust , ash , pollen , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . The length of the record depends on the depth of the ice core and varies from a few years up to 800 kyr ( 800,000 years ) for the EPICA core . The time resolution ( i.e. the shortest time period which can be accurately distinguished ) depends on the amount of annual snowfall , and reduces with depth as the ice compacts under the weight of layers accumulating on top of it . Upper layers of ice in a core correspond to a single year or sometimes a single season . Deeper into the ice the layers thin and annual layers become indistinguishable . An ice core from the right site can be used to reconstruct an uninterrupted and detailed climate record extending over hundreds of thousands of years , providing information on a wide variety of aspects of climate at each point in time . It is the simultaneity of these properties recorded in the ice that makes ice cores such a powerful tool in paleoclimate research .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Ice_core", "rank": 62, "score": 123959 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic ice pack Content: The Arctic ice pack is the ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity . The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring and summer , reaches a minimum around mid-September , then increases during fall and winter . Summer ice cover in the Arctic is about 50 % of winter cover . Some of the ice survives from one year to the next . Currently 28 % of Arctic basin sea ice is multi-year ice , thicker than seasonal ice : up to 3 - thick over large areas , with ridges up to 20 m thick . As well as the regular seasonal cycle there has been an underlying trend of declining sea ice in the Arctic in recent decades .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Arctic_ice_pack", "rank": 63, "score": 123715 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback", "rank": 64, "score": 123585 }, { "content": "Title: Mount Oceanite Content: Mount Oceanite is a conspicuous ice-covered mountain ( probably an extinct volcano ) rising to 915 m in the extreme southeast corner of Montagu Island , South Sandwich Islands . The name applied by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) in 1971 refers to the oceanite lavas present in this area , which occur nowhere else in the South Sandwich Islands . Oceanite , Mount", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Mount_Oceanite", "rank": 65, "score": 123304 }, { "content": "Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "John_H._Mercer", "rank": 66, "score": 123158 }, { "content": "Title: Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica Content: The Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica is a research program consisting of two overland traverses of East Antarctica : the first from the Norwegian Troll Station to the South Pole in the 2007/2008 season ; and a return traverse via a different route in 2008/2009 . The main research focus of the program is climate change , the stated goals being to : Investigate climate variability in Dronning Maud Land of East Antarctica on time scales of years to a thousand years . Establish spatial and temporal variability in snow accumulation over this area of Antarctica to understand its impact on sea level . Investigate the impact of atmospheric and oceanic variability on the chemical composition of firn and ice in the region . Revisit areas and sites first explored by traverses in the 1960s , for detection of possible changes and to establish benchmark data sets for future research efforts . The program is part of Trans-Antarctic Scientific Traverse Expeditions -- Ice Divide of East Antarctica ( TASTE-IDEA ) , and the International Partners in Ice Coring Sciences ( IPICS ) , both of which have ISCU-WMO endorsement for the International Polar Year 2007-2009 .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Norwegian-U.S._Scientific_Traverse_of_East_Antarctica", "rank": 67, "score": 123125 }, { "content": "Title: Cooperation Sea Content: Cooperation Sea , also called Commonwealth Sea ( erratum ) or Sodruzhestvo Sea , is a proposed sea name for part of the Southern Ocean , between Enderby Land ( the eastern limit of which is 59 ° 34 ` E ) and West Ice Shelf ( 85 ° E ) , off the coast of MacRobertson Land and Princess Elizabeth Land . It would stretch over an area of 258,000 km ² . It would be bordered by the Davis Sea on the east , and by another Russian proposal to the 2002 International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) draft , a Cosmonauts Sea to the west . The Cooperation Sea was named in 1962 by the Soviet Antarctic Expedition in honor of international science cooperation in Antarctica . The name first appeared as a proposal to the IHO in the IHO 2002 draft . This draft was never approved by the IHO ( or any other organization ) , and the 1953 IHO document ( which does not contain the name ) remains currently in force . Leading geographic authorities and atlases do not use the name , including the 2014 10th edition of the World Atlas from the United States ' National Geographic Society and the 2014 12th edition of the British Times Atlas of the World . But Soviet and Russian-issued maps do . Davis Station is located on the coast near here .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Cooperation_Sea", "rank": 68, "score": 122635 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Ocean Content: The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean . Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 69, "score": 122393 }, { "content": "Title: Tim Naish Content: Tim Naish is a New Zealand glaciologist . He is the Director of the Antarctic Research Centre , Victoria University of Wellington , New Zealand . He has written about the collapse of Antarctica 's Larsen B ice shelf . In 2002 , between January 31 and March 7 the Larsen B ice shelf collapsed and broke up . Tim Naish warned that the ice shelf of Weddell Sea is imperiled , and if the temperature rises by 3 ° C , the ice shelves of Antarctica will become thinner . `` These are dramatic changes '' -- said Tim Naish . In 2009 , Professor Naish was awarded a New Zealand Antarctic Medal ( NZAM ) for services to Antarctic climate science .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Tim_Naish", "rank": 70, "score": 122359 }, { "content": "Title: Channichthyidae Content: The crocodile icefish or white-blooded fish ( Channichthyidae ) comprise a family of notothenioid fish found in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica and southern South America , where water temperatures remain relatively stable ( generally ranging from -1.8 to +2.0 ° C ) . Sixteen species of crocodile icefish are currently recognized .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Channichthyidae", "rank": 71, "score": 122064 }, { "content": "Title: Polar Sea Content: Polar Sea may refer to : The Arctic Ocean The Southern Ocean USCGC Polar Sea ( WAGB-11 ) , a United States Coast Guard icebreaker The Open Polar Sea , a hypothesized ice-free ocean surrounding the North Pole", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Polar_Sea", "rank": 72, "score": 121816 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 73, "score": 121561 }, { "content": "Title: Notothenioidei Content: Notothenioidei is one of 18 suborders from the order Perciformes and includes Antarctic fish and sub-Antarctic fish . Notothenioids are distributed mainly throughout the Southern Ocean around the coasts of New Zealand , South America , and Antarctica . The main seawater temperatures between − 2 and 4 ° C ( 28 and 39 ° F ) , but some the subpolar species inhabit waters that may be as warm as 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) around New Zealand and South America . Seawater temperatures below the freezing point of fresh water ( 0 ° C or 32 ° F ) are possible due to the dissolved salts . Notothenioids have a depth range of about 0 -- 1,500 m ( 0 -- 4,921 ft ) . Comparison studies between sub-Antarctic and Antarctic notothenioids have revealed different ecological processes and genetic differences between the two groups of fish , like loss of hemoglobin and changes in buoyancy .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Notothenioidei", "rank": 74, "score": 121545 }, { "content": "Title: Dakshin Gangotri Glacier Content: The Dakshin Gangotri Glacier is a small tongue of the polar continental ice sheet impinging on the Schirmacher Oasis of central Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . It was discovered by the Second Indian Expedition to Antarctica in 1983 , and named for India 's first Antarctic research station . Since then its snout , and the area around it , has been regularly monitored and it has become a valuable site for tracking the impact of global warming through changes in the movement of the Antarctic ice sheet . The site is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area ( ASPA ) No. 163 .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Dakshin_Gangotri_Glacier", "rank": 75, "score": 120842 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Peter_Doran", "rank": 76, "score": 120791 }, { "content": "Title: East Antarctica Content: East Antarctica , also called Greater Antarctica , constitutes the majority ( two-thirds ) of the Antarctic continent , lying on the Indian Ocean side of the continent , separated from West Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains . It lies almost entirely within the Eastern Hemisphere and its name has been accepted for more than a century . It is generally higher than West Antarctica and includes the Gamburtsev Mountain Range in the centre . Apart from small areas of the coast , East Antarctica is permanently covered by ice . The only terrestrial plant life is lichens , mosses and algae clinging to rocks , and there are a limited range of invertebrates including nematodes , springtails , mites and midges . The coasts are the breeding ground for various seabirds and penguins , and the leopard seal , Weddell seal , elephant seal , crabeater seal and Ross seal breed on the surrounding pack ice in summer .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "East_Antarctica", "rank": 77, "score": 120744 }, { "content": "Title: Mercer Ice Stream Content: Mercer Ice Stream , formerly Ice Stream A , flows west to Gould Coast to the south of Whillans Ice Stream , Antarctica . It is the southernmost of several major ice streams draining from Marie Byrd Land into the Ross Ice Shelf . The ice streams were investigated and mapped by U.S. Antarctic Research Program personnel in a number of field seasons from 1983 -- 84 and named Ice Stream A , B , C , etc. , according to their position from south to north . The name was changed by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2002 to honor Quaternary geologist John H. Mercer ( 1922 -- 87 ) of the Institute of Polar Studies ( now the Byrd Polar Research Center ) , Ohio State University , who mapped the moraines above Reedy Glacier and in the Ohio Range at the head of Horlick Ice Stream , the major tributaries to Mercer Ice Stream .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Mercer_Ice_Stream", "rank": 78, "score": 120129 }, { "content": "Title: Amundsen Icefall Content: Amundsen Icefall is a steep and turbulent icefall where the Axel Heiberg Glacier descends from the polar plateau between Mount Fridtjof Nansen and Mount Don Pedro Christophersen , in the Queen Maud Mountains of Antarctica . Named by the Southern Party of the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition ( 1961 -- 62 ) for Captain Roald Amundsen , who ascended Axel Heiberg Glacier en route to the South Pole in 1911 .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Amundsen_Icefall", "rank": 79, "score": 119671 }, { "content": "Title: Iceberg B31 Content: Iceberg B31 is a large iceberg that formed in November 2013 , when it separated from the Pine Island Glacier . B31 is heading into the Antarctic ocean , which may have possible repercusions for international shipping . Soon it would not be possible to track the iceberg as the winter darkness completely hides it . The ice island is 20 miles by 12 miles and 500 m of height . It was first observed by Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , an instrument on NASA 's Terra and Aqua satellites of NASA .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Iceberg_B31", "rank": 80, "score": 119661 }, { "content": "Title: SY Aurora's drift Content: The drift of the Antarctic exploration vessel SY Aurora was an ordeal which lasted 312 days , during the Ross Sea chapter of Sir Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition , 1914 -- 17 . It began when the ship broke loose from its anchorage in McMurdo Sound in May 1915 , during a gale . Caught in heavy pack ice and unable to manoeuvre , Aurora , with eighteen men aboard , was carried into the open waters of the Ross Sea and Southern Ocean , leaving ten men stranded ashore with meagre provisions . Aurora , a 40-year-old former Arctic whaler registered as a steam yacht , had brought the Ross Sea party to Cape Evans in McMurdo Sound in January 1915 , to establish its base there in support of Shackleton 's proposed transcontinental crossing . When Aurora 's captain Aeneas Mackintosh took charge of activities ashore , first officer Joseph Stenhouse assumed command of the ship . Stenhouse 's inexperience may have contributed to the choice of an inappropriate winter 's berth , although his options were restricted by the instructions of his superiors . After the ship was blown away it suffered severe damage in the ice , including the destruction of its rudder and the loss of its anchors ; on several occasions its situation was such that Stenhouse considered abandonment . Efforts to make wireless contact with Cape Evans and , later , with stations in New Zealand and Australia , were unavailing ; the drift extended through the southern winter and spring to reach a position north of the Antarctic Circle . In February 1916 the ice finally broke up , and a month later the ship was free . It was subsequently able to reach New Zealand for repairs and resupply , before returning to Antarctica to rescue the surviving members of the shore party . Despite his role in saving the ship , after Aurora 's arrival in Port Chalmers Stenhouse was removed from command by the organisers of the Ross Sea party relief expedition , so the ship returned to McMurdo Sound under a new commander and with a substantially different crew . Stenhouse was later appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) for his service aboard Aurora .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "SY_Aurora's_drift", "rank": 81, "score": 119449 }, { "content": "Title: Cape Polar Sea Content: Cape Polar Sea is a rock cape that forms the west extremity of Coulman Island in northwest Ross Sea . Named in 1998 by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) after USCGC Polar Sea , an icebreaker in support of United States Antarctic Program ( USAP ) activities in the Ross , Amundsen and Bellingshausen Seas , and other Antarctic coastal areas during 11 seasons , 1980-1997 . The cape lies in proximity to Cape Polar Star and Glacier Strait , two features named earlier for American icebreakers . Category : Headlands of Victoria Land Category : Borchgrevink Coast", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Cape_Polar_Sea", "rank": 82, "score": 119435 }, { "content": "Title: Ackley Point Content: Ackley Point is an ice-covered point 1 mi southeast of Cone Hill on the east side of Hut Point Peninsula , Ross Island . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in 2000 after Stephen F. Ackley , Snow and Ice Division , U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory ( CRREL ) , Hanover , New Hampshire , a United States Antarctic Program ( USAP ) sea ice specialist who worked in McMurdo Sound and diverse parts of the Southern Ocean for more than 25 years , dating from the 1976 -- 77 austral season . Category : Headlands of Ross Island", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Ackley_Point", "rank": 83, "score": 119222 }, { "content": "Title: Sympagic ecology Content: A sympagic environment is one where water exists mostly as a solid , ice , such as a polar ice cap or glacier . Solid sea ice is permeated with channels filled with salty brine . These briny channels and the sea ice itself have its ecology , referred to as `` sympagic ecology '' . Residents of temperate or tropical climates often assume , mistakenly , that ice and snow are devoid of life . In fact , a number of varieties of algae such as diatoms engage in photosynthesis in arctic and alpine regions of Earth . Other energy sources include Aeolian dust and pollen swept in from other regions . These ecosystems also include bacteria and fungi , as well as animals like flatworms and crustaceans . A number of sympagic worm species are commonly called ice worms . Additionally , the ocean has abundant plankton , and prolific algal blooms occur in the polar regions each summer as well as in high mountain lakes , bringing nutrients to those parts of the ice in contact with the water . In the spring , krill can scrape off the green lawn of ice algae from the underside of the pack ice .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Sympagic_ecology", "rank": 84, "score": 119074 }, { "content": "Title: Haskell Strait, Antarctica Content: Haskell Strait refers to the ocean passage in southern McMurdo Sound , running between Cape Armitage , Ross Island and Cape Spencer-Smith , White Island , Antarctica . Oceanographically , it separates McMurdo Sound from the ocean basin ( ice shelf cavity ) beneath the Ross Ice Shelf . The Strait itself is around 25 km wide and in places over 900 m deep . Currents of nearly half a knot have been measured in the Strait , although typical flows are lower . It is mostly covered by the ice of the McMurdo Ice Shelf and fast ice in southern McMurdo Sound . On rare occasions sea-ice breakout exposes the north-west corner of the Strait which becomes navigable and vessels can actually moor off Scott Base .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Haskell_Strait,_Antarctica", "rank": 85, "score": 119046 }, { "content": "Title: Sea smoke Content: Sea smoke , frost smoke , or steam fog , is fog which is formed when very cold air moves over warmer water . Arctic sea smoke is sea smoke forming over small patches of open water in sea ice . It forms when a light wind of very cold air mixes with a shallow layer of saturated warm air immediately above the warmer water . The warmer air is cooled beyond the dew point and can no longer hold as much water vapor , so the excess condenses out . The effect is similar to the `` steam '' produced over a hot bath or a hot drink , or even an exercising person . Sea smoke has a turbulent appearance and may form spiralling columns . It is usually not very high and lookouts on ships can usually see over it ( but small boats may have very poor visibility ) because the fog is confined to the layer of warm air above the sea . However , sea smoke columns 20 -- 30 metres high have been observed . Because this type of fog requires very low air temperatures , it is uncommon in temperate climates , but is common in the Arctic and Antarctic .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Sea_smoke", "rank": 86, "score": 119030 }, { "content": "Title: Sea ice thickness Content: Sea ice thickness spatial extent , and open water within ice packs can vary rapidly in response to weather and climate . Sea ice concentration are measured by satellites , with the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder ( SSMIS ) , and the European Space Agency 's Cryosat-2 satellite to map the thickness and shape of the Earth 's polar ice cover . The sea ice volume is calculated with the Pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System ( PIOMAS ) , which blends satellite-observed data , such as sea ice concentrations into model calculations to estimate sea ice thickness and volume . Sea ice thickness determines a number of important fluxes such as heat flux between the air and ocean surface -- see below -- as well as salt and fresh water fluxes between the ocean since saline water ejects much of its salt content when frozen -- see sea ice growth processes . It is also important for navigators on icebreakers since there is an upper limit to the thickness of ice any ship can sail through .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Sea_ice_thickness", "rank": 87, "score": 119005 }, { "content": "Title: Joice Icefall Content: Joice Icefall is an icefall draining from the Antarctic polar plateau through the Millen Range into Lensen Glacier . It was named by the southern party of the New Zealand Federated Mountain Clubs Antarctic Expedition , 1962 -- 63 , after I. Joice , a field assistant to the party .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Joice_Icefall", "rank": 88, "score": 118910 }, { "content": "Title: Heard Island glaciers Content: The Heard Island glaciers covered 79 percent of Heard Island itself , in 1947 , covering 288 km2 ; by 1988 , this had decreased by 11 percent to 257 km2 . The glaciers fall under the Antarctic Environmental Gradient , which spans 30 degrees of latitude and includes a range of macro-climatic zones from cool temperate islands to the frigid and arid Antarctic continent . Glaciers extend from 2745 m to sea level , with ice up to 150 m deep.The geologic movement of the glaciers can appear fast-flowing due to the steep slope and high precipitation , and are particularly sensitive to climatic fluctuations . Measurements between 1947 and 1980 show glacial retreat , particularly on the eastern flanks , is correlated with changes in weather patterns . A 29 % reduction in area of the Brown Glacier from 1947-2003 was observed . The volcano Big Ben , from which all the glaciers drain , has shown no sign of changing geothermal output to cause the melting ; a 1 degree Celsius warming has occurred over the same time period . Glaciologists continue to study the Brown Glacier , detailing surveys of the glacier 's snout and surface , which determine if glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated . Measurements on the mass balance of the glacier , as well as more detailed ice thickness measurements using a portable radar echo sounder , were undertaken . Monitoring of climatic conditions continues , with emphasis on the impact of Foehn winds on glacier mass balance . An expedition by scientists from the Australian Antarctic Division recently visited the volcanic island in 2009 , observing glaciers that had retreated 50 metres in three years . Repairs were made to an automatic weather station established in November 2000 . Glaciologist Dr. Ian Allison cites that the latest aerial surveys that show continuous rapid melt and that satellite imagery shows the island double in size due to volcanic activity .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Heard_Island_glaciers", "rank": 89, "score": 118855 }, { "content": "Title: Census of Antarctic Marine Life Content: The Census of Antarctic Marine Life ( CAML ) is a field project of the Census of Marine Life that researches the marine biodiversity of Antarctica , how it is affected by climate change , and how this change is altering the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean . The program started in 2005 as a 5-year initiative with the scientific goal being to study the evolution of life in Antarctic waters , to determine how this has influenced the diversity of the present biota , and use these observations to predict how it might respond to future change . However , due to modern and extravagant changes within technology , we are able to witness and influence biodiversity reproduction and development . This enables us to gain further insight toward characteristics that allow such biodiversity to flourish within this barren desert referred to as the Arctic and Antarctic . CAML has collected its data from 18 Antarctic research vessels during the International Polar Year , which is freely accessible at Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research Marine Biodiversity Information Network ( SCAR-MarBIN ) . The Register of Antarctic Marine Species has 9,350 verified species ( 16,500 taxa ) in 17 phyla , from microbes to whales . For 1500 species the DNA barcode is available . The information from CAML is a robust baseline against which future change may be measured .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Census_of_Antarctic_Marine_Life", "rank": 90, "score": 118744 }, { "content": "Title: Sea ice growth processes Content: Sea ice is a complex composite composed primarily of pure ice in various states of crystallization along with air bubbles and included pockets of brine . Understanding its growth processes is important both for climate scientists for use in simulations as well remote sensing specialists since the composition and microstructural properties of the ice ultimately affect how it interacts with electromagnetic radiation . Sea ice growth models for predicting the ice distribution and extent are also valuable for shipping concerns . An ice growth model can be combined with remote sensing measurements in an assimilation model as a means of generating more accurate ice charts .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Sea_ice_growth_processes", "rank": 91, "score": 118455 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Convergence Content: The Antarctic Convergence is a curve continuously encircling Antarctica , varying in latitude seasonally , where cold , northward-flowing Antarctic waters meet the relatively warmer waters of the subantarctic . Antarctic waters predominantly sink beneath subantarctic waters , while associated zones of mixing and upwelling create a zone very high in marine productivity , especially for Antarctic krill . This line , like the Arctic tree line , is a natural boundary rather than an artificial one like a line of latitude . It not only separates two hydrological regions , but also separates areas of distinctive marine life associations and of different climates . There is no Arctic equivalent , due to the amount of land surrounding the northern polar region .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Antarctic_Convergence", "rank": 92, "score": 118273 }, { "content": "Title: Ice pier Content: An ice pier is a man-made structure used to assist the unloading of ships in Antarctica . It is constructed by pumping seawater into a contained area and allowing the water to freeze . By repeating this procedure several times , additional layers are built up . The final structure is many metres in thickness , and strong enough to support container trucks . Operation Deep Freeze personnel constructed the first floating ice pier at Antarctica 's southernmost sea port at McMurdo Station in 1973 . Ice piers have been in use each summer season since , at McMurdo 's natural harbor at Winter Quarters Bay located at . The harbor is positioned on the southern tip of Ross Island . Historically , two supply ships , a freighter and a tanker , arrive at the ice pier each summer , after an icebreaker opens a ship channel through pack ice . The ice pier 's key function is to provide a platform for freight trucks to come alongside a supply ship to receive or offload cargo . Steel cables attached to shoreline hold the dock in a fixed position . Port officials distribute freight arriving at the dock to McMurdo Station , nearby Scott Base , and to field camps as far away as the South Pole . Imports include virtually any materials needed to support personnel living and working in Antarctica . Exports range from items such as scientific ice core samples and human waste collected from field camps to broken equipment and recyclables for return to the United States for processing . Ice piers typically have a lifespan of three to five years . Once an ice pier is no longer usable , icebreakers tow the pier to sea to be cast adrift .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Ice_pier", "rank": 93, "score": 117663 }, { "content": "Title: John Balleny Content: John Balleny ( died 1857 ) was the English captain of a whaling schooner , the Eliza Scott , who led an exploration cruise for the English whaling firm Samuel Enderby & Sons to the Antarctic in 1838-1839 . During this expedition , Balleny , sailing in company with Thomas Freeman and the Sabrina , sailed into the Southern Ocean along a corridor of longitude centering on the line of 175 ° E. , south of New Zealand . The Balleny squadron logged a partial break in the pack ice surrounding the southern continent , discovered the Balleny Islands in February 1839 , and caught a brief sight of Antarctica itself at 64 ° 58 'S . , 121 ° 08 ` E . This patch of icy land is today called the Sabrina Coast . The Balleny corridor through the Southern Ocean would be used by future explorers such as Robert Scott , Ernest Shackleton , Roald Amundsen , and Richard Byrd , and is used today by surface vessels resupplying McMurdo and other scientific bases located in and around the Ross Sea sector of Antarctica .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "John_Balleny", "rank": 94, "score": 117552 }, { "content": "Title: Ross Ice Shelf Content: The Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica ( an area of roughly 487000 sqkm and about 800 km across : about the size of France ) . It is several hundred metres thick . The nearly vertical ice front to the open sea is more than 600 km long , and between 15 and high above the water surface . Ninety percent of the floating ice , however , is below the water surface . Most of Ross Ice Shelf is in the Ross Dependency claimed by New Zealand . It floats in , and covers , a large southern portion of the Ross Sea and the entire Roosevelt Island located in the west of the Ross Sea . The ice shelf is named after Captain Sir James Clark Ross , who discovered it on 28 January 1841 . It was originally called The Barrier , with various adjectives including Great Ice Barrier , as it prevented sailing further south . Ross mapped the ice front eastward to 160 ° W . In 1947 , the US Board on Geographic Names applied the name Ross Shelf Ice to this feature and published it in the original US Antarctic Gazetteer . In January 1953 the name was changed to Ross Ice Shelf ; that name was published in 1956 .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Ross_Ice_Shelf", "rank": 95, "score": 117368 }, { "content": "Title: Nordenskjöld Ice Tongue Content: Nordenskjöld Ice Tongue is a broad glacier tongue extending eastward from the Mawson Glacier into the Ross Sea in Antarctica . Discovered by the Discovery expedition ( 1901 -- 04 ) and named for Otto Nordenskjöld . Although this feature is a glacier tongue , the generic term ice tongue is retained in the name to reduce ambiguity .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Nordenskjöld_Ice_Tongue", "rank": 96, "score": 117366 }, { "content": "Title: Grease ice Content: Grease ice is a very thin , soupy layer of frazil crystals clumped together , which makes the ocean surface resemble an oil slick . Grease ice is the second stage in the formation of solid sea ice after ice floes and then frazil ice . New sea ice formation takes place throughout the winter in the Arctic . The first ice that forms in a polynya are loose ice crystals called frazil ice . If the level of turbulence is sufficient , the frazil ice will be mixed down into the upper layer and form a surface layer of grease ice . The term ` grease ice ' follows World Meteorological Organization nomenclature . Grease ice differs from ` slush ' , where slush is similarly created by snow falling into the top layer of an ocean basin , river , or lake . The two terms are related due to the process of ice crystals being blown into a polynya which can be the initiation of the grease ice layer , given a minimum level of mixing and cooling of the ocean surface .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Grease_ice", "rank": 97, "score": 117304 }, { "content": "Title: International Weddell Sea Oceanographic Expeditions Content: The International Weddell Sea Oceanographic Expeditions or IWSOE are a series of scientific research expeditions to the Weddell Sea begun in 1967 , involving cooperation among Norway , Canada , Chile and the United States . The Weddell Sea , part of the Southern Ocean , is a unique scientific research environment . The outflow of Weddell Sea Bottom Water and Antarctic Bottom Water formed in the Weddell and Ross Seas is a major source of oceanic deep water and changes affecting the formation of these water masses are liable to have an effect on the circulation of deep water globally . The water of the Weddell Sea is about 1400 m deep at its deepest point ; it is exceptionally clear ( the Secchi disk visibility reading at 80 metres recorded in the Weddell Sea on 13 October 1986 was the deepest ever , at the theoretical maximum in absolutely pure water ) . Much of the southern part of the sea is permanent ice , the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf , which can be up to 600 m thick . IWSOE research projects have involved a variety of institutions and covered a wide range of disciplines . For example , in 1969 scientists from the Universities of Bergen ( Norway ) and Minnesota , Connecticut and California , Los Angeles ( USA ) , and the US Coast Guard Oceanographic Unit studied the formation of Antarctic Bottom Water , the population density and diversity of the deep sea benthos of the Weddell Sea , the population dynamics of Antarctic seals and sedimentation processes in the Weddell Sea and carried out physical , chemical and photographic oceanographic surveys . Other subjects of IWSOE research include the Weddell Sea currents and the biology of krill , a species of zooplankton abundant in the area . The expeditions were initially led aboard the USCGC Glacier , an icebreaker modified for oceanographic research which in 1968 was the first ship to cross the Weddell Sea from the edge of the ice pack to the continental landmass . At the time , the Glacier was the world 's largest icebreaker .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "International_Weddell_Sea_Oceanographic_Expeditions", "rank": 98, "score": 117146 }, { "content": "Title: Bathylagus antarcticus Content: Bathylagus antarcticus , the Antarctic deep-sea smelt , is a deep-sea smelt found in all the southern oceans as far south as Antarctica , to depths of 4000 m . This species grows to a length of 14 cm SL .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Bathylagus_antarcticus", "rank": 99, "score": 117028 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic methane emissions Content: Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas . The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits . Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .", "qid": "2841", "docid": "Arctic_methane_emissions", "rank": 100, "score": 117011 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 1, "score": 156336 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 2, "score": 138820 }, { "content": "Title: International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set Content: The International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set ( ICOADS ) is a digital database of 261 million weather observations made by ships , weather ships , and weather buoys spanning the years 1662 to 2007 . The database was initially constructed in 1985 and continues to be expanded upon and updated on a regular basis . From the original data , gridded datasets were created . ICOADS information has been useful in determining the reliability of ship and buoy wind measurements , helping to determine temperature trends in the sea surface temperature field , and updating the Atlantic hurricane database .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "International_Comprehensive_Ocean-Atmosphere_Data_Set", "rank": 3, "score": 123010 }, { "content": "Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level", "rank": 4, "score": 117478 }, { "content": "Title: Older Peron Content: The Older Peron was the name for a period identified in 1961 as an episode of a global sea-level ( i.e. eustatic ) high-stand during the Holocene Epoch . Modern understanding of the various factors involved in quantifying eustatic sea level , particularly processes relating to ocean siphoning and glacio-hydro-isostatic adjustment , claim that such previous instances of purported high-stands were not globally coherent , and do not constitute episodes of eustatic sea level higher than present .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Older_Peron", "rank": 5, "score": 115824 }, { "content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Past_sea_level", "rank": 6, "score": 115386 }, { "content": "Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''", "qid": "2843", "docid": "James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)", "rank": 7, "score": 115049 }, { "content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1A", "rank": 8, "score": 111215 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Sea_level", "rank": 9, "score": 107905 }, { "content": "Title: Global Sea Level Observing System Content: The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System", "rank": 10, "score": 106138 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 11, "score": 103977 }, { "content": "Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Sea-level_curve", "rank": 12, "score": 103646 }, { "content": "Title: HadCRUT Content: HadCRUT is the dataset of monthly instrumental temperature records formed by combining the sea surface temperature records compiled by the Hadley Centre of the UK Met Office and the land surface air temperature records compiled by the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) of the University of East Anglia . The data is provided on a grid of boxes covering the globe , with values provided for only those boxes containing temperature observations in a particular month and year . Interpolation is not applied to infill missing values . The first version of HadCRUT initially spanned the period 1881 -- 1993 , and this was later extended to begin in 1850 and to be regularly updated to the current year/month in near real-time .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "HadCRUT", "rank": 13, "score": 102803 }, { "content": "Title: SeaDataNet Content: SeaDataNet is an international project of oceanography . Its main goal is to enable the scientific community to access historical datasets owned by national data centers .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "SeaDataNet", "rank": 14, "score": 101992 }, { "content": "Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Equilibrium_level", "rank": 15, "score": 101984 }, { "content": "Title: CORA dataset Content: CORA ( standing for Coriolis Ocean database ReAnalysis ) is a global oceanographic temperature and salinity dataset produced and maintained by the French institute IFREMER . Most of those data are real-time data coming from different types of platforms ( research vessels , profilers , underwater gliders , drifting buoys , moored buoys , sea mammals , opportunity ships , ... ) .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "CORA_dataset", "rank": 16, "score": 101661 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Level Datum of 1929 Content: The Sea Level Datum of 1929 was the vertical control datum established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America by the General Adjustment of 1929 . The datum was used to measure elevation ( altitude ) above , and depression ( depth ) below , mean sea level ( MSL ) . Mean sea level was measured at 26 tide gauges : 21 in the United States and 5 in Canada . The datum was defined by the observed heights of mean sea level at the 26 tide gauges and by the set of elevations of all bench marks resulting from the adjustment . The adjustment required a total of 66,315 miles ( 106,724 km ) of leveling with 246 closed circuits and 25 circuits at sea level . Since the Sea Level Datum of 1929 was a hybrid model , it was not a pure model of mean sea level , the geoid , or any other equipotential surface . Therefore , it was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) in 1973 . NGVD29 was superseded by the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) , based upon an equipotential definition and a readjustment , although many cities and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects with established data continued to use the older datum .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929", "rank": 17, "score": 101432 }, { "content": "Title: 1992 world oil market chronology Content: January : Kuwait reports oil production of 400,000 B/D ; insists on restoration of its pre-invasion OPEC quota of 1.5 MMB/D . March : United Nations threatens sanctions against Libya for its refusal to extradite suspected terrorists . March : Commonwealth of Independent States announces that 1991 crude exports dropped by 52 % . May : Saudi Arabia supports a crude oil price hike during a late-month OPEC meeting . NYMEX Futures prices exceed $ 22 per barrel . October : OPEC production reaches highest level in more than a decade at 25.25 MMB/D . December : United States , Mexico , and Canada sign the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) . | - | width = `` 30 % '' align = `` center '' | previous year :1991 world oil market chronology | width = `` 40 % '' align = `` center '' | This article is part of theChronology of world oil market events ( 1970-2005 ) | width = `` 30 % '' align = `` center '' | following year :1993 world oil market chronology | - Category : Oil market timelines World oil market chronology World Oil Market Chronology , 1992", "qid": "2843", "docid": "1992_world_oil_market_chronology", "rank": 18, "score": 100815 }, { "content": "Title: Maternal Mortality Ratio Content: The Maternal Mortality Ratio is a key performance indicator for efforts to improve the health and safety of mothers before , during , and after childbirth per country worldwide . Often referred to as MMR , it is the annual number of female deaths per 100,000 live births from any cause related to or aggravated by pregnancy or its management ( excluding accidental or incidental causes ) . It is not to be confused with the Maternal Mortality Rate , which is the number of maternal deaths ( direct and indirect ) in a given period per 100,000 women of reproductive age during the same time period . The statistics are gathered by WHO , UNICEF , UNFPA , World Bank Group , and the United Nations Population Division . The yearly report started in 1990 and is called Trends in Maternal Mortality . As of the 2015 data published in 2016 , the countries that have seen an increase in the Maternal Mortality Ratio since 1990 are the Bahamas , Georgia , Guyana , Jamaica , Dem . People 's Rep. Korea , Serbia , South Africa , St. Lucia , Suriname , Tonga , United States , Venezuela , RB Zimbabwe . After noticing that the United States had a continuously increasing MMR despite a relatively stable number of live births , the Maternal Mortality and Morbidity Task Force was created in 2013 .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Maternal_Mortality_Ratio", "rank": 19, "score": 100319 }, { "content": "Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Tide_gauge", "rank": 20, "score": 100185 }, { "content": "Title: Annual cycle of sea level height Content: The annual cycle of sea level height ( or seasonal cycle or annual harmonic ) describes the variation of sea level that occurs with a period of one year . Historically , analysis of the annual cycle has been limited by locations with tide gauge records , i.e. , coastlines and some islands in the deep ocean , and by sparse records in the Southern Hemisphere . Since 1992 , satellite-based altimeters have provided near global coverage of sea level variability , allowing for a more thorough understanding of the annual cycle both in the deep ocean and in coastal margins .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Annual_cycle_of_sea_level_height", "rank": 21, "score": 100006 }, { "content": "Title: Income inequality in the United States Content: Income inequality in the United States has increased significantly since the 1970s after several decades of stability , meaning the share of the nation 's income received by higher income households has increased . This trend is evident with income measured both before taxes ( market income ) as well as after taxes and transfer payments . Income inequality has fluctuated considerably since measurements began around 1915 , moving in an arc between peaks in the 1920s and 2000s , with a 30-year period of relatively lower inequality between 1950 -- 1980 . Measured for all households , U.S. income inequality is comparable to other developed countries before taxes and transfers , but is among the highest after taxes and transfers , meaning the U.S. shifts relatively less income from higher income households to lower income households . Measured for working-age households , market income inequality is comparatively high ( rather than moderate ) and the level of redistribution is moderate ( not low ) . These comparisons indicate Americans shift from reliance on market income to reliance on income transfers later in life and less than households in other developed countries do . The U.S. ranks around the 30th percentile in income inequality globally , meaning 70 % of countries have a more equal income distribution . U.S. federal tax and transfer policies are progressive and therefore reduce income inequality measured after taxes and transfers . Tax and transfer policies together reduced income inequality slightly more in 2011 than in 1979 . While there is strong evidence that it has increased since the 1970s , there is active debate in the United States regarding the appropriate measurement , causes , effects and solutions to income inequality . The two major political parties have different approaches to the issue , with Democrats historically emphasizing that economic growth should result in shared prosperity ( i.e. , a pro-labor argument advocating income redistribution ) , while Republicans tend to downplay the validity or feasibility of positively influencing the issue ( i.e. , a pro-capital argument against redistribution ) .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Income_inequality_in_the_United_States", "rank": 22, "score": 99433 }, { "content": "Title: Global Strategic Trends Programme Content: The Global Strategic Trends Programme was established in 2001 to research and understand potential trends that shape and inform the future strategic context . It is undertaken at the Development , Concepts and Doctrine Centre ( DCDC ) which is under the UK 's Joint Forces Command and based in Shrivenham , Wiltshire . One of the main findings of `` Global Strategic Trends out to 2040 '' is that the era out to 2040 will be a time of transition , characterised by instability both in the relations between states , and in the relations between groups within states . During this timeframe significant global trends will include ; climate change , rapid population growth , resource scarcity , a resurgence in ideology and a shift in global power from West to East . The struggle to establish an effective system of global governance , is likely to be a central theme of the era .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Global_Strategic_Trends_Programme", "rank": 23, "score": 98283 }, { "content": "Title: Stability 2008 Content: `` Stability 2008 '' was a major strategic military exercise initiated in late September 2008 involving the Russian military estimated to last for around one month . The exercise was a rehearsal of the deployment of Russia 's conventional armed forces , and also its ground - , sea - and air-based nuclear deterrent . The exercises involved mobilization and deployment to forward positions of forces in the Moscow and Far East Military Districts and the deployment of the navy in the North Sea , the Atlantic ( Northern Fleet ) , the Baltic Sea ( Baltic Fleet ) , and the Pacific ( Pacific Fleet ) . Three air armies and one air defense corps , the Strategic Rocket Forces , strategic bombers , and Space Forces were involved as well as Belarusian military formations . The exercise involved all of Russia 's nuclear forces , most of the battle-ready navy , and the Air Force , but only some of the army . Tupolev Tu-22M3 ; Tupolev Tu-95MS ; and Tupolev Tu-160 strategic bombers , Sukhoi Su-27 fighters , Mikoyan MiG-31 interceptors , Ilyushin Il-78 tankers , and Beriev A-50 AWACS took part in the exercise . On October 8 , Japanese F-15s intercepted Russian Tupolev Tu-22M3s over the Sea of Japan . As part of the exercise , two Tupolev Tu-160 strategic bombers were deployed to Venezuela . Russian Embedded journalists were on board the nuclear cruiser Pyotr Velikii which was underway to the Syrian port Tartus , broadcasting daily bulletins from the exercise to Russian broadcast audiences.The Pyotr Velikii was destined for Venezuela where it took part in naval exercises .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Stability_2008", "rank": 24, "score": 96947 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Around Us (organization) Content: The Sea Around Us is an international research initiative and a member of the Global Fisheries Cluster at the University of British Columbia . The Sea Around Us assesses the impact of fisheries on the marine ecosystems of the world and offers mitigating solutions to a range of stakeholders . To achieve this , the Sea Around Us presents fisheries and fisheries-related data at spatial scales that have ecological and policy relevance , such as by Exclusive Economic Zones , High Seas areas , or Large Marine Ecosystems . All spatialized data are visualized either graphically or mapped , and all data can be downloaded . Global fisheries catches from 1950 to the present are available , under explicit consideration of coral reefs , seamounts , estuaries and other critical habitats of fish and marine invertebrates . The data presented , which are all freely available , are meant to support studies of global fisheries trends and the development of sustainable , ecosystem-based fisheries policies . In the early 2000s , members of the Sea Around Us uncovered that China was overestimating its catches and showed that , when such distortions were removed from overall fisheries catches , global fisheries were actually declining since the late 1980s . The Sea Around Us also showed that the biomass of large fish in the North Atlantic is one-tenth of what it was only a century ago . Aquaculture , according to another study with members from the Project , can not be expected to compensate for overfishing but is instead likely to exacerbate the problem due to the reliance on wild fish for fishmeal . In other words , without serious long-term planning , the oceans might get a lot worse before they get better . In 2016 , members of the Sea Around Us , using reconstructed global catch data that combine officially reported landings data with comprehensive estimates of unreported landings and discards , documented that , from 1950-2010 , global catches were around 50 % higher than reported data suggest . Furthermore , total catches seem to be declining faster from their peak catch in the mid-1990s than reported data would suggest . The good news is that the discrepancy between reported data and estimated total catches is decreasing in more recent years , meaning that the comprehensiveness of data reported by countries seems to be improving . All this information was compiled in the Global Atlas of Marine Fisheries , a 520-page book published in October 2016 by Island Press . The Sea Around Us also communicates to broad audiences to convey the urgency to : Reduce excess fishing capacity ( much of which is being ` exported ' to developing countries ) . Eliminate damaging subsidies and create extensive networks of marine protected areas . Reconsider the current model of carnivorous aquaculture . Refocus fisheries to the small-scale sectors that are crucial to national food security concerns in developing countries . The Sea Around Us was initiated in collaboration with The Pew Charitable Trusts in 1999 , and in 2014 , Sea Around Us began a collaboration with The Paul G. Allen Family Foundation and its executive arm , Vulcan Inc. , to provide African and Asian countries with more accurate and comprehensive fisheries data , and to redesign and revamp the Sea Around Us website .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Sea_Around_Us_(organization)", "rank": 25, "score": 95452 }, { "content": "Title: 2052: A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years Content: 2052 -- A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years is a 2012 book describing trends in global development . It is written by Jørgen Randers and is a follow-up to The Limits to Growth , which in 1972 was the first worldwide report by the Club of Rome . It differs in three ways from the previous report . First , it does not describe an impending disaster scenario , but shows only trends . Secondly , it is to be read in the light of experience since 1972 , namely , that all of humanity has responded to the report , but with a delay of 20 to 40 years . Thirdly , it offers not only future scenarios , it makes concrete proposals on how the individual should respond to emerging developments . Randers repeatedly points out that he does not want to predict specific events , only general trends .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "2052:_A_Global_Forecast_for_the_Next_Forty_Years", "rank": 26, "score": 95325 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 27, "score": 94737 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 28, "score": 94707 }, { "content": "Title: Worldwide Atrocities Dataset Content: The Worldwide Atrocities Dataset is a dataset collected by the Computational Event Data System at Pennsylvania State University and sponsored by the Political Instability Task Force ( PITF ) that is , in turn , funded by the Central Intelligence Agency in the United States .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Worldwide_Atrocities_Dataset", "rank": 29, "score": 93389 }, { "content": "Title: UK National Tide Gauge Network Content: The UK National Tide Gauge Network is part of the National Tidal and Sea Level Facility . It was set up in 1953 to record sea levels around the coast of the UK , after the east coast of England was affected by severe floods . Gauges positioned at 43 locations around the UK coast record data , which is archived at the British Oceanographic Data Centre in Liverpool . Once quality controlled , this data is made available for scientific use .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "UK_National_Tide_Gauge_Network", "rank": 30, "score": 93138 }, { "content": "Title: Spanish property bubble Content: The Spanish property bubble is the collapsed overshooting part of a long-term price increase of Spanish real estate prices . This long-term price increase has happened in various stages from 1985 up to 2008 . The housing bubble can be clearly divided in three periods : 1985 -- 1991 , in which the price nearly tripled ; 1992 -- 1996 , in which the price remained somewhat stable ; and 1996 -- 2008 , in which prices grew astonishingly again . Coinciding with the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 , prices began to fall . In 2013 , Raj Badiani , an economist at IHS Global Insight in London , estimated that the value of residential real estate has dropped more than 30 percent since 2007 and that house prices would fall at least 50 percent from the peak by 2015 . According to Alcidi and Gros note , `` If construction were to continue at the still relatively high rate of today , the process of absorption of the bubble would take more than 30 years . ''", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Spanish_property_bubble", "rank": 31, "score": 93057 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 32, "score": 93026 }, { "content": "Title: Trend Technologies Content: Trend Technologies ( formerly called Data Packaging ) is an Irish international company specialising in plastic injection molding with the first facility opening in Mullingar , Ireland in 1985 . The company serves the automotive , healthcare , IT and industrial sectors . Its subsidiaries are Cam Fran Tool and Die Company , Stevenson Grantech Limited and Tintarent Limited .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Trend_Technologies", "rank": 33, "score": 92926 }, { "content": "Title: Ghrsst-pp Content: The Group for High Resolution SST ( GHRSST ) is a follow on activity form the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment ( GODAE ) high-resolution sea surface temperature pilot project ( GHRSST-PP ) provides a new generation of global high-resolution ( < 10 km ) SST data products to the operational oceanographic , meteorological , climate and general scientific community , in real time and delayed mode . See GHRSST for full details . Sea surface temperature ( SST ) measured from Earth Observation Satellites in considerable spatial detail and at high frequency , is increasingly required for use in the context of operational monitoring and forecasting of the ocean , for assimilation into coupled ocean-atmosphere model systems and for applications in short-term numerical weather prediction and longer term climate change detection . Currently there are many different SST data sets available derived from satellite systems . But , scientists and operational agencies alike are presented with a bewidering set of options in terms of SST product content , coverage , spatial resolution , timeliness , format and accuracy . The international GODAE steering committee realised that SST data products were not adequate for GODAE forecast systems and initiated the GODAE High Resolution SST Pilot Project ( GHRSST-PP ) . User Requirements were collected together to define the optimal SST data products that could be developed to suit the widest possible number of applications . In 2008 the GHRSST-PP Science Team agreed to close the Pilot Project as the GODAE project was completed . A follow on activity called the Group for High Resolution SST is now continuing the coordination of GHRSST activities .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Ghrsst-pp", "rank": 34, "score": 92678 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 35, "score": 92043 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Global_temperature_record", "rank": 36, "score": 91995 }, { "content": "Title: Projections of population growth Content: Projections of population growth established in 2015 predict that the human population will keep growing until at least 2050 , reaching an estimated 8 billion people in 2024 and 9 billion by 2040 , while the 7 billion milestone was reached in 2011 . As the demographic transition follows its course worldwide , the population will age significantly , with most countries outside Africa trending towards a rectangular age pyramid . According to the 2015 edition of the United Nations ' World Population Prospects report , the world population is currently growing by approximately 83 million people each year . The growth rate keeps slowing , having decreased from 1.55 % per year in 1995 to 1.25 % in 2005 and 1.18 % in 2015 . The median estimate for future growth sees the world population reaching 9.7 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100 , assuming a continuing decrease in average fertility rate from 2.5 in 2015 to 2.25 in 2050 and 2.0 in 2100 . With longevity trending towards uniform and stable values worldwide , the main driver of future population growth is the evolution of the fertility rate . While most scenarios still predict continued growth into the 22nd century , there is a roughly 23 % chance that the total population could stabilize or begin to fall before 2100 . Longer-term speculative scenarios over the next two centuries can predict anything between runaway growth to radical decline ( 36.4 billion or 2.3 billion people in 2300 ) , with the median projection showing a slight decrease followed by a stabilization around 9 billion people . By 2050 , the bulk of the world 's population growth will take place in Africa : of the additional 2.4 billion people projected between 2015 and 2050 , 1.3 billion will be added in Africa , 0.9 billion in Asia and only 0.2 billion in the rest of the world . Africa 's share of global population is projected to grow from 16 % in 2015 to 25 % in 2050 and 39 % by 2100 , while the share of Asia will fall from 60 % in 2015 to 54 % in 2050 and 44 % in 2100 . The strong growth of the African population will happen regardless of the rate of decrease of fertility , because of the exceptional proportion of young people already living today . For example , the UN projects that the population of Nigeria will surpass that of the United States by 2050 . The population of the more developed regions is slated to remain mostly unchanged , at 1.2 billion , as international migrations from high-growth regions compensate the fertility deficit of richer countries .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Projections_of_population_growth", "rank": 37, "score": 91973 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program Content: The Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program ( TOGA ) was a ten-year study ( 1985-1994 ) of the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) aimed specifically at the prediction of climate phenomena on time scales of months to years . TOGA emphasized the tropical oceans and their relationship to the global atmosphere . Underlying TOGA is the premise that the dynamic adjustment of the ocean in the tropics is far more rapid than at higher latitudes . Thus disturbances emanating from the western Pacific Ocean ( such as El Niño ) may propagate across the basin on time scales of weeks compared to years for corresponding basin-wide propagation at higher latitudes . The significance of shorter dynamic times scales near the equator is that they are similar to those of highly energetic atmospheric modes . This similarity allows the formation of coupled modes between the ocean and the atmosphere . TOGA was instrumental in developing a comprehensive observing system for the equatorial Pacific Ocean and laid important groundwork for ENSO prediction , data assimilation and understanding of air-sea interaction .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Tropical_Ocean_Global_Atmosphere_program", "rank": 38, "score": 91867 }, { "content": "Title: Koomey's law Content: Koomey 's law describes a long-term trend in the history of computing hardware . The number of computations per joule of energy dissipated has been doubling approximately every 1.57 years . This trend has been remarkably stable since the 1950s ( R2 of over 98 % ) and has actually been somewhat faster than Moore 's law . Jonathan Koomey articulated the trend as follows : `` at a fixed computing load , the amount of battery you need will fall by a factor of two every year and a half . ''", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Koomey's_law", "rank": 39, "score": 91784 }, { "content": "Title: Global Credit Data Content: Global Credit Data ( GCD ) ( formerly named PECDC or the Pan-European Credit Data Consortium ) was formed in December 2004 as a credit data pooling initiative primarily designed to assist member banks ' completion of Basel II preparations in their pursuit of Advanced Status for AIRB . Initially it was formed as a loose affiliation of 13 original member banks . GCD now has the largest commercial loan loss and recovery dataset in existence . Membership has grown from the original base of 13 to a membership of 42 banks at May 2014 and the geographic coverage of the GCD databases , originally limited to Europe , have been extended to banks in Africa , Australia and North America . In December 2008 GCD was incorporated as a private not-for-profit legal association , domiciled in The Netherlands under Dutch law .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Global_Credit_Data", "rank": 40, "score": 91442 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth Content: The Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth , ACRE , is an international science project , began in 2008 , that recovers historical weather observations to reconstruct past global and local weather patterns and so support meteorological reanalysis . The project aims to collect weather data from the past 250 years by linking international meteorological organisations to support data recovery projects and the imaging and digitisation of historical meteorological observations made at , for example , inland stations , lighthouses , or by ships at sea or in ports . The project aims to create historical datasets that are spatially and temporally complete , so as to be of value at a local , or regional level , as well as on a global scale . ACRE aims to recover millions of historic weather observations . This data will be deposited into two databases , ISPD - the International Surface Pressure Databank , ICOADS - the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set . This data will also be used to build a global dataset of historical weather reconstructions based on a grid of two degrees of latitude by two of longitude at six hourly intervals , entitled the 20th Century Reanalysis , or 20CR . Version one of 20CR , covering 1891 to 2008 , was released in Autumn 2009 . Version two , covering 1871 to 2010 , appeared in December 2011 . Plans for a third version , covering 1850 to 2011 , have been put ` on hold ' following a cut in the budget of NOAA . It is intended that all the data recovered and the 20CR will be made freely available .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Atmospheric_Circulation_Reconstructions_over_the_Earth", "rank": 41, "score": 90963 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment", "rank": 42, "score": 90800 }, { "content": "Title: Seasat Content: Seasat was the first Earth-orbiting satellite designed for remote sensing of the Earth 's oceans and had on board the first spaceborne synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) . The mission was designed to demonstrate the feasibility of global satellite monitoring of oceanographic phenomena and to help determine the requirements for an operational ocean remote sensing satellite system . Specific objectives were to collect data on sea-surface winds , sea-surface temperatures , wave heights , internal waves , atmospheric water , sea ice features and ocean topography . Seasat was managed by NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and was launched on 27 June 1978 into a nearly circular 800 km orbit with an inclination of 108 ° . Seasat operated for 106 days until 10 October 1978 , when a massive short circuit in the satellite 's electrical system ended the mission . Seasat carried five major instruments designed to return the maximum information from ocean surfaces : Radar altimeter to measure spacecraft height above the ocean surface Microwave scatterometer to measure wind speed and direction Scanning multichannel microwave radiometer to measure sea surface temperature Visible and infrared radiometer to identify cloud , land and water features Synthetic Aperture Radar ( SAR ) L-band , HH polarization , fixed look angle to monitor the global surface wave field and polar sea ice conditions -LCB- the antenna is the light parallelogram in the picture -RCB- . The SAR support structure was designed and manufactured by Northrop Grumman Astro Aerospace in Carpinteria , CA . The structure deployed on orbit . Many later remote sensing missions owe their legacy to Seasat . These include imaging radars flown on NASA 's Space Shuttle , altimeters on Earth-orbiting satellites such as TOPEX/Poseidon , and scatterometers on NASA Scatterometer ( NSCAT ) , QuikSCAT , and Jason 1 .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Seasat", "rank": 43, "score": 90565 }, { "content": "Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Instrumental_temperature_record", "rank": 44, "score": 89894 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Sea_level_equation", "rank": 45, "score": 89792 }, { "content": "Title: National Tidal and Sea Level Facility Content: Established in 2002 , The National Tidal and Sea Level Facility is responsible for monitoring sea levels in the UK . The NTSLF comprises the UK National Tide Gauge Network , geodetic networks , and gauges in the British Dependent Territories of the South Atlantic and Gibraltar . Data collected is used to create tidal predictions , monitor climate change and determine extreme sea levels for navigation and coastal engineering design . The Network is funded by the UK Environment Agency . Associated scientific research is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) and the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "National_Tidal_and_Sea_Level_Facility", "rank": 46, "score": 89768 }, { "content": "Title: Price stability Content: Price stability is a goal of monetary and fiscal policy aiming to support sustainable rates of economic activity . Policy is set to maintain a very low rate of inflation or deflation . Although this is a goal of most central banks , not many banks achieve this . For example , the European Central Bank ( ECB ) describes price stability as a year-on-year increase in the Harmonised Index of Consumer Prices ( HICP ) for the Euro area of below 2 % . However , by referring to `` an increase in the HICP of below 2 % '' the ECB makes clear that not only persistent inflation above 2 % but also deflation ( i.e. a persistent decrease of the general price level ) are inconsistent with the goal of price stability . In the United States , the Federal Reserve Act ( as amended in 1977 ) directs the Federal Reserve to pursue policies promoting `` maximum employment , stable prices , and moderate long-term interest rates . '' The Fed long ago determined that the best way to meet those mandates is to target a rate of inflation of around 2 % ; in 2011 it officially adopted a 2 % annual increase in the personal consumption expenditures price index ( often called PCE inflation ) as the target . Since the mid-trend 1990s , the Federal Reserve 's measure of the inflation trend averaged 1.7 % , a mere 0.3 % shy of the Federal Open Market Committee 's 2 % target for overall PCE inflation . Trend inflation as measured by the price index of core personal consumption expenditures ( PCE ) -- that is , excluding food and energy -- has fluctuated between 1.2 % and 2.3 % over the past 20 years . In managing the rate of inflation or deflation , information and expectations play an important role , as explained by Jeffrey Lacker , President of the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond : `` If people expect inflation to erode the future value of money , they will rationally place a lower value on money today . This principle applies equally well to the price-setting behavior of firms . If a firm expects the general level of prices to rise by 3 percent over the coming year , it will take into account the expected increase in the costs of inputs and the prices of substitutes when setting its own prices today . ''", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Price_stability", "rank": 47, "score": 89290 }, { "content": "Title: Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011–2020 Content: The Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011 -- 2020 was officially proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in March 2010 . Its goal is to stabilize and reduce the forecast level of road traffic deaths around the world . It is estimated that 5 millions lives could be saved on the world 's roads during the Decade . According to the Global status report on road safety , road traffic crashes take the lives of nearly 1.3 million people every year , and injure 20 -- 50 million more . More than 90 % of road traffic deaths and injuries occur in low-income and middle-income countries , which have only 48 % of the world 's registered vehicles . If no action is taken , road traffic crashes are predicted to result in the deaths of around 1.9 million people annually by 2020 . Global activities related to the Decade are coordinated by the United Nations Road Safety Collaboration . Grover , fictional character from the television show Sesame Street was named a Global Ambassador by the WHO .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Decade_of_Action_for_Road_Safety_2011–2020", "rank": 48, "score": 89095 }, { "content": "Title: Global Drifter Program Content: The Global Drifter Program ( GDP ) ( formerly known as the Surface Velocity Program ( SVP ) ) , was conceived by Prof. Peter Niiler , with the objective of collecting measurements of surface ocean currents , sea surface temperature and sea-level atmospheric pressure using drifters . It is the principal component of the Global Surface Drifting Buoy Array , a branch of NOAA 's Global Ocean Observing System ( GOOS ) and a scientific project of the Data Buoy Cooperation Panel ( DBCP ) . The project originated in February 1979 as part of the TOGA/Equatorial Pacific Ocean Circulation Experiment ( EPOCS ) and the first large-scale deployment of drifters was in 1988 with the goal of mapping the tropical Pacific Ocean 's surface circulation . The current goal of the project is to use 1250 satellite-tracked surface drifting buoys to make accurate and globally dense in-situ observations of mixed layer currents , sea surface temperature , atmospheric pressure , winds and salinity , and to create a system to process the data . Horizontal transports in the oceanic mixed layer measured by the GDP are relevant to biological and chemical processes as well as physical ones .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Global_Drifter_Program", "rank": 49, "score": 88263 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 50, "score": 87744 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 51, "score": 87647 }, { "content": "Title: WGSN (trend forecasting) Content: WGSN ( formerly Worth Global Style Network ) is a trend forecasting company of parent organization Ascential . WGSN was founded in 1998 in West London by brothers Julian and Marc Worth . Emap ( now Ascential ) , a business-to-business publisher and exhibitions company , bought the company in October 2005 for # 140m .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "WGSN_(trend_forecasting)", "rank": 52, "score": 87622 }, { "content": "Title: SeaWiFS Content: SeaWIFS ( Sea-Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor ) was a satellite-borne sensor designed to collect global ocean biological data . Active from September 1997 to December 2010 , its primary mission was to quantify chlorophyll produced by marine phytoplankton ( microscopic plants ) .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "SeaWiFS", "rank": 53, "score": 87065 }, { "content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event", "rank": 54, "score": 87043 }, { "content": "Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis", "rank": 55, "score": 86908 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 56, "score": 86752 }, { "content": "Title: Global Ocean Data Analysis Project Content: The Global Ocean Data Analysis Project ( GLODAP ) is a synthesis project bringing together oceanographic data collected during the 1990s by research cruises on the World Ocean Circulation Experiment ( WOCE ) , Joint Global Ocean Flux Study ( JGOFS ) and Ocean-Atmosphere Exchange Study ( OACES ) programmes . The central goal of GLODAP is to generate a global climatology of the World Ocean 's carbon cycle for use in studies of both its natural and anthropogenically-forced states . GLODAP is funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , the U.S. Department of Energy ( DOE ) , and the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project", "rank": 57, "score": 86476 }, { "content": "Title: Global debt levels Content:", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Global_debt_levels", "rank": 58, "score": 86470 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 59, "score": 86141 }, { "content": "Title: 1991 in spaceflight Content: This was the final year of the Soviet Union , and thus the end of the Cold War competition between the two space superpowers . The launch rate declined drastically from the initial three decades of the Space Age to the modern average of about eighty orbital launches per year worldwide .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "1991_in_spaceflight", "rank": 60, "score": 86133 }, { "content": "Title: World Ocean Atlas Content: The World Ocean Atlas ( WOA ) is a data product of the Ocean Climate Laboratory of the National Oceanographic Data Center ( U.S. ) . The WOA consists of a climatology of fields of in situ ocean properties for the World Ocean . It was first produced in 1994 ( based on the earlier Climatological Atlas of the World Ocean ) , with later editions at roughly four year intervals in 1998 , 2001 , 2005 , 2009 , and 2013 .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "World_Ocean_Atlas", "rank": 61, "score": 85979 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy", "rank": 62, "score": 85913 }, { "content": "Title: Girl and the Sea Content: `` Girl and the Sea '' is the second EP by Australian electronic dance music duo The Presets released on Modular Records on 1 November 2004 . The EP reached No. 6 on the AIR charts and at No. 20 on the ARIA Hitseekers Charts . The vocals for the song were sung by Julian Hamilton and recorded by The Presets in Kim Moyes ' small apartment bathroom . The song was included on the duo 's debut studio album Beams , and was also featured in the TV series The O.C. Australian Music Online described the release as being `` like a night in October , that perfect combination of hot and cold , light and dark , the nenish tart of EP 's '' ... `` Veering from the filthy impending dooms night atmosphere and blippy electronics of `` Kitty In The Middle '' to the title track `` Girl And The Sea '' 's wandering bass and pristine , travelling Euro feel , the storming , ecstatic `` Summer O ' Love '' and the gorgeous , heavenly melancholy of `` Mia 's Mouse '' .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Girl_and_the_Sea", "rank": 63, "score": 85881 }, { "content": "Title: Seshat (project) Content: The Seshat : Global History Databank is a nonprofit organization and an international scientific research project . Founded in 2011 , the Seshat : Global History Databank gathers data into a single , large database that can be used to test scientific hypotheses . The Databank consults directly with expert scholars to code what historical societies and their environments were like in the form of accessible datapoints and thus forms a digital storehouse for data on the political and social organization of all human groups from the early modern back to the ancient and neolithic periods . The organizers of this research project contend that the mass of data then can be used to test a variety of competing hypotheses about the rise and fall of large-scale societies around the globe which may help science provide answers to global problems . The Seshat : Global History Databank claims to be a scientific approach to historical research and its large dataset , though compiled with the intention of being theory-neutral , is frequently of interest to researchers of Cliodynamics . The main goal of Cliodynamics researchers is to use the scientific method to produce the data necessary to empirically test competing theories . A large interdisciplinary and international team of experts helps the Seshat project to produce a database that is historically rigorous enough to study the past using well-established scientific techniques . Seshat data may be used with sociocultural evolutionary theory or cultural evolutionary theory to identify long-term dynamics that may have had significant effects on the course of human history .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Seshat_(project)", "rank": 64, "score": 85733 }, { "content": "Title: Age wave Content: Age Wave refers to a massive population and cultural shift caused by three converging global demographic forces : The baby boom . In the middle of the twentieth century , fertility rates increased significantly in the United States , Canada , Australia , and most of Europe . For example , nearly one-third of Americans -- 76 million people -- were born between 1946 and 1964 . This period of increased fertility era occurred between the baby busts of the Depression and World War II and the Vietnam war . Elevating longevity . Due to advances in public health , nutrition management and medical advances , life expectancy vaulted during the 20th century . For example , in the United States , life expectancy at birth in 1900 was 47 . Today , life expectancy at birth in the United States is 78 . The birth dearth . The baby boom has been followed by a period of declining fertility rates , so that many parts of the world are now experiencing sub-replacement fertility levels . According to Ken Dychtwald , Ph.D. , who first envisioned this demographically-driven transformation and coined the term , the `` age wave '' has already reshaped social and cultural trends , marketplace opportunities , productivity , and consumption patterns . Because of its enormous size and unique preferences and priorities , the men and women of this generation do n't just populate existing lifestages or consumer trends , they transform them . Some examples of trends and events driven by the age wave include : Benjamin Spock 's book , The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care , published during the first year of the baby boom , sold at least one million copies a year for eight straight years . 1.5 million cans of baby food were consumed in 1953 , almost six times as many as a decade before . Enrollment in the Cub Scouts doubled between 1950 and 1955 . The toy industry increased fifteen-fold in the 1940s and 1950s to meet the needs of rapidly growing numbers of children . 83 percent of the total population growth in the United States during the 1950s was in the suburbs as parents of the baby boomers moved out of the cities to raise their larger families . In the 1960s , teenagers accounted for 55 percent of all soft drink sales , 53 percent of all movie tickets , and 43 percent of all records sold . Fast food franchisers grew 20 percent a year . Sales of home gym equipment rose from $ 75 million in 1982 to over $ 1 billion in 1985 . Minivans and SUVs were created and came to dominate the auto industry in the 1980s and 1990s as baby boomers began raising families . The age wave will cause a massive slowdown in workforce growth in the coming years . In the next decade , America 's workforce will grow only 4 percent as the boomers begin to retire , down from 12 percent in the current decade and 29 percent in the 1970s when the boomers were entering the workforce . Dychtwald argues that as the boomer generation continues to mature , life 's second half is about to be further transformed , and that in the next several decades , this age wave will shift the epicenter of consumer activity from a focus on youth to the needs , challenges , and aspirations of maturing consumers . Because of the aging of the boomer generation , we are about to see an explosion of maturity-oriented products and services such as : nutraceuticals , cosmeceuticals , fitness communes , re-careering , philanthropreneuring , career-transition coordinators , smart homes , long-term care and longevity insurance , equity-release , reverse mortgages , college campus-based retirement housing and Internet cemeteries . However , the age wave will also put unprecedented pressure on families , communities and governments as multiplying numbers of older adults strain entitlements , eldercare , healthcare delivery and pensions . Criticisms All of these ancedotes may not reflect purely demographic changes , but also changes in norms of social present in the period . Especially activities like baby food consumption or Boy Scout attendance . Baby food consumption points to changes in beliefs about childhood nutrition , marketing and increased wealth with which to buy packaged food . Boy Scout attendance is not a stable fraction of the population ( all those of a certain age ) but rather a reflection of trends in beliefs about proper young male socialization and ideology .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Age_wave", "rank": 65, "score": 85254 }, { "content": "Title: Human Security Report 2005 Content: The Human Security Report 2005 is a report outlining declining world trends of global violence from the early 1990s to 2003 . The study reported major worldwide declines in the number of armed conflicts , genocides , military coups , and international crises , as well as in the number of battle-related deaths per armed conflict . Three years in the making and launched in 2005 , the report was produced at the Human Security Centre at the University of British Columbia 's Liu Institute for Global Issues by the Human Security Report Project ( HSRP ) , which moved in May 2007 to join Simon Fraser University 's School for International Studies . The Human Security Report covers similar ground to the long-running Peace and Conflict series . According to the 2005 Report , the world saw a shift in global security after the end of the Cold War , with a 40 % decrease in the number of armed conflicts being waged around the world since the early 1990s , and an 80 % decrease of genocides between 1998 and 2001 . Some critics have questioned the relevance of this data , noting that conflict and violence are still significant obstacles for human development , worldwide security , and sustainable peace . For example , a recent Human Development Report from the United Nations Development Programme agrees that the number of conflicts has declined in the last decade , but claims that the wars of the past 15 years have exterminated a larger number of human lives . The Human Security Report argues that there is no evidence to support such a contention . The Report claims that the average number of battle-related deaths per conflict has declined from some 38,000 in 1950 to less than 500 in 2007 . Individual fatality tolls may well be inaccurate ; the trends , however , are indisputable . There are no accurate data on the ( much larger ) number of people who die from war-exacerbated disease and malnutrition , but the Report argues that there are good reasons for believing that these have declined as well . Some critics have argued that there was too much focus on battle-related `` direct '' deaths in the Report . However , an entire section discusses the large number of `` indirect '' deaths caused by war-exacerbated malnutrition and disease . In some cases , the Report says , the ratio of indirect to direct deaths is higher than 10:1 . The Report argues that conflict-driven disease and malnutrition are greater threats to human security than bombs and bullets . But it also argues that indirect deaths have declined over the past 15 years , along with battle-related deaths . Indirect deaths -- the hidden cost of war -- is one of the two main themes of the later Human Security Report 2009/2010 . Indirect deaths are driven by the intensity and scope of political violence . The 2009/2010 Report argues that , since humanitarian assistance has increased on a per capita basis and since recent peacetime health interventions -- primarily immunization -- reduce death tolls in wartime , it is highly likely that indirect deaths from war-exacerbated disease and malnutrition have declined to a greater degree than have `` direct '' deaths from violent injuries . Since the 2005 Report appeared , the data on armed conflict trends , which comes from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program , indicates that there has been a 25 % increase in the overall number of conflicts in which a state is one of the warring parties , but that the number of high-intensity conflicts ( those generating 1,000 or more battle deaths in a year ) have continued to decline and are now some 68 % lower than at the end of the Cold War .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Human_Security_Report_2005", "rank": 66, "score": 85198 }, { "content": "Title: Inflation in Romania Content: Inflation in Romania was a major issue during the 1990s , when the yearly inflation reached a peak of 256 % in 1993 . Since then , the inflation has slowly decreased , reaching a period of deflation in 2015 . For most of the Socialist era , inflation was relatively low , due to the centrally-planned economy . Exceptions were at the beginning of the 1980s austerity policy in Romania , when prices were risen in order to reduce consumption and allow the government to pay back the foreign debt . Following the onset of liberal economic reforms in November 1990 , as prices and exchange rates were gradually liberalized , inflation began to rise . The inflation went down due to the economic growth , but in 1997 , following the elimination of subsidies , a new inflation bout occurred .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Inflation_in_Romania", "rank": 67, "score": 85157 }, { "content": "Title: ERA-40 Content: ERA-40 is an ECMWF re-analysis of the global atmosphere and surface conditions for 45-years , over the period from September 1957 through August 2002 by ECMWF . Many sources of the meteorological observations were used , including radiosondes , balloons , aircraft , buoyes , satellites , scatterometers . This data was run through the ECMWF computer model at a 125 km resolution . As the ECMWF 's computer model is one of the more highly regarded in the field of forecasting , many scientists take its reanalysis to have similar merit . The data is stored in GRIB format . The reanalysis was done in an effort to improve the accuracy of historical weather maps and aid in a more detailed analysis of various weather systems through a period that was severely lacking in computerized data . With the data from reanalyses such as this , many of the more modern computerized tools for analyzing storm systems can be utilized , at least in part , because of this access to a computerized simulation of the atmospheric state .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "ERA-40", "rank": 68, "score": 84959 }, { "content": "Title: The Sea of Hands Content: The Sea of Hands refers to a significant play during the 1974 -- 75 NFL playoffs . The Miami Dolphins were facing the Oakland Raiders in an American Football Conference ( AFC ) Divisional playoff game on December 21 , 1974 at Oakland -- Alameda County Coliseum . The game was ultimately decided in the final seconds by a now-iconic play in which Oakland quarterback Ken Stabler launched an 8-yard touchdown pass to running back Clarence Davis , who seemed tightly covered but somehow wrestled the ball away from multiple Miami defenders to secure victory for the Raiders , thus effectively ending Miami 's historic run of Super Bowl appearances .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "The_Sea_of_Hands", "rank": 69, "score": 84802 }, { "content": "Title: Our World In Data Content: Our World In Data ( OWID ) is an online publication that presents empirical research and data that show how living conditions around the world are changing . The web publication on global development communicates this empirical knowledge through interactive data visualisations ( charts and maps ) and by presenting the research findings on development that explain what drives the changes that we observe and what the consequences of these changes are . The aim is to show how the world is changing and why . The publication is developed at the University of Oxford and authored by social historian and development economist Max Roser . It covers a wide range of topics across many academic disciplines : Trends in health , food provision , the growth and distribution of incomes , violence , rights , wars , culture , energy use , education , and environmental changes are empirically analysed and visualised in this web publication . Covering all of these aspects in one resource makes it possible to understand how the observed long-run trends are interlinked . The research on global development is presented to the audience of interested readers , journalists , academics , and policy people . The articles cross-reference each other to make it possible for the reader to learn about the drivers of the observed long-run trends . For each topic the quality of the data is discussed and , by pointing the visitor to the sources , this website works as a database of databases -- a meta-database . Our World In Data is made available as a public good : The entire publication is freely available , the data published on the website is available for download , all visualizations created for the web publication are made available under a Creative Commons license , and the tools to publish Our World In Data and to create the visualizations are free to use ( available open source on GitHub ) . Our World in Data is currently financed entirely through small individual donations from readers of the publication . The website is used widely in the media . Authors like John Green and Steven Berlin Johnson use it for their work . It is used in teaching by economists , historians , and international development experts . Tina Rosenberg emphasised in The New York Times that Our World In Data presents a `` big picture that 's an important counterpoint to the constant barrage of negative world news '' . Steven Pinker placed Roser 's Our World In Data on his list of his personal `` cultural highlights '' and explained in his article on ` the most interesting recent scientific news ' why he considers Our World In Data so very important .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Our_World_In_Data", "rank": 70, "score": 84567 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 71, "score": 84540 }, { "content": "Title: World Drug Report Content: The World Drug Report is a United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime annual publication that analyzes market trends , compiling detailed statistics on drug markets . Using data , it helps draw conclusions about drugs as an issue needing intervention by government agencies around the world . UNAIDs stated on its website `` The use of illicit drugs needs to be understood as a social and health condition requiring sustained prevention , treatment , and care . This is one of the major conclusions emerging from the 2015 World Drug Report , published on 26 June by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime ( UNODC ) . ''", "qid": "2843", "docid": "World_Drug_Report", "rank": 72, "score": 84411 }, { "content": "Title: Sea surface temperature Content: Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Sea_surface_temperature", "rank": 73, "score": 84254 }, { "content": "Title: UAH satellite temperature dataset Content: The UAH satellite temperature dataset , developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from satellite measurements of radiance . It was the first global temperature datasets developed from satellite information and has been used as a tool for research into surface and atmospheric temperature changes . The dataset is published by John Christy et al. and formerly jointly with Roy Spencer .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "UAH_satellite_temperature_dataset", "rank": 74, "score": 84207 }, { "content": "Title: History of numerical weather prediction Content: The history of numerical weather prediction considers how current weather conditions as input into mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather and future sea state ( the process of numerical weather prediction ) has changed over the years . Though first attempted manually in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of the computer and computer simulation that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself . ENIAC was used to create the first forecasts via computer in 1950 , and over the years more powerful computers have been used to increase the size of initial datasets as well as include more complicated versions of the equations of motion . The development of global forecasting models led to the first climate models . The development of limited area ( regional ) models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of tropical cyclone as well as air quality in the 1970s and 1980s . Because the output of forecast models based on atmospheric dynamics requires corrections near ground level , model output statistics ( MOS ) were developed in the 1970s and 1980s for individual forecast points ( locations ) . The MOS apply statistical techniques to post-process the output of dynamical models with the most recent surface observations and the forecast point 's climatology . This technique can correct for model resolution as well as model biases . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models only extends to about two weeks into the future , since the density and quality of observations -- together with the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations used to calculate the forecast -- introduce errors which double every five days . The use of model ensemble forecasts since the 1990s helps to define the forecast uncertainty and extend weather forecasting farther into the future than otherwise possible .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "History_of_numerical_weather_prediction", "rank": 75, "score": 83890 }, { "content": "Title: SeaSeep Content: SeaSeep is a combination of 2D seismic data ( a group of seismic lines acquired individually , as opposed to multiple closely space lines1 ) , high resolution multibeam sonar which is an evolutionary advanced form of side-scan sonar , navigated piston coring ( one of the more common sea floor sampling methods2 ) , heat flow sampling ( which serve a critical purpose in oil exploration and production3 ) and possibly gravity and magnetic data ( refer to Dick Gibson 's Primer on Gravity and Magnetics4 ) . The term SeaSeep originally belonged to Black Gold Energy LLC5 and refers to a dataset that combines all of the available data into one integrated package that can be used in hydrocarbon exploration . With the acquisition of Black Gold Energy LLC by Niko Resources Ltd. 6 in December 2009 the term now belongs to Niko Resources The concept of a SeaSeep dataset is the modern day offshore derivative of how many oil fields were found in the late 19th and early 20th century ; by finding a large anticline structure with an associated oil seep . In the United States , many of the first commercial fields in California were found using this method including the Newhall Field discovered in 1876 and the Kern River Field discovered in 18997 . Seeps have also been used to find offshore fields including the Cantarell Field in Mexico in 1976 ; the largest oil field in Mexico and one of the largest in the world . The field is named after a fisherman , Rudesindo Cantarell , who complained to PEMEX about his fishing nets being stained by oil seeps in the Bay of Campeche . The biological and geochemical manifestations of seepage leads to distinct bathymetrical features including positive relief mounds , pinnacles , mud volcanoes and negative relief pockmarks . These features can be detected by multibeam sonar and then sampled by navigated piston coring . Spec and proprietary multibeam seep mapping and core geochemistry by Texas A&M University 's Geochemical & Environmental Research Group8 and later TDI Brooks9 demonstrated thermogenic charge in deepwater Angola and deepwater Nigeria leading to an aggressive exploration program by a number of oil companies and subsequent discoveries . The emphasis on , and marketplace acceptance of , multibeam mapping combined with navigated coring as an improvement over grid-based approaches to geochemical exploration is attributed to AOA Geophysics Inc10 .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "SeaSeep", "rank": 76, "score": 83592 }, { "content": "Title: Hyperinflation in Brazil Content: Hyperinflation in Brazil was a fourteen-year period of three-to-four-digit annual inflation rates from 1980 until 1994 . It coincided with the period of economic crisis and political turmoil triggered by the 1970s energy crisis during the Brazilian military dictatorship until the conclusion of the main processes of the democratic transition in the country in the late-1980s / early 1990s . The republic went through several short-lived currencies , including the cruzado , cruzado novo , cruzeiro , and cruzeiro real , before introducing the Brazilian real in 1994 which proved to be a stable currency .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Hyperinflation_in_Brazil", "rank": 77, "score": 82735 }, { "content": "Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Josh_Willis", "rank": 78, "score": 82670 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 79, "score": 82586 }, { "content": "Title: Global Terrorism Database Content: The Global Terrorism Database ( GTD ) is a database of incidents of terrorism from 1970 onward ( as of February 2017 , the list extended through 2015 , but excluded the year 1993 due to data issues with that year . 2016 results will be released in Summer 2017 ) . The database is maintained by the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism ( START ) at the University of Maryland , College Park in the United States . It is also the basis for other terrorism-related measures , such as the Global Terrorism Index ( GTI ) published by the Institute for Economics and Peace .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Global_Terrorism_Database", "rank": 80, "score": 82522 }, { "content": "Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "The_Sea_Has_Risen", "rank": 81, "score": 82463 }, { "content": "Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Last_Glacial_Maximum", "rank": 82, "score": 82247 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Sea_Level_(band)", "rank": 83, "score": 81869 }, { "content": "Title: World Ocean Content: The World Ocean or global ocean ( colloquially the sea or the ocean ) is the interconnected system of Earth 's oceanic waters , and comprises the bulk of the hydrosphere , covering almost 71 % of Earth 's surface , with a total volume of 1,332,000,000 km3 .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "World_Ocean", "rank": 84, "score": 81776 }, { "content": "Title: Flandrian interglacial Content: The Flandrian interglacial or stage is the name given by geologists and archaeologists in the British Isles to the first , and so far only , stage of the Holocene epoch ( the present geological period ) , covering the period from around 12,000 years ago , at the end of the last glacial period to the present day . As such , it is in practice identical in span to the Holocene . Present climatological theory ( based on analysis of Milankovitch cycles ) forecasts that the present Flandrian climate should decline in temperature towards a global climate similar to that of the ice age . Less orbital eccentricity may have the effect of moderating this temperature downturn . The Flandrian began as the relatively short-lived Younger Dryas climate downturn came to an end . This formed the last gasp of the Devensian glaciation , the final stage of the Pleistocene epoch and is traditionally seen as the latest warm interglacial in a series that has been occurring throughout the Quaternary geological period . The first part of the Flandrian , known as the Younger Atlantic , was a period of fairly rapid sea level rise , known as the Flandrian transgression and associated with the melting of the Fenno-Scandian , Scottish , Laurentide and Cordilleran glaciers . Fjords were formed during the Flandrian transgression when U-shaped glaciated valleys were inundated with water .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Flandrian_interglacial", "rank": 85, "score": 81635 }, { "content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Deglaciation", "rank": 86, "score": 81557 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 87, "score": 81412 }, { "content": "Title: 1985 world oil market chronology Content: January : Nine OPEC members adjust prices to cut gap between light and heavy crudes from $ 4 to $ 2.40 per barrel . Saudi light price cut one dollar to $ 28 per barrel . March 11 -- 19 : Iranian offensive ; heavy casualties . May -- June : `` Battle of the cities '' - heavy bombing from both Iran and Iraq . June : OPEC output falls to 20-year low of 13.7 MMB/D . June : Iran begins hit-and-run raids on Iraq . July : OPEC loses customers to cheaper North Sea oil . More OPEC price cuts . August : Saudi Arabia links prices to spot market . Output rises from 2 MMB/D in August to 5 MMB/D in early 1986 . August 15 : First Iraqi air raid on Iran 's main oil export terminal , Kharg Island . November 6 : Exploratory well in Ranger , Texas , blows out , spilling 150,000 BBLS of crude oil . December : OPEC output hits 18 MMB/D boosting a glut and triggering a price war . | - | width = `` 30 % '' align = `` center '' | previous year :1984 world oil market chronology | width = `` 40 % '' align = `` center '' | This article is part of theChronology of world oil market events ( 1970-2005 ) | width = `` 30 % '' align = `` center '' | following year :1986 world oil market chronology | - Category : Oil market timelines World oil market chronology", "qid": "2843", "docid": "1985_world_oil_market_chronology", "rank": 88, "score": 81378 }, { "content": "Title: Isotopes of seaborgium Content: Seaborgium ( 106Sg ) is a synthetic element , and thus a standard atomic weight can not be given . Like all synthetic elements , it has no stable isotopes . The first isotope to be synthesized was 263mSg in 1974 . There are 12 known radioisotopes from 258Sg to 271Sg and 2 known isomers ( 261mSg and 263mSg ) . The longest-lived isotope is 269Sg with a half-life of 3.1 minutes .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Isotopes_of_seaborgium", "rank": 89, "score": 81306 }, { "content": "Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Marine_transgression", "rank": 90, "score": 81267 }, { "content": "Title: Google Trends Content: Google Trends is a public web facility of Google Inc. , based on Google Search , that shows how often a particular search-term is entered relative to the total search-volume across various regions of the world , and in various languages . The horizontal axis of the main graph represents time ( starting from 2004 ) , and the vertical is how often a term is searched for relative to the total number of searches , globally . Below the main graph , popularity is broken down by countries , regions , cities and language . Note that what Google calls `` language '' , however , does not display the relative results of searches in different languages for the same term ( s ) . It only displays the relative combined search volumes from all countries that share a particular language ( see `` flowers '' vs `` fleurs '' ) . It is possible to refine the main graph by region and time period . On August 5 , 2008 , Google launched Google Insights for Search , a more sophisticated and advanced service displaying search trends data . On September 27 , 2012 , Google merged Google Insights for Search into Google Trends .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Google_Trends", "rank": 91, "score": 81160 }, { "content": "Title: 1872 Baltic Sea flood Content: The 1872 Baltic Sea flood ( Ostseesturmhochwasser 1872 ) , often referred to as a storm flood , ravaged the Baltic Sea coast from Denmark to Pomerania in the night of 12/13 November 1872 and was , until then , the worst storm surge in the Baltic . The highest recorded peak water level was about 3.3 m above sea level ( NN ) .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "1872_Baltic_Sea_flood", "rank": 92, "score": 80960 }, { "content": "Title: Blue revolution Content: Blue Revolution refers to the time of intense growth in the worldwide aquaculture industry from the mid-1960 's to present . The aquaculture industry has been growing at an average rate of nine-percent a year . Worldwide aquaculture production has now reached 50 million tons , up from two million in 1950 . A similar growth in land-based agriculture observed in the 1960 's and 1970 's is commonly referred to as the green revolution .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Blue_revolution", "rank": 93, "score": 80923 }, { "content": "Title: 2007–08 world food price crisis Content: World food prices increased dramatically in 2007 and the first and second quarter of 2008 , creating a global crisis and causing political and economic instability and social unrest in both poor and developed nations . Although the media spotlight focused on the riots that ensued in the face of high prices , the ongoing crisis of food insecurity had been years in the making . Systemic causes for the worldwide increases in food prices continue to be the subject of debate . After peaking in the second quarter of 2008 , prices fell dramatically during the late-2000s recession but increased during late 2009 and 2010 , reaching new heights in 2011 and 2012 ( see 2010 -- 12 world food price crisis ) at a level slightly higher than the level reached in 2008 . Over the next years , prices fell , reaching a low in March 2016 with the deflated FAO food price index close to pre-crisis level of 2006 . Since then prices have been increasing , but as of 2017-05 they have not reached crisis levels again . The initial causes of the late-2006 price spikes included droughts in grain-producing nations and rising oil prices . Oil price increases also caused general escalations in the costs of fertilizers , food transportation , and industrial agriculture . Root causes may be the increasing use of biofuels in developed countries ( see also food vs fuel ) , and an increasing demand for a more varied diet across the expanding middle-class populations of Asia . The Food and Agriculture Organization also raised concerns about the role of hedge funds speculating on prices leading to major shifts in prices . These factors , coupled with falling world-food stockpiles , all contributed to the worldwide rise in food prices .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "2007–08_world_food_price_crisis", "rank": 94, "score": 80850 }, { "content": "Title: 1993 world oil market chronology Content: July : Oil prices plunge on speculation that Iraq will accept U.N. missile test site inspections and receive approval to resume oil exports . November : Combination of OPEC overproduction , surging North Sea output , and weak demand lowers the price of Brent to near $ 15 per barrel . | - | width = `` 30 % '' align = `` center '' | previous year :1992 world oil market chronology | width = `` 40 % '' align = `` center '' | This article is part of theChronology of world oil market events ( 1970-2005 ) | width = `` 30 % '' align = `` center '' | following year :1994 world oil market chronology | - Category : Oil market timelines World oil market chronology World Oil Market Chronology , 1993", "qid": "2843", "docid": "1993_world_oil_market_chronology", "rank": 95, "score": 80848 }, { "content": "Title: Thiel Trough Content: Thiel Trough is a submarine trough trending NE-SW with depths reaching to 1,500 metres below sea level . The trough extends southwest from about 7630S , 3500W , in the Weddell Sea ; underlies Filchner Ice Shelf and the south part of Ronne Ice Shelf , south of Henry Ice Rise ; and continues west to about 8300S , 8500W , near Martin Hills . The portion northeast of the Henry Ice Rise was discovered in 1957-58 by a U.S. traverse party from Ellsworth Station and named `` Crary Trough '' after Albert P. Crary , chief scientist with the United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) . The southwest portion was traced by U.S. seismic traverse parties , 1958 -- 64 , and the whole delineated in greater detail by the Scott Polar Research Institute ( SPRI ) - National Science Foundation ( NSF ) - Technical University of Denmark ( TUD ) airborne radio echo sounding program , 1967-79 . The name `` Crary Trough '' was later set aside by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) at the suggestion of Dr. Crary , who recommended that the entire trough be named after Dr. Edward C. Thiel ( 1928 -- 61 ) . Dr Thiel was chief seismologist at Ellsworth Station 1956 -- 58 , the leader of the traverse party that discovered this feature and died in an air-crash at Wilkes Station Antarctica . Category : Oceanic basins of the Southern Ocean Category : Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Thiel_Trough", "rank": 96, "score": 80834 }, { "content": "Title: Russian Cross Content: The Russian Cross is the name of a demographic trend that occurred in Russia . Starting in 1988 , birth rates among native Russians ( as well as most other ethnic groups of the European part of the former Soviet Union ) were declining , while from 1991 the death rates started climbing . In 1992 , the number of deaths exceeded the number of births , and continued to do more or less so ever since until 2013 . When this trend is plotted on a line graph starting from the mid-1980s , the lines cross at 1992 , hence the name .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Russian_Cross", "rank": 97, "score": 80755 }, { "content": "Title: Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project Content: The Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project , or GODAR Project was established to increase the volume of historical oceanographic data available to climate change and other researchers . The project attempts to locate ocean profile and plankton data sets not yet in digital form , digitizes these data , and ensures their submission to national data centers and the World Data Center system ( WDC ) . In addition , data on electronic media that are at risk of loss due to media degradation are also candidates for rescue .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Global_Oceanographic_Data_Archaeology_and_Rescue_Project", "rank": 98, "score": 80720 }, { "content": "Title: Boring Billion Content: The Boring Billion is a term coined by palaeontologist Martin Brasier to refer to the approximately one billion-year period between 1.8 and 0.8 Ga in Earth 's history that is characterized by environmental , evolutionary , and lithospheric stability . It has also been termed the `` Barren Billion '' , `` Dullest Time on Earth '' and `` Earth 's Middle Ages '' . In the time leading up to the Boring Billion , Earth experienced multiple widespread glaciations , the origin of prokaryotic life , the introduction of oxygen into the atmosphere with the evolution of cyanobacteria , addition of UV-blocking ozone to the atmosphere , and the oxidizing of iron in the oceans . After the Boring Billion , the atmosphere again underwent rapid changes as atmospheric oxygen rose to approximately modern levels , most major animal phyla evolved during the Cambrian explosion , and large animals appeared in the oceans . The Boring Billion was thus termed boring because unlike the rapidly changing environments present on Earth before and after this period , it is characterized by climatic stability , low levels of atmospheric oxygen , lack of biological events , and the absence of extreme changes in the atmospheric and oceanic composition . Stability during the Boring Billion may be attributed to a relatively stable supercontinent that was initiated by 1.7 Ga and persisted until its breakup around 0.75 Ga. . The exact timing and duration of the Boring Billion is not agreed upon by scientists and estimates for the beginning and end of the Boring Billion range between 1.8 and 2.4 Ga for initiation and between 0.5 and 0.8 Ga for termination . The Boring Billion occurred during the Proterozoic Eon . During the Boring Billion , green and purple photosynthetic bacteria appear to have thrived in an anoxic and sulfidic ocean . This ocean was much less productive than modern oceans , released sulfurous gasses including toxic hydrogen sulfide , and was very limited in nutrients ( especially Mo , Fe , N , and P ) . As the Boring Billion progressed , eukaryotic life evolved from a prokaryotic ancestor within this ocean . By the end of the Boring Billion , the first life had appeared on land . Eukaryotes , specifically a proto-lichen , helped end the Boring Billion by causing Earth 's second oxygenation event and the Snowball Earth glaciation that accompanied it . While the Boring Billion has been termed ` boring ' due to its relative stability , scientists acknowledge that this name might not accurately describe this time . When plate tectonics , environmental conditions , and evolution of eukaryotic life are examined , this period does not appear boring at all . Records of this distant time are sparse , and the apparent stability of this period may be due in part to gaps in the geologic record .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Boring_Billion", "rank": 99, "score": 80569 }, { "content": "Title: Global financial crisis in 2009 Content: This article only provides a detailed description of the financial market events of 2009 . For the background information , causes , effects and policy responses see Financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 . For a timeline see Subprime crisis impact timeline . On the evening of January 18 , the Danish Parliament agreed to a financial package worth 100 billion Danish kroner ( 17.6 billion USD ) . In response , markets panicked yet again . On January 22 , the editorial board of The Christian Science Monitor '' wrote that the four largest U.S. banks `` have lost half of their value since January 2 . '' The two-month period from January 1-February 27 represented the worst start to a year in the history of the S&P 500 with a drop in value of 18.62 % . By March 2 , the Dow Jones Industrial Average Index had dropped more than 50 % from its October 2007 peak . The decline has been compared to that of the 1929 Great Depression , which was 53 % between September 1929 and March 1931 . On March 6 , the Bank of England announced up to 150 billion pounds of quantitative easing , increasing the risk of inflation . In March 2009 , Blackstone Group CEO Stephen Schwarzman said that up to 45 % of global wealth had been destroyed by the global financial crisis . By March 9 , 2009 , the Dow had fallen to 6440 , a percentage decline exceeding the pace of the market 's fall during the Great Depression and a level which the index had last seen in 1996 . On March 10 , 2009 , a countertrend bear market rally began , taking the Dow up to 8500 by May 6 , 2009 . Financial stocks were up more than 150 % during this rally . By May 9 , financial stocks had rallied more than 150 % in just over two months . On June 22 the World Bank projected that the global production for 2009 would fall by 2.9 % , the first decline since the second world war .", "qid": "2843", "docid": "Global_financial_crisis_in_2009", "rank": 100, "score": 80445 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Chemtrail conspiracy theory Content: The chemtrail conspiracy theory is the incorrect claim that long-lasting trails , so-called `` chemtrails '' , are left in the sky by high-flying aircraft and that they consist of chemical or biological agents deliberately sprayed for sinister purposes undisclosed to the general public . Believers in the theory argue that normal contrails dissipate relatively quickly and that contrails that do not dissipate must contain additional substances . These arguments have been dismissed by the scientific community : such trails are normal water-based contrails ( condensation trails ) that are routinely left by high-flying aircraft under certain atmospheric conditions . Although proponents have attempted to prove that the claimed chemical spraying does take place , their analyses have been flawed or based on misconceptions . Because of the persistence of the conspiracy theory and questions about government involvement , scientists and government agencies around the world have repeatedly explained that supposed chemtrails are in fact normal contrails . The term chemtrail is a portmanteau of the words chemical and trail , as contrail is of condensation and trail . Believers in the conspiracy theory speculate that the purpose of the claimed chemical release may be solar radiation management , psychological manipulation , human population control , weather modification , or biological or chemical warfare and that the trails are causing respiratory illnesses and other health problems .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 1, "score": 114116 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Global_warming_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 2, "score": 109087 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 3, "score": 107741 }, { "content": "Title: Osama bin Laden death conspiracy theories Content: The death of Osama bin Laden gave rise to various conspiracy theories , hoaxes , and rumors . These include the ideas that bin Laden had been dead for years , or is still alive . Doubts about bin Laden 's death were fueled by the U.S. military 's supposed disposal of his body at sea , the decision to not release any photographic or DNA evidence of bin Laden 's death to the public , the contradicting accounts of the incident ( with the official story on the raid appearing to change or directly contradict previous assertions ) , and the 25-minute blackout during the raid on bin Laden 's compound during which a live feed from cameras mounted on the helmets of the U.S. special forces was cut off . On May 1 , 2011 , an image purporting to show a dead bin Laden was broadcast on Pakistani television . Though the story was picked up by much of the British press , as well the Associated Press , it was swiftly removed from websites after it was exposed as a fake on Twitter . On May 4 , the Obama administration announced it would not release any images of Bin Laden 's dead body . The administration had considered releasing the photos to dispel rumors of a hoax , at the risks of perhaps prompting another attack by al Qaeda and of releasing very graphic images to people who might find them disturbing . Several photos of the aftermath of the raid were given to Reuters by an anonymous Pakistani security official , but though all appeared to be authentic , they were taken after the U.S. forces had left and none of them included evidence regarding bin Laden 's fate . On May 6 , it was reported that an al-Qaeda website acknowledged bin Laden 's death . On May 11 , Republican senator and Senate Armed Services Committee member Jim Inhofe stated he had viewed `` gruesome '' photographs of bin Laden 's corpse , and later confirmed that the body `` was him '' , adding , `` He 's history '' . On May 21 , 2015 , investigative journalist Seymour Hersh published a report claiming that Pakistan had kept bin Laden under house arrest since 2006 , that the U.S. had learned of bin Laden 's location through a Pakistani intelligence official and not through tracking a courier , and that elements of the Pakistani military aided the U.S. in killing bin Laden . The White House denied Hersh 's report .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Osama_bin_Laden_death_conspiracy_theories", "rank": 4, "score": 105003 }, { "content": "Title: HIV/AIDS denialism Content: HIV/AIDS denialism is the belief , contradicted by conclusive medical and scientific evidence , that human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) does not cause acquired immune deficiency syndrome ( AIDS ) . Some of its proponents reject the existence of HIV , while others accept that HIV exists but argue that it is a harmless passenger virus and not the cause of AIDS . Insofar as they acknowledge AIDS as a real disease , they attribute it to some combination of sexual behavior , recreational drugs , malnutrition , poor sanitation , haemophilia , or the effects of the drugs used to treat HIV infection . The scientific consensus is that the evidence showing HIV to be the cause of AIDS is conclusive and that HIV/AIDS denialist claims are pseudoscience based on conspiracy theories , faulty reasoning , cherry picking , and misrepresentation of mainly outdated scientific data . With the rejection of these arguments by the scientific community , HIV/AIDS denialist material is now targeted at less scientifically sophisticated audiences and spread mainly through the Internet . Despite its lack of scientific acceptance , HIV/AIDS denialism has had a significant political impact , especially in South Africa under the presidency of Thabo Mbeki . Scientists and physicians have raised alarm at the human cost of HIV/AIDS denialism , which discourages HIV-positive people from using proven treatments . Public health researchers have attributed 330,000 to 340,000 AIDS-related deaths , along with 171,000 other HIV infections and 35,000 infant HIV infections , to the South African government 's former embrace of HIV/AIDS denialism . The interrupted use of antiviral treatments is also a major global concern as it potentially increases the likelihood of the emergence of antiviral-resistant strains of the virus .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "HIV/AIDS_denialism", "rank": 5, "score": 100598 }, { "content": "Title: Moon landing conspiracy theories Content: Moon landing conspiracy theories are conspiracy theories which claim that some or all elements of the Apollo program and the associated Moon landings were hoaxes staged by NASA with the aid of other organizations . The most notable claim is that the six manned landings ( 1969 -- 72 ) were faked and that twelve Apollo astronauts did not actually walk on the Moon . Various groups and individuals have made claims since the mid-1970s , that NASA and others knowingly misled the public into believing the landings happened , by manufacturing , tampering with , or destroying evidence including photos , telemetry tapes , radio and TV transmissions , Moon rock samples , and even some key witnesses . Much third-party evidence for the landings exists , and detailed rebuttals to the hoax claims have been made . Since the late 2000s , high-definition photos taken by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ( LRO ) of the Apollo landing sites have captured the lander modules and the tracks left by the astronauts . In 2012 , images were released showing five of the six Apollo missions ' American flags erected on the Moon still standing ; the exception is that of Apollo 11 , which has lain on the lunar surface since being accidentally blown over by the takeoff rocket 's exhaust . Conspiracists have managed to sustain public interest in their theories for more than 40 years , despite the rebuttals and third-party evidence . Opinion polls taken in various locations have shown that between 6 % and 20 % of Americans and 28 % of Russians surveyed believe that the manned landings were faked . Even as late as 2001 , the Fox television network documentary Conspiracy Theory : Did We Land on the Moon ? claimed NASA faked the first landing in 1969 to win the Space Race .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories", "rank": 6, "score": 100530 }, { "content": "Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''", "qid": "2844", "docid": "James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)", "rank": 7, "score": 100029 }, { "content": "Title: SARS conspiracy theory Content: The SARS conspiracy theory began to emerge during the severe acute respiratory syndrome ( SARS ) outbreak in China in the spring of 2003 , when Sergei Kolesnikov , a Russian scientist and a member of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences , first publicized his claim that the SARS coronavirus is a synthesis of measles and mumps . According to Kolesnikov , this combination can not be formed in the natural world and thus the SARS virus must have been produced under laboratory conditions . Another Russian scientist , Nikolai Filatov , head of Moscow 's epidemiological services , had earlier commented that the SARS virus was probably man-made . However , independent labs concluded these claims to be premature since the SARS virus is a coronavirus , whereas measles and mumps are paramyxoviruses . The primary differences between a coronavirus and a parmyxovirus are in their structures and method of infection , thus making it implausible for a coronavirus was created from two paramyxoviruses . The widespread reporting of claims by Kolesnokov and Filatov caused controversy in many Chinese internet discussion boards and chat rooms . Many Chinese believed that the SARS virus could be a biological weapon manufactured by the United States , which perceived China 's rise as a potential threat to its dominance and superiority in the world . The failure to find the source of the SARS virus further convinced these people and many more that SARS was artificially synthesised and spread by some individuals and even governments . Circumstantial evidence suggests that the SARS virus crossed over to humans from Asian palm civets ( `` civet cats '' ) , a type of animal that is often killed and eaten in Guangdong , where SARS was first discovered . However , civet cats are extensively used in food production without causing SARS in their handlers . Supporters of the conspiracy theory suggest that SARS caused the most serious harm in mainland China , Hong Kong , Taiwan and Singapore , regions where most Chinese reside , while the United States , Europe and Japan were not affected as much . However , the highest mortality from SARS outside of China occurred in Canada where 43 died . Conspiracists further point out that SARS has an average mortality rate of around 10 % around the world , but no one died in the United States from SARS , despite the fact that there were 8 confirmed cases out of 27 probable cases ( 10 % of 8 people is less than 1 person ) . Regarding reasons why SARS patients in the United States experienced a relatively mild illness , the U.S. Centers for Disease Control has explained that anybody with fever and a respiratory symptom who had traveled to an affected area was included as a SARS patient in the U.S. , even though many of these were found to have had other respiratory illnesses . In October 2003 , Tong Zeng , a Chinese lawyer and a volunteer in a 1998 Chinese-American medical cooperation program , published a book that again speculated that SARS could be a biological weapon developed by the United States against China . In the book , Tong disclosed that in the 1990s , many American research groups collected thousands of blood and DNA samples and specimens of mainland Chinese ( including 5,000 DNA samples from twins ) through numerous joint research projects carried out in China . These samples were then sent back to the United States for further research , and could be used in developing biological weapons targeting Chinese . These samples came from 22 provinces in China , all of which were hit by SARS in 2003 . Only provinces like Yunnan , Guizhou , Hainan , Tibet , and Xinjiang were left out , and all these provinces suffered less severely during the SARS outbreak . The author suspects that Japan is also involved , as many Japanese factories in Guangdong in the 1990s made it compulsory for all workers to have blood tests in the factory annually , rather than asking workers to go to local hospitals for blood tests and a proper physical examination . However , Tong Zeng admits that these are only speculations , and he does not have any concrete proof from the study of the virus 's genetic sequence . The scientists named above expressed the possibility that the SARS virus was man-made . Those who argue it is a natural disease mention that the human variant of the SARS coronavirus has been fully gene sequenced and that the genome has been made globally available . Naysayers insist there has been no evidence found of genetic engineering in the genome . The SARS coronavirus is novel , they say , but this only implies it has mutated or was previously undiscovered , not that it is genetically engineered . Epidemiologists in support of the theory say it implies artificial introduction of the disease into the population . Many disregard the Chinese and Russian scientists ' research as merely propaganda and an impossibility . Coronaviruses similar to SARS have been found in bats in China , suggesting they may be their natural reservoir . However scientists report that the genome of the coronavirus is similar to SARS only in structural and method of infection . The version of SARS which affects bats `` can be detected only in anal swabs '' and does not share any symptoms found in the human version of SARS . These missing symptoms resemble that of measles and mumps , which some , mostly Russian and Chinese , believe is a clear sign of the well understood field of gene splicing .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "SARS_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 8, "score": 98334 }, { "content": "Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis", "rank": 9, "score": 97516 }, { "content": "Title: Sea-level curve Content: The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history . The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration . The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data . In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Sea-level_curve", "rank": 10, "score": 97234 }, { "content": "Title: Invalid science Content: Invalid science consists of scientific claims based on experiments that can not be reproduced or that are contradicted by experiments that can be reproduced . Recent analyses indicate that the proportion of invalid claims in the scientific literature is steadily increasing . The number of retractions has grown tenfold over the past decade . But they still make up no more than 0.2 % of the 1.4 m papers published annually in scholarly journals . The U.S. Office of Research Integrity ( ORI ) , investigates scientific misconduct .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Invalid_science", "rank": 11, "score": 97181 }, { "content": "Title: The Sea is Rising Content: `` The Sea is Rising '' is a song by Australian hip hop trio Bliss n Eso featuring John Butler Trio . It was released in 2008 as the third single from the trio 's third studio album , Flying Colours . The song peaked and debuted at No. 80 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2013 , five years after its release , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales/shipments of over 35,000 copies .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "The_Sea_is_Rising", "rank": 12, "score": 94294 }, { "content": "Title: Conspiracy theory Content: A conspiracy theory is an explanation of an event or situation that invokes a conspiracy without warrant , generally one involving an illegal or harmful act carried out by government or other powerful actors . Conspiracy theories often produce hypotheses that contradict the prevailing understanding of history or simple facts . The term is a derogatory one . According to the political scientist Michael Barkun , conspiracy theories rely on the view that the universe is governed by design , and embody three principles : nothing happens by accident , nothing is as it seems , and everything is connected . Another common feature is that conspiracy theories evolve to incorporate whatever evidence exists against them , so that they become , as Barkun writes , a closed system that is unfalsifiable , and therefore `` a matter of faith rather than proof '' .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Conspiracy_theory", "rank": 13, "score": 93702 }, { "content": "Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level", "rank": 14, "score": 92071 }, { "content": "Title: Rising Tide (Forgotten Realms novel) Content: Rising Tide is a fantasy novel by Mel Odom , set in the world of the Forgotten Realms , and based on the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game . It is the first novel in `` The Threat from the Sea '' trilogy . It was published in paperback in January 1999 .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Rising_Tide_(Forgotten_Realms_novel)", "rank": 15, "score": 90942 }, { "content": "Title: Free energy suppression conspiracy theory Content: Free energy suppression ( or new energy suppression ) is a conspiracy theory that technologically viable , pollution-free , no-cost energy sources are being suppressed by government , corporations , or advocacy groups . Devices allegedly suppressed include perpetual motion machines , cold fusion generators , torus-based generators , reverse-engineered extraterrestrial technology and other generally unproven , low-cost energy sources . The alleged suppression ( or weakening ) is claimed to have occurred since the mid-19th century and allegedly perpetrated by various government agencies , corporate powers , special interest groups , and fraudulent inventors . The special interest groups are usually claimed to be associated with the fossil fuel or nuclear industry , whose business model would be threatened . Claims of suppression include : The claim that the scientific community has controlled and suppressed research into alternative avenues of energy generation via the institutions of peer review and academic pressure . The claim that devices exist which are capable of extracting significant and usable power from pre-existing unconventional energy reservoirs , such as the quantum vacuum zero point energy , for little or no cost , but are being suppressed . The claim that more efficient versions of renewable energy technologies ( such as solar cells and biofuels ) and energy-consuming technologies ( such as electric vehicles ) are being suppressed . Some examples of individuals who were allegedly suppressed , harassed or killed for their research are : Thomas Henry Moray , Stanley Meyer and Eugene Mallove .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Free_energy_suppression_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 16, "score": 90098 }, { "content": "Title: Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories Content: On December 14 , 2012 , the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting occurred . The perpetrator , Adam Lanza , fatally shot his mother before murdering 20 students and six staff members at the Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown , Connecticut , and later committing suicide . A number of fringe figures have promoted conspiracy theories that doubt or dispute what occurred at Sandy Hook . Various conspiracy theorists have claimed , for example , that the massacre was actually orchestrated by the U.S. Government as part of an elaborate plot to promote stricter gun control laws . Other conspiracy theorists , such as Alex Jones , deny that the massacre actually occurred , asserting that it was `` completely fake . '' No evidence supports these conspiracy theories , which make a number of implausible claims . Moreover , many Sandy Hook conspiracy theories contradict one another . A number of sources have published articles debunking various claims put forward by conspiracy theorists .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting_conspiracy_theories", "rank": 17, "score": 89973 }, { "content": "Title: The Sea Has Risen Content: The Sea Has Risen ( Hungarian : Föltámadott a tenger ) is a 1953 Hungarian historical drama film directed by László Ranódy , Mihály Szemes and Kálmán Nádasdy . It stars János Görbe , Zoltán Makláry and Lajos Básti . The film portrays Sándor Petőfi and the events of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "The_Sea_Has_Risen", "rank": 18, "score": 89500 }, { "content": "Title: Debunking 9/11 Myths Content: Debunking 9/11 Myths : Why Conspiracy Theories Ca n't Stand Up to the Facts is a non-fiction book published by Hearst Communications , Inc. on August 15 , 2006 . The book is based on the article `` 9/11 : Debunking the Myths '' in the March 2005 issue of Popular Mechanics and is written by David Dunbar and Brad Reagan , responding to various 9/11 conspiracy theories . The authors interviewed over 300 sources for the book , relying on expert and witness accounts .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Debunking_9/11_Myths", "rank": 19, "score": 87949 }, { "content": "Title: Korean Air Lines Flight 007 alternative theories Content: Korean Air Lines Flight 007 alternative theories concerns the various theories put forward regarding the shooting down of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 . The aircraft was en route from New York City via Anchorage to Seoul on September 1 , 1983 , when it strayed into prohibited Soviet airspace and was shot down by Soviet jet fighters . Flight 007 has been the subject of ongoing controversy and has spawned a number of conspiracy theories . Many of these are based on the suppression of evidence such as the flight data recorders , unexplained details such as the role of a USAF RC-135 surveillance aircraft , or merely Cold War disinformation and propaganda . Some commentators also felt that the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) report into the incident failed to address key points adequately , such as the reason for the aircraft 's deviation . The release of flight data recorder evidence by the Russian Federation in 1993 , ten years after the event , seriously challenged many of these theories . Some alternative interpretations focus on evidential questions largely independent of political considerations . One of the first theories was that Space Shuttle Challenger and a satellite were monitoring the airliner 's progress over Soviet territory . Defence Attaché , which printed this claim , was sued by Korean Air Lines and forced to pay damages and print an apology .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007_alternative_theories", "rank": 20, "score": 87021 }, { "content": "Title: Rising from the Sea Content: Rising from the Sea is the second studio album by the German thrash metal band Exumer . It was released on July 21 , 1987 through Disaster Records . The album was produced by Tommy Ziegler and Exumer at Zuckerfabrik Studio in Stuttgart .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Rising_from_the_Sea", "rank": 21, "score": 86965 }, { "content": "Title: Global Sea Level Observing System Content: The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System", "rank": 22, "score": 86479 }, { "content": "Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Josh_Willis", "rank": 23, "score": 86409 }, { "content": "Title: Barack Obama religion conspiracy theories Content: Allegations that Barack Obama secretly practices Islam , or that he is the antichrist of Christian eschatology , have been suggested since he campaigned for the U.S. Senate in 2004 and have proliferated since his election as President of the U.S. in 2008 . As with conspiracy theories surrounding his citizenship status , these false claims are promoted by various fringe theorists and political opponents , with American bloggers and conservative talk radio hosts particularly promoting the theories . Despite the fact that these assertions are false , beliefs in these claims in the public sphere have endured and , in some cases , even expanded during Obama 's presidency according to the Pew Research Center , with 17 % of Americans ( including one third of conservative Republicans ) believing him to be a Muslim in a 2012 poll . In fact , Barack Obama is a Protestant Christian . While in his twenties , Obama was involved with the Black churches . From 1992 until 2008 , he was a member of the Trinity United Church of Christ -- a Reformed denomination . Obama left it in the wake of the Jeremiah Wright controversy . Since 2008 , he attends various Protestant churches , including Baptist , Methodist and Episcopalian churches .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Barack_Obama_religion_conspiracy_theories", "rank": 24, "score": 86371 }, { "content": "Title: California drought manipulation conspiracy theory Content: The California drought manipulation conspiracy theory is promoted by a number of independent researchers , self-proclaimed scientists , and alternative news outlets . They claim the drought may be a deliberate , man-made phenomenon , created by weather modification . The theory has been dismissed by the scientific community and mainstream media as fringe science or pseudoscience .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "California_drought_manipulation_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 25, "score": 86007 }, { "content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Past_sea_level", "rank": 26, "score": 85548 }, { "content": "Title: Tide Content: Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible . Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level . While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts . Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Tide", "rank": 27, "score": 84754 }, { "content": "Title: Barack Obama citizenship conspiracy theories Content: During Barack Obama 's campaign for president in 2008 , through his presidency , and afterwards , many conspiracy theories were circulated , falsely asserting that he was not a natural-born citizen of the United States and consequently , under Article Two of the U.S. Constitution , that he was ineligible to be President of the United States . Theories alleged that Obama 's published birth certificate was a forgery -- that his actual birthplace was not Hawaii but Kenya . Other theories alleged that Obama became a citizen of Indonesia in childhood , thereby losing his U.S. citizenship . Still others claimed that Obama was not a natural-born U.S. citizen because he was born a dual citizen ( British and American ) . A number of political commentators have characterized these various claims as a racist reaction to Obama 's status as the first African American President of the United States . Such claims were promoted by fringe theorists ( pejoratively referred to as `` birther '' ) , some of whom sought court rulings either declaring Obama ineligible to take office , or granting access to various documents which they claimed would evidence such ineligibility ; none of these efforts were successful . Some political opponents , especially in the Republican Party , have expressed skepticism about Obama 's citizenship or been unwilling to acknowledge it ; some have proposed legislation which would require presidential candidates to provide proof of eligibility . Expressed belief in such theories has persisted despite Obama 's pre-election release of his official Hawaiian birth certificate in 2008 ; confirmation , based on the original documents , by the Hawaii Department of Health ; the April 2011 release of a certified copy of Obama 's original Certificate of Live Birth ( or long-form birth certificate ) ; and contemporaneous birth announcements published in Hawaii newspapers . Polls conducted in 2010 suggested that at least one quarter of adult Americans said that they doubted Obama 's U.S. birth , while a May 2011 Gallup poll found that 13 % of American adults ( 23 % of Republicans ) continued to express such doubts .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Barack_Obama_citizenship_conspiracy_theories", "rank": 28, "score": 84642 }, { "content": "Title: Excelis Rising Content: Excelis Rising is a Big Finish Productions audio drama based on the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who . It is part of the Excelis trilogy which commenced in Excelis Dawns and concludes in Excelis Decays . The events are also connected to the Bernice Summerfield audio drama The Plague Herds of Excelis .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Excelis_Rising", "rank": 29, "score": 84441 }, { "content": "Title: Astronomical bodies in pseudoscience and the paranormal Content: Paranormal and pseudoscientific claims regarding astronomical bodies involve both bodies recognized by the scientific community and those known only from the claims themselves . A wide variety of movements are represented among those claiming knowledge regarding astronomical bodies gained through nonscientific means . These include astrologers , alien abductees , alien contactees , New Age practitioners UFO religions and more . The types of astronomical bodies discussed by pseudoscientists and paranormal claimants run the gamut from planets to stars , constellation , and galaxies . Many of these claims contradict scientific findings in spectacular ways or show influence from science fiction .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Astronomical_bodies_in_pseudoscience_and_the_paranormal", "rank": 30, "score": 84178 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Sea_level_equation", "rank": 31, "score": 84030 }, { "content": "Title: Conspiracy theories about Adolf Hitler's death Content: Conspiracy theories about Adolf Hitler 's death contradict the fact that Adolf Hitler committed suicide in his Führerbunker on 30 April 1945 . Most of these theories hold that Hitler and his wife , Eva Braun , survived and escaped the city of Berlin . While subject to some exposure in popular culture , examples being books such as Grey Wolf : The Escape of Adolf Hitler , these viewpoints are regarded by mainstream historians as disproven fringe theories .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Conspiracy_theories_about_Adolf_Hitler's_death", "rank": 32, "score": 84015 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Sea_level", "rank": 33, "score": 83920 }, { "content": "Title: Pseudophysics Content: Pseudophysics is a pseudoscientific practice using the language of physics or discussing issues related to or pertinent to physics to promote ideas which are either incoherent or contradictory to known physics ( experimental phenomenology ) . According to physicists , skeptics , and science writers , pseudophysics tends to be promoted by so-called `` cranks '' , whose ideas lack peer review , lack falsifiable predictions , and/or blatantly contradict scientific facts and experimental results . Mathematical physicist John C. Baez famously invented a crackpot index to give an idea of what sort of claims and rhetoric were commonplace among pseudophysics proposals he had come across .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Pseudophysics", "rank": 34, "score": 83551 }, { "content": "Title: 9/11 conspiracy theories Content: 9/11 conspiracy theories are conspiracy theories that attribute the planning and execution of the September 11 attacks against the United States to parties other than , or in addition to , al-Qaeda including that there was advance knowledge of the attacks among high-level government officials . Government investigations and independent reviews have found no evidence for the theories . Proponents of these theories claim there are inconsistencies in the official conclusions , or evidence that was either ignored or overlooked . The most prominent conspiracy theory is that the collapse of the Twin Towers and 7 World Trade Center were the result of a controlled demolition rather than structural failure due to impact and fire . Another prominent belief is that the Pentagon was hit by a missile launched by elements from inside the U.S. government or that a commercial airliner was allowed to do so via an effective stand-down of the American military . Possible motives claimed by conspiracy theorists for such actions include justifying the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq ( even though the U.S. government concluded Iraq was not involved in the attacks ) to advance their geostrategic interests , such as plans to construct a natural gas pipeline through Afghanistan . Other conspiracy theories revolve around authorities having advance knowledge of the attacks and deliberately ignoring or assisting the attackers . The National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) and the technology magazine Popular Mechanics have investigated and rejected the claims made by 9/11 conspiracy theorists . The civil engineering community accepts that the impacts of jet aircraft at high speeds in combination with subsequent fires , not controlled demolition , led to the collapse of the Twin Towers . This also was the conclusion of the 9/11 Commission , chaired by Governor Thomas Kean .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "9/11_conspiracy_theories", "rank": 35, "score": 83004 }, { "content": "Title: Relativist fallacy Content: The relativist fallacy , also known as the subjectivist fallacy , is claiming that something is true for one person but not true for someone else . The fallacy is supposed to rest on the law of noncontradiction . The fallacy applies only to objective facts , or what are alleged to be objective facts , rather than to facts about personal tastes or subjective experiences , and only to facts regarded in the same sense and at the same time . On this formulation , the very name `` relativist fallacy '' begs the question against anyone who earnestly ( however mistakenly or not ) holds that there are no `` objective facts . '' So some more work must be done , in a non-question-begging way , to make it clear wherein , exactly , the fallacy lies . There are at least two ways to interpret `` the relativist fallacy '' : either as identical to relativism ( generally ) , or as the ad hoc adoption of a relativist stance purely to defend a controversial position . On the one hand , discussions of the relativist fallacy that portray it as identical to relativism ( e.g. , linguistic relativism or cultural relativism ) are themselves committing a commonly identified fallacy of informal logic -- namely , begging the question against an earnest , intelligent , logically competent relativist . It is itself a fallacy to describe a controversial view as a `` fallacy '' -- not , at least , without arguing that it is a fallacy . In any event , it does not do to argue as follows : To advocate relativism , even some sophisticated relativism , is to commit the relativist fallacy . If one commits a fallacy , one says something false or not worth serious consideration . Therefore , to advocate relativism , even some sophisticated relativism , is to say something false or not worth serious consideration . This is an example of circular reasoning . The second step includes an argument from fallacy . On the other hand , if someone adopts a simple relativist stance as an ad hoc defense of a controversial or otherwise compromised position -- saying , in effect , that `` what is true for you is not necessarily true for me , '' and thereby attempting to avoid having to mount any further defense of the position -- one might be said to have committed a fallacy . The accusation of having committed a fallacy might rest on either of two grounds : ( 1 ) the relativism on which the bogus defense rests is so simple and meritless that it straightforwardly contradicts the Law of Non-Contradiction ; or ( 2 ) the defense ( and thus the fallacy itself ) is an example of ad hoc reasoning . It puts one in the position of asserting or implying that truth or standards of logical consistency are relative to a particular thinker or group and that under some other standard , the position is correct despite its failure to stand up to logic . Determining whether someone has committed a relativist fallacy -- by any interpretation -- requires distinguishing between things that are true for a particular person , and things that are true about that person . Take , for example , the statement proffered by Jim , `` More Americans than ever are overweight . '' One may introduce arguments for and against this proposition , based upon such things as standards of statistical analysis , the definition of `` overweight , '' etc. . The position answers to objective logical debate . If Joe answers Jim , saying `` That may be true for you , but it is not true for me , '' he has given an answer that is fallacious as well as somewhat meaningless in the context of Jim 's original statement . Conversely , take the new statement by Jim , who is 5 ft tall , '' 270 lb is grossly overweight . '' Joe , who is 6 ft , and weighs an exact , well-conditioned 270 lb , replies , `` That may be true for you , but it is not true for me . '' In this context , Joe 's reply is both meaningful and arguably accurate . As he is discussing something that is true about himself , he is not barred from making an argument that considers subjective facts , and so he does not commit the fallacy .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Relativist_fallacy", "rank": 36, "score": 82893 }, { "content": "Title: Lucifer Rising (novel) Content: Lucifer Rising is an original Virgin New Adventures novel written by Jim Mortimore and Andy Lane and based on the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who . It features the Seventh Doctor , Ace and Bernice . A prelude to the novel , also penned by Mortimore and Lane , appeared in Doctor Who Magazine # 199 .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Lucifer_Rising_(novel)", "rank": 37, "score": 82096 }, { "content": "Title: UFO conspiracy theory Content: UFO conspiracy theories argue that evidence of unidentified flying objects and extraterrestrial visitors is being suppressed by various governments , and politicians globally , most notably the officials of Washington DC . Such conspiracy theories commonly argue that Earth governments , especially the Government of the United States , are in communication and/or cooperation with extraterrestrials despite public claims to the contrary , and further that some of these theories claim that the governments are explicitly allowing alien abduction . Various UFO conspiracy ideas have flourished on the internet and were frequently featured on Art Bell 's program , Coast to Coast AM . According to MUFON , the National Enquirer reported that a survey found 76 % of participants felt the government was not revealing all it knew about UFOs , 54 % thought UFOs definitely or probably existed , and 32 % thought UFOs came from outer space . Notable persons to have publicly stated that UFO evidence is being suppressed include Senator Barry Goldwater , Admiral Lord Hill-Norton ( former NATO head and chief of the British Defence Staff ) , Brigadier General Arthur Exon ( former commanding officer of Wright-Patterson AFB ) , Vice Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter ( first CIA director ) , astronauts Gordon Cooper and Edgar Mitchell , and former Canadian Defence Minister Paul Hellyer . Beyond their testimonies and reports no substantiating evidence has been presented to support their statements and conclusions . According to the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry little or no evidence exists to support them despite significant research on the subject by non-governmental scientific agencies .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "UFO_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 38, "score": 82094 }, { "content": "Title: Gibson's paradox Content: Gibson 's Paradox is the observation that the rate of interest and the general level of prices are positively correlated . It is named for British economist Alfred Herbert Gibson who noted the correlation in a 1923 article for Banker 's Magazine . The correlation had been noted earlier by Thomas Tooke . The term was first used by John Maynard Keynes , in his 1930 work , A Treatise on Money . It was believed to be a paradox because most economic theorists predicted that the correlation would be negative . Keynes commented that the observed correlation was `` one of the most completely established empirical facts in the whole field of quantitative economics . '' The Quantity Theory of Money predicts that a slower money-growth creates slower price-rise . In addition , slower money-growth means slower growth of loanable funds and thus raises interest rates . If both these premises are true , slower money-growth should mean lower prices and higher interest rates . However , Gibson observed that lower prices were accompanied by a drop -- rather than a rise -- in interest rates . This is the paradox that needs to be explained . For instance , in the 1873-96 depression , prices fell considerably while interest rates remained low . Economist S.B. Saul says that Alfred Marshall explained the paradox by saying that other factors might have been at play : a peace dividend and improving international system of banking and finance . Economists generally thought that interest rates were correlated to the rate of inflation , whereas Keynes ' findings contradicted this view . During the period of gold standard , he concluded that interest rates were correlated to the general price level , and not the rate of change in the prices . In fact , he thought that interest rates were highly correlated to the wholesale price index rather than the rate of inflation .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Gibson's_paradox", "rank": 39, "score": 81640 }, { "content": "Title: Alan Cantwell Content: Alan Cantwell Jr. ( born 1934 , New York , New York ) is a retired dermatologist . Between the late 1960s and mid-1980s , Cantwell was author or co-author of around 30 case reports describing bacteria found in cases of scleroderma , panniculitis , and dermatological malignancies . More recently , he has written conspiracy theory articles on the origin of HIV , suggesting it may have been a released biological warfare virus and/or deliberately put into a hepatitis B vaccine used in a trial targeted at American homosexuals . His books are self-published by Aries Rising , an imprint Cantwell established in 1984 to disseminate his ideas . He has also been published in New Dawn Magazine , an Australian magazine dedicated to `` presenting news and information ignored or deliberately suppressed by the mainstream media '' , Organica , Paranoia , Steamshovel Press , and the New African .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Alan_Cantwell", "rank": 40, "score": 81534 }, { "content": "Title: Masonic conspiracy theories Content: Masonic conspiracy theories are conspiracy theories involving Freemasonry ; hundreds of such conspiracy theories have been described since the late 18th century . Generally , these theories fall into three distinct categories : political ( usually involving allegations of control of government , particularly in the United States and the United Kingdom ) , religious ( usually involving allegations of anti-Christian or Satanic beliefs or practices ) , and cultural ( usually involving popular entertainment ) . Many conspiracy theory writers have connected Freemasons ( and the Knights Templar ) with worship of the devil ; these ideas are based on different interpretations of the doctrines of those organizations . Of the claims that Freemasonry exerts control over politics , perhaps the best-known example is the New World Order theory , but there are others . These mainly involve aspects and agencies of the United States government , but actual events outside the US ( such as the Propaganda Due scandal in Italy ) are often used to lend credence to claims . Another set of theories has to do with Freemasonry and religion , particularly that Freemasonry deals with `` the occult '' . These theories have their beginnings in the Taxil hoax . In addition to these , there are various theories that focus on the embedding of symbols in otherwise ordinary items , such as street patterns , national seals , corporate logos , etc. . There are Masonic conspiracy theories dealing with every aspect of society . The majority of these theories are based on one or more of the following assumptions : That Freemasonry is its own religion , requires belief in a unique Masonic `` god '' , and that belief in this Masonic `` god '' is contrary to the teachings of various mainstream religions ( although usually noted in terms of being specifically contrary to Christian belief ) That the 33rd degree of the Scottish Rite is more than an honorary degree , coupled with the belief that most Freemasons are unaware of hidden or secretive ruling bodies within their organization that govern them , conduct occult ritual , or control various positions of governmental power That there is a centralized worldwide body that controls all Masonic Grand Lodges , and thus , all of Freemasonry worldwide acts in a unified manner", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Masonic_conspiracy_theories", "rank": 41, "score": 81468 }, { "content": "Title: Dunkirk transgression Content: The three Dunkirk transgressions are events of marine transgression ( rising seas ) around the shores of the Low Countries in the late Roman period . Soil survey geological evidences and lack of human occupation artefacts led scientists to formulate the claim that the Netherlands was largely underwater between the 3rd century and 1050 . This is the so-called third Dunkirk Transgression . The reality of the events , hypothetically determined by cyclical phases of strong sea level rises in historical times , is debated . The low-lying continental coast of Europe was lightly populated until c. 200 BC , when the climate and environment became more amenable to human habitation . Conditions remained favourable from 200 BC to 250 AD , and the region became densely populated . However the region had been undergoing a series of marine transgressions ( called Dunkirk 0 through Dunkirk IIIb ) characterised by a rising water table and floods that left layers of clay on the land . The heaviest blow came with the `` Dunkirk II transgression '' that began in the 3rd century and continually worsened , leaving large areas of the coast uninhabitable from c. 350 -- c. 700 . People were forced to abandon their homes and emigrate . Archaeologists conducting research along the historically flood-prone coast tell this same story for The Rhine/Meuse delta ( Zeeland , Brabant , parts of South Holland and Limburg ) ; Friesland ; Groningen ; Ostfriesland , German Friesland and the Weser/Jade estuary ; and Dithmarschen , Eiderstedt and Nordfriesland . In the Rhine/Meuse delta , the population became scanty . Between the 5th and 7th centuries there were few centers of occupation in the delta region , and in the estuarine and peat areas no settlements at all have been found . The area would not be repopulated until the Carolingian Era . The areas with river clay were so covered with sedimentation that habitation was almost impossible between 250 -- 650 .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Dunkirk_transgression", "rank": 42, "score": 81439 }, { "content": "Title: The Greenhouse Conspiracy Content: The Greenhouse Conspiracy is a documentary film broadcast by Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 12 August 1990 , as part of the Equinox series , which criticised the theory of global warming and asserted that scientists critical of global warming theory were denied funding . It is one of the earliest instances of the suggestion of a conspiracy to promote false claims supporting global warming . Although the title of the program implied the existence of a conspiracy , when interviewed on the program Patrick Michaels played down the idea , saying , `` It may not quite add up to a conspiracy , but certainly a coalition of interests has promoted the greenhouse theory : scientists have needed funds , the media a story , and governments a worthy cause '' .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "The_Greenhouse_Conspiracy", "rank": 43, "score": 81080 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy", "rank": 44, "score": 81070 }, { "content": "Title: Seaford Rise, South Australia Content: Seaford Rise is a metropolitan suburb of Adelaide , South Australia . It lies within the City of Onkaparinga . Its boundaries are formed by Griffiths Drive in the north , Commercial Road in the west , Main South Road in the east , and by an arbitrary border with Maslin Beach in the south .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Seaford_Rise,_South_Australia", "rank": 45, "score": 81010 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Level (band) Content: Sea Level is the name of a Southern rock/funk/fusion jam band that mixed jazz , blues and rock and existed between 1976 and 1981 . Initially it was an offshoot of The Allman Brothers Band , but as tensions grew between the loss of two of its founding members and personal grievances between Gregg Allman and other band mates and associates , Sea Level took on a life of its own as an independent band . After the initial breakup of the Allman Brothers Band when Gregg Allman and Dicky Betts left , most of the remaining members who evolved into Sea Level were the trio `` We Three '' comprising bassist Lamar Williams , drummer Jaimoe and Chuck Leavell ( piano , keyboards , vocals ) . The trio would occasionally open shows for the group in 1975 and 1976 . With the Allmans disbanding in 1976 , the trio added guitarist Jimmy Nalls and named the band based on a phonetic pun of their new bandleader Chuck Leavell 's name : `` C. Leavell . '' They toured relentlessly , experimenting and refining their sound , eventually signing with Capricorn Records ( home of the Allman Brothers ) and recording their self-titled debut album in 1977 . After the release of their first album , the group expanded to a septet with the additions of Davis Causey ( guitar ) , George Weaver ( drums , percussion ) and Randall Bramblett ( saxophones , keyboards and vocals ) . That configuration recorded the group 's second album , Cats on the Coast , in 1978 ( with the leadoff track , `` That 's Your Secret '' , reaching # 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . By the time of the third album , On the Edge , Jaimoe and Weaver had both left , replaced by Joe English . The sextet of Bramblett , Causey , English , Leavell , Nalls and Williams recorded the fourth album , Long Walk on a Short Pier ( 1979 ) , unreleased in the United States for nearly twenty years , adding percussionist Matt Greeley for their fifth and final album , Ball Room , issued on Arista in 1980 . Their greatest hits album ( CD ) wrapped up their body of work , minus a handful of appearances on various compilation albums ( mostly Southern Rock ) . They were also featured on a 1978 live Southern Rock album which included a live version of `` Grand Larceny . '' Leavell later emerged as a much sought-after session musician and producer , touring with Eric Clapton and eventually becoming a `` permanent '' session player touring with the Rolling Stones . In 1998 , he issued his debut solo LP , a Christmas album called What 's in That Bag ? and more recently Forever Blue that includes solo versions of two classic Sea Level compositions : `` Whole Lotta Colada '' and `` Song for Amy . '' He also released Southscape , an album of Southern anthems that hearkens back to his Southern roots .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Sea_Level_(band)", "rank": 46, "score": 80868 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 47, "score": 80518 }, { "content": "Title: Bart Sibrel Content: Bart Winfield Sibrel ( born 1964 ) is a conspiracy theorist who claims that the six Apollo Moon landings between 1969 and 1972 were hoaxes . He has produced four amateur films on the subject , but is mostly known for having been punched in the face by Buzz Aldrin for harassing and insulting him .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Bart_Sibrel", "rank": 48, "score": 80253 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 49, "score": 80217 }, { "content": "Title: Dæmos Rising Content: Dæmos Rising is a direct-to-DVD spin-off of the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who . It was released direct-to-video and produced by the independent production company Reeltime Pictures . It is a sequel to the Third Doctor serial The Dæmons and the 1995 Reeltime video Downtime and is also a tie-in to Telos Publishing 's Time Hunter range of books , another Doctor Who spin-off . The DVD was also released as a Limited Edition which included an inlay autographed by Beverley Cressman ( Kate Lethbridge-Stewart ) , Miles Richardson ( Douglas Cavendish ) , Andrew Wisher ( The Ghost ) , Alistair Lock ( Composer ) , David J. Howe ( Writer ) and Keith Barnfather ( Producer/Director ) .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Dæmos_Rising", "rank": 50, "score": 79914 }, { "content": "Title: Rising Medical Solutions Content: Rising Medical Solutions ( Rising ) is a US-based medical-financial solutions firm that provides medical care management and medical cost containment services to the workers ' compensation , auto , liability and group health markets . Clients include insurance carriers , self-insured employers , government entities , third party administrators ( TPAs ) and attorneys . Rising also publishes an annual Workers ' Compensation Benchmarking Study that addresses how claims organizations deal with industry-wide operational challenges .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Rising_Medical_Solutions", "rank": 51, "score": 79729 }, { "content": "Title: Doctor at Sea (TV series) Content: Doctor at Sea is a British television comedy series based on a set of books by Richard Gordon about the misadventures of Doctors at sea . The series follows directly from its predecessor Doctor in Charge , and was produced by London Weekend Television in 1974 . Writers for the Doctor at Sea episodes were Richard Laing , George Layton , Jonathan Lynn , Bernard McKenna , Gail Renard and Phil Redmond .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Doctor_at_Sea_(TV_series)", "rank": 52, "score": 79664 }, { "content": "Title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories Content: Since the mid-1970s , a variety of conspiracy theories have emerged regarding British Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson , who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1964 to 1970 and 1974 to 1976 , winning four general elections . These range from Wilson having been a Soviet agent ( a claim which MI5 investigated and found to be false ) , to Wilson being the victim of treasonous plots by conservative-leaning elements in MI5 , claims which Wilson himself made .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Harold_Wilson_conspiracy_theories", "rank": 53, "score": 79637 }, { "content": "Title: 10 agorot controversy Content: The 10 agorot controversy refers to a conspiracy theory promoted by Palestine Liberation Organization chairman Yasser Arafat 's appearance at a specially convened session of the UN Security Council in Geneva on 25 May 1990 . At the session Arafat claimed that the obverse design of an Israeli ten agorot coin showed a map of `` Greater Israel '' that represented Zionist expansionist goals . To support his claims Arafat produced a paper by Gwyn Rowley of the University of Sheffield published in GeoJournal . The paper titled `` Developing Perspectives upon the Areal Extent of Israel : An Outline Evaluation '' raised the question of what the maximum territorial extents of Eretz Yisrael were in the eyes of Israelis . As part of this inquiry Rowley presented a map of the Middle East with a superimposed outline based on the embossed pattern of a contemporary 10 agorot coin . In the text Rowley surmised : S. M. Berkowicz , of the Department of Physical Geography , at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem criticized Rowley 's article in a subsequent paper also published by GeoJournal . Berkowicz concluded that the shape was based on an ancient coin and `` There is of course no foundation to Rowley 's undocumented claim . '' Rowley then responded that the coin might have been chosen because of its map-like shape . Arafat 's claims in Geneva generated widespread global media coverage . The Bank of Israel maintains that the 10 agorot design was selected for its historical value , and is a `` replica of a coin issued by Mattathias Antigonus ( 40 -- 37 B.C.E. ) with the seven-branched candelabrum '' . The design , by Nathan Karp , first appeared on the 100 shekel coin issued by the Bank of Israel on 2 May 1984 . When the old shekel currency was replaced by the new shekel in September 1985 , the design was copied to the new 10 agorot coin , which was equal in value to the old 100 shekel . This design was also adopted as the symbol of the Bank of Israel .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "10_agorot_controversy", "rank": 54, "score": 79374 }, { "content": "Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Tide_gauge", "rank": 55, "score": 79264 }, { "content": "Title: A Sea So Far Content: A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman . Its sequel is Rising Tide ( 2003 ) .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "A_Sea_So_Far", "rank": 56, "score": 79249 }, { "content": "Title: Tide (disambiguation) Content: A tide is the rise and fall of a sea level caused by the Moon 's gravity and other factors . Tide may also refer to :", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Tide_(disambiguation)", "rank": 57, "score": 79028 }, { "content": "Title: Rising Tide (Thesman novel) Content: Rising Tide ( 2003 ) is a historical young-adult novel by Jean Thesman and a sequel to her novel A Sea So Far ( 2001 ) .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Rising_Tide_(Thesman_novel)", "rank": 58, "score": 78924 }, { "content": "Title: North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System Content: The North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System ( NOOS ) monitors physical , sedimentological and ecological variables for the North Sea area . NOOS is operated by partners from the nine countries bordering the extended North Sea and European North West Shelf ; Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Ireland , Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , and United Kingdom . Working collaboratively to develop and implement ocean observing systems in the area . Near real time and recent history sea levels are available to on their web site in map , graph or table format .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System", "rank": 59, "score": 78893 }, { "content": "Title: GMO conspiracy theories Content: GMO conspiracy theories are conspiracy theories related to the production and sale of genetically modified crops and genetically modified food ( also referred to as genetically modified organisms or `` GMOs '' ) . These conspiracy theories include claims that agribusinesses , especially Monsanto , have suppressed data showing that GMOs cause harm , deliberately cause food shortages to promote the use of GM food , or have co-opted government agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration or scientific societies such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science . Critics charge that GMO conspiracy theories are largely promulgated by those opposing the production and sale of GMOs , and instances of unsubstantiated conspiracy theories have lately occurred in the context of public health issues that are mostly unrelated to GMOs , including the current Zika virus outbreak and concerns over food safety at Chipotle Mexican Grill .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "GMO_conspiracy_theories", "rank": 60, "score": 78675 }, { "content": "Title: When the Sea Rises Content: When the Sea Rises ( Quand la mer monte ... ) is a 2004 French-Belgian romantic comedy film directed by Yolande Moreau and Gilles Porte . It was Moreau 's directorial debut .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "When_the_Sea_Rises", "rank": 61, "score": 78467 }, { "content": "Title: Unicorn Skeleton Mask Content: Unicorn Skeleton Mask is the twenty-fifth studio album by Omar Rodríguez-López as a solo artist . It was given a `` surprise '' digital release on January 2 , 2013 , just a day after the release of Equinox and Woman Gives Birth To Tomato ! . Three of the album 's songs , `` Sea Is Rising , '' `` Maria Te Canta , '' and `` Bored To Burns '' were previously debuted live as instrumental pieces during Omar Rodriguez Lopez Group 2010 tour . These tracks resurfaced in the 2016 Ipecac series with `` Sea Is Rising '' appearing on the album Corazones , half of the songs present as alternate versions on Zapopan , and with most of the rest surfacing in 2017 as alternate recordings on Zen Thrills . Since 2014 the album is no longer available to purchase officially , as Rodriguez-Lopez 's Bandcamp page has been taken down after a split with Sargent House label . Parts of a couple of these songs were also used on the following record , ¿ Sólo Extraño ? as well as its proper release in 2016 of Nom de Guerre Cabal . `` Right Of Way '' appears reworked in `` House in the Sand '' / `` Life Proves Its Worth '' and the drum track for `` Tennessee '' is present on `` Invisible Laziness '' / `` Bitter Sunsets '' before reappearing as `` With You If You Give A Damn '' on Zen Thrills . As of January 2017 , `` Names '' remains the only track to not be re-released in the Ipecac Series .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Unicorn_Skeleton_Mask", "rank": 62, "score": 78250 }, { "content": "Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Marine_transgression", "rank": 63, "score": 78226 }, { "content": "Title: Conspiracy Theory (film) Content: Conspiracy Theory is a 1997 American political action thriller film directed by Richard Donner . The original screenplay by Brian Helgeland centers on an eccentric taxi driver ( Mel Gibson ) who believes many world events are triggered by government conspiracies , and the Justice Department attorney ( Julia Roberts ) who becomes involved in his life . The movie was a financial success , but critical reviews were mixed .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Conspiracy_Theory_(film)", "rank": 64, "score": 78061 }, { "content": "Title: Mark Meier Content: Mark F. Meier ( 1925 -- November 25 , 2012 ) was an American glaciologist who was considered a leading expert on the study of rising sea levels due to the melting of glaciers . Meier was the Director of the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research ( INSTAAR ) from 1985 to 1994 and remained the institute 's director emeritus until his death in 2012 . He was also a professor of geological sciences at the University of Colorado - Boulder . Meier was born and raised in Iowa . He resided in Boulder , Colorado , since 1985 . In 1956 , Meier founded the U.S. Geological Survey 's department of glaciology . He obtained doctorate in 1957 from the California Institute of Technology . Meier served as the director of the U.S. Geological Survey 's Project Office of Glaciology in Tacoma , Washington , until he became the director of INSTAAR in 1985 . Meier was one of the first glaciologists to use remote sensing to study glaciers and rates of melting . He headed several studies of tidewater glacier dynamics in the U.S. state of Alaska . Meier organized the systematic measurement and assessment of glacier mass balance within North America to mark the International Geophysical Year and International Hydrological Decade , which was observed from 1965 to 1975 . His numerous recognitions and awards included the Seligman Crystal from the International Glaciological Society in 1993 , the Robert E. Horton Medal in 1996 , three medals from the USSR Academy of Sciences ( now the Russian Academy of Sciences ) and the United States Department of the Interior 's Distinguished Service Award . Meier died in Boulder , Colorado , on November 25 , 2012 , at the age of 86 . He is survived by his wife , Barbara , his children , Lauren Meier , Gretchen Meier , and Mark S. Meier , and his seven grandchildren .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Mark_Meier", "rank": 65, "score": 78027 }, { "content": "Title: Risella Content: Risella is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Risella", "rank": 66, "score": 77461 }, { "content": "Title: Bible conspiracy theory Content: A Bible conspiracy theory is any conspiracy theory that posits that much of what is known about the Bible is a deception created to suppress some secret , ancient truth . Some of these theories claim that Jesus really had a wife and children , or that a group such as the Priory of Sion has secret information about the true descendants of Jesus ; some claim that there was a secret movement to censor books that truly belonged in the Bible , etc. . This subject should not be confused with deliberately fictional Bible conspiracy theories . A number of bestselling modern novels , the most popular of which was The Da Vinci Code , have incorporated elements of Bible conspiracy theories to flesh out their storylines , rather than to push these theories as actual suggestions .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Bible_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 67, "score": 77431 }, { "content": "Title: Bryan & Baxter Content: Bryan & Baxter is a paranormal claims investigation team composed of Bryan Bonner and Matthew M. Baxter . Their investigations have included claims of ghosts , poltergeists , psychics , UFOs , conspiracy theories , and urban legends . They specialize in exposing frauds , and have become associated with scientific skepticism . They are based in Denver , Colorado . Bryan Bonner and Matthew M. Baxter are the founders of the Rocky Mountain Paranormal Research Society , and are also the hosts of the weekly podcast WARNING : Radio .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Bryan_&_Baxter", "rank": 68, "score": 77064 }, { "content": "Title: The Threat from the Sea Content: The Threat From the Sea is a series of fantasy novels written mostly by Mel Odom . It contains three novels : Rising Tide , Under Fallen Stars , and The Sea Devil 's Eye . It also contains the anthology book , Realms of the Deep .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "The_Threat_from_the_Sea", "rank": 69, "score": 76944 }, { "content": "Title: Lilla Saltsjöbadsavtalet Content: Lilla Saltsjöbadsavtalet is conspiracy theory within the far-right community about an alleged meeting which is claimed to have occurred at Saltsjöbaden on 21 March 1987 , with participants from the Swedish Journalist Association ( Svenska journalistklubben ) . In 1993 the public service magazine Striptease revealed the argreement to be a figment of the imagination , as they followed up on claims made by the Swedish member of parliament Bert Karlsson ( NyD ) in a debate about refugees . The journalist Johan Brånstad showed that Lilla Saltsjöbadsavtalet was fabricated by the xenophobic Sweden Party . The alleged agreement , and the meeting at which it should have been prepared , has not been confirmed by independent and credible sources . The allegations have nevertheless experienced some spread mainly in xenophobic circles , but otherwise -- with few exceptions -- have not received any attention .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Lilla_Saltsjöbadsavtalet", "rank": 70, "score": 76319 }, { "content": "Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea", "rank": 71, "score": 76200 }, { "content": "Title: Purple Sea Content: Purple Sea ( Viola di mare , also known as The Sea Purple ) is a 2009 Italian romance drama film directed by Donatella Maiorca . It is based on the non-fiction novel Minchia di re written by Giacomo Pilati . The film premiered at the 2009 Rome Film Festival . It was nominated for two Nastro d'Argento Awards , for Best Actress ( Valeria Solarino ) and Best Original Song ( `` Sogno '' by Gianna Nannini ) .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Purple_Sea", "rank": 72, "score": 76034 }, { "content": "Title: The Marian Conspiracy Content: The Marian Conspiracy is a Big Finish Productions audio drama based on the long-running British science fiction television series '' Doctor Who .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "The_Marian_Conspiracy", "rank": 73, "score": 75631 }, { "content": "Title: Doctor at Sea (film) Content: Doctor at Sea is a 1955 British comedy film , directed by Ralph Thomas , produced by Betty E. Box , and based on Richard Gordon 's novel by the same name . This was the second of seven films in the Doctor series , following the hugely popular Doctor in the House from the previous year . Once again , Richard Gordon participated in the screenwriting , together with Nicholas Phipps and Jack Davies , and once again Dirk Bogarde played the lead character Dr Simon Sparrow . The cast also includes James Robertson Justice and Joan Sims from the first film , but this time playing different characters . This was Brigitte Bardot 's first English-speaking film .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Doctor_at_Sea_(film)", "rank": 74, "score": 75608 }, { "content": "Title: The Rising Night Content: The Rising Night is an exclusive to audio Doctor Who story , produced as part of BBC Books ' New Series Adventures line , and was the fourth entry in the series to be produced . Written by Scott Handcock and read by Michelle Ryan , it features the Tenth Doctor and was published in July 2009 . It is set after the events of `` Journey 's End '' and sees the TARDIS arrive in an 18th-century village on the Yorkshire Moors , where livestock has been vanishing from the farmland and strange lights have been seen in the skies .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "The_Rising_Night", "rank": 75, "score": 75585 }, { "content": "Title: Wheelbarrow Mine Content: The lost Wheelbarrow Mine is claimed to have been located about 10 mi from Potlatch in Latah County , Idaho . The reported location is 3,871 feet above sea level , at coordinates 46.9975 ° N , 116.7833 ° W . The mine , believed to have been dug prior to 1890 , was said to have produced $ 20,000 in gold , before a falling-out between its operators led to its abandonment . One of the operators later returned to the area to find the mine again , but was unsuccessful . In June 1939 , miners with the Fitsum Mining company uncovered an abandoned mine matching the description of the Wheelbarrow mine , containing human bone presumed to belong to the other operator .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Wheelbarrow_Mine", "rank": 76, "score": 75543 }, { "content": "Title: Pizzagate conspiracy theory Content: Pizzagate is a debunked conspiracy theory that emerged during the 2016 United States presidential election cycle . The theory , which went viral , claimed that John Podesta 's emails , which were leaked by WikiLeaks , contained coded messages referring to human trafficking and connecting a number of restaurants in the United States and members of the Democratic Party with a fabricated child-sex ring . The false theory has been extensively discredited by a wide array of organizations , including the District of Columbia Police Department . Pizzagate has been compared to the Seth Rich murder conspiracy theories , which were spread in similar venues , with Slate calling it a `` PizzaGate-like conspiracy theory '' , and The Washington Post 's Margaret Sullivan writing : `` The Seth Rich lie has become the new Comet Ping Pong ... Crazy , baseless and dangerous . ''", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Pizzagate_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 77, "score": 75460 }, { "content": "Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Equilibrium_level", "rank": 78, "score": 75146 }, { "content": "Title: Seamount Content: A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water 's surface ( sea level ) , and thus is not an island . Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1000 - in height . They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1000 m above the seafloor , characteristically of conical form . The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface , and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea . During their evolution over geologic time , the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface . After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat-top seamounts are called `` guyots '' or `` tablemounts '' A total of 9,951 seamounts and 283 guyots , covering a total of 8,796,150 km2 have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists . Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean , and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption , build-up , subsidence and erosion . In recent years , several active seamounts have been observed , for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands . Because of their abundance , seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world . Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents , as well as their elevated position in the water , attract plankton , corals , fish , and marine mammals alike . Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry , and many seamounts support extensive fisheries . There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems , and well-documented cases of stock decline , for example with the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) . 95 % of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling , which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts . Because of their large numbers , many seamounts remain to be properly studied , and even mapped . Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap . There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts ; for example , Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973 . However , the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses ; as they get older , extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides , causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Seamount", "rank": 79, "score": 74950 }, { "content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change", "rank": 80, "score": 74905 }, { "content": "Title: Conspiracy theory (disambiguation) Content: A conspiracy theory alleges an event or events to be secretly influenced by a premeditated group or groups of powerful people or organizations working together . Conspiracy theory may also refer to : Conspiracy Theory ( film ) , 1997 film starring Mel Gibson and Julia Roberts , and directed by Richard Donner Conspiracy Theory with Jesse Ventura , series hosted by former Governor of Minnesota Jesse Ventura Conspiracy Theories , 2006 progressive jazz album by Phil Miller 's In Cahoots", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Conspiracy_theory_(disambiguation)", "rank": 81, "score": 74695 }, { "content": "Title: New World Order (conspiracy theory) Content: The New World Order or NWO is claimed to be an emerging clandestine totalitarian world government by various conspiracy theories . The common theme in conspiracy theories about a New World Order is that a secretive power elite with a globalist agenda is conspiring to eventually rule the world through an authoritarian world government -- which will replace sovereign nation-states -- and an all-encompassing propaganda whose ideology hails the establishment of the New World Order as the culmination of history 's progress . Many influential historical and contemporary figures have therefore been purported to be part of a cabal that operates through many front organizations to orchestrate significant political and financial events , ranging from causing systemic crises to pushing through controversial policies , at both national and international levels , as steps in an ongoing plot to achieve world domination . Before the early 1990s , New World Order conspiracism was limited to two American countercultures , primarily the militantly anti-government right and secondarily that part of fundamentalist Christianity concerned with the end-time emergence of the Antichrist . Skeptics such as Michael Barkun and Chip Berlet observed that right-wing populist conspiracy theories about a New World Order had not only been embraced by many seekers of stigmatized knowledge but had seeped into popular culture , thereby inaugurating a period during the late 20th and early 21st centuries in the United States where people are actively preparing for apocalyptic millenarian scenarios . Those political scientists are concerned that mass hysteria over New World Order conspiracy theories could eventually have devastating effects on American political life , ranging from escalating lone-wolf terrorism to the rise to power of authoritarian ultranationalist demagogues .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)", "rank": 82, "score": 74652 }, { "content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1A", "rank": 83, "score": 74480 }, { "content": "Title: Tidal range Content: The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide . Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth . The tidal range is not constant , but changes depending on where the sun and the moon are . The most extreme tidal range occurs when the gravitational forces of both the Sun and Moon are aligned ( syzygy ) , reinforcing each other in the same direction ( new moon ) or in opposite directions ( full moon ) . This type of tide is known as a spring tide . During neap tides , when the Moon and Sun 's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature ( making a right angle to the Earth 's orbit ) , the difference between high and low tides is smaller . Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of the moon 's phases . The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the equinox , if coincidental with a spring tide . Tidal data for coastal areas is published by the national hydrographic service of the country concerned . Tidal data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable . Storm force winds blowing from a steady direction for a prolonged time interval combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range , particularly in narrow bays . Such weather-related effects on the tide , which can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding , are not calculable in advance .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Tidal_range", "rank": 84, "score": 74412 }, { "content": "Title: Azoic hypothesis Content: The Azoic hypothesis ( sometimes referred to as the Abyssus theory ) is a superseded scientific theory proposed by Edward Forbes in 1843 , stating that the abundance and variety of marine life decreased with increasing depth and , by extrapolation of his own measurements , Forbes calculated that marine life would cease to exist below 300 fathom . The theory was based upon Forbes ' findings aboard the HMS Beacon , a surveying ship to which he had been appointed naturalist by the ship 's commander Captain Thomas Graves . With Forbes aboard , the HMS Beacon set sail around the Aegean Sea on 17 April 1841 , from Malta . It was at this point that Forbes began to take dredging samples at various depths of the ocean , he observed that samples from greater depths displayed a narrower diversity of creatures which were generally smaller in size . Forbes reported his findings from the Aegean Sea in his 1843 report to the British Association entitled Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea . His findings were widely accepted by the scientific community and were bolstered by other scientific figures of the time . David Page ( 1814-1879 ) , a respected geologist , confounded the theory by stating that `` according to experiment , water at the depth of 1000 feet is compressed 1/340th of its own bulk ; and at this rate of compression we know that at great depths animal and vegetable life as known to us can not possibly exist -- the extreme depressions of seas being thus , like the extreme elevations of the land , barren and lifeless solitudes . '' The theory was not disproven until the late 1860s when biologist Michael Sars , Professor of Zoology at Christiania ( now Oslo ) University , discovered life at a depth greater than 300 fathoms . Sars listed 427 animal species which had been found along the Norwegian coast at a depth of 450 fathoms , and gave a description of a crinoid Rhizocrinus lofotensis which his son had recovered from a depth of 300 fathoms in Lofoten . In 1869 , Charles Wyville Thomson dredged marine life from a depth of 2345 fathom , finally dispelling Forbes ' azoic theory . In light of this evidence , the Azoic hypothesis would come to be seen as a false hypothesis and give way to vastly increased efforts in deep-sea exploration and associated marine life . Since being discredited , the theory has been referenced widely in popular culture , such as Keble Ball 2017 and alluded to in documentaries that explore and showcase deep-sea marine life .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Azoic_hypothesis", "rank": 85, "score": 74295 }, { "content": "Title: Cathy O'Brien (conspiracy theorist) Content: Cathleen Ann O'Brien ( born December 4 , 1957 , Muskegon , Michigan ) is an American author and speaker who claims to be a victim of a government mind control program called Project Monarch which she alleges was part of the CIA 's Project MKULTRA . O'Brien made these assertions in Trance Formation of America ( 1995 ) and Access Denied : For Reasons of National Security ( 2004 ) which she co-authored with her husband Mark Phillips . According to scholars , there is no credible evidence for O'Brien 's claims and numerous inconsistencies with her story .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Cathy_O'Brien_(conspiracy_theorist)", "rank": 86, "score": 73812 }, { "content": "Title: Lumber Cartel Content: The Lumber Cartel was a facetious conspiracy theory popularized on USENET that claimed anti-spammers were secretly paid agents of lumber companies . In November 1997 , a participant on news.admin.net-abuse . email posted an essay to the newsgroup . The essay described a conspiracy theory : The reasoning provided in the essay was that certain companies first destroy forests and make paper out of them , which is in turn used to send bulk mail . Since sending e-mail spam does n't use paper at all , the essay argued , the lumber companies would want to stop it before it would surpass paper-based bulk mailing , and consequently only those in the pay of the lumber companies would be anti-spam . The rationale was based in disclaimers in certain spam messages that they were using electronic means in order to save paper . The joke eventually led to a club and numerous parody websites , most of which have long since disappeared . Gatherings of anti-spammers on Usenet began to ridicule proponents of this theory , and many participants in news.admin.net-abuse . email chose to dub themselves as members of `` the Lumber Cartel '' in their signatures , followed immediately by the acronymic disclaimer `` TinLC '' ( There is no Lumber Cartel ) , reminiscent of the There Is No Cabal catchphrase . People were able to register with a website about the Lumber Cartel and were given a sequential membership number . That was added to email sig files in news.admin.net-abuse . email and used on personal websites . There was no verification or requirement to receive the membership number .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Lumber_Cartel", "rank": 87, "score": 73752 }, { "content": "Title: Melanin theory Content: Melanin theory is a racist , pseudoscientific claim in Afrocentrism that a higher level of melanin , the primary determinant of skin color in humans , is the cause of an intellectual and physical superiority of dark skinned people and provides them with supernatural powers .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Melanin_theory", "rank": 88, "score": 73723 }, { "content": "Title: Over Rising Content: `` Over Rising '' is the fourth single by the English alternative rock band The Charlatans , released in February 1991 . Reaching number 15 in the UK , it followed `` The Only One I Know '' and `` Then '' into the UK top 20 , and reached number seven in Ireland , where it remains the group 's only top 10 hit . Although `` Over Rising '' was never featured on any studio album , it did appear on the Charlatans ' first greatest hits compilation , 1998 's Melting Pot . It was one of two non-album singles ( excluding the re-release of their debut single `` Indian Rope '' ) released by the group in 1991 . `` Over Rising '' was the last Charlatans single to feature the group 's original guitarist John Baker , who was replaced by Mark Collins in mid-1991 .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Over_Rising", "rank": 89, "score": 73587 }, { "content": "Title: National Tidal and Sea Level Facility Content: Established in 2002 , The National Tidal and Sea Level Facility is responsible for monitoring sea levels in the UK . The NTSLF comprises the UK National Tide Gauge Network , geodetic networks , and gauges in the British Dependent Territories of the South Atlantic and Gibraltar . Data collected is used to create tidal predictions , monitor climate change and determine extreme sea levels for navigation and coastal engineering design . The Network is funded by the UK Environment Agency . Associated scientific research is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) and the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "National_Tidal_and_Sea_Level_Facility", "rank": 90, "score": 73570 }, { "content": "Title: Risellopsis Content: Risellopsis is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family Littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Risellopsis", "rank": 91, "score": 73424 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 92, "score": 73274 }, { "content": "Title: Kosher tax conspiracy theory Content: The `` Kosher tax '' ( or `` Jewish tax '' ) is the idea that unwilling food companies and unwitting consumers are forced to pay money to support the Jewish religion or Zionist causes and Israel through the costs of kosher certification . This claim is generally considered a conspiracy theory , antisemitic canard , or urban legend and is mainly spread by antisemitic , white supremacist , and other extremist organizations . Common refutations include : because consumers who prefer kosher foods include not only Jews , but also Muslims , Seventh-day Adventists , and others , food companies actively seek kosher certification to increase market share and profitability ; the fees collected support the certifying organizations themselves ; extra business generated by the voluntary certification process more than makes up for the cost of supervision , hence the certification does not necessarily increase the price of products , and may in fact result in per item cost savings .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Kosher_tax_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 93, "score": 73165 }, { "content": "Title: Joe Vialls Content: Joe Vialls ( 1944 -- 17 July 2005 ) was a conspiracy theorist and internet journalist based in Perth , Western Australia . His claims that major incidents such as the Port Arthur massacre , terror attacks in Bali and Jakarta and the 2004 Asian tsunami were the work of Israeli and American secret agents gained a measure of notoriety in Australia , America and Indonesia .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Joe_Vialls", "rank": 94, "score": 72934 }, { "content": "Title: Lost Cosmonauts Content: Lost Cosmonauts , or Phantom Cosmonauts , is a conspiracy theory alleging that Soviet cosmonauts entered outer space , but without their existence having been publicly acknowledged by either the Soviet or Russian space authorities . Proponents of the Lost Cosmonauts hypothesis concede that Yuri Gagarin was the first man to survive human spaceflight , but claim that the Soviet Union attempted to launch two or more manned space flights prior to Gagarin 's , and that at least two cosmonauts died in the attempts . Another cosmonaut , Vladimir Ilyushin , is believed to have landed off-course and been held by the Chinese government . The Government of the Soviet Union supposedly suppressed this information , to prevent bad publicity during the height of the Cold War . The evidence cited to support Lost Cosmonaut theories is generally not regarded as conclusive , and several cases have been confirmed as hoaxes . In the 1980s , American journalist James Oberg researched space-related disasters in the Soviet Union , but found no evidence of these Lost Cosmonauts . Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s , much previously restricted information is now available , including on Valentin Bondarenko , a would-be cosmonaut whose death during training on Earth was covered up by the Soviet government . Even with the availability of published Soviet archival material and memoirs of Russian space pioneers , no hard evidence has emerged to support the Lost Cosmonaut stories .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Lost_Cosmonauts", "rank": 95, "score": 72850 }, { "content": "Title: The creek don't rise Content: The expression '' ... the creek do n't rise '' is an American slang expression implying strong intentions subject to complete frustration by uncommon but not unforeseeable events . It presumably evokes occasional and unpredictably extreme rainfall in Appalachia , that has historically isolated one rural neighborhood or another temporarily inaccessible on several or many occasions . Classic versions of its use tend to be along the lines of `` The good Lord willing , and creek does n't rise '' -- i.e. `` If God so wills , and as long as intense rain does not wash away bridges or parts of dirt roads , or cover roads too deeply for safely following them . '' It may take the form of real or mock dialect , in variations like '' ... Lor ' willin ' an ' th ' crick don ' rise . ''", "qid": "2844", "docid": "The_creek_don't_rise", "rank": 96, "score": 72841 }, { "content": "Title: Zach Blair Content: Zach Blair ( born December 26 , 1974 ) is the lead guitarist and backing vocalist for Chicago-based melodic hardcore band Rise Against . Before joining Rise Against in early 2007 , Blair was a member of hardcore punk group Only Crime along with his brother , Doni Blair , who currently plays with the Toadies . The brothers were founding members of the bands Hagfish and Armstrong . Blair was also Flattus Maximus of Gwar from 1999 to 2002 . He made a return to Gwar as Splattus Maximus on the 2013 album Battle Maximus . He has also been a second touring guitarist for The Loved Ones and was second guitarist on the instrumental band The Mag Seven 's album The Future Is Ours , If You Can Count . Rise Against 's fifth studio album , Appeal to Reason , released on October 7 , 2008 , was its first with Blair . He also appeared on the band 's sixth studio album release , Endgame , which was released on March 15 , 2011 . Rise Against 's seventh studio album , The Black Market was released On July 15 , 2014 . As of early 2015 , Blair has taken part in playing guitar for the punk band , Drakulas , alongside members of The Riverboat Gamblers . Blair currently resides in Austin , Texas . Blair is a Straight Edge and a vegetarian and animal rights advocate and actively promotes PETA with the other members of Rise Against .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Zach_Blair", "rank": 97, "score": 72728 }, { "content": "Title: Dirac sea Content: The Dirac sea is a theoretical model of the vacuum as an infinite sea of particles with negative energy . It was first postulated by the British physicist Paul Dirac in 1930 to explain the anomalous negative-energy quantum states predicted by the Dirac equation for relativistic electrons . The positron , the antimatter counterpart of the electron , was originally conceived of as a hole in the Dirac sea , well before its experimental discovery in 1932 . This was not the original intent of Dirac though , as the title of his 1930 paper ( A Theory of Electrons and Protons ) indicates . But it soon afterwards became clear that the mass of holes must be that of the electron . Upon solving the free Dirac equation , one finds where for plane wave solutions with - momentum . This is a direct consequence of the relativistic energy-momentum relation upon which the Dirac equation is built . The quantity is a constant column vector and is a normalization constant . The quantity is called the time evolution factor , and its interpretation in similar roles in , for example , the plane wave solutions of the Schrödinger equation , is the energy of the wave ( particle ) . This interpretation is not immediately available here since it may acquire negative values . A similar situation prevails for the Klein -- Gordon equation . In that case , the absolute value of can be interpreted as the energy of the wave since in the canonical formalism , waves with negative actually have positive energy . But this is not the case with the Dirac equation . The energy in the canonical formalism associated with negative is . In hole theory , the solutions with negative time evolution factors are reinterpreted as representing the positron , discovered by Carl Anderson . The interpretation of this result requires a Dirac sea , showing that the Dirac equation is not merely a combination of special relativity and quantum mechanics , but it also implies that the number of particles can not be conserved .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Dirac_sea", "rank": 98, "score": 72447 }, { "content": "Title: Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments Content: The Kaufmann -- Bucherer -- Neumann experiments measured the dependence of the inertial mass ( or momentum ) of an object on its velocity . The historical importance of this series of experiments performed by various physicists between 1901 and 1915 is due to the results being used to test the predictions of special relativity . The developing precision and data analysis of these experiments and the resulting influence on theoretical physics during those years is still a topic of active historical discussion , since the early experimental results at first contradicted Einstein 's then newly published theory , but later versions of this experiment confirmed it . For modern experiments of that kind , see Tests of relativistic energy and momentum , for general information see Tests of special relativity .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann_experiments", "rank": 99, "score": 72425 }, { "content": "Title: Jade Helm 15 conspiracy theories Content: The Jade Helm 15 conspiracy theories were based on the eponymous United States military training exercise which took place in multiple U.S. states in the summer of 2015 . Jade Helm 15 was conducted over eight weeks , starting on July 15 , 2015 , and ending on September 15 , 2015 . The announcements of these training exercises raised concerns and led to speculative interpretations that were characterized by The New York Times as `` travers -LSB- ing -RSB- the outer edges of political paranoia '' .", "qid": "2844", "docid": "Jade_Helm_15_conspiracy_theories", "rank": 100, "score": 72385 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Content: The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports", "rank": 1, "score": 300339 }, { "content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period", "rank": 2, "score": 272646 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 3, "score": 258367 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 4, "score": 182563 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 5, "score": 181919 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report", "rank": 6, "score": 174156 }, { "content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "North_Report", "rank": 7, "score": 171792 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 8, "score": 170832 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Global_temperature_record", "rank": 9, "score": 169007 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 10, "score": 167857 }, { "content": "Title: MWP Content: MWp or MWP may refer to : Mega Watt peak , a solar power measure in photo-voltaic ( PV ) industry to describe a unit 's nominal power Medieval Warm Period , a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region Metta World Peace , a professional basketball player formerly known as Ron Artest", "qid": "2845", "docid": "MWP", "rank": 11, "score": 165135 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''", "qid": "2845", "docid": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 12, "score": 164684 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 13, "score": 163184 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program", "rank": 14, "score": 155738 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 15, "score": 154304 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Second Assessment Report Content: The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report", "rank": 16, "score": 153369 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 17, "score": 151933 }, { "content": "Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy", "rank": 18, "score": 150237 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 19, "score": 148417 }, { "content": "Title: Central England temperature Content: The Central England Temperature ( CET ) record is a meteorological dataset originally published by Professor Gordon Manley in 1953 and subsequently extended and updated in 1974 , following many decades of painstaking work . The monthly mean surface air temperatures , for the Midlands region of England , are given ( in degrees Celsius ) from the year 1659 to the present . This record represents the longest series of monthly temperature observations in existence . It is a valuable dataset for meteorologists and climate scientists . It is monthly from 1659 , and a daily version has been produced from 1772 . The monthly means from November 1722 onwards are given to a precision of 0.1 ° C . The earliest years of the series , from 1659 to October 1722 inclusive , for the most part only have monthly means given to the nearest degree or half a degree , though there is a small ` window ' of 0.1 degree precision from 1699 to 1706 inclusive . This reflects the number , accuracy , reliability and geographical spread of the temperature records that were available for the years in question .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Central_England_temperature", "rank": 20, "score": 148051 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992", "rank": 21, "score": 147414 }, { "content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Climate_risk", "rank": 22, "score": 145169 }, { "content": "Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Instrumental_temperature_record", "rank": 23, "score": 144932 }, { "content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years", "rank": 24, "score": 144663 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 25, "score": 144062 }, { "content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Reasons_for_concern", "rank": 26, "score": 143745 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 27, "score": 143601 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation Content: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) published a special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) on May 9 , 2011 . The report developed under the leadership of Ottmar Edenhofer evaluates the global potential for using renewable energy to mitigate climate change . This IPCC special report provides broader coverage of renewable energy than was included in the IPCC 's 2007 climate change assessment report , as well as stronger renewable energy policy coverage . Renewable energy can contribute to `` social and economic development , energy access , secure energy supply , climate change mitigation , and the reduction of negative environmental and health impacts '' . Under favourable circumstances , cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Renewable_Energy_Sources_and_Climate_Change_Mitigation", "rank": 28, "score": 140332 }, { "content": "Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 29, "score": 139482 }, { "content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Little_Ice_Age", "rank": 30, "score": 138463 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 31, "score": 137416 }, { "content": "Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 32, "score": 137359 }, { "content": "Title: HadGEM1 Content: HadGEM1 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model , version 1 ) is a coupled climate model developed at the Met Office 's Hadley Centre in 2006 and used in IPCC Fourth Assessment Report on climate change . It represents a significant scientific advance on its predecessor , HadCM3 . HadGEM1 also provides a basis for further development of models , particularly involving enhanced resolution and full Earth System modelling . The current version is HadGEM3 .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "HadGEM1", "rank": 33, "score": 134833 }, { "content": "Title: YAD06 Content: YAD06 is a tree located in the Yamal Peninsula of Siberia . A core sample from this tree , YADO61 , provided data used to support hockey stick interpretation of global climate history . The data was originally published in 1995 a paper by Keith Briffa of the Climate Research Unit at the University of East Anglia . The paper asserted that the late Middle Ages , previously described as a `` Medieval Warm Period , '' was actually quite cold . Steve McIntyre has described this tree as possibly `` the most influential tree in the world '' , and publicly accused Briffa of cherry-picking certain tree ring records in order to get a specific result , creating what Michael E. Mann described as a `` manufactured scandal . ''", "qid": "2845", "docid": "YAD06", "rank": 34, "score": 133932 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow", "rank": 35, "score": 131568 }, { "content": "Title: Gordon Manley Content: Gordon Valentine Manley , FRGS ( 3 January 1902 -- 29 January 1980 ) was an English climatologist who has been described as `` probably the best known , most prolific and most expert on the climate of Britain of his generation '' . He assembled the Central England temperature ( CET ) series of monthly mean temperatures stretching back to 1659 , which is the longest standardised instrumental record available for anywhere in the world . It provides a benchmark for proxy records of climatic change for the period covered , and is a notable example of scientific scholarship and perseverance ( it took over thirty years to complete ) . His two papers describing the work are available online .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Gordon_Manley", "rank": 36, "score": 131508 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 37, "score": 130974 }, { "content": "Title: Richard A. Betts Content: Richard A. Betts is Head of the Climate Impacts strategic area at the Met Office Hadley Centre in Exeter , United Kingdom . He is also Chair in Climate Impacts at the University of Exeter and the Principal Investigator of the EU FP7 project HELIX ( High-End cLimate Impacts and eXtremes ) . He was a lead author for Working Group I and a contributing author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He was a lead author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is an editor for the International Journal of Global Warming , the Journal of Environmental Investing , and for Earth System Dynamics . After studying physics at the University of Bristol , Betts switched to meteorology at the University of Birmingham and then studied for a doctorate in meteorology at the University of Reading . He is noted for engaging with critics of climate science on Twitter and was selected by TIME as one of the 140 best Twitter feeds of 2012 .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Richard_A._Betts", "rank": 38, "score": 130946 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature Content: In its AR4 , WG1 report , Chapter3 , the IPCC explains global temperature in these words :", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Global_temperature", "rank": 39, "score": 130882 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy", "rank": 40, "score": 130555 }, { "content": "Title: The Mighty World of Marvel Content: The Mighty World Of Marvel ( commonly shortened to MWOM ) was Marvel UK 's first-ever title , debuting in 1972 , and is also the name of a similar current comic printed by Panini Comics , which bought the Marvel UK titles . Spending much of the 1970s as Marvel UK 's flagship title , MWOM published black & white reprints of American Marvel four-colour material . Thanks in large part to the success of MWOM , Marvel UK gained a foothold in the ( at the time ) vast UK weekly comic market , allowing the company to cross-market and later introduce non-superhero UK-reprint titles such as Planet of the Apes and Star Wars .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "The_Mighty_World_of_Marvel", "rank": 41, "score": 129704 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record Content: For extreme records instead of records as a set of data , see List of weather records The temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time . The most detailed information exists since 1850 , when methodical thermometer-based records began . There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation , particularly during the current Holocene epoch . Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Temperature_record", "rank": 42, "score": 128427 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Roger_Pulwarty", "rank": 43, "score": 126772 }, { "content": "Title: GO-ESSP Content: The Global Organization of Earth System Science Portals or ( GO-ESSP ) is an international collaboration , formed in 2003 , that is developing software infrastructure to support the distribution , and analysis of climate model data and related observations . GO-ESSP is playing a central role in coordinating United States and European efforts to document and distribute data for the 5th coupled model intercomparison project , which will be part of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "GO-ESSP", "rank": 44, "score": 126723 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 45, "score": 126007 }, { "content": "Title: Mennonite World Conference Content: The Mennonite World Conference ( MWC ) is a global community of Christian churches that facilitates community between Anabaptist-related churches and relates to other Christian world communions and organizations . The first Mennonite World Conference was held in Basel in 1925 . Its main purpose was to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Anabaptism . An assembly is convened approximately every six or seven years . Christian Neff ( 1863 -- 1946 ) , a Mennonite minister in Germany , is often called the `` father '' of the Mennonite World Conference . Neff , through the Conference of Mennonites in South Germany , issued the call for the first gathering in 1925 , and personally proposed the following meetings in 1930 and 1936 . As of 2009 , the MWC represents 99 Mennonite and Brethren in Christ national church conferences in 56 countries . The MWC prints a quarterly news publication in three languages -- Spanish ( as Correo ) , English ( Courier ) , and French ( Courrier . ) This project began in 1986 . The Mennonite World Conference considers that its mission is to ( 1 ) be a global community of faith in the Anabaptist-tradition , ( 2 ) facilitate relationships between Anabaptist-related churches worldwide , and ( 3 ) relate to other Christian world communions and organizations . The official repository of Mennonite World Conference is the Mennonite Church USA Archives .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Mennonite_World_Conference", "rank": 46, "score": 125822 }, { "content": "Title: HadCM3 Content: HadCM3 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Coupled Model , version 3 ) is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model ( AOGCM ) developed at the Hadley Centre in the United Kingdom . It was one of the major models used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report in 2001 . Unlike earlier AOGCMs at the Hadley Centre and elsewhere ( including its predecessor HadCM2 ) , HadCM3 does not need flux adjustment ( additional `` artificial '' heat and freshwater fluxes at the ocean surface ) to produce a good simulation . The higher ocean resolution of HadCM3 is a major factor in this ; other factors include a good match between the atmospheric and oceanic components ; and an improved ocean mixing scheme ( Gent and McWilliams ) . HadCM3 has been run to produce simulations for periods of over a thousand years , showing little drift in its surface climate . HadCM3 is composed of two components : the atmospheric model HadAM3 and the ocean model HadOM3 ( which includes a sea ice model ) . Simulations use a 360-day calendar , where each month is 30 days .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "HadCM3", "rank": 47, "score": 124638 }, { "content": "Title: Representative Concentration Pathways Content: Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) are four greenhouse gas concentration ( not emissions ) trajectories adopted by the IPCC for its fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) in 2014 . It supersedes Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) projections published in 2000 . The pathways are used for climate modeling and research . They describe four possible climate futures , all of which are considered possible depending on how much greenhouse gases are emitted in the years to come . The four RCPs , RCP2 .6 , RCP4 .5 , RCP6 , and RCP8 .5 , are named after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values ( +2.6 , +4.5 , +6.0 , and +8.5 W/m2 , respectively ) .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Representative_Concentration_Pathways", "rank": 48, "score": 124523 }, { "content": "Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "John_T._Houghton", "rank": 49, "score": 124474 }, { "content": "Title: Allerød oscillation Content: The Allerød oscillation ( Allerødtiden ) was a warm and moist global interstadial that occurred at the end of the last glacial period . It raised temperatures in the northern Atlantic region to almost present-day levels , before they declined again in the succeeding Younger Dryas period , which was followed by the present interglacial period . In some regions , especially in northern Eurasia , there is evidence for a cold period known as the Older Dryas interrupting the interstadial . In such regions the shorter oscillation ending with the Older Dryas is known as the Bølling oscillation , and the Allerød period is the interstadial following the Older Dryas . The Allerød period was named after a type site in Furesø municipality in Sjælland , Denmark ( near Copenhagen ) , where deposits created during the period were first identified in work published in 1901 by Hartz and Milthers . This Blytt-Sernander period corresponds to Pollen zone II .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Allerød_oscillation", "rank": 50, "score": 123888 }, { "content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason", "rank": 51, "score": 123413 }, { "content": "Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Michael_E._Mann", "rank": 52, "score": 123169 }, { "content": "Title: List of environmental reports Content: This is a list of notable environmental reports . In this context they relate to the impacts of human activity on the environment . City-level Decoupling : Urban Resource Flows and the Governance of Infrastructure Transitions - by the International Resource Panel Clean Energy Trends - a series of reports by Clean Edge - beginning in 2002 Copeland Report - for the U.S. government , completed in 1933 Copenhagen Diagnosis - written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries Dioxin Reassessment Report - by the United States Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport ( `` Leopold Report '' ) - United States Department of the Interior ( 1969 ) Environmental Risks and Challenges of Anthropogenic Metals Flows and Cycles - by the International Resource Panel Forest Principles - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) The Global 2000 Report to the President - Council on Environmental Quality ( 1981 ) Global Environment Outlook - United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Hirsch report ( Peaking of World Oil Production : Impacts , Mitigation , and Risk Management ) - United States Department of Energy Index of Leading Environmental Indicators - Pacific Research Institute IPCC First Assessment Report - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) IPCC supplementary report , 1992 - IPCC IPCC Second Assessment Report - IPCC IPCC Third Assessment Report Climate Change 2001 - IPCC ( 2001 ) IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 - IPCC ( 2007 ) IPCC Fifth Assessment Report ( 2014 ) Leopold Report ( `` Wildlife Management in the National Parks '' ) - Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management ( 1963 ) Livestock 's Long Shadow - Environmental Issues and Options - United Nations ( 2006 ) Living Planet Report - WWF , every two years Making Sweden an Oil-Free Society - Government of Sweden ( 2006 ) Meat Atlas - published by the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe Nuclear Power and the Environment - UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution - 1976 Our Common Future - World Commission on Environment and Development ( 1987 ) Outlook On Renewable Energy In America ( 2 volumes ) - American Council on Renewable Energy - 2007 Phase I Environmental Site Assessment - generic Planning Policy Statement 10 : Planning for Sustainable Waste Management ( PPS 10 ) - British Government Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation - United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) - planned for 2010 Report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification - Royal Commission on Genetic Modification ( 2001 ) State of the Climate - NOAA/NCDC ( published annually ) The State of the World - Worldwatch Institute ( published yearly since 1984 ) Wegman Report - to validate criticisms of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years Windscale : Britain 's Biggest Nuclear Disaster ( 2007 ) World Climate Report - Greening Earth Society The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates - selected and published by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group ( IUCN/SSC PSG ) , the International Primatological Society ( IPS ) , and Conservation International ( CI )", "qid": "2845", "docid": "List_of_environmental_reports", "rank": 53, "score": 122895 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 54, "score": 122523 }, { "content": "Title: Imprisonment for public protection Content: In England and Wales , the imprisonment for public protection ( IPP ) sentence was a form of indeterminate sentence introduced by s. 225 of the Criminal Justice Act 2003 ( with effect from 2005 ) and abolished in 2012 . It was intended to protect the public against criminals whose crimes were not serious enough to merit a normal life sentence but who were regarded as too dangerous to be released when the term of their original sentence had expired . It is composed of a punitive `` tariff '' intended to be proportionate to the gravity of the crime committed and an indeterminate period which commences after the expiration of the tariff and lasts until the Parole Board judges the prisoner no longer poses a risk to the public and is fit to be released . The equivalent for under-18s was called detention for public protection , introduced by s. 226 of the 2003 Act . The sentences came into effect on 4 April 2005 . Although there is no limit to how long prisoners can be detained under IPPs , and some may never be released , they may be released on review ; an IPP sentence is not a sentence of life imprisonment with a whole-life tariff . In 2007 the Queen 's Bench Division of the High Court ruled that the continued incarceration of prisoners serving IPPs after tariff expiry where the prisons lack the facilities and courses required to assess their suitability for release was unlawful , bringing up concern that many dangerous offenders would be freed . In 2010 a joint report by the chief inspectors of prisons and probation concluded that IPP sentences were unsustainable with UK prison overcrowding . In 2012 the IPP sentence for new cases was abolished by the Legal Aid , Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act , although over 6,000 prison inmates remained imprisoned for public protection ; over 4,600 remained . Three-quarters of them had completed their minimum term , and about 400 had served five times the minimum . The government 's policy was that IPP prisoners should remain in prison until it is deemed that the risks they pose if released are manageable .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Imprisonment_for_public_protection", "rank": 55, "score": 122363 }, { "content": "Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Kevin_E._Trenberth", "rank": 56, "score": 121617 }, { "content": "Title: Global Scenario Group Content: The Global Scenario Group ( GSG ) was an international , interdisciplinary body convened in 1995 by the Tellus Institute and the Stockholm Environment Institute to develop scenarios for world development in the twenty-first century . The GSG 's underlying scenario development work was rooted in the long-range integrated scenario analysis that Tellus Institute and Stockholm Environment Institute had undertaken through the PoleStar Project . Initially conceived in 1991 as a tool for integrated sustainability planning and long-range scenario analysis , PoleStar was inspired by the 1987 Brundtland Commission report Our Common Future , which first put the concept of `` sustainable development '' on the international agenda . The work of the Global Scenario Group was widely adopted in high-level intergovernmental settings . The scenarios informed numerous international assessments , including the World Water Council 's World Water Vision report in 1999 -- 2000 , the OECD Environmental Outlook in 2001 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's greenhouse gas emission mitigation assessment in 2001 , the United Nations Environment Programme 's Third GEO Report in 2002 , and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment in 2005 . Several of the GSG participants who actively participated in the IPCC assessments have been recognized for contributing to the 2007 award of the Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Global_Scenario_Group", "rank": 57, "score": 121605 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC (disambiguation) Content: IPCC may refer to : Independent Police Complaints Commission of England and Wales Independent Police Complaints Council of Hong Kong Integrated Professional Competency Course , a course of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations . Interworld Police Coordinating Company , a fictional organization in Jack Vance 's novels Irish Peatland Conservation Council", "qid": "2845", "docid": "IPCC_(disambiguation)", "rank": 58, "score": 120859 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 59, "score": 120658 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 60, "score": 120217 }, { "content": "Title: 2006 European heat wave Content: The 2006 European heat wave was a period of exceptionally hot weather that arrived at the end of June 2006 in certain European countries . The United Kingdom , France , Belgium , the Netherlands , Luxembourg , Italy , Poland , the Czech Republic , Hungary , Germany and western parts of Russia were most affected . Several records were broken . In the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Ireland and the United Kingdom , July 2006 was the warmest month since official measurements began .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "2006_European_heat_wave", "rank": 61, "score": 119834 }, { "content": "Title: 1911 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The United Kingdom heatwave of 1911 was a particularly severe heat wave and associated drought . Records were set around the country for temperature in England , including the highest accepted temperature , at the time , of 36.7 C ( 98.6 F ) , only broken 79 years later in the 1990 heatwave , which reached 37.1 C ( 98.78 F ) . The highest ever accepted temperature is currently 38.5 C ( 101.3 F ) recorded on 10 August 2003 in Faversham , Kent . North America was also affected around about this time .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "1911_United_Kingdom_heat_wave", "rank": 62, "score": 119711 }, { "content": "Title: Roman Warm Period Content: The Roman Warm Period or the Roman climatic optimum has been proposed as a period of unusually warm weather in Europe and the North Atlantic that ran from approximately 250 BC to AD 400 .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Roman_Warm_Period", "rank": 63, "score": 119362 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 64, "score": 118539 }, { "content": "Title: Carl Mears Content: Carl Mears is a Senior Scientist , at Remote Sensing Systems , since 1998 . He has worked on validation of SSM/I derived winds , and rain-flagging algorithm for the QuikScat scatterometer . He is best known for his work with Frank Wentz in developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the UAH one . Mears was a major contributor to Temperature Trends in the Lower Atmosphere : Steps for Understanding and Reconciling Differences , the first released report from the US Climate Change Science Program . He also contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Working Group one report , Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Carl_Mears", "rank": 65, "score": 118390 }, { "content": "Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Interglacial", "rank": 66, "score": 118381 }, { "content": "Title: Inter-Parliamentary Union Content: The Inter-Parliamentary Union ( IPU ; Union Interparlementaire ( UIP ) ) is a global inter-parliamentary institution established in 1889 by Frédéric Passy ( France ) and William Randal Cremer ( United Kingdom ) . It was the first permanent forum for political multilateral negotiations . Initially , the organization was for individual parliamentarians , but has since transformed into an international organization of the parliaments of sovereign states . The national parliaments of 171 countries are members of the IPU , and 11 regional parliamentary assemblies are associate members . The IPU has permanent observer status at the United Nations General Assembly .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Inter-Parliamentary_Union", "rank": 67, "score": 118310 }, { "content": "Title: Bert Bolin Content: Bert Rickard Johannes Bolin ( -LSB- bæʈː bʊliːn -RSB- ; 15 May 1925 -- 30 December 2007 ) was a Swedish meteorologist who served as the first chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , from 1988 to 1997 . He was professor of meteorology at Stockholm University from 1961 until his retirement in 1990 .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Bert_Bolin", "rank": 68, "score": 118125 }, { "content": "Title: Autumn 2011 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The autumn 2011 United Kingdom heat wave was a period of unseasonably warm weather which arrived towards the end of September 2011 and continued into October . As a result , record-high temperatures for the country were broken for the autumn months . The autumn heat wave followed the warmest temperatures to occur on record in the spring , but also the coolest temperatures to occur in the summer months since 1993 .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Autumn_2011_United_Kingdom_heat_wave", "rank": 69, "score": 117915 }, { "content": "Title: Spring 2011 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The Spring of 2011 in the United Kingdom was exceptional for the warm weather which occurred during April and the dry weather which was persistent during March and April in certain parts of the UK . April was statistically the warmest and driest in the country since records began in 1910 . There was a contrast between north-western parts of the UK which received substantial amounts of rainfall and south-eastern parts which received very little . As lack of rainfall continued in many parts during May , concerns arose that the country could submit to drought . High pressure was the cause for the warm , dry weather experienced during April . A high temperature of 27.8 ° C was recorded on 23 April at Wisley , Surrey , the highest temperature recorded in April in the UK since 1949 . Thus , the Central England Temperature for the month was 3.7 ° C above the 1971-2000 average , and daily maximum temperatures were up to 6 ° C higher than average .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Spring_2011_United_Kingdom_heat_wave", "rank": 70, "score": 117389 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 71, "score": 116517 }, { "content": "Title: Independent Power Corporation Content: Independent Power Corporation PLC ( IPC ) is a leading power plant developer and operator in the United Kingdom . The company primarily develops thermal and hydroelectric plants and facilities in Latin America , Europe , southern Africa and Asia . The company was founded in 1995 and is based in London .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Independent_Power_Corporation", "rank": 72, "score": 116353 }, { "content": "Title: Wegman Report Content: The Wegman Report ( officially called the Ad Hoc Committee Report on the ` Hockey Stick ' Global Climate Reconstruction ) was prepared in 2006 by three statisticians led by Edward Wegman at the request of Rep. Joe Barton of the United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce to validate criticisms made by Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years , in particular the reconstructions by Mann , Bradley and Hughes which had become the focus of the hockey stick controversy .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Wegman_Report", "rank": 73, "score": 116070 }, { "content": "Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "David_Parker_(climatologist)", "rank": 74, "score": 115755 }, { "content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment", "rank": 75, "score": 115655 }, { "content": "Title: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Content: The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ( ISCCP ) was established as the first project of the World Climate Research Program ( WCRP ) . Since its inception in 1982 , there have been two phases , 1983 -- 1995 and 1995 -- 2009 . The project is responsible for collection and analysis of weather satellite radiance measurements . It infers clouds ' global distribution and properties , along with their diurnal , seasonal , and interannual variations . The results are studied to understand clouds in climate , including their effects on radiative energy exchanges , plus their role in the global water cycle . These datasets provide a systematic view of cloud behavior . The ISCCP headquarters are located at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City . ISCCP data is stored at the ISCCP Central Archive and at NASA . While the data are typically used for climate study , they are also a valuable resource for astronomical pursuits . From 1983 , institutions from around the world have collected and analyzed satellite radiance measurements from two polar orbiting and five geostationary satellites .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "International_Satellite_Cloud_Climatology_Project", "rank": 76, "score": 115306 }, { "content": "Title: Summer of 1976 (Europe) Content: The summer of 1976 was considered to be one of the hottest summers in Europe ( and especially the United Kingdom ) within recent memory . A large high-pressure area dominated most of Europe for all of the summer months . The pressure system moved into place in late May 1976 and remained until the first traces of rain were recorded on August 27 . Rainfall throughout the July -- August period was down by half the annual average . During this spell of hot weather temperatures exceeded 32 ° C ( 89.6 ° F ) at several weather stations within the United Kingdom every day and the town of Cheltenham had eleven , including seven successive days from the 1st of July - recording 35.9 ° C ( 96.6 ° F ) on the 3rd . For the entire period much of Europe was bathed in continual sunshine with the United Kingdom seeing an average of more than 14 hours of sunshine per day . 1976 was dubbed `` The year of the Ladybird '' in that country due to the rise in the mass numbers of ladybirds brought on by the long hot period . `` The long hot summer of 1976 which eventually ended in September of that year , was the culmination of a 16-week dry spell - the longest recorded over England and Wales since 1727 . `` Quote From Met Office The summer of 1976 is by now a firmly established reference point for discussion in the UK of contemporary hot spells .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Summer_of_1976_(Europe)", "rank": 77, "score": 114972 }, { "content": "Title: 1906 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1906 United Kingdom heat wave occurred all over the country from August to September . This was unusual as the highest temperatures were recorded in early September and the intense heat began in late August , whereas most heat waves in the UK begin in June and July . Even so , the heatwave had a comparable intensity to the 1990 heat wave , and it has been described as the most intense September heat wave in the 20th century . From 31 August to 3 September , the temperature in the UK exceeded 32 C consecutively over most of the UK on these four days . In September , CET Central England and Birmingham recorded a highest temperature of 31.5 C , and Oxford recorded a highest temperature of 33.1 C ; however , this record for September in Oxford was broken in 1911 with a temperature of 33.4 C. 2 September was the hottest day of the month as temperatures reached 35.6 C in Bawtry . This day was also the hottest over the most of the UK , again unusual because of its late occurrence . This remains the hottest September temperature of any day in the UK and the eighth-hottest day overall in the 20th century . Scotland also had temperatures reaching 32.2 C at Gordon Castle , Moray , and Northern Ireland had temperatures reaching 27.8 C in Armagh , County Armagh both recorded on 1 September 1906 .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "1906_United_Kingdom_heat_wave", "rank": 78, "score": 114780 }, { "content": "Title: England and Wales Precipitation Content: The England and Wales Precipitation ( EWP ) record is a meteorological dataset which was originally published in the journal British Rainfall in 1931 and updated in a greatly revised form by a number of climatologists including Janice Lough , Tom Wigley and Phil Jones during the 1970s and 1980s . The monthly mean rainfall and snowfall for the region of England and Wales are given ( in millimetres ) from the year 1766 to the present , though the original 1931 dataset went as far back as 1727 .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "England_and_Wales_Precipitation", "rank": 79, "score": 114735 }, { "content": "Title: 1879 English cricket season Content: The 1879 English cricket season saw Lancashire claim a share of the title for the first time . The summer was the coolest and wettest over the two-and-a-half centuries of climatic records in England , and during the early part of the twentieth century exceptionally wet seasons such as 1903 , 1912 , 1924 and 1927 were very frequently compared to 1879 .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "1879_English_cricket_season", "rank": 80, "score": 114633 }, { "content": "Title: Vincent R. Gray Content: __ NOTOC __ Vincent Richard Gray ( born 24 March 1922 ) is a New Zealand-based chemist , and a founder of the New Zealand Climate Science Coalition . Born in London on 24 March 1922 , Gray was awarded a PhD in physical chemistry by the University of Cambridge after studies on incendiary bomb fluids made from aluminium soaps . In New Zealand , he was the first Director of Building Research and later , Chief Chemist of the Coal Research Association . He has also published many articles and reports , seven in peer-reviewed journals . After retirement , he had four and a half years in China and when he returned became a critic of the claim that climate was harmed by human emissions of greenhouse gases . He has commented on every publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , with 1,898 comments on the 2007 Report . He has published critical studies on all of the reports including a book `` The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of ` Climate Change 2001 ' '' . He has published `` Confessions of a Climate Sceptic '' He is sceptical of the anthropogenic global warming : `` The two main `` scientific '' claims of the IPCC are the claim that `` the globe is warming '' and `` Increases in carbon dioxide emissions are responsible '' . Evidence for both of these claims is fatally flawed . '' Gray has called for the IPCC to be abolished , claiming it is `` fundamentally corrupt '' due to his conclusion that for significant parts of the work of the IPCC , the data collection and scientific methods employed are unsound and that the IPCC resists all efforts to try to discuss or rectify these problems . Gray was featured on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation program Counterpoint in a debate entitled `` Nine Lies about Global Warming '' , and was interviewed in a featured story in the New Zealand Herald as a `` prominent '' global warming skeptic . In 2002 , Gray also published a book , The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of `` Climate Change 2001 '' . In it , Gray argues `` that the quality and reliability of the IPCC 's measurements are poor , the system of determining how much weight should be attributed to different influences on the earth 's temperature is faulty , and the validity of evidence derived from computer modeling is questionable . ''", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Vincent_R._Gray", "rank": 81, "score": 114350 }, { "content": "Title: Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change Content: The Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change ( or CSCCC ) is an entity that maintains a website and describes itself as a global group of non-profit organizations with a mission of `` seek -LSB- ing -RSB- to educate the public about the science and economics of climate change in an impartial manner . '' The Coalition identifies its membership as including 60 independent nonprofit organisations from 40 countries `` who share a commitment to improving public understanding about a range of public policy issues . '' It calls itself `` a free-market alternative to mainstream environmentalism . '' An Indian news media report states that it was founded by the International Policy Network , a London-based organization that receives support from Exxon Mobil . The group publishes background papers and opinion editorials on the science and economics of climate change and maintains a blog . Its Civil Society Report on Climate Change was published in 2007 , shortly before the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change conference in Bali . CSCCC experts make media appearances , such as Julian Morris 's 2007 feature on Larry King Live and his televised debate in 2008 with IPCC head Rajendra Pachauri . This IPN in the UK has Julian Morris as Executive Director . It is actually a part of the Atlas Group/Network ( aka Atlas Economic Research Institute ) which was founded by UK factory-chicken king , Sir Antony Fisher ( one of PM Margaret Thatcher 's economic gurus ) and American Loctite millionaire Richard Krieble . They had funding support from Krieble , Richard Mellon Scaife , and Philip Morris . Fisher is reputed to have had a primary hand in establishing up to 150 libertarian think-tanks around the world . Fisher 's daughter , Linda Whetstone , now works for the ( Fisher-founded ) Adam Smith Institute . She is also the chairperson of the International Policy Network , and is on the Boards of Directors of the Mont Pelerin Society , the Institute of Economic Affairs and the Atlas Group in the USA . Coalitions and networks of this kind a common with Atlas Group think-tanks , and many of their key staff and directors serve on many different organisations . This faux-multiplicity amplifies the apparent strength of the public attacks on climate-change science . See also the Stockholm Network . and", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Civil_Society_Coalition_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 82, "score": 114341 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 83, "score": 114261 }, { "content": "Title: Mountain Wave Project Content: The Mountain Wave Project ( MWP ) pursues global scientific research of gravity waves and associated turbulence . MWP seeks to develop new scientific insights and knowledge through high altitude and record seeking glider flights with the goal of increasing overall flight safety and improving pilot training .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Mountain_Wave_Project", "rank": 84, "score": 114199 }, { "content": "Title: International Pentecostal Church of Christ Content: The International Pentecostal Church of Christ ( or IPCC ) is a Pentecostal denomination formed in 1976 by the merger of two Pentecostal organizations . In 1907 , Gaston B. Cashwell , called the Apostle of Pentecost in the South , founded a periodical called The Bridegroom 's Messenger , in Atlanta , Georgia . About the same time , Paul and Hattie Barth started a church . The Barths became editors of The Bridegroom 's Messenger . In 1918 , they began Beulah Heights Bible School in Atlanta , and in 1921 they organized an association that became the International Pentecostal Assemblies . John Stroup , a member of the Methodist Protestant Church , professed receiving the baptism of the Holy Ghost in 1908 . Stroup was one of the first individuals to take the Pentecostal message into southern Ohio and parts of Kentucky . He organized the Pentecostal Church of Christ in Flatwoods , Kentucky in 1917 . The body originally headquartered in Ashland , Kentucky , and later in London , Ohio . In 1976 , the International Pentecostal Assemblies and the Pentecostal Church of Christ merged to become the International Pentecostal Church of Christ . Headquarters are located in London , Ohio . The church operates two youth camps , and six departments - Education , Global Missions , Home Missions and Evangelism , Christian Education , National Youth , and Women 's Ministries . Publications of the church are The Bridegroom 's Messenger ( considered the oldest Pentecostal periodical in the world ) and The Pentecostal Leader , a training magazine . Doctrines are detailed in a 19-article Statement of Faith ranging from the inspiration of the Scriptures to tithes and offerings . The IPCC is one of the only Pentecostal and Evangelical denominations to elevate the issue of racism to their statement of faith . The church holds two ordinances - water baptism by immersion , and holy communion . The denomination has two practices that are encouraged within the local church - foot washing , and child dedication . The body is Trinitarian , and , like many related bodies , holds that speaking in tongues is the initial evidence of the baptism of the Holy Ghost . Its affiliations are with the Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches of North America , Pentecostal World Conference , a charter member of the National Association of Evangelicals , and the World Evangelical Fellowship . In 2003 , the denomination had 4,961 members in 67 churches . Nearly half of its congregations are located in Ohio . The rest are concentrated primarily in Kentucky , Virginia , West Virginia , and North Carolina .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "International_Pentecostal_Church_of_Christ", "rank": 85, "score": 113940 }, { "content": "Title: Police Complaints Authority (United Kingdom) Content: The Police Complaints Authority ( PCA ) , was an independent body in the United Kingdom with the power to investigate public complaints against the Police in England and Wales as well as related matters of public concern . It was formed in 1985 , replacing the Police Complaints Board and was then itself replaced by the Independent Police Complaints Commission ( IPCC ) in April 2004 . The IPCC was itself pre-dated by the Office of the Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland . This agency was set up in 2000 to investigate complaints against the Royal Ulster Constabulary and its successor the Police Service of Northern Ireland ( PSNI ) . It had its own teams of civilian investigators and was completely independent of the Police . In addition to the PSNI it also covered the Belfast Harbour Police and the Larne Harbour Police , the Belfast International Airport Constabulary , and the MoD Police ( not the same as the Royal Military Police ) . Unlike the IPCC the Ombudsman 's office could investigate an incident without waiting for a referral or complaint .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Police_Complaints_Authority_(United_Kingdom)", "rank": 86, "score": 113815 }, { "content": "Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Long-term_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 87, "score": 113434 }, { "content": "Title: Yuri Izrael Content: Yuri Antonovich Izrael ( Юрий Антониевич Израэль 15 May 1930 , Tashkent -- 23 January 2014 , Moscow ) was a vice-chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) until September 2008 , when the new bureau was elected . He was the `` most influential scientific adviser '' for Vladimir Putin , the former president of Russia , according to CNN . Izrael was former chairman of the Committee for Hydrometeorology . He also served as director of the Institute of Global Climate and Ecology , which is a part of the Russian Academy of Sciences . He was a first vice-president of the World Meteorological Organization and helped develop the World Weather Watch . In 1992 , Izrael won the International Meteorological Organization Prize and the UNEP Sasakawa Environment Prize for , among other accomplishments , contributing to the `` success of Working Group I I '' of the IPCC .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Yuri_Izrael", "rank": 88, "score": 113242 }, { "content": "Title: Independent Police Complaints Commission Content: The Independent Police Complaints Commission ( IPCC ) is a non-departmental public body in England and Wales responsible for overseeing the system for handling complaints made against police forces in England and Wales .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Independent_Police_Complaints_Commission", "rank": 89, "score": 113090 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 90, "score": 112700 }, { "content": "Title: 1976 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1976 United Kingdom heat wave led to the hottest summer average temperature in the UK since records began . At the same time , the country suffered a severe drought . It was one of the driest , sunniest and warmest summers ( June/July/August ) in the 20th century , although 1995 is now regarded as the driest . Only a few places registered more than half their average summer rainfall . In the CET record , it was the warmest summer in that series . It was the warmest summer in the Aberdeen area since at least 1864 . It was the driest summer since 1868 in Glasgow .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "1976_United_Kingdom_heat_wave", "rank": 91, "score": 112690 }, { "content": "Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :", "qid": "2845", "docid": "List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis", "rank": 92, "score": 112611 }, { "content": "Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Seita_Emori", "rank": 93, "score": 111974 }, { "content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory", "rank": 94, "score": 111519 }, { "content": "Title: Winter of 1962–63 in the United Kingdom Content: The winter of 1962 -- 1963 ( also known as the Big Freeze of 1963 ) was one of the coldest winters on record in the United Kingdom . Temperatures plummeted and lakes and rivers began to freeze over . In the Central England Temperature ( CET ) record , extending back to 1659 , only the winter ( defined as the months of December , January and February ) of 1683 -- 84 has been significantly colder , with 1739 -- 40 being slightly colder than 1962 -- 63 . Over Scotland and Northern Ireland , where data do not extend back to 1740 , the winters of 1813 -- 14 and 1878 -- 79 were certainly colder than 1962 -- 63 , as was the winter of 1779 -- 80 in Scotland and 1894 -- 95 in Northern Ireland . This winter remains the coldest since at least 1895 in all meteorological districts of the United Kingdom except Scotland North , where the two winters of 1978 -- 79 and 2009 -- 10 were marginally colder .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Winter_of_1962–63_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 95, "score": 111310 }, { "content": "Title: Burtoni Award Content: The Burtoni Award was created in 2003 by a group of leading experts and policy makers in the field of climate change . Its purpose is to recognize outstanding contributions to the science of adaptation to climate change . The award is named after the first recipient of the award , Ian Burton , an Emeritus Professor at the University of Toronto and a pioneer in the field of adaptation to climate change and extreme events and disasters . Ian has contributed to three Assessment Reports of the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) and the recent Special Report on Extremes ( SREX ) . Subsequent recipients of the Burtoni Award are : Roger Jones ( Australia ) 2005 . Saleemul Huq ( Bangladesh ) 2007 . Coleen Vogel ( South Africa ) 2010 . Karen O'Brien ( Norway/USA ) 2012 . Mark Pelling ( United Kingdom ) 2015 . Richard J.T. Klein ( the Netherlands ) 2016 . Short biographies of the awardees follow : Roger Jones is Professorial Research Fellow at the Centre for Strategic Economic Research , Victoria University Australia . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and has the same role in the Fifth Assessment Report . The Burtoni was awarded in recognition of his innovations in research methods for assessing adaptation to climate change , particularly in the application of risk management to adaptation . Saleemul Huq is a Senior Fellow with the International Institute for Environment and Development in London and Director of ICCCD ( International Centre for Climate Change and Development in Dhaka , Bangladesh . He received the award for his work linking adaptation and development , his research on decision making and his efforts to build capacity . It was awarded during a three-day workshop on Community-based Adaptation to Climate Change in Dhaka . Coleen Vogel is an Independent Consultant and previously Professor of Sustainability at the University of Witwatersrand , Johannesburg . She was Lead Author for the IPCC 4th assessment Report Working Group 2 Chapter on Africa , and she chaired the International Scientific Committee of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Climate Change . Karen O'Brien is Professor in the Department of Sociology and Human Geography at the University of Oslo , Norway . She was Lead Author of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report for Working Group II ( Chapter 20 : Climate-resilient pathways : adaptation , mitigation , and sustainable development ) . She was a Coordinating Lead Author of the IPCC Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation ( SREX ) in Chapter 8 ` Towards a Resilient and Sustainable Future ' . She was Chair of the Global Environmental Change and Human Security ( GECHS ) project of the IHDP from 2005-2010 . Mark Pelling is Professor of Geography at King 's College London . His research interests are in the institutions and social relationships that shape vulnerability and adaptation to natural disasters , including those associated with climate change , and in the ways in which conflicting values and practices of development inform resilience and transformation in the face of environmental change . He served as a coordinating author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation ( SREX ) and its Fifth Assessment Report . He also sits on the Scientific Steering Committees for the IGBP-IHDP core project Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone ( LOICZ ) and the ICSU core project Integrated Research on Disaster Risk ( IRDR ) . Richard J.T. Klein is a Senior Research Fellow at the Stockholm Environment Institute and Editor-in-Chief of the journal Climate and Development . He was awarded the Burtoni in recognition of his work to advance knowledge through international research , capacity-building and educational collaborations , including as co-director and chief scientist of the Nordic Centre of Excellence for Strategic Adaptation Research ( NORD-STAR ) and as a member , until 2015 , of the Scientific Steering Committee of the Global Programme of Research on Climate Change Vulnerability , Impacts and Adaptation ( PROVIA ) . He was only 24 when he became lead author of a chapter in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Second Assessment Report , published in 1994 . He has been a lead author or coordinating lead author of every IPCC Assessment Report since , as well as two Special Reports .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Burtoni_Award", "rank": 96, "score": 111199 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 97, "score": 110805 }, { "content": "Title: Global IP Solutions Content: Global IP Solutions ( also known as GIPS ) was a United States-based corporation that developed real-time voice and video processing software for IP networks , before it was acquired by Google in May 2010 . The company ( also known as GIPS ) delivered embedded solutions that enabled real-time communications capabilities for video and Voice over IP ( VoIP ) . GIPS was perhaps best known for developing the narrowband iLBC and wideband iSAC speech codecs . GIPS software was generally delivered as `` engines '' that packaged together voice and video processing components into optimized frameworks for smoother integration and better performance . GIPS ' customers are primarily service providers , application developers , and manufacturers of IP phones , gateways or voice and video conferencing systems .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Global_IP_Solutions", "rank": 98, "score": 110514 }, { "content": "Title: 2013 heatwave in Ireland and the United Kingdom Content: The 2013 heat wave in the United Kingdom and Ireland was a period of unusually hot weather primarily in July 2013 , with isolated warm days in June and August . A prolonged high pressure system over Britain and Ireland caused higher than average temperatures for 19 consecutive days in July , reaching 33.5 ° C at Heathrow and Northolt . Following a brief period of cooler weather at the end of July , temperatures temporarily rose again , peaking at 34.1 ° C on 1 August in the United Kingdom , the warmest the country had seen since July 2006 , and 31.0 ° C in Ireland . At 19 days , the July heatwave was the longest continuous period of hot weather in the UK since August 1997 . However , in the general sense , Britain did not have an overall exceptional summer ; the country experienced cool low pressure systems brought by an unseasonably low latitude by the jet stream for the 6 summers previous , which made the summer of 2013 more `` welcome '' and feel warmer than other summers . The historical records suggests `` Using the CET record ( for June , July & August ) , the average temperature by that measure was 16.3 degC ( Provisional ) : neither June nor August was exceptionally warm , so this value does not ` rate ' too highly when set against other very warm summer seasons . '' With June being a cool month and August being an Average month , in terms of temperatures the English Central summer temperature ended up being on the average side set up against previous summers since the CET series began in 1659 .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "2013_heatwave_in_Ireland_and_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 99, "score": 110508 }, { "content": "Title: Early modern demography Content: Early modern demography is the demography of the world after the end of the medieval period , encompassing the whole of the Early modern period until the availability of accurate census records and other data which form the basis for contemporary demography . Depending on the context , the end of the medieval world and the beginning of the modern may be dated to the Black Death in the middle of the 14th Century , the Fall of Constantinople in the middle of the 15th Century , or the Age of Exploration and the resulting epidemic deaths .", "qid": "2845", "docid": "Early_modern_demography", "rank": 100, "score": 110372 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Content: The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports", "rank": 1, "score": 189545 }, { "content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period", "rank": 2, "score": 167607 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 3, "score": 166226 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report", "rank": 4, "score": 157164 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Second Assessment Report Content: The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report", "rank": 5, "score": 141869 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''", "qid": "2849", "docid": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 6, "score": 138977 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 7, "score": 137081 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 8, "score": 130989 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 9, "score": 130822 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 10, "score": 123299 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow", "rank": 11, "score": 122971 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 12, "score": 122743 }, { "content": "Title: Roman Warm Period Content: The Roman Warm Period or the Roman climatic optimum has been proposed as a period of unusually warm weather in Europe and the North Atlantic that ran from approximately 250 BC to AD 400 .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Roman_Warm_Period", "rank": 13, "score": 121865 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992", "rank": 14, "score": 121814 }, { "content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Little_Ice_Age", "rank": 15, "score": 121387 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program", "rank": 16, "score": 120148 }, { "content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Reasons_for_concern", "rank": 17, "score": 118810 }, { "content": "Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 18, "score": 118173 }, { "content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Climate_risk", "rank": 19, "score": 118005 }, { "content": "Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 20, "score": 116749 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 21, "score": 112089 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 22, "score": 111783 }, { "content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment", "rank": 23, "score": 111354 }, { "content": "Title: Iron Age Cold Epoch Content: The Iron Age Cold Epoch ( also referred to as Iron Age climate pessimum or Iron Age neoglaciation ) was a period of unusually cold climate in the North Atlantic region , lasting from about 900 BC to about 300 BC , with an especially cold wave in 450 BC during the expansion of ancient Greece . It was followed by the Roman Warm Period ( 250 BC -- 400 AD ) .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Iron_Age_Cold_Epoch", "rank": 24, "score": 110840 }, { "content": "Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Kevin_E._Trenberth", "rank": 25, "score": 107811 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 26, "score": 107703 }, { "content": "Title: Bert Bolin Content: Bert Rickard Johannes Bolin ( -LSB- bæʈː bʊliːn -RSB- ; 15 May 1925 -- 30 December 2007 ) was a Swedish meteorologist who served as the first chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , from 1988 to 1997 . He was professor of meteorology at Stockholm University from 1961 until his retirement in 1990 .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Bert_Bolin", "rank": 27, "score": 106203 }, { "content": "Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "John_T._Houghton", "rank": 28, "score": 105994 }, { "content": "Title: Holocene climatic optimum Content: The Holocene Climate Optimum ( HCO ) was a warm period during roughly the interval 9,000 to 5,000 years BP . This event has also been known by many other names , including : Hypsithermal , Altithermal , Climatic Optimum , Holocene Optimum , Holocene Thermal Maximum , and Holocene Megathermal . This warm period was followed by a gradual decline until about two millennia ago . For other temperature fluctuations see : Temperature record For other past climate fluctuation see : Paleoclimatology For the pollen zone and Blytt-Sernander period associated with the climate optimum , see : Atlantic ( period )", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Holocene_climatic_optimum", "rank": 29, "score": 105158 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 30, "score": 104683 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation Content: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) published a special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) on May 9 , 2011 . The report developed under the leadership of Ottmar Edenhofer evaluates the global potential for using renewable energy to mitigate climate change . This IPCC special report provides broader coverage of renewable energy than was included in the IPCC 's 2007 climate change assessment report , as well as stronger renewable energy policy coverage . Renewable energy can contribute to `` social and economic development , energy access , secure energy supply , climate change mitigation , and the reduction of negative environmental and health impacts '' . Under favourable circumstances , cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Renewable_Energy_Sources_and_Climate_Change_Mitigation", "rank": 31, "score": 104676 }, { "content": "Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy", "rank": 32, "score": 104644 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 33, "score": 104613 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 34, "score": 104331 }, { "content": "Title: Global Climate Coalition Content: The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 -- 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Global_Climate_Coalition", "rank": 35, "score": 102856 }, { "content": "Title: HadCM3 Content: HadCM3 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Coupled Model , version 3 ) is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model ( AOGCM ) developed at the Hadley Centre in the United Kingdom . It was one of the major models used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report in 2001 . Unlike earlier AOGCMs at the Hadley Centre and elsewhere ( including its predecessor HadCM2 ) , HadCM3 does not need flux adjustment ( additional `` artificial '' heat and freshwater fluxes at the ocean surface ) to produce a good simulation . The higher ocean resolution of HadCM3 is a major factor in this ; other factors include a good match between the atmospheric and oceanic components ; and an improved ocean mixing scheme ( Gent and McWilliams ) . HadCM3 has been run to produce simulations for periods of over a thousand years , showing little drift in its surface climate . HadCM3 is composed of two components : the atmospheric model HadAM3 and the ocean model HadOM3 ( which includes a sea ice model ) . Simulations use a 360-day calendar , where each month is 30 days .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "HadCM3", "rank": 36, "score": 102237 }, { "content": "Title: Rajendra K. Pachauri Content: Rajendra Kumar Pachauri ( born 20 August 1940 ) was the chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He held the post from 2002 until his resignation in 2015 , during which time the organization was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . He resigned from IPCC in February 2015 . Following a media trial , The Energy and Resources Institute ( TERI ) Governing Council asked him to step down from the post of Director-General of the institute . The Governing Council of TERI in a meeting in February 2016 appointed Ashok Chawla , a Gujarat cadre Indian Administrative Service Office who was former Union Finance Secretary and former Chairman of the Competition Commission , as its new chairman . Ajay Mathur , a technocrat in the Bureau of Energy Efficiency , was appointed as the Director General of TERI by the Governing Council in July 2015 .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Rajendra_K._Pachauri", "rank": 37, "score": 101496 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 38, "score": 100425 }, { "content": "Title: Indigenous Peoples Climate Change Assessment Initiative Content: The Indigenous Peoples ' Biocultural Climate Change Assessment Initiative ( IPCCA ) is an international indigenous research initiative arising out of the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues , where it was noted : '' . . cultures that support TK -LSB- Traditional Knowledge -RSB- around the world are often living in marginal ecosystems , such as the Arctic , mountains , deserts and small islands . . -LSB- which are -RSB- . . often the sources of key ecosystem services ... . most vulnerable to climate change '' At the Seventh Session of the Permanent Forum , held from 21 April to 2 May 2008 , it was recommended that : '' . . the United Nations University -- Institute of Advanced Studies , university research centres and relevant United Nations agencies conduct further studies on the impacts of climate change and climate change responses on indigenous peoples who are living in highly fragile ecosystems '' . From this recommendation , a formal Indigenous Peoples Climate Change Assessment Initiative was formed between the United Nations University 's Institute of Advanced Studies and a number of non-United Nations partners ; with an indigenous led steering committee coordinated by a secretariat housed within the Association for Nature and Sustainable Development ( ANDES ) , Peru ; and an objective : `` To empower indigenous peoples to develop and use indigenous frameworks to assess the impact of climate change on their communities and ecosystems and to develop and implement strategies for building indigenous resilience and adaptive strategies to mitigate impacts while enhancing biocultural diversity for food sovereignty and self determined development or `` Buen Vivir . '' ''", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Indigenous_Peoples_Climate_Change_Assessment_Initiative", "rank": 39, "score": 99809 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios", "rank": 40, "score": 99462 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Roger_Pulwarty", "rank": 41, "score": 98809 }, { "content": "Title: Joel B. Smith Content: Joel B. Smith is an expert on climate change policy . He was a coordinating lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2001 assessment report and a lead author of the 2007 assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) . He is currently a Principal at Stratus Consulting Inc. , in Boulder , CO. .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Joel_B._Smith", "rank": 42, "score": 97762 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Summary for Policymakers Content: The Summary for policymakers ( SPM ) is a summary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports intended to aid policymakers . The form is approved line by line by governments : `` Negotiations occur over wording to ensure accuracy , balance , clarity of message , and relevance to understanding and policy . ''", "qid": "2849", "docid": "IPCC_Summary_for_Policymakers", "rank": 43, "score": 97553 }, { "content": "Title: HadGEM1 Content: HadGEM1 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model , version 1 ) is a coupled climate model developed at the Met Office 's Hadley Centre in 2006 and used in IPCC Fourth Assessment Report on climate change . It represents a significant scientific advance on its predecessor , HadCM3 . HadGEM1 also provides a basis for further development of models , particularly involving enhanced resolution and full Earth System modelling . The current version is HadGEM3 .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "HadGEM1", "rank": 44, "score": 97506 }, { "content": "Title: Yuri Izrael Content: Yuri Antonovich Izrael ( Юрий Антониевич Израэль 15 May 1930 , Tashkent -- 23 January 2014 , Moscow ) was a vice-chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) until September 2008 , when the new bureau was elected . He was the `` most influential scientific adviser '' for Vladimir Putin , the former president of Russia , according to CNN . Izrael was former chairman of the Committee for Hydrometeorology . He also served as director of the Institute of Global Climate and Ecology , which is a part of the Russian Academy of Sciences . He was a first vice-president of the World Meteorological Organization and helped develop the World Weather Watch . In 1992 , Izrael won the International Meteorological Organization Prize and the UNEP Sasakawa Environment Prize for , among other accomplishments , contributing to the `` success of Working Group I I '' of the IPCC .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Yuri_Izrael", "rank": 45, "score": 97054 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change adaptation in Nepal Content: Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal", "rank": 46, "score": 96762 }, { "content": "Title: Arturo Villavicencio Content: Arturo Villavicencio is an Ecuadorian environmental researcher . He was nominated by Denmark in 1995 for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributed to its fourth assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Arturo_Villavicencio", "rank": 47, "score": 96628 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 48, "score": 96432 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC (disambiguation) Content: IPCC may refer to : Independent Police Complaints Commission of England and Wales Independent Police Complaints Council of Hong Kong Integrated Professional Competency Course , a course of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations . Interworld Police Coordinating Company , a fictional organization in Jack Vance 's novels Irish Peatland Conservation Council", "qid": "2849", "docid": "IPCC_(disambiguation)", "rank": 49, "score": 96336 }, { "content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "North_Report", "rank": 50, "score": 95981 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect", "rank": 51, "score": 95475 }, { "content": "Title: Physical impacts of climate change Content: This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Physical_impacts_of_climate_change", "rank": 52, "score": 94886 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 53, "score": 94762 }, { "content": "Title: Middle Bronze Age Cold Epoch Content: The Middle Bronze Age Cold Epoch was a period of unusually cold climate in the North Atlantic region , lasting from about 1800 BC to about 1500 BC . It was followed by the Bronze Age Optimum ( 1500 -- 900 year BC ) . During that epoch , a series of severe volcanic eruptions occurred , including Mount Vesuvius ( Avellino eruption , ≈ 1660 BC ) , Mount Aniakchak ( ≈ 1645 BC ) , and Thera ( Minoan eruption , ≈ 1620 BC ) .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Middle_Bronze_Age_Cold_Epoch", "rank": 54, "score": 94420 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 55, "score": 94343 }, { "content": "Title: Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change Content: The Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change ( or CSCCC ) is an entity that maintains a website and describes itself as a global group of non-profit organizations with a mission of `` seek -LSB- ing -RSB- to educate the public about the science and economics of climate change in an impartial manner . '' The Coalition identifies its membership as including 60 independent nonprofit organisations from 40 countries `` who share a commitment to improving public understanding about a range of public policy issues . '' It calls itself `` a free-market alternative to mainstream environmentalism . '' An Indian news media report states that it was founded by the International Policy Network , a London-based organization that receives support from Exxon Mobil . The group publishes background papers and opinion editorials on the science and economics of climate change and maintains a blog . Its Civil Society Report on Climate Change was published in 2007 , shortly before the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change conference in Bali . CSCCC experts make media appearances , such as Julian Morris 's 2007 feature on Larry King Live and his televised debate in 2008 with IPCC head Rajendra Pachauri . This IPN in the UK has Julian Morris as Executive Director . It is actually a part of the Atlas Group/Network ( aka Atlas Economic Research Institute ) which was founded by UK factory-chicken king , Sir Antony Fisher ( one of PM Margaret Thatcher 's economic gurus ) and American Loctite millionaire Richard Krieble . They had funding support from Krieble , Richard Mellon Scaife , and Philip Morris . Fisher is reputed to have had a primary hand in establishing up to 150 libertarian think-tanks around the world . Fisher 's daughter , Linda Whetstone , now works for the ( Fisher-founded ) Adam Smith Institute . She is also the chairperson of the International Policy Network , and is on the Boards of Directors of the Mont Pelerin Society , the Institute of Economic Affairs and the Atlas Group in the USA . Coalitions and networks of this kind a common with Atlas Group think-tanks , and many of their key staff and directors serve on many different organisations . This faux-multiplicity amplifies the apparent strength of the public attacks on climate-change science . See also the Stockholm Network . and", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Civil_Society_Coalition_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 56, "score": 93711 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 57, "score": 93664 }, { "content": "Title: 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 29 to November 10 , 2001 in Marrakech , Morocco . The conference included the 7th Conference of the Parties ( COP7 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The negotiators wrapped up the work on the Buenos Aires Plan of Action , finalizing most of the operational details and setting the stage for nations to ratify the Kyoto Protocol . The completed package of decisions is known as the Marrakech Accords . The United States delegation maintained its observer role , declining to participate actively in the negotiations . Other parties continued to express hope that the United States would re-engage in the process at some point and worked to achieve ratification of the Kyoto Protocol by the requisite number of countries to bring it into force ( 55 countries needed to ratify it , including those accounting for 55 % of developed country emissions of carbon dioxide in 1990 ) . The date of the World Summit on Sustainable Development ( August -- September 2002 ) was put forward as a target to bring the Kyoto Protocol into force . The World Summit on Sustainable Development ( WSSD ) was to be held in Johannesburg , South Africa . The main decisions at COP 7 included : Operational rules for international emissions trading among parties to the Protocol and for the CDM and joint implementation ; A compliance regime that outlined consequences for failure to meet emissions targets but deferred to the parties to the Protocol , once it came into force , the decision on whether those consequences would be legally binding ; Accounting procedures for the flexibility mechanisms ; A decision to consider at COP 8 how to achieve a review of the adequacy of commitments that might lead to discussions on future commitments by developing countries . Category :21 st-century diplomatic conferences Category : Diplomatic conferences in Morocco Category : Climate change conferences 2001 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference , 2001 Category :2001 in the environment Category : History of Marrakesh Category : October 2001 events Category : November 2001 events Category :2001 in Morocco", "qid": "2849", "docid": "2001_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 58, "score": 93500 }, { "content": "Title: Atlantic (period) Content: The Atlantic in palaeoclimatology was the warmest and moistest Blytt-Sernander period , pollen zone and chronozone of Holocene northern Europe . The climate was generally warmer than today . It was preceded by the Boreal , with a climate similar to today 's , and was followed by the Subboreal , a transition to the modern . Because it was the warmest period of the Holocene , the Atlantic is often referenced more directly as the Holocene climatic optimum , or just climatic optimum .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Atlantic_(period)", "rank": 59, "score": 93069 }, { "content": "Title: Richard A. Betts Content: Richard A. Betts is Head of the Climate Impacts strategic area at the Met Office Hadley Centre in Exeter , United Kingdom . He is also Chair in Climate Impacts at the University of Exeter and the Principal Investigator of the EU FP7 project HELIX ( High-End cLimate Impacts and eXtremes ) . He was a lead author for Working Group I and a contributing author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He was a lead author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is an editor for the International Journal of Global Warming , the Journal of Environmental Investing , and for Earth System Dynamics . After studying physics at the University of Bristol , Betts switched to meteorology at the University of Birmingham and then studied for a doctorate in meteorology at the University of Reading . He is noted for engaging with critics of climate science on Twitter and was selected by TIME as one of the 140 best Twitter feeds of 2012 .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Richard_A._Betts", "rank": 60, "score": 93053 }, { "content": "Title: YAD06 Content: YAD06 is a tree located in the Yamal Peninsula of Siberia . A core sample from this tree , YADO61 , provided data used to support hockey stick interpretation of global climate history . The data was originally published in 1995 a paper by Keith Briffa of the Climate Research Unit at the University of East Anglia . The paper asserted that the late Middle Ages , previously described as a `` Medieval Warm Period , '' was actually quite cold . Steve McIntyre has described this tree as possibly `` the most influential tree in the world '' , and publicly accused Briffa of cherry-picking certain tree ring records in order to get a specific result , creating what Michael E. Mann described as a `` manufactured scandal . ''", "qid": "2849", "docid": "YAD06", "rank": 61, "score": 92986 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act", "rank": 62, "score": 92967 }, { "content": "Title: Campaign against Climate Change Content: The Campaign against Climate Change ( variously abbreviated to CCC or CaCC ) is a UK-based pressure group that aims to raise public awareness of anthropogenic climate change through mobilizing mass demonstrations . Founded in 2001 in response to President Bush 's rejection of the Kyoto Protocol , the organization saw a steady increase in attendance on marches before a sudden take-off in interest between October - December 2005 . An estimated 10,000 people attended a rally in London on December 3 , 2005 . The following year on November 4 , 2006 the Campaign organized a march from the US Embassy to the iCount event in Trafalgar Square . At least 25,000 people gathered in Trafalgar Square that day making it easily the biggest demonstration on climate change in the UK to date , until The Wave march in December 2009 . The December 3rd , 2005 protests were not confined to the UK , but formed part of the first Global Day of Action on Climate Change , in which CCC played a key role in co-ordinating . The demonstrations , in more than 30 countries around the world , were timed to coincide with the crucial Montreal Climate talks in Canada , at which preliminary agreements were made for a post-Kyoto treaty to take effect after 2012 . Outside Montreal itself , a crowd of between 25,000 - 40,000 gathered in a protest organized by the American-based Climate Crisis Coalition . The December 2006 protests again had an international flavour , with the London , UK protest attracting 10,000 participants . The Campaign against Climate Change has a network of local groups around the UK , which are currently in the process of being extended . On February 9 , 2008 the Campaign against Climate Change hosted a Trade Union conference on climate change . Over 300 delegates attended and heard speakers , including several Trade Union general secretaries or their deputies , from most of the major British unions . This conference was followed by two more Trade Union events in 2009 and 2010 . The campaign has also produced a report to a number of British Trade Union 's on `` One Million Climate Jobs '' . Arguing that direct government funding must be used to create jobs that can reduce Carbon emissions . CCC is an example of a growing number of climate-related environmental pressure groups that have developed during the last decade , including organizations like Rising Tide , Climaction and the coalition group Stop Climate Chaos , of which the Campaign against Climate Change is a member . CCC was heavily involved in the campaign against the closure of the Vestas Wind Turbine plant on the Isle of Wight and the occupation of the factory by the workers . The CCC was part of the mobilisations for the demonstrations that marked the United Nations talks on Climate Change in Copenhagen , in December 2009 .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Campaign_against_Climate_Change", "rank": 63, "score": 92846 }, { "content": "Title: Crisis of the Late Middle Ages Content: The crisis of the Late Middle Ages refers to a series of events in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries that brought centuries of European prosperity and growth to a halt . Three major crises led to radical changes in all areas of society : demographic collapse , political instabilities and religious upheavals . A series of famines and plagues , beginning with the Great Famine of 1315 -- 17 and especially the Black Death of 1348 , reduced the population perhaps by half or more as the Medieval Warm Period came to a close and the first century of the Little Ice Age began . Popular revolts in late medieval Europe and civil wars between nobles within countries such as the Wars of the Roses were common -- with France fighting internally nine times -- and there were international conflicts between kings such as France and England in the Hundred Years ' War . The unity of the Roman Catholic Church was shattered by the Western Schism . The Holy Roman Empire was also in decline ; in the aftermath of the Great Interregnum ( 1247 -- 1273 ) , the Empire lost cohesion and politically the separate dynasties of the various German states became more important than their common empire .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ages", "rank": 64, "score": 92741 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change acronyms Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Climate_change_acronyms", "rank": 65, "score": 92701 }, { "content": "Title: 2003 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2003 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place between 1 December -- 12 December 2003 in Milan , Italy . The conference included the 9th Conference of the Parties ( COP9 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The parties agreed to use the Adaptation Fund established at COP7 in 2001 primarily in supporting developing countries better adapt to climate change . The fund would also be used for capacity-building through technology transfer . At the conference , the parties also agreed to review the first national reports submitted by 110 non-Annex I countries . Category :21 st-century diplomatic conferences Category : Diplomatic conferences in Italy Category : Climate change conferences 2003 2003 United Nations Climate Change Conference , 2003 Category :2003 in the environment Category : November 2003 events Category :21 st century in Milan Category :2003 in Italy", "qid": "2849", "docid": "2003_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 66, "score": 92391 }, { "content": "Title: 2006 European heat wave Content: The 2006 European heat wave was a period of exceptionally hot weather that arrived at the end of June 2006 in certain European countries . The United Kingdom , France , Belgium , the Netherlands , Luxembourg , Italy , Poland , the Czech Republic , Hungary , Germany and western parts of Russia were most affected . Several records were broken . In the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Ireland and the United Kingdom , July 2006 was the warmest month since official measurements began .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "2006_European_heat_wave", "rank": 67, "score": 92337 }, { "content": "Title: Ismail El Gizouli Content: Ismail Abdel Rahim El Gizouli is a Sudanese civil servant specializing in energy and environment and a member of the bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He has acted as interim chairman of the IPCC since 24 February 2015 , following the resignation of Rajendra Kumar Pachauri . This appointment will last until the next election for a chairman , which is due to take place at the 42nd session in October 2015 .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Ismail_El_Gizouli", "rank": 68, "score": 91810 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 69, "score": 91382 }, { "content": "Title: Middle Miocene disruption Content: The term Middle Miocene disruption , alternatively the Middle Miocene extinction or Middle Miocene extinction peak , refers to a wave of extinctions of terrestrial and aquatic life forms that occurred around the middle of the Miocene , roughly , during the Langhian stage of the Miocene . This period was preceded by the Miocene Climatic Optimum , a period of relative warmth from 18 to 14 Ma . Cooling that led to the Middle Miocene disruption has been attributed to CO2 being pulled out of the atmosphere by organic material before becoming caught in different locations like the Monterey Formation . Madelaine Bohme observed the occurrence of Varanidae , Chameleonidae , Cordylidae , Tomistominae , Alligatoridae , and giant turtles which indicate survival through the Miocene Climatic Optimum ( 18 to 16 Ma ) in Central Europe ( 45-42 ° N palaeolatitude ) . A major and permanent cooling step occurred between 14.8 and 14.1 Ma , associated with increased production of cold Antarctic deep waters and a major growth of the East Antarctic ice sheet . Two crocodilians of the genera Gavialosuchus and Diplocynodon were noted to have been extant in these northern latitudes prior to the permanent cooling step then became extinct 13.5 to 14 Ma . A Middle Miocene delta18O increase , that is a relative increase in the heavier isotope of oxygen , has been noted in the Pacific , the Southern Ocean and the South Atlantic .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Middle_Miocene_disruption", "rank": 70, "score": 91348 }, { "content": "Title: Representative Concentration Pathways Content: Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) are four greenhouse gas concentration ( not emissions ) trajectories adopted by the IPCC for its fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) in 2014 . It supersedes Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) projections published in 2000 . The pathways are used for climate modeling and research . They describe four possible climate futures , all of which are considered possible depending on how much greenhouse gases are emitted in the years to come . The four RCPs , RCP2 .6 , RCP4 .5 , RCP6 , and RCP8 .5 , are named after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values ( +2.6 , +4.5 , +6.0 , and +8.5 W/m2 , respectively ) .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Representative_Concentration_Pathways", "rank": 71, "score": 91026 }, { "content": "Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 72, "score": 90831 }, { "content": "Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Long-term_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 73, "score": 90233 }, { "content": "Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :", "qid": "2849", "docid": "List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis", "rank": 74, "score": 90059 }, { "content": "Title: Cretaceous Content: The Cretaceous ( -LSB- pronkrᵻˈteɪʃəs -RSB- , ) is a geologic period and system that spans 79 million years from the end of the Jurassic Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the Paleogene Period Mya . It is the last period of the Mesozoic Era . The Cretaceous Period is usually abbreviated K , for its German translation Kreide ( chalk ) . The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm climate , resulting in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas . These oceans and seas were populated with now-extinct marine reptiles , ammonites and rudists , while dinosaurs continued to dominate on land . During this time , new groups of mammals and birds , as well as flowering plants , appeared . The Cretaceous ended with a large mass extinction , the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event , in which many groups , including non-avian dinosaurs , pterosaurs and large marine reptiles died out . The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg boundary ) , a geologic signature associated with the mass extinction which lies between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Cretaceous", "rank": 75, "score": 90057 }, { "content": "Title: Bert Metz Content: Bert Metz ( born 15 August 1945 , The Hague ) is a Dutch climate policy expert . He was Co-chair of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group III on mitigation on climate change for the third and fourth assessment report of the IPCC . Currently he is a fellow at the european climate foundation . Metz obtained an Engineer 's degree in Chemical Engineering at Delft University of Technology and subsequently his Ph.D. degree at the same university . From 1976 to 1987 he worked for Dutch Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment in the fields of air pollution , external safety , noise pollution , chemical waste and the enforcement of environmental laws . From 1987 until 1992 he was Counsellor for Health and Environment at the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Washington DC . In 1992 he became Deputy Director for Air and Energy of the Netherlands Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment , with responsibility for climate policy . He led the Netherlands delegation to the negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the Climate Convention . In 1997 he moved to the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency at RIVM to head the group on climate change and global sustainability and was elected as co-chairman of the Working Group on Climate Change Mitigation of the IPCC for the preparation of the Third Assessment Report . In 2002 he was re-elected in that position for the 4th Assessment Report cycle . Although formally retired , Bert Metz is still very active in the climate policy arena , among others as advisor for the European Climate Foundation and as steering group member of UNEP 's annual Emissions Gap Report . In 2008 he was named Officer in the Order of Orange-Nassau . .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Bert_Metz", "rank": 76, "score": 89902 }, { "content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Deglaciation", "rank": 77, "score": 89552 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 78, "score": 89440 }, { "content": "Title: Global Scenario Group Content: The Global Scenario Group ( GSG ) was an international , interdisciplinary body convened in 1995 by the Tellus Institute and the Stockholm Environment Institute to develop scenarios for world development in the twenty-first century . The GSG 's underlying scenario development work was rooted in the long-range integrated scenario analysis that Tellus Institute and Stockholm Environment Institute had undertaken through the PoleStar Project . Initially conceived in 1991 as a tool for integrated sustainability planning and long-range scenario analysis , PoleStar was inspired by the 1987 Brundtland Commission report Our Common Future , which first put the concept of `` sustainable development '' on the international agenda . The work of the Global Scenario Group was widely adopted in high-level intergovernmental settings . The scenarios informed numerous international assessments , including the World Water Council 's World Water Vision report in 1999 -- 2000 , the OECD Environmental Outlook in 2001 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's greenhouse gas emission mitigation assessment in 2001 , the United Nations Environment Programme 's Third GEO Report in 2002 , and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment in 2005 . Several of the GSG participants who actively participated in the IPCC assessments have been recognized for contributing to the 2007 award of the Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Global_Scenario_Group", "rank": 79, "score": 89196 }, { "content": "Title: GO-ESSP Content: The Global Organization of Earth System Science Portals or ( GO-ESSP ) is an international collaboration , formed in 2003 , that is developing software infrastructure to support the distribution , and analysis of climate model data and related observations . GO-ESSP is playing a central role in coordinating United States and European efforts to document and distribute data for the 5th coupled model intercomparison project , which will be part of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "GO-ESSP", "rank": 80, "score": 89163 }, { "content": "Title: Use of animals during the Gravettian period Content: The Gravettian period occurred in Europe between 30,000 and 22,000 years ago ( during the Upper Paleolithic ) . Gravettian lifestyle was shaped by the climate . Pleniglacial environmental changes forced early humans to adapt . West and Central Europe were extremely cold during this period . Gravettian culture thrived on their ability to hunt animals . They utilized a variety of tools and hunting strategies . Compared to theorized hunting techniques of Neanderthals and earlier human groups , Gravettian hunting culture appears much more mobile and complex .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Use_of_animals_during_the_Gravettian_period", "rank": 81, "score": 89142 }, { "content": "Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Interglacial", "rank": 82, "score": 89112 }, { "content": "Title: List of environmental reports Content: This is a list of notable environmental reports . In this context they relate to the impacts of human activity on the environment . City-level Decoupling : Urban Resource Flows and the Governance of Infrastructure Transitions - by the International Resource Panel Clean Energy Trends - a series of reports by Clean Edge - beginning in 2002 Copeland Report - for the U.S. government , completed in 1933 Copenhagen Diagnosis - written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries Dioxin Reassessment Report - by the United States Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport ( `` Leopold Report '' ) - United States Department of the Interior ( 1969 ) Environmental Risks and Challenges of Anthropogenic Metals Flows and Cycles - by the International Resource Panel Forest Principles - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) The Global 2000 Report to the President - Council on Environmental Quality ( 1981 ) Global Environment Outlook - United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Hirsch report ( Peaking of World Oil Production : Impacts , Mitigation , and Risk Management ) - United States Department of Energy Index of Leading Environmental Indicators - Pacific Research Institute IPCC First Assessment Report - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) IPCC supplementary report , 1992 - IPCC IPCC Second Assessment Report - IPCC IPCC Third Assessment Report Climate Change 2001 - IPCC ( 2001 ) IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 - IPCC ( 2007 ) IPCC Fifth Assessment Report ( 2014 ) Leopold Report ( `` Wildlife Management in the National Parks '' ) - Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management ( 1963 ) Livestock 's Long Shadow - Environmental Issues and Options - United Nations ( 2006 ) Living Planet Report - WWF , every two years Making Sweden an Oil-Free Society - Government of Sweden ( 2006 ) Meat Atlas - published by the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe Nuclear Power and the Environment - UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution - 1976 Our Common Future - World Commission on Environment and Development ( 1987 ) Outlook On Renewable Energy In America ( 2 volumes ) - American Council on Renewable Energy - 2007 Phase I Environmental Site Assessment - generic Planning Policy Statement 10 : Planning for Sustainable Waste Management ( PPS 10 ) - British Government Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation - United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) - planned for 2010 Report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification - Royal Commission on Genetic Modification ( 2001 ) State of the Climate - NOAA/NCDC ( published annually ) The State of the World - Worldwatch Institute ( published yearly since 1984 ) Wegman Report - to validate criticisms of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years Windscale : Britain 's Biggest Nuclear Disaster ( 2007 ) World Climate Report - Greening Earth Society The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates - selected and published by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group ( IUCN/SSC PSG ) , the International Primatological Society ( IPS ) , and Conservation International ( CI )", "qid": "2849", "docid": "List_of_environmental_reports", "rank": 83, "score": 89104 }, { "content": "Title: C. Vernon Cole Content: Dr. C. Vernon Cole ( 1922 -- August 30 , 2013 ) was a soil scientist known primarily for his work on nutrient cycling in agroecosystems . He was a member of Working Group II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Second Assessment report , and the lead author of Chapter 23 `` Agricultural Options for Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions '' . The IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "C._Vernon_Cole", "rank": 84, "score": 88981 }, { "content": "Title: Glacial period Content: A glacial period ( alternatively glacial or glaciation ) is an interval of time ( thousands of years ) within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances . Interglacials , on the other hand , are periods of warmer climate between glacial periods . The last glacial period ended about 15,000 years ago . < ref name = `` Severinghaus1999 '' > </ref> The Holocene epoch is the current interglacial . A time when there are no glaciers on Earth is considered a greenhouse climate state .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Glacial_period", "rank": 85, "score": 88926 }, { "content": "Title: Burtoni Award Content: The Burtoni Award was created in 2003 by a group of leading experts and policy makers in the field of climate change . Its purpose is to recognize outstanding contributions to the science of adaptation to climate change . The award is named after the first recipient of the award , Ian Burton , an Emeritus Professor at the University of Toronto and a pioneer in the field of adaptation to climate change and extreme events and disasters . Ian has contributed to three Assessment Reports of the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) and the recent Special Report on Extremes ( SREX ) . Subsequent recipients of the Burtoni Award are : Roger Jones ( Australia ) 2005 . Saleemul Huq ( Bangladesh ) 2007 . Coleen Vogel ( South Africa ) 2010 . Karen O'Brien ( Norway/USA ) 2012 . Mark Pelling ( United Kingdom ) 2015 . Richard J.T. Klein ( the Netherlands ) 2016 . Short biographies of the awardees follow : Roger Jones is Professorial Research Fellow at the Centre for Strategic Economic Research , Victoria University Australia . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and has the same role in the Fifth Assessment Report . The Burtoni was awarded in recognition of his innovations in research methods for assessing adaptation to climate change , particularly in the application of risk management to adaptation . Saleemul Huq is a Senior Fellow with the International Institute for Environment and Development in London and Director of ICCCD ( International Centre for Climate Change and Development in Dhaka , Bangladesh . He received the award for his work linking adaptation and development , his research on decision making and his efforts to build capacity . It was awarded during a three-day workshop on Community-based Adaptation to Climate Change in Dhaka . Coleen Vogel is an Independent Consultant and previously Professor of Sustainability at the University of Witwatersrand , Johannesburg . She was Lead Author for the IPCC 4th assessment Report Working Group 2 Chapter on Africa , and she chaired the International Scientific Committee of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Climate Change . Karen O'Brien is Professor in the Department of Sociology and Human Geography at the University of Oslo , Norway . She was Lead Author of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report for Working Group II ( Chapter 20 : Climate-resilient pathways : adaptation , mitigation , and sustainable development ) . She was a Coordinating Lead Author of the IPCC Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation ( SREX ) in Chapter 8 ` Towards a Resilient and Sustainable Future ' . She was Chair of the Global Environmental Change and Human Security ( GECHS ) project of the IHDP from 2005-2010 . Mark Pelling is Professor of Geography at King 's College London . His research interests are in the institutions and social relationships that shape vulnerability and adaptation to natural disasters , including those associated with climate change , and in the ways in which conflicting values and practices of development inform resilience and transformation in the face of environmental change . He served as a coordinating author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation ( SREX ) and its Fifth Assessment Report . He also sits on the Scientific Steering Committees for the IGBP-IHDP core project Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone ( LOICZ ) and the ICSU core project Integrated Research on Disaster Risk ( IRDR ) . Richard J.T. Klein is a Senior Research Fellow at the Stockholm Environment Institute and Editor-in-Chief of the journal Climate and Development . He was awarded the Burtoni in recognition of his work to advance knowledge through international research , capacity-building and educational collaborations , including as co-director and chief scientist of the Nordic Centre of Excellence for Strategic Adaptation Research ( NORD-STAR ) and as a member , until 2015 , of the Scientific Steering Committee of the Global Programme of Research on Climate Change Vulnerability , Impacts and Adaptation ( PROVIA ) . He was only 24 when he became lead author of a chapter in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Second Assessment Report , published in 1994 . He has been a lead author or coordinating lead author of every IPCC Assessment Report since , as well as two Special Reports .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Burtoni_Award", "rank": 86, "score": 88735 }, { "content": "Title: Nash, Telford and Wrekin Content: Nash was a village in Shropshire , England which is believed to have been wiped out entirely by the Black Death of c. 1349 . It now no longer exists and is described as a lost settlement , deserted medieval village or abandoned village . Its location is near to the village of Wrockwardine , near The Wrekin and the M54 motorway .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Nash,_Telford_and_Wrekin", "rank": 87, "score": 88661 }, { "content": "Title: Late Glacial Content: The Late Glacial ( c. 13,000 -- 10,000 years ago ) , or Tardiglacial ( `` Late Glacial '' ) , is defined primarily by the beginning of the modern warm period , in which climates in the Northern Hemisphere warmed substantially , causing a process of accelerated deglaciation following the Last Glacial Maximum ( c. 25,000 -- 13,000 years ago ) . At this time , human populations , previously forced into refuge areas as a result of Last Glacial Maximum climatic conditions , gradually begin to repopulate the Northern Hemisphere 's Eurasian landmass and eventually populate North America via Beringia for the first time . Evidence for its occurrence stems from two main types of analysis . The first is the use of oxygen isotope stages ( OIS ) gathered from stratified deep-sea sediment cores . Samples are gathered and measured for change in isotope levels to determine temperature fluctuation for given periods of time . The second is a proxy measurement , the observation of certain reappearing fauna and flora fossils that can survive only in temperate climates , thus indicating warming trends for a given geographic area . Archaeological evidence of settlement and resettlement in certain areas by humans also serve as proxy measurements . Towards the end of OIS 2 in which the Late Glacial Maximum occurs , the deep-sea sediment cores indicate a gradually warming climate , and the reappearance of certain warm-weather flora and fauna remains throughout the Northern Hemisphere correlate with that trend . A period of relatively brief cold oscillation , referred to as the Younger Dryas , is detected during OIS 2 , as can be inferred from an increase in isotope weight .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Late_Glacial", "rank": 88, "score": 88632 }, { "content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory", "rank": 89, "score": 88474 }, { "content": "Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Michael_E._Mann", "rank": 90, "score": 88275 }, { "content": "Title: Allerød oscillation Content: The Allerød oscillation ( Allerødtiden ) was a warm and moist global interstadial that occurred at the end of the last glacial period . It raised temperatures in the northern Atlantic region to almost present-day levels , before they declined again in the succeeding Younger Dryas period , which was followed by the present interglacial period . In some regions , especially in northern Eurasia , there is evidence for a cold period known as the Older Dryas interrupting the interstadial . In such regions the shorter oscillation ending with the Older Dryas is known as the Bølling oscillation , and the Allerød period is the interstadial following the Older Dryas . The Allerød period was named after a type site in Furesø municipality in Sjælland , Denmark ( near Copenhagen ) , where deposits created during the period were first identified in work published in 1901 by Hartz and Milthers . This Blytt-Sernander period corresponds to Pollen zone II .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Allerød_oscillation", "rank": 91, "score": 88176 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 92, "score": 87827 }, { "content": "Title: Indur M. Goklany Content: Indur M. Goklany is a science and technology policy analyst for the United States Department of the Interior , where he holds the position of Assistant Director of Programs , Science and Technology Policy . He has represented the United States at the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and during the negotiations that led to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . He was a rapporteur for the Resource Use and Management Subgroup of Working Group III of the IPCC First Assessment Report in 1990 , and is the author of Clearing the Air ( 1999 ) , The Precautionary Principle ( 2001 ) , and The Improving State of the World ( 2007 ) .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Indur_M._Goklany", "rank": 93, "score": 87536 }, { "content": "Title: Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation Content: The interdecadal Pacific oscillation ( IPO ) is an oceanographic/meteorological phenomenon similar to the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) but for a wider area of the Pacific . Significantly it covers the Southern hemisphere as well as the Northern hemisphere ( 50 ° S to 50 ° N ) . The IPO had positive phases ( southeastern tropical Pacific warm ) from 1922 to 1946 and 1978 to 1998 , and a negative phase between 1947 and 1976 .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Interdecadal_Pacific_Oscillation", "rank": 94, "score": 87478 }, { "content": "Title: Piora Oscillation Content: The Piora Oscillation was an abrupt cold and wet period in the climate history of the Holocene Epoch ; it is generally dated to the period of c. 3200 to 2900 BCE . Some researchers associate the Piora Oscillation with the end of the Atlantic climate regime , and the start of the Sub-Boreal , in the Blytt -- Sernander sequence of Holocene climates . The spatial extent of the change is unclear ; it does not show up as a major , or even identifiable , event in hemispheric temperature reconstructions .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Piora_Oscillation", "rank": 95, "score": 87358 }, { "content": "Title: David Vaughan (glaciologist) Content: David Glyn Vaughan OBE is a climate scientist at the British Antarctic Survey . His research focus is the role of ice sheets in the Earth system and the societal threat of climate change and rising sea levels . He is a co-ordinating Lead Author of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . His research work includes the mapping of the bed under Pine Island Glacier and the discovery of a subglacial volcano . Vaughan was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to glaciology .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "David_Vaughan_(glaciologist)", "rank": 96, "score": 87323 }, { "content": "Title: Hirnantian Content: The Hirnantian is the seventh and final internationally recognized stage of the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era . It was of short duration , lasting about 1.9 million years , from to Ma ( million years ago ) . The early part of the Hirnantian was characterized by cold temperatures , major glaciation , and a severe drop in sea level . In the latter part of the Hirnantian , temperatures rose , the glaciers melted , and sea level returned to the same or to a slightly higher level than it had been prior to the glaciation . Most scientists believe that this climatic oscillation caused the major extinction event that took place during this time . In fact , the Hirnantian ( also known as the End Ordovician and the Ordovician-Silurian ) mass extinction event represents the second largest such event in geologic history . Approximately 85 % of marine ( sea-dwelling ) species died . Only the End Permian mass extinction was larger . Unlike many smaller extinction events , however , the long-term consequences of the End Ordovician event were relatively small . Following the climatic oscillation , the climate returned to its previous state , and the species that survived soon ( within two or three million years ) evolved into species very similar to the ones that existed before .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Hirnantian", "rank": 97, "score": 87230 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions Content: Climate Change : Global Risks , Challenges and Decisions was a conference on Climate Change held at the Bella Center by the University of Copenhagen . The event was organised with the assistance of other universities in the International Alliance of Research Universities . The stated aim of the conference was to provide `` a summary of existing scientific knowledge two years after the last IPCC report . '' The conference took place on 10 -- 12 March 2009 .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Climate_Change:_Global_Risks,_Challenges_and_Decisions", "rank": 98, "score": 87174 }, { "content": "Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "Neoglaciation", "rank": 99, "score": 87122 }, { "content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .", "qid": "2849", "docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason", "rank": 100, "score": 86999 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Ozone layer Content: The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth 's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun 's ultraviolet ( UV ) radiation . It contains high concentrations of ozone ( O3 ) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere , although still small in relation to other gases in the stratosphere . The ozone layer contains less than 10 parts per million of ozone , while the average ozone concentration in Earth 's atmosphere as a whole is about 0.3 parts per million . The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere , from approximately 20 to above Earth , although its thickness varies seasonally and geographically . The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson . Measurements of the sun showed that the radiation sent out from its surface and reaching the ground on Earth is usually consistent with the spectrum of a black body with a temperature in the range of 5,500 -- 6,000 K ( 5,227 to 5,727 ° C ) , except that there was no radiation below a wavelength of about 310 nm at the ultraviolet end of the spectrum . It was deduced that the missing radiation was being absorbed by something in the atmosphere . Eventually the spectrum of the missing radiation was matched to only one known chemical , ozone . Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist G. M. B. Dobson , who developed a simple spectrophotometer ( the Dobsonmeter ) that could be used to measure stratospheric ozone from the ground . Between 1928 and 1958 , Dobson established a worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations , which continue to operate to this day . The `` Dobson unit '' , a convenient measure of the amount of ozone overhead , is named in his honor . The ozone layer absorbs 97 to 99 percent of the Sun 's medium-frequency ultraviolet light ( from about 200 nm to 315 nm wavelength ) , which otherwise would potentially damage exposed life forms near the surface . The United Nations General Assembly has designated September 16 as the International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer . Venus also has a thin ozone layer at an altitude of 100 kilometers from the planet 's surface .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ozone_layer", "rank": 1, "score": 184627 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone–oxygen cycle Content: The ozone -- oxygen cycle is the process by which ozone is continually regenerated in Earth 's stratosphere , converting ultraviolet radiation ( UV ) into heat . In 1930 Sydney Chapman resolved the chemistry involved . The process is commonly called the Chapman cycle by atmospheric scientists . Most of the ozone production occurs in the tropical upper stratosphere and mesosphere . The total mass of ozone produced per day over the globe is about 400 million metric tons . The global mass of ozone is relatively constant at about 3 billion metric tons , meaning the Sun produces about 12 % of the ozone layer each day .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ozone–oxygen_cycle", "rank": 2, "score": 143691 }, { "content": "Title: Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation Content: Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation ( UVGI ) is a disinfection method that uses short-wavelength ultraviolet ( UV-C ) light to kill or inactivate microorganisms by destroying nucleic acids and disrupting their DNA , leaving them unable to perform vital cellular functions . UVGI is used in a variety of applications , such as food , air , and water purification . UV-C light is weak at the Earth 's surface as the ozone layer of the atmosphere blocks it . UVGI devices can produce strong enough UV-C light in circulating air or water systems to make them inhospitable environments to microorganisms such as bacteria , viruses , molds and other pathogens . UVGI can be coupled with a filtration system to sanitize air and water . The application of UVGI to disinfection has been an accepted practice since the mid-20th century . It has been used primarily in medical sanitation and sterile work facilities . Increasingly it has been employed to sterilize drinking and wastewater , as the holding facilities are enclosed and can be circulated to ensure a higher exposure to the UV . In recent years UVGI has found renewed application in air purifiers .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ultraviolet_germicidal_irradiation", "rank": 3, "score": 124455 }, { "content": "Title: Photoinitiator Content: A photoinitiator is a molecule that creates reactive species ( free radicals , cations or anions ) when exposed to radiation ( UV or visible ) . Synthetic photoinitiators are key components in photopolymers ( i.e. photo-curable coatings , adhesives and dental restoratives ) . Some small molecules in the atmosphere can also act as photoinitiators by decomposing to give free radicals ( in photochemical smog ) . For instance , nitrogen dioxide is produced in large quantities by gasoline-burning internal combustion engines . NO2 in the troposphere gives smog its brown coloration and catalyzes production of toxic ground-level ozone . Molecular oxygen ( O2 ) also serves as a photoinitiator in the stratosphere , breaking down into atomic oxygen and combining with O2 in order to form the ozone in the ozone layer .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Photoinitiator", "rank": 4, "score": 123189 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Mesosphere Explorer Content: The Solar Mesosphere Explorer ( also known as Explorer 64 ) was a United States unmanned spacecraft to investigate the processes that create and destroy ozone in Earth 's upper atmosphere . The mesosphere is a layer of the atmosphere extending from the top of the stratosphere to an altitude of about 80 km . The spacecraft carried five instruments to measure ozone , water vapor and incoming solar radiation . Launched on October 6 , 1981 , on a Delta rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base , in California , the satellite returned data until April 4 , 1989 . The spacecraft reentered Earth 's atmosphere on March 5 , 1991 . Managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , the Solar Mesosphere Explorer was built by Ball Space Systems and operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics of the University of Colorado where one hundred undergraduate and graduate students were involved . Mass : 437 kilograms ( 963 pounds ) Power : Solar panels which charged NiCad batteries Configuration : Cylinder 1.25 meter ( 4.1 ft ) diameter by 1.7 meter ( 5.6 ft ) high Science instruments : Ultraviolet ozone spectrometer , 1.27 micrometre spectrometer , nitrogen dioxide spectrometer , four-channel infrared radiometer , solar ultraviolet monitor , solar proton alarm detector", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Solar_Mesosphere_Explorer", "rank": 5, "score": 120129 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 6, "score": 118863 }, { "content": "Title: SBUV/2 Content: The Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Radiometer , or SBUV/2 , is a series of operational remote sensors on NOAA weather satellites in Sun-synchronous orbits which have been providing global measurements of stratospheric total ozone , as well as ozone profiles , since March 1985 . The SBUV/2 instruments were developed from the SBUV experiment flown on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft which improved on the design of the original BUV instrument on Nimbus-4 . These are nadir viewing radiometric instruments operating at mid to near UV wavelengths . SBUV/2 data sets overlap with data from SBUV and TOMS instruments on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft . These extensive data sets ( January 1979 to the present ) measure the density and vertical distribution of ozone in the Earth 's atmosphere from six to 30 miles . SBUV/2 looks down at the Earth 's atmosphere and the reflected sunlight at wavelengths characteristic of ozone . The SBUV/2 wavelength `` channels '' range from 252 nanometer ( nm ) to 340 nm . Ozone is measured as a ratio of sunlight incident on the atmosphere to the amount of sunlight scattered back into space . From this information , the total ozone between the instrument and the ground can be calculated . The SBUV/2 measures solar irradiance and Earth radiance ( backscattered solar energy ) in the near ultraviolet spectrum ( 160 to 400 nm ) . The SBUV is capable of determining the global ozone concentration in the stratosphere to an absolute accuracy of 1 percent ; the vertical distribution of atmospheric ozone to an absolute accuracy of 5 percent ; the long-term solar spectral irradiance from 160 to 400 nm Photochemical process and the influence of `` trace '' constituents on the ozone layer . The Ball Aerospace-built SBUV/2 helped to discover the ozone hole over Antarctica in 1987 , and continues to monitor this phenomenon . Atmospheric ozone absorbs the sun 's ultraviolet rays , which are believed to cause gene mutations , skin cancer , and cataracts in humans . Ultraviolet rays may also damage crops and aquatic ecosystems . The first SBUV/2 instrument was launched on NOAA-9 in December 1984 and the last instrument in this series was launched in February 2009 aboard the NOAA-19 spacecraft .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "SBUV/2", "rank": 7, "score": 114587 }, { "content": "Title: Joaquim Goes Content: Joaquim Goés is a scientist at the Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences , Maine , USA who has been awarded the International Takeda Techno-Entrepreneurship Award in Environmental Sciences for his research on the Influence of Solar Ultraviolet Radiation in Marine Ecosystems . Goés ' research focuses on new methods to evaluate and predict the effects of Ozone depletion and its implications for human health and ecosystems as well as methods for managing and minimizing these risks . Goés , from the region of Goa along the Indian west coast , was earlier part of the National Institute of Oceanography at Dona Paula .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Joaquim_Goes", "rank": 8, "score": 112675 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone monitor Content: An ozone monitor is electronic equipment that monitors for ozone concentrations in the air . The instrument may be used to monitor ozone values for industrial applications or to determine the amount of ambient ozone at ground level and determine whether these values violate National Ambient Air Quality Standards ( NAAQS ) . The ozone molecule absorbs ultraviolet radiation , and most ozone monitors utilized in regulatory applications use ultraviolet absorption to accurately quantify ozone levels . An ozone monitor of this type operates by pulling an air sample from the atmosphere into the machine with an air pump . During one cycle , the ozone monitor will take one air sample through the air inlet , and scrub the ozone from the air ; for the next cycle , an air sample bypasses the scrubber and the ozone value calculated . The solenoid valve is electronically activated to shift the air flow either through the scrubber or to bypass it on a timed sequence . The difference between the two sampled values determines the actual ozone value at that time . The monitor may also have options to account for air pressure and air temperature to calculate the value of ozone . The concentration of ozone is determined using the Beer-Lambert Law that basically says that the absorption of light is proportional to the concentration . For ozone , a 254 nanometer wavelength of light created by a mercury lamp is shined through a specific length of tubing with reflective mirrors . A photodiode at the other end of the tube detects the changes of brightness from the light . The onboard electronics process the values obtained and display the value on the screen and can also output an electrical signal in volts or a 4-20 mA current that can be read by an electronic data logger . Other options for output are RS232 serial port or ethernet or internal data storage on flash memory .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ozone_monitor", "rank": 9, "score": 110769 }, { "content": "Title: Tropospheric ozone Content: Ozone ( O3 ) is a constituent of the troposphere ( it is also an important constituent of some regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the ozone layer ) . The troposphere extends from the Earth 's surface to between 12 and 20 kilometers above sea level and consists of many layers . Ozone is more concentrated above the mixing layer , or ground layer . Ground-level ozone , though less concentrated than ozone aloft , is more of a problem because of its health effects . Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night . At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities ( largely incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , such as gasoline , diesel , etc. ) , it is a pollutant , and a constituent of smog . Many highly energetic reactions produce it , ranging from combustion to photocopying . Often laser printers will have a smell of ozone , which in high concentrations is toxic . Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent readily reacting with other chemical compounds to make many possibly toxic oxides . Tropospheric ozone is a greenhouse gas and initiates the chemical removal of methane and other hydrocarbons from the atmosphere . Thus , its concentration affects how long these compounds remain in the air .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Tropospheric_ozone", "rank": 10, "score": 110318 }, { "content": "Title: Vienna Conference (1985) Content: The Vienna Conference was the first international conference on ozone layer depletion . It was held in Vienna , Austria in 1985 when a hole in the stratospheric ozone layer was observed in the South Pole marked by increased UV-B infiltration over Antarctica . A ` hole ' , marked by significant drop in ozone molecules in the layer , as large as that of United States was discovered by a British team . The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was agreed at the conference and it entered into force in 1987 .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Vienna_Conference_(1985)", "rank": 11, "score": 109485 }, { "content": "Title: Ultraviolet Content: Ultraviolet ( UV ) is an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm ( 30 PHz ) to 400 nm ( 750 THz ) , shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays . UV radiation constitutes about 10 % of the total light output of the Sun , and is thus present in sunlight . It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights , such as mercury-vapor lamps , tanning lamps , and black lights . Although it is not considered an ionizing radiation because its photons lack the energy to ionize atoms , long-wavelength ultraviolet radiation can cause chemical reactions and causes many substances to glow or fluoresce . Consequently , the biological effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects , and many practical applications of UV radiation derive from its interactions with organic molecules . Suntan , freckling and sunburn are familiar effects of over-exposure , along with higher risk of skin cancer . Living things on dry land would be severely damaged by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun if most of it were not filtered out by the Earth 's atmosphere . More-energetic , shorter-wavelength `` extreme '' UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground . Ultraviolet is also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening vitamin D in most land vertebrates , including humans . The UV spectrum thus has effects both beneficial and harmful to human health . Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans : the lens in a human eye ordinarily filters out UVB frequencies or higher , and humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays . Under some conditions , children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm , and people with aphakia ( missing lens ) or replacement lens can also see some UV wavelengths . Near-UV radiation is visible to some insects , mammals , and birds . Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays ; this gives birds `` true '' UV vision . Reindeer use near-UV radiation to see polar bears , who are poorly visible in regular light because they blend in with the snow . UV also allows mammals to see urine trails , which is helpful for prey animals to find food in the wild . The males and females of some butterfly species look identical to the human eye but very different to UV-sensitive eyes -- the males sport bright patterns in order to attract the females .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ultraviolet", "rank": 12, "score": 109439 }, { "content": "Title: Corrosion in space Content: Corrosion in space is the corrosion of materials occurring in outer space . Instead of moisture and oxygen acting as the primary corrosion causes , the materials exposed to outer space are subjected to vacuum , bombardment by ultraviolet and X-rays , and high-energy charged particles ( mostly electrons and protons from solar wind ) . In the upper layers of the atmosphere ( between 90 -- 800 km ) , the atmospheric atoms , ions , and free radicals , most notably atomic oxygen , play a major role . The concentration of atomic oxygen depends on altitude and solar activity , as the bursts of ultraviolet radiation cause photodissociation of molecular oxygen . Between 160 and 560 km , the atmosphere consists of about 90 % atomic oxygen .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Corrosion_in_space", "rank": 13, "score": 108410 }, { "content": "Title: Thermosphere Content: The thermosphere is the layer of the Earth 's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere . The exosphere is above that but is a minor layer of the atmosphere . Within this layer of the atmosphere , ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules , creating ions in the ionosphere . Taking its name from the Greek θερμός ( pronounced thermos ) meaning heat , the thermosphere begins about 85 km above the Earth . At these high altitudes , the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass ( see turbosphere ) . Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation . Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity , and can rise to 2000 C. Radiation causes the atmosphere particles in this layer to become electrically charged ( see ionosphere ) , enabling radio waves to be refracted and thus be received beyond the horizon . In the exosphere , beginning at 500 to above the Earth 's surface , the atmosphere turns into space , although by the criteria set for the definition of the Karman line , the thermosphere itself is part of space . The highly diluted gas in this layer can reach 2500 C during the day . Even though the temperature is so high , one would not feel warm in the thermosphere , because it is so near vacuum that there is not enough contact with the few atoms of gas to transfer much heat . A normal thermometer might be significantly below 0 C , at least at night , because the energy lost by thermal radiation would exceed the energy acquired from the atmospheric gas by direct contact . In the anacoustic zone above 160 km , the density is so low that molecular interactions are too infrequent to permit the transmission of sound . The dynamics of the thermosphere are dominated by atmospheric tides , which are driven by the very significant diurnal heating . Atmospheric waves dissipate above this level because of collisions between the neutral gas and the ionospheric plasma . The International Space Station orbits the Earth within the middle of the thermosphere , between 330 and .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Thermosphere", "rank": 14, "score": 105339 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Atmosphere", "rank": 15, "score": 104629 }, { "content": "Title: UV filter Content: UV filters are individual compounds or mixtures that block or absorb ultraviolet ( UV ) light . UV filters are used in sunscreens to protect skin or in photography to reduce the level of ultraviolet light that strikes the recording medium . UV filters can undergo transformation into less protective or more toxic products.These transformation products can health and environmental effects .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "UV_filter", "rank": 16, "score": 103944 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone Content: Ozone -LSB- ˈoʊzoʊn -RSB- ( systematically named 1λ1 ,3 λ1-trioxidane and catena-trioxygen ) , or trioxygen , is an inorganic molecule with the chemical formula . It is a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell . It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope , breaking down in the lower atmosphere to or dioxygen . Ozone is formed from dioxygen by the action of ultraviolet light and also atmospheric electrical discharges , and is present in low concentrations throughout the Earth 's atmosphere ( stratosphere ) . In total , ozone makes up only of the atmosphere . Ozone 's odour is sharp , reminiscent of chlorine , and detectable by many people at concentrations of as little as in air . Ozone 's O3 structure was determined in 1865 . The molecule was later proven to have a bent structure and to be diamagnetic . In standard conditions , ozone is a pale blue gas that condenses at progressively cryogenic temperatures to a dark blue liquid and finally a violet-black solid . Ozone 's instability with regard to more common dioxygen is such that both concentrated gas and liquid ozone may decompose explosively at elevated temperatures or fast warming to the boiling point . It is therefore used commercially only in low concentrations . Ozone is a powerful oxidant ( far more so than dioxygen ) and has many industrial and consumer applications related to oxidation . This same high oxidising potential , however , causes ozone to damage mucous and respiratory tissues in animals , and also tissues in plants , above concentrations of about . This makes ozone a potent respiratory hazard and pollutant near ground level . However , the ozone layer ( a portion of the stratosphere with a higher concentration of ozone , from two to eight ppm ) is beneficial , preventing damaging ultraviolet light from reaching the Earth 's surface , to the benefit of both plants and animals .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ozone", "rank": 17, "score": 102547 }, { "content": "Title: Summer smog Content: Summer smog , which is common in major cities such as London , Birmingham , New York City and Los Angeles , is caused by pollutants , mainly ozone , which collect in large cities , especially during the summer . It is formed when radiation from the sun causes ozone to build up in the lower atmosphere ( troposphere ) , by combining nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds . At this point , ozone , which is protective in the upper atmosphere , can become harmful to humans , crops , other living creatures and buildings . In the Northern hemisphere , summer smog builds up mainly between April and October . It causes reduced visibility in cities and a visible layer , similar to fog . It also causes a health hazard to people and pollutes the troposphere 's air .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Summer_smog", "rank": 18, "score": 101310 }, { "content": "Title: Photosynthetically active radiation Content: Photosynthetically active radiation , often abbreviated PAR , designates the spectral range ( wave band ) of solar radiation from 400 to 700 nanometers that photosynthetic organisms are able to use in the process of photosynthesis . This spectral region corresponds more or less with the range of light visible to the human eye . Photons at shorter wavelengths tend to be so energetic that they can be damaging to cells and tissues , but are mostly filtered out by the ozone layer in the stratosphere . Photons at longer wavelengths do not carry enough energy to allow photosynthesis to take place . Other living organisms , such as cyanobacteria , purple bacteria , and heliobacteria , can exploit solar light in slightly extended spectral regions , such as the near-infrared . These bacteria live in environments such as the bottom of stagnant ponds , sediment and ocean depths . Because of their pigments , they form colorful mats of green , red and purple . Chlorophyll , the most abundant plant pigment , is most efficient in capturing red and blue light . Accessory pigments such as carotenes and xanthophylls harvest some green light and pass it on to the photosynthetic process , but enough of the green wavelengths are reflected to give leaves their characteristic color . An exception to the predominance of chlorophyll is autumn , when chlorophyll is degraded ( because it contains N and Mg ) but the accessory pigments are not ( because they only contain C , H and O ) and remain in the leaf producing red , yellow and orange leaves . In land plants , leaves absorb mostly red and blue light in the first layer of photosynthetic cells because of Chlorophyll absorbance . Green light , however , penetrates deeper into the leaf interior and can drive photosynthesis more efficiently than red light . Because green and yellow wavelengths can transmit through chlorophyll and the entire leaf itself , they play a crucial role in growth beneath the plant canopy . PAR measurement is used in agriculture , forestry and oceanography . One of the requirements for productive farmland is adequate PAR , so PAR is used to evaluate agricultural investment potential . PAR sensors stationed at various levels of the forest canopy measure the pattern of PAR availability and utilization . Photosynthetic rate and related parameters can be measured non-destructively using a photosynthesis system , and these instruments measure PAR and sometimes control PAR at set intensities . PAR measurements are also used to calculate the euphotic depth in the ocean .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Photosynthetically_active_radiation", "rank": 19, "score": 101083 }, { "content": "Title: Leighton relationship Content: In atmospheric chemistry , the Leighton relationship is an equation that determines the concentration of tropospheric ozone in areas polluted by the presence of nitrogen oxides . Ozone in the troposphere is primarily produced through the photolysis of nitrogen dioxide at wavelengths less than 430 nm , which are able to reach the lowest levels of the atmosphere , through the following mechanism : NO2 + hν ( λ < 240 nm ) → NO + O ( 3P ) ( J1 ) O ( 3P ) + O2 + M → O3 + M ( k2 ) NO + O3 → NO2 + O2 ( k3 ) Since O ( 3P ) is very reactive it can be assumed to be in steady state , and thus an equation linking the concentrations of the species involved can be derived : The Leighton relationship above shows how production of ozone is directly related to the solar intensity and hence to the zenith angle . The yield of this molecule will therefore be a maximum during the day , especially at noon and in the summer season ; it also demonstrates how high concentrations of both ozone and nitric oxide are unfeasible . However , NO can react with peroxyl radicals to give back NO2 without loss of ozone : RO2 + NO → NO2 + RO providing another pathway to allow the buildup of O3 . This relationship is named after Philip Leighton , who wrote a significant book in 1961 describing air pollution , as recognition of his contributions in the understanding of tropospheric chemistry .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Leighton_relationship", "rank": 20, "score": 101053 }, { "content": "Title: Stratosphere Content: The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Stratosphere", "rank": 21, "score": 100355 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone depletion by rocket launches Content: Rocket launches used for space exploration continue to gain popularity as the human population grows and technology advances toward the future . Large increases in rocket launch demand could come about for a variety of reasons , including national decisions regarding security , space exploration , significant reductions in launch costs , or the emergence of new markets such as space tourism , manufacturing , or solar power . Rocket launches can affect the natural environment , most specifically the composition of the atmosphere as they travel through it . A major environmental problem faced today is the depletion of the ozone layer in the atmosphere by rockets and other molecular species such as chlorofluorocarbons . Up to forty percent of the total ozone present in the wake of a rocket is destroyed from rocket plumes . Ozone concentrations are calculated using ultraviolet and visible light radiometers attached to rockets . Calculations analyzed from these radiometers are where scientists first noticed the depletion of ozone caused by rockets .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ozone_depletion_by_rocket_launches", "rank": 22, "score": 98992 }, { "content": "Title: Ultraviolet index Content: The ultraviolet index or UV Index is an international standard measurement of the strength of sunburn-producing ultraviolet ( UV ) radiation at a particular place and time . The scale was developed by Canadian scientists in 1992 , then adopted and standardized by the UN 's World Health Organization and World Meteorological Organization in 1994 . It is primarily used in daily forecasts aimed at the general public , and is increasingly available as an hourly forecast as well . The UV Index is designed as an open-ended linear scale , directly proportional to the intensity of UV radiation that causes sunburn on human skin . For example , if a light-skinned individual ( without sunscreen or a suntan ) begins to sunburn in 30 minutes at UV Index 6 , then that individual should expect to sunburn in about 15 minutes at UV Index 12 -- twice the UV , twice as fast . The purpose of the UV Index is to help people effectively protect themselves from UV radiation , which has health benefits in moderation but in excess causes sunburn , skin aging , DNA damage , skin cancer , immunosuppression , and eye damage such as cataracts ( see the section Human health-related effects of ultraviolet radiation ) . Public health organizations recommend that people protect themselves ( for example , by applying sunscreen to the skin and wearing a hat and sunglasses ) if they spend substantial time outdoors when the UV Index is 3 or higher ; see the table below for more-detailed recommendations .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ultraviolet_index", "rank": 23, "score": 97838 }, { "content": "Title: UV stabilizers in plastics Content: UV stabilizers are used frequently in plastics , including cosmetics and films . The primary function is to protect the substance from the long-term UV degradation effects from ultraviolet radiation . Different UV stabilizers are utilized depending upon the substrate , intended functional life , and sensitivity to UV degradation . UV stabilizers , such as benzophenones , work by absorbing the UV radiation and preventing the formation of free radicals . Depending upon substitution , the UV absorption spectrum is changed to match the application . Concentrations normally range from 0.05 % to 2 % , with some applications up to 5 % .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "UV_stabilizers_in_plastics", "rank": 24, "score": 96541 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment", "rank": 25, "score": 96445 }, { "content": "Title: Germicidal lamp Content: A germicidal lamp is a special type of lamp which produces ultraviolet ( UVC ) light . This short-wave ultraviolet light disrupts DNA base pairing causing formation of pyrimidine dimers and leads to the inactivation of bacteria , viruses , and protozoa . It can also be used to produce ozone for water disinfection . There are three common types available : Low pressure lamps High pressure lamps LEDs", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Germicidal_lamp", "rank": 26, "score": 96373 }, { "content": "Title: UVB-induced apoptosis Content: UVB-induced apoptosis is the programmed cell death of cells that become damaged by ultraviolet rays . This is notable in skin cells , to prevent melanoma . Some studies have shown that exercise accelerates this process . Apoptosis is a physiological process , that promotes the active suicide of cells , resulting in an advantage , unlike necrosis which occurs from trauma . In the average human adult it is estimated that 50 to 70 billion cells die each day from apoptosis . One of the largest promoters of apoptosis is exposure to ultraviolet ( UV ) light . While UV light is essential to human life it can also cause harm by inducing cancer , immunosuppression , photoaging , inflammation , and cell death . Of the various components of sunlight , ultraviolet radiation B ( UVB ) ( 290-320 nm ) is considered to be the most harmful . This type of radiation acts primarily on the epidermis , and in particular the keratinocytes . Keratinocytes are known to form a barrier to provide a layer of protection within the skin against environmental hazards . Within the epidermis , in addition to the keratinocytes , there are melanocytes ( melanin producing cells ) . These cells produce pigment that provides the keratinocytes with protection against UVB radiation . Once the keratinocytes have been damaged irreparably as a result of UVB radiation , they are marked for destruction by apoptosis to eliminate them as they are potentially mutagenic cells . Failure of the body to remove DNA damaged cells increases the risk of skin cancer . One consequence of acute UVB exposure is the occurrence of sunburn cells , keratinocytes , within the epidermis . It has been found that when exposed to UVB radiation the DNA in an epidermis cell undergoes fragmentation , which could result in the growth of tumor cells . To prevent this the cell undergoes a morphological change into keratinocytes . These keratinocytes exhibit the capacity to release TNF-α ( tumor necrosis factor - alpha ) that stop the growth of the tumor by promoting the death of the cell . If keratinocyte cells have been damaged by UVB radiation , the term `` sunburn cell '' or `` SBC formation '' is used . It is thought that when keratinocytes have been damaged by UVB radiation , this triggers a series of processes , caused in part by damage to the DNA . A study indicates that it may be at the mitochondria where the various processes ( ligan-dependent receptor activation and cytosolic signaling ) pathways are activated by the production of reactive oxygen species ( ROS ) that may direct the destruction of keratinocytes through apoptosis by activating caspase . As a result of increased exposure to an oxygen-reduced environment , this promotes the development of ROS thereby linking the incidence of ROS with keratinocytes and making these cells more sensitive to UVB radiation . A study by Tobi et al. , in 2002 has linked ROS with cytotoxicity , apoptosis , mutations , and carcinogenesis . Mild hypoxia ( 1-5 % ) sensitized keratinocytes to UVB-induced apoptosis , while protecting melanocytes from environmental stresses . A study by Mark Schotanus , et al. , has demonstrated that in addition to potential damage to keratinocytes and melanocytes , exposure to UVB radiation may also produce a loss of potassium ions , which may then cause the activation of apoptotic pathways in lymphocytes and neuronal cells as opposed to keratinocytes and melanocytes . It has been demonstrated that incubation of lymphocytes and neuronal cells in elevated concentrations of potassium ions provides protection from apoptosis . This phenomenon was demonstrated in tears , which have higher levels of potassium ions , and bathe cells of the eye and therefore provides protection from UVB radiation . Reduction of potassium ions promotes apoptosis and the synthesis of initiator caspase-8 and the effector caspase-3 . A study reported in the International Journal of Molecular Sciences in 2012 ; 13 ( 3 ) , pages 2560-2675 , published February 28 , 2012 by Terrerence J. Piva , Catherine M. Davern , Paula M. Hall , Clay M. Winterford and Kay A.O. Ellem , that while caspase may play a role in apoptosis , it is specifically not as a result of caspase-3 . It was reported in that study that the process of apoptosis includes : `` detachment from the substrate , followed by loss of specialized membrane structures such as microvilli . The cell then undergoes rounding , shrinkage and blabbing before condensation of chromatin is observed in the nucleus . After a period of time the cell fragments into apoptotic bodies , which in vivo are engulfed and degraded by phagocytic cells such as macrophages '' Caspase I is involved in the aforementioned cell membrane activity but not caspase-3 .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "UVB-induced_apoptosis", "rank": 27, "score": 95417 }, { "content": "Title: Electron precipitation Content: Electron precipitation ( also called energetic electron precipitation or EEP ) is an atmospheric phenomenon that occurs when previously trapped electrons enter the Earth 's atmosphere , thus creating communications interferences and other disturbances . Electrons are trapped in the Van Allen radiation belt by Earth 's magnetic fields and begin to spiral around field lines in the radiation belt . They may remain there for an indefinite period of time ( in some cases years ) . When broadband very low frequency ( VLF ) waves propagate the radiation belts , the electrons exit the radiation belt and `` precipitate '' ( or travel ) into the ionosphere ( a region of Earth 's atmosphere ) where the electrons will collide with ions . Electron precipitation is regularly linked to ozone depletion . It is often caused by lightning strikes .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Electron_precipitation", "rank": 28, "score": 95131 }, { "content": "Title: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer Content: The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is a Multilateral Environmental Agreement . It was agreed upon at the Vienna Conference of 1985 and entered into force in 1988 . In terms of universality , it is one of the most successful treaties of all time , having been ratified by 197 states ( all United Nations members as well as the Holy See , Niue and the Cook Islands ) as well as the European Union . It acts as a framework for the international efforts to protect the ozone layer . However , it does not include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs , the main chemical agents causing ozone depletion . These are laid out in the accompanying Montreal Protocol .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Vienna_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_the_Ozone_Layer", "rank": 29, "score": 93686 }, { "content": "Title: Tropospheric ozone depletion events Content: During springtime in the polar regions , unique photochemistry converts inert halide salt ions ( e.g. Br − ) into reactive halogen species ( e.g. Br atoms and BrO ) that episodically deplete ozone in the atmospheric boundary layer to near zero levels . Since their discovery in the late 1980s , research on these ozone depletion events ( ODEs ) has shown the central role of bromine photochemistry . Due to the autocatalytic nature of the reaction mechanism , it has been called bromine explosion . It 's still not fully understood how salts are transported from the ocean and oxidized to become reactive halogen species in the air . Other halogens ( chlorine and iodine ) are also activated through mechanisms coupled to bromine chemistry . The main consequence of halogen activation is chemical destruction of ozone , which removes the primary precursor of atmospheric oxidation , and generation of reactive halogen atoms/oxides that become the primary oxidizing species . The different reactivity of halogens as compared to OH and ozone has broad impacts on atmospheric chemistry , including near complete removal and deposition of mercury , alteration of oxidation fates for organic gases , and export of bromine into the free troposphere . Recent changes in the climate of the Arctic and state of the Arctic sea ice cover are likely to have strong effects on halogen activation and ODEs .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Tropospheric_ozone_depletion_events", "rank": 30, "score": 93519 }, { "content": "Title: Deneb Karentz Content: Deneb Karentz is full-time faculty , professor , and chair of the Biology Department at University of San Francisco . Her research focuses the ultraviolet photobiology of marine organisms and understanding their strategies for protection from UV exposure , particularly in relation to the ecological implications of Antarctic ozone depletion .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Deneb_Karentz", "rank": 31, "score": 93503 }, { "content": "Title: EXPOSE Content: EXPOSE is a multi-user facility mounted outside the International Space Station dedicated to astrobiology . EXPOSE was developed by the European Space Agency ( ESA ) for long-term spaceflights and was designed to allow exposure of chemical and biological samples to outer space while recording data during exposure . The results will contribute to our understanding of photobiological processes in simulated radiation climates of planets ( e.g. early Earth , early and present Mars , and the role of the ozone layer in protecting the biosphere from harmful UV-B radiation ) , as well as studies of the probabilities and limitations for life to be distributed beyond its planet of origin . EXPOSE data support long-term in situ studies of microbes in artificial meteorites , as well as of microbial communities from special ecological niches . Some EXPOSE experiments investigated to what extent particular terrestrial organisms are able to cope with extraterrestrial environmental conditions . Others tested how organic molecules react when subjected for a prolonged period of time to unfiltered solar light .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "EXPOSE", "rank": 32, "score": 91582 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone depletion Content: Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s : a steady decline of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth 's stratosphere ( the ozone layer ) , and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth 's polar regions . The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole . In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena , there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events . The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning but the most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens . The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photodissociation of man-made halocarbon refrigerants , solvents , propellants , and foam-blowing agents ( chlorofluorocarbon ( CFCs ) , HCFCs , freons , halons ) . These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by winds after being emitted at the surface . Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons increased . CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances ( ODS ) . Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths ( 280 -- 315 nm ) of ultraviolet light ( UV light ) from passing through the Earth 's atmosphere , observed and projected decreases in ozone generated worldwide concern , leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs , halons , and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane . It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in sunburn , skin cancer , cataracts , damage to plants , and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean 's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ozone_depletion", "rank": 33, "score": 91106 }, { "content": "Title: Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars Content: Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars ( GOMOS ) , is an instrument on board the European satellite Envisat launched 1 March 2002 . It is the first space instrument dedicated to the study of the atmosphere of the Earth by the technique of stellar occultation . The spectrum of stars in the ultraviolet , visible and the near infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum is observed . It is aimed to use GOMOS to build a climatology of ozone and related species in the middle atmosphere ( 15 to 100 km ) .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Global_Ozone_Monitoring_by_Occultation_of_Stars", "rank": 34, "score": 90584 }, { "content": "Title: Montreal Protocol Content: The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer ( a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer ) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion . It was agreed on 16 September 1987 , and entered into force on 01 January 1989 , followed by a first meeting in Helsinki , May 1989 . Since then , it has undergone eight revisions , in 1990 ( London ) , 1991 ( Nairobi ) , 1992 ( Copenhagen ) , 1993 ( Bangkok ) , 1995 ( Vienna ) , 1997 ( Montreal ) , 1998 ( Australia ) , 1999 ( Beijing ) and 2016 ( Kigali , adopted , but not in force ) . As a result of the international agreement , the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering . Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070 . Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international co-operation , with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that `` perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol '' . In comparison , effective burden sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factors for the ozone depletion challenge , where global regulation based on the Kyoto Protocol has failed to do so . In this case of the ozone depletion challenge , there was global regulation already being installed before a scientific consensus was established . Also , overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks . The two ozone treaties have been ratified by 197 parties , which includes 196 states and the European Union , making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations history . These truly universal treaties have also been remarkable in the expedience of the policy making process at the global scale , where only 14 years lapsed between a basic scientific research discovery ( 1973 ) and the international agreement signed ( 1985 & 1987 ) .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Montreal_Protocol", "rank": 35, "score": 90393 }, { "content": "Title: Reducing atmosphere Content: A reducing atmosphere is an atmospheric condition in which oxidation is prevented by removal of oxygen and other oxidizing gases or vapours , and which may contain actively reducing gases such as hydrogen , carbon monoxide , and gases such as hydrogen sulfide that would be oxidized by any present oxygen .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Reducing_atmosphere", "rank": 36, "score": 89644 }, { "content": "Title: MOZART (model) Content: MOZART ( Model for OZone And Related chemical Tracers ) is a chemistry transport model ( CTM ) developed jointly by the ( US ) National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) , the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory ( GFDL ) , and the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology ( MPI-Met ) to simulate changes in ozone concentrations in the Earth 's atmosphere . MOZART was designed to simulate tropospheric chemical and transport processes , but has been extended into the stratosphere and mesosphere . It can be driven by standard meteorological fields from , e.g. , the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) the Global Modeling and Assimilation Office ( DMAO ) or by fields generated from general circulation models .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "MOZART_(model)", "rank": 37, "score": 89558 }, { "content": "Title: Chlorine monoxide Content: Chlorine monoxide is a chemical radical with the chemical formula ClO . It plays an important role in the process of ozone depletion . In the stratosphere , chlorine atoms react with ozone molecules to form chlorine monoxide and oxygen . Cl · + → ClO · + This reaction causes the depletion of the ozone layer . This reaction can go on and the ClO · radicals can go on to react as such : ClO · + O · → Cl · + regenerating the chlorine radical . In this way , the overall reaction for the decomposition of ozone is catalyzed by chlorine , as ultimately chlorine remains unchanged . The overall reaction is : O · + → + 2 This has been a significant impact of the use of CFCs on the upper stratosphere , however many countries have agreed to ban the use of CFCs . The nonreactive nature of CFC 's allows them to pass into the stratosphere , where they undergo photo-dissociation to form Cl radicals . These then readily form chlorine monoxide , and this cycle can continue until two radicals react to form dichlorine monoxide , terminating the radical reaction . Because the concentration of CFCs in atmosphere is very low , the probability of a terminating reaction is exceedingly low , meaning each radical can decompose many thousands of molecules of ozone . Even though the use of CFCs was banned in many countries , CFCs can stay in the atmosphere for about 50-500 years . This cause many chlorine radicals to be produced and hence a significant amount of ozone molecules are decomposed before the chlorine radicals are able to react with chlorine monoxide to form Dichlorine monoxide .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Chlorine_monoxide", "rank": 38, "score": 89529 }, { "content": "Title: Infrared window Content: The infrared atmospheric window is the overall dynamic property of the earth 's atmosphere , taken as a whole at each place and occasion of interest , that lets some infrared radiation from the cloud tops and land-sea surface pass directly to space without intermediate absorption and re-emission , and thus without heating the atmosphere . It can not be defined simply as a part or set of parts of the electromagnetic spectrum , because the spectral composition of window radiation varies greatly with varying local environmental conditions , such as water vapour content and land-sea surface temperature , and because few or no parts of the spectrum are simply not absorbed at all , and because some of the diffuse radiation is passing nearly vertically upwards and some is passing nearly horizontally . A large gap in the absorption spectrum of water vapor , the main greenhouse gas , is most important in the dynamics of the window . Other gases , especially carbon dioxide and ozone , partly block transmission . An atmospheric window is a dynamic property of the atmosphere , while the spectral window is a static characteristic of the electromagnetic radiative absorption spectra of many greenhouse gases , including water vapour . The atmospheric window tells what actually happens in the atmosphere , while the spectral window tells of one of the several abstract factors that potentially contribute to the actual concrete happenings in the atmosphere . Window radiation is radiation that actually passes through the atmospheric window . Non-window radiation is radiation that actually does not pass through the atmospheric window . Window wavelength radiation is radiation that , judging only from its wavelength , potentially might or might not , but is likely to pass through the atmospheric window . Non-window wavelength radiation is radiation that , judging only from its wavelength , is unlikely to pass through the atmospheric window . The difference between window radiation and window wavelength radiation is that window radiation is an actual component of the radiation , determined by the full dynamics of the atmosphere , taking in all determining factors , while window wavelength radiation is merely theoretically potential , defined only by one factor , the wavelength . The importance of the infrared atmospheric window in the atmospheric energy balance was discovered by George Simpson in 1928 , based on G. Hettner 's 1918 laboratory studies of the gap in the absorption spectrum of water vapor . In those days , computers were not available , and Simpson notes that he used approximations ; he writes : `` There is no hope of getting an exact solution ; but by making suitable simplifying assumptions ... '' Nowadays , accurate line-by-line computations are possible , and careful studies of the infrared atmospheric window have been published .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Infrared_window", "rank": 39, "score": 89060 }, { "content": "Title: Multi-effect Protocol Content: The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification , Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone ( known as the Multi-effect Protocol or the Gothenburg Protocol ) is a multi-pollutant protocol designed to reduce acidification , eutrophication and ground-level ozone by setting emissions ceilings for sulphur dioxide , nitrogen oxides , volatile organic compounds and ammonia to be met by 2010 . As of August 2014 , the Protocol had been ratified by 26 parties , which includes 25 states and the European Union . The Protocol is part of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution . The Convention is an international agreement to protect human health and the natural environment from air pollution by control and reduction of air pollution , including long-range transboundary air pollution . The geographic scope of the Protocol includes Europe , North America and countries of Eastern Europe , Caucasus and Central Asia ( EECCA ) . On May 4 , 2012 , at a meeting at the United Nations Office at Geneva , the Parties to the Gothenburg Protocol agreed on a substantial number of revisions , most important are the inclusion of commitments of the Parties to further reduce their emissions until 2020 . These amendments now need to be ratified by Parties in order to make them binding .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Multi-effect_Protocol", "rank": 40, "score": 88606 }, { "content": "Title: Deaths of Thomas and Rosemarie Uva Content: Thomas Uva and Rosemarie Uva ( often misspelled Rosemary or Rose Marie ) were married ex-cons from Ozone Park , Queens and considered a modern-day `` Bonnie and Clyde '' .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Deaths_of_Thomas_and_Rosemarie_Uva", "rank": 41, "score": 88440 }, { "content": "Title: UV coating Content: A UV coating is a surface treatment which either is cured by ultraviolet radiation , or which protects the underlying material from such radiation 's harmful effects .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "UV_coating", "rank": 42, "score": 88107 }, { "content": "Title: Null cycle Content: In atmospheric chemistry , a null cycle is a catalytic cycle that simply interconverts chemical species without leading to net production or removal of any component . In the stratosphere , null cycles are very important in contrasting series of reactions that lead to net depletion in the ozone layer . One such cycle involves the nitrogen oxide species , which are the most responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere . The catalytic cycle is : NO + O3 → NO2 + O2 NO2 + O → NO + O2 Net : O + O3 → 2O2 while the corresponding null cycle competes due to the possible photolysis of NO2 which allows conservation of the odd oxygen species : NO + O3 → NO2 + O2 NO2 + hν → NO + O Net : O3 + hν → O + O2 Since O and O3 can exchange rapidly , the last cycle does not affect the rate of consumption of ozone which thus decreases during the day when photolysis can occur . NO can also react with other free radicals , such as chlorine and bromine , providing pathways that lead to null cycles : Cl + O3 → ClO + O2 ClO + NO → Cl + NO2 NO2 + hν → NO + O Net : O3 + hν → O + O2 Other null cycles , also termed holding cycles , produce reservoirs , effectively holding up the reactive species . An example is the formation of dinitrogen pentoxide : NO2 + NO3 → N2O5 This can lock up about 10 % of the NOx family of species present in the atmosphere , limiting their ability to participate in the ozone-destructing catalytic cycles .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Null_cycle", "rank": 43, "score": 87985 }, { "content": "Title: Ultraviolet-sensitive bead Content: Ultraviolet-sensitive beads ( UV beads ) are beads that are colorful in the presence of ultraviolet radiation . Ultraviolet rays are present in sunlight and light from various artificial sources and can cause sunburn or skin cancer . The color change in the beads alerts the wearer to the presence of the radiation . When the beads are not exposed to ultraviolet rays , they are colorless and either translucent or opaque . However , when sunlight falls onto the beads , they instantly turn into red , orange , yellow , blue , purple , or pink .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ultraviolet-sensitive_bead", "rank": 44, "score": 87646 }, { "content": "Title: Radiosonde Content: A radiosonde is a battery-powered telemetry instrument package carried into the atmosphere usually by a weather balloon that measures various atmospheric parameters and transmits them by radio to a ground receiver . Modern radiosondes measure or calculate the following variables : altitude , pressure , temperature , relative humidity , wind ( both wind speed and wind direction ) , cosmic ray readings at high altitude and geographical position ( latitude/longitude ) . Radiosondes measuring ozone concentration are known as ozonesondes . Radiosondes may operate at a radio frequency of 403 MHz or 1680 MHz . A radiosonde whose position is tracked as it ascends to give wind speed and direction information is called a rawinsonde ( `` radar wind - sonde '' ) . Most radiosondes have radar reflectors and are technically rawinsondes . A radiosonde that is dropped from an airplane and falls , rather than being carried by a balloon is called a dropsonde . Radiosondes are an essential source of meteorological data , and hundreds are launched all over the world daily .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Radiosonde", "rank": 45, "score": 87605 }, { "content": "Title: Parietin Content: Parietin is the predominant cortical pigment of lichens in the genus Caloplaca , a secondary product of the lichen Xanthoria parietina , and a pigment found in the roots of Curled Dock ( Rumex crispus ) . It has an orangy-yellow color and absorbs blue light . It is also known as physcion . It has also been shown to protect lichens against UV-B light , at high altitudes in Alpine regions . The UV-B light stimulates production of parietin and the parietin protects the lichens from damage . Lichens in arctic regions such as Svarlbard retain this capability though they do not encounter damaging levels of UV-B , a capability that could be help protect the lichens in case of Ozone layer thinning . It has also shown anti-fungal activity against barley powdery mildew and cucumber powdery mildew , more efficiently in the latter case than treatments with fenarimol and polyoxin B. It reacts with KOH to form a deep , reddish-magenta compound .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Parietin", "rank": 46, "score": 87408 }, { "content": "Title: UV degradation Content: Many natural and synthetic polymers are attacked by ultraviolet radiation , and products using these materials may crack or disintegrate if they are not UV-stable . The problem is known as UV degradation , and is a common problem in products exposed to sunlight . Continuous exposure is a more serious problem than intermittent exposure , since attack is dependent on the extent and degree of exposure . Many pigments and dyes can also be affected , and the problem known as phototendering can affect textiles such as curtains or drapes .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "UV_degradation", "rank": 47, "score": 87384 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change", "rank": 48, "score": 86671 }, { "content": "Title: Photo-oxidation of polymers Content: Photo-oxidation is the degradation of a polymer surface in the presence of oxygen or ozone . The effect is facilitated by radiant energy such as UV or artificial light . This process is the most significant factor in weathering of polymers . Photo-oxidation is a chemical change that reduces the polymer 's molecular weight . As a consequence of this change the material becomes more brittle , with a reduction in its tensile , impact and elongation strength . Discoloration and loss of surface smoothness accompany photo-oxidation . High temperature and localized stress concentrations are factors that significantly increase the effect of photo-oxidation .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Photo-oxidation_of_polymers", "rank": 49, "score": 86392 }, { "content": "Title: Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment Content: The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment ( SAGE ) is a series of remote sensing satellite instruments used to study the chemical composition of earth 's atmosphere . Specifically , SAGE has been used to study the Earth 's ozone layer and aerosols at the troposphere through the stratosphere . The SAGE instruments use solar occultation measurement technique to determine chemical concentrations in the atmosphere . Solar occultation measurement technique measures sunlight through the atmosphere and ratios that measurement with a sunlight measurement without atmospheric attenuation . This is achieved by observing sunrises and sunsets during a satellite orbit . Physically , the SAGE instruments measure ultraviolet/visible energy and this is converted via algorithms to determine chemical concentrations . SAGE data has been used to study the atmospheres aerosols , ozone , water vapor , and other trace gases .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Stratospheric_Aerosol_and_Gas_Experiment", "rank": 50, "score": 86302 }, { "content": "Title: Henri Buisson Content: Henri Buisson ( 15 July 1873 in Paris -- 6 January 1944 in Marseille ) was a French physicist . Buisson and Charles Fabry discovered the ozone layer in 1913 .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Henri_Buisson", "rank": 51, "score": 85716 }, { "content": "Title: V.E. Zuev Institute of Atmospheric Optics Content: The V.E. Zuev Institute of Atmospheric Optics is a Russian research organisation based in Tomsk . Its purpose is to study the atmosphere . The Laboratory of Optical Signals Propagation gathers satellite data on aerosols , ozone , and Earth reflectivity over Siberia . The Laboratory of Aerosol Optics collects information on temperature , humidity , soot , and atmospheric scattering at Tomsk . The TOR Station measures gas constituents in the atmosphere , in cluding carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide , ozone , nitrogen oxides , methane and hydrogen sulfide at two locations . The Siberian lidar station can measure the temperature in the stratosphere and troposphere . Aerosol particle size is measured by using six different wavelengths for the laser . The institute was founded in 1969 by Vladimir Yevseyevich Zuev who became its director . The parent organisation was the Laboratory of Infrared Radiations of the Siberian Physical-Technical Institute of the Tomsk State University . A journal is published called Atmospheric and Oceanic Optics .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "V.E._Zuev_Institute_of_Atmospheric_Optics", "rank": 52, "score": 85694 }, { "content": "Title: Fred Singer Content: Siegfried Fred Singer ( born September 27 , 1924 ) is an Austrian-born American physicist and emeritus professor of environmental science at the University of Virginia . Singer trained as an atmospheric physicist and is known for his work in space research , atmospheric pollution , rocket and satellite technology , his questioning of the link between UV-B and melanoma rates , and that between CFCs and stratospheric ozone loss , his public downplaying of the health risks of passive smoking , and as an advocate for climate change denial . He is the author or editor of several books including Global Effects of Environmental Pollution ( 1970 ) , The Ocean in Human Affairs ( 1989 ) , Global Climate Change ( 1989 ) , The Greenhouse Debate Continued ( 1992 ) , and Hot Talk , Cold Science ( 1997 ) . He has also co-authored Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years ( 2007 ) with Dennis Avery , and Climate Change Reconsidered ( 2009 ) with Craig Idso . Singer has had a varied career , serving in the armed forces , government , and academia . He designed mines for the U.S. Navy during World War II , before obtaining his Ph.D. in physics from Princeton University in 1948 and working as a scientific liaison officer in the U.S. Embassy in London . He became a leading figure in early space research , was involved in the development of earth observation satellites , and in 1962 established the National Weather Bureau 's Satellite Service Center . He was the founding dean of the University of Miami School of Environmental and Planetary Sciences in 1964 , and held several government positions , including deputy assistant administrator for the Environmental Protection Agency , and chief scientist for the Department of Transportation . He held a professorship with the University of Virginia from 1971 until 1994 , and with George Mason University until 2000 . In 1990 Singer founded the Science & Environmental Policy Project , and in 2006 was named by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation as one of a minority of scientists said to be creating a stand-off on a consensus on climate change . Singer argues there is no evidence that global warming is attributable to human-caused increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide , and that humanity would benefit if temperatures do rise . He is an opponent of the Kyoto Protocol , and has claimed that climate models are neither based on reality nor evidence . Singer has been accused of rejecting peer-reviewed and independently confirmed scientific evidence in his claims concerning public health and environmental issues .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Fred_Singer", "rank": 53, "score": 85191 }, { "content": "Title: Sunscreen Content: Sunscreen , also known as suncream or sunblock , is a lotion , spray , gel or other topical product that absorbs or reflects some of the sun 's ultraviolet ( UV ) radiation and thus helps protect against sunburn , especially for fair-skinned individuals . Diligent use of sunscreen can also slow or temporarily prevent the development of wrinkles and sagging skin . Depending on the mode of action , sunscreens can be classified into physical sunscreens ( i.e. , those that reflect the sunlight ) or chemical sunscreens ( i.e. , those that absorb the UV light ) . Medical organizations such as the American Cancer Society recommend the use of sunscreen because it aids in the prevention of squamous cell carcinomas . Many sunscreens do not block UVA radiation , which does not primarily cause sunburn but can increase the rate of melanoma and photodermatitis . The use of broad-spectrum ( UVA/UVB ) sunscreens can address this concern . Sunscreens are commonly rated and labeled with a sun protection factor ( SPF ) that measures the fraction of sunburn-producing UV rays that reach the skin . For example , `` SPF 15 '' means that 1/15th of the burning radiation reaches the skin through the recommended thickness of sunscreen . Other rating systems indicate the degree of protection from non-burning UVA radiation .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Sunscreen", "rank": 54, "score": 85125 }, { "content": "Title: Ultraviolet astronomy Content: Ultraviolet astronomy is the observation of electromagnetic radiation at ultraviolet wavelengths between approximately 10 and 320 nanometres ; shorter wavelengths -- higher energy photons -- are studied by X-ray astronomy and gamma ray astronomy . An ultraviolet light is not visible to the human eye . Light at these wavelengths is absorbed by the Earth 's atmosphere , so observations at these wavelengths must be performed from the upper atmosphere or from space .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ultraviolet_astronomy", "rank": 55, "score": 84804 }, { "content": "Title: Dobson ozone spectrophotometer Content: The Dobson spectrophotometer , also known as Dobsonmeter , Dobson spectrometer , or just Dobson is the earliest instrument used to measure atmospheric ozone . The Dobson spectrometer was invented in 1924 by Gordon Dobson . A history of the development of the instrument is here and an example of one of Dobson 's own instruments remains on display in the University of Oxford Department of Physics .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Dobson_ozone_spectrophotometer", "rank": 56, "score": 84155 }, { "content": "Title: Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite Content: The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite ( UARS ) was a NASA-operated orbital observatory whose mission was to study the Earth 's atmosphere , particularly the protective ozone layer . The 5900 kg satellite was deployed from Space Shuttle Discovery during the STS-48 mission on 15 September 1991 . It entered Earth orbit at an operational altitude of 600 km , with an orbital inclination of 57 degrees . The original mission duration was to be only three years , but was extended several times . When the mission finally ended in June 2005 due to funding cuts , 14 years after the satellite 's launch , six of its ten instruments were still operational . A final orbit-lowering burn was performed in early December 2005 to prepare the satellite for deorbit . On 26 October 2010 , the International Space Station performed a debris-avoidance maneuver in response to a conjunction with UARS . The decommissioned satellite re-entered Earth 's atmosphere on 24 September 2011 . Considerable media attention surrounded the event , largely due to NASA 's predictions that substantial parts of the satellite might reach the ground , potentially endangering inhabited areas . However , the satellite ultimately impacted in a remote area of the Pacific Ocean .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Upper_Atmosphere_Research_Satellite", "rank": 57, "score": 83916 }, { "content": "Title: UV (disambiguation) Content: UV usually refers to ultraviolet radiation . UV may also refer to :", "qid": "2853", "docid": "UV_(disambiguation)", "rank": 58, "score": 83508 }, { "content": "Title: Smog Watch Content: Smog Watch , also known as the Anti-Idling Sign , is a voluntary government protocol to prevent the Seattle , Washington , region from exceeding the federal health standards in relation to ozone . It aims at protection of public health during summers , where ozone levels are often found to be the highest . At certain times during the summer , agency meteorologists will issue a smog watch for 48 hours when there are elevated smog levels . During this 48-hour period , citizens of the Seattle district are encouraged to lower smog levels by taking steps to decrease pollution , including by : driving less , refueling when it is cool , refraining from using lawn mowers , partaking in pollution-free recreation , turning off car engines while idling , and volunteering for environmental sustainability programs .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Smog_Watch", "rank": 59, "score": 83396 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone (magazine) Content: Ozone is an American magazine focused on the hip hop music of the Southern United States . It was founded in Orlando , Florida in 2002 by current editor by Julia Beverly . In 2006 the magazine relocated its headquarters to Atlanta . The magazine provided early coverage of southern artists including Stat Quo , Pitbull , and T-Pain . It has also included articles on musicians from other parts of the U.S. Ozone , including New York City rapper Saigon on the cover of the April 2006 issue and Chicago emcee Twista on the cover of its January 2006 , and October 2007 issues . The magazine has a small number of staff and contributors . In addition to publisher and editor-in-chief Julia Beverly , features editor Eric Perrin and music editor Randy Roper make frequent contributions . Other contributors include recording artist Killer Mike , Charlamagne , mixtape artist DJ Wally Sparks , Wendy Day ( founder of Rap Coalition , and contributor to Murder Dog magazine ) , Rohit Loomba and DJ ADG .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ozone_(magazine)", "rank": 60, "score": 83087 }, { "content": "Title: Electromagnetic radiation and health Content: Electromagnetic radiation can be classified into two types : ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation , based on the capability of a single photon with more than 10 eV energy to ionize oxygen or break chemical bonds . Ultraviolet and higher frequencies , such as X-rays or gamma rays are ionizing , and these pose their own special hazards : see radiation and radiation poisoning . The electric currents that flow through power sockets have associated line-frequency electromagnetic fields . By far the most common health hazard of radiation is sunburn , which causes over one million new skin cancers annually .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health", "rank": 61, "score": 83085 }, { "content": "Title: Earth Radiation Budget Satellite Content: The Earth Radiation Budget Satellite ( ERBS ) was a NASA scientific research satellite launched on October 5 , 1984 , to study the Earth radiation budget and stratospheric aerosol and gases . It was carried into low Earth orbit and deployed by the during the STS-41-G mission . The spacecraft was expected to have a two-year operation life , but ultimately , the mission provided scientific data about the Earth 's ozone layer for more than two decades . Data on the ozone layer provided by ERBS was key in the international community 's decision-making process during the Montreal Protocol Agreement , which has resulted in a near elimination of CFCs in industrialized countries . ERBS was one of three satellites in the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment and carried two instruments as part of that endeavor : the ERBE scanner ( three detectors that study longwave radiation , shortwave radiation and total energy radiating from the Earth along a line of the satellite 's path ) and the ERBE non-scanner ( five detectors measuring the total energy from the Sun , and the shortwave and total energy from the entire Earth disk and the area beneath the satellite ) . The second ERBE Instrument was aboard the NOAA-9 satellite when it was launched in January 1985 , and the third was aboard the NOAA-10 satellite when it was launched in October 1986 . In addition , it carried the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment ( SAGE II ) . It was retired for budgetary reasons on October 14 , 2005 , as one of the longest-running spacecraft missions to date .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Earth_Radiation_Budget_Satellite", "rank": 62, "score": 82969 }, { "content": "Title: Aerobee Content: The Aerobee rocket was a small ( 8 m ) unguided suborbital sounding rocket used for high atmospheric and cosmic radiation research in the United States in the 1950s . Research utilizing V-2 rockets after World War II produced valuable results concerning the nature of cosmic rays , the solar spectrum , and the distribution of atmospheric ozone . The limited supply and the expense of assembling and firing the V-2 rockets led to the development of a low cost sounding rocket to be utilized for scientific research . This rocket , the Aerobee , was developed under the joint guidance of James Van Allen at the Applied Physics Laboratory and Rolf Sabersky at the Aerojet Corporation and was supported by the Navy Bureau of Ordnance and the Naval Office of Research and Inventions ( later ONR ) . The Aerobee drastically reduced the cost of a single research mission . It was built by Aerojet General . The company began work in 1946 and test fired the first complete Aerobee from the White Sands Proving Grounds in New Mexico on November 24 , 1947 . It reached an altitude of 34.7 mi .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Aerobee", "rank": 63, "score": 82962 }, { "content": "Title: Photoprotection Content: Photoprotection is the biochemical process that helps organisms cope with molecular damage caused by sunlight . Plants and other oxygenic phototrophs have developed a suite of photoprotective mechanisms to prevent photoinhibition and oxidative stress caused by excess or fluctuating light conditions . Humans and other animals have also developed photoprotective mechanisms to avoid UV photodamage to the skin , prevent DNA damage , and minimize the downstream effects of oxidative stress .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Photoprotection", "rank": 64, "score": 81822 }, { "content": "Title: Photokeratitis Content: Photokeratitis or ultraviolet keratitis is a painful eye condition caused by exposure of insufficiently protected eyes to the ultraviolet ( UV ) rays from either natural ( e.g. intense sunlight ) or artificial ( e.g. the electric arc during welding ) sources . Photokeratitis is akin to a sunburn of the cornea and conjunctiva , and is not usually noticed until several hours after exposure . Symptoms include increased tears and a feeling of pain , likened to having sand in the eyes . The injury may be prevented by wearing eye protection that blocks most of the ultraviolet radiation , such as welding goggles with the proper filters , a welder 's helmet , sunglasses rated for sufficient UV protection , or appropriate snow goggles . The condition is usually managed by removal from the source of ultraviolet radiation , covering the corneas , and administration of pain relief . Photokeratitis is known by a number of different terms including : snow blindness , arc eye , welder 's flash , bake eyes , corneal flash burns , flash burns , niphablepsia , or keratoconjunctivitis photoelectrica .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Photokeratitis", "rank": 65, "score": 81753 }, { "content": "Title: Chlorine nitrate Content: Chlorine nitrate , with chemical formula ClNO3 is an important atmospheric gas present in the stratosphere . It is an important sink of chlorine that contributes to the depletion of ozone . It explosively reacts with metals , metal chlorides , alcohols , ethers , and most organic materials . When it is heated to decomposition , it emits toxic fumes of Cl2 and NOx . It can be produced by the reaction of dichlorine monoxide and dinitrogen pentoxide at 0 ° C : Cl2O + N2O5 → 2 ClONO2 It can also react with alkenes : ( CH3 ) 2C = CH2 + ClONO2 → O2NOC ( CH3 ) 2CH2Cl Chlorine nitrate reacts with metal chlorides : 4 ClONO2 + TiCl4 → Ti ( NO3 ) 4 + 4 Cl2", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Chlorine_nitrate", "rank": 66, "score": 81067 }, { "content": "Title: Welding goggles Content: Welding goggles provide a degree of eye protection while some forms of welding and cutting are being done . They are intended to protect the eyes not only from the heat and optical radiation produced by the welding , such as the intense ultraviolet light produced by an electric arc , but also from sparks or debris . A full facemask may be required for arc welding . Welding and cutting processes , including arc welding and cutting , as well as brazing produce intense ultraviolet ( UV ) , infrared ( IR ) and visible light wavelengths . The UV and IR wavelengths can not be seen and can produce eye injury without the victim realizing it immediately . Extremely dark filters of the proper sort are needed for the welder to be able to look at the intensely glowing metal being welded . An approved face shield or welding helmet can also have filters for optical radiation protection , and offer additional protection against debris and sparks . UV blocking protective spectacles with side shields or welding goggles are considered primary protection , with the face shield or welding helmet considered secondary protection . This way , the eyes are still protected even when the face shield or helmet is lifted up . The optical filter in welding goggles , face mask or helmet must be a type which is suitable for the sort of work being done . A filter suitable for gas welding , for instance , should not be used for arc welding . Face masks which are self dimming are available for arc welding , MIG , TIG and plasma cutting , and allow better vision before the arc is struck and after it is extinguished . Failure to use such protection when arc welding or even being near where arc welding is going on can result in a painful condition called `` arc eye '' or Photokeratitis , which is akin to a severe sunburn of the cornea and conjunctiva of the eye .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Welding_goggles", "rank": 67, "score": 81064 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone (American band) Content: Ozone was an Funk and R&B group during the late 1970s and early 1980s , signed to Motown Records .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ozone_(American_band)", "rank": 68, "score": 81005 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone School Content: The Ozone School is a historic school building at 14137 Arkansas Highway 21 in Ozone , Arkansas . It is a single-story masonry structure , built out of coursed fieldstone blocks and covered by gable-on-hip roof with exposed rafter ends . Its front entrance is sheltered by a distinctive projecting tower , with arched openings at the base and a transverse gabled roof above . The school was built in 1942 with funding from the Works Progress Administration , and was used as a public school until 1957 , when the local district was consolidated with that of Lamar . The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2015 .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ozone_School", "rank": 69, "score": 80968 }, { "content": "Title: Ionosphere Content: The ionosphere ( -LSB- aɪˈɒnəˌsfɪər -RSB- ) is a region of Earth 's upper atmosphere , from about 60 km to 1000 km altitude , and includes the thermosphere and parts of the mesosphere and exosphere . It is ionized by solar radiation , plays an important part in atmospheric electricity and forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere . It has practical importance because , among other functions , it influences radio propagation to distant places on the Earth .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ionosphere", "rank": 70, "score": 80902 }, { "content": "Title: Ultraviolet (Fred V & Grafix song) Content: `` Ultraviolet '' is a single by English drum and bass record production duo Fred V & Grafix . It was released on 18 March 2016 as the lead single from their second studio album , Oxygen ( 2016 ) . `` Ultraviolet '' features vocals from Bristol-based singer-songwriter Chelsea Watts . The B-side track `` Comb Funk '' features vocal samples from singer Shannon Teresa . Both tracks have been played on BBC Radio 1 and 1Xtra by British DJs MistaJam and Friction .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ultraviolet_(Fred_V_&_Grafix_song)", "rank": 71, "score": 80581 }, { "content": "Title: Sunburn Content: Sunburn is a form of radiation burn that affects living tissue , such as skin , that results from an overexposure to ultraviolet ( UV ) radiation , commonly from the sun . Common symptoms in humans and other animals include red or reddish skin that is hot to the touch , pain , general fatigue , and mild dizziness . An excess of UV radiation can be life-threatening in extreme cases . Exposure of the skin to lesser amounts of UV radiation will often produce a suntan . Excessive UV radiation is the leading cause of primarily non-malignant skin tumors . Sunscreen is widely agreed to prevent sunburn and some types of skin cancer . Clothing , including hats , is considered the preferred skin protection method . Moderate sun tanning without burning can also prevent subsequent sunburn , as it increases the amount of melanin , a photoprotective pigment that is the skin 's natural defense against overexposure . Importantly , both sunburn and the increase in melanin production are triggered by direct DNA damage . When the skin cells ' DNA is overly damaged by UV radiation , type I cell-death is triggered and the skin is replaced .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Sunburn", "rank": 72, "score": 80565 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone (disambiguation) Content: Ozone is a molecule consisting of three oxygen atoms . Ozone may also refer to :", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ozone_(disambiguation)", "rank": 73, "score": 80304 }, { "content": "Title: Pasteur point Content: The Pasteur point is a level of oxygen ( about 0.3 % by volume which is less than 1 % of Present Atmospheric Level or PAL ) above which aerobic microorganisms and facultative anaerobes adapt from fermentation to aerobic respiration . It is also used to mark the level of oxygen in the early atmosphere of the Earth that is believed to have led to major evolutionary changes . It is named after Louis Pasteur , the French microbiologist who studied anaerobic microbial fermentation , and is related to the Pasteur effect . As it was previously supposed , about 400 million years ago in the Cambrian period , the level of oxygen in the atmosphere rose from 0.1 to 1 percent of present atmospheric level . This led to many organisms adapting from fermentation to respiration , leading to organisms evolving photosynthesis and what is termed the Cambrian explosion of species . It has also been suggested that this increased oxygen level reduced the influence of Ultraviolet radiation . It is now well documented that oxygen level reached at least 10 % of the present value 2.4 billion years ago ( for details see Great Oxygenation Event ) .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Pasteur_point", "rank": 74, "score": 79613 }, { "content": "Title: Equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine Content: Equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine ( EESC ) provides an estimate of the total effective amount of halogens ( chlorine and bromine ) in the stratosphere . It is calculated from emission of chlorofluorocarbon and related halogenated compounds into the troposphere ( lower atmosphere ) and their efficiency in contributing to stratospheric ozone depletion ( ozone depletion potential , ODP ) , and by making assumptions on transport times into the upper atmosphere ( stratosphere ) . This parameter is used to quantify man-made ozone depletion and its changes with time . As a consequence of the Montreal Protocol and its amendments phasing out ozone-depleting substances ( ODS ) , the EESC reached maximum in the late 1990s and is now slowly decreasing .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Equivalent_effective_stratospheric_chlorine", "rank": 75, "score": 79423 }, { "content": "Title: Health effects of sunlight exposure Content: The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative health effects , as it is both a principal source of vitamin D3 and a mutagen . A dietary supplement can supply vitamin D without this mutagenic effect . Vitamin D has a wide range of positive health effects , which include strengthening bones and possibly inhibiting the growth of some cancers . UV exposure also has positive effects for endorphin levels , and possibly for protection against multiple sclerosis . Visible sunlight to the eyes gives health benefits through its association with the timing of melatonin synthesis , maintenance of normal and robust circadian rhythms , and reduced risk of seasonal affective disorder . Long-term sunlight exposure is known to be associated with the development of skin cancer , skin aging , immune suppression , and eye diseases such as cataracts and macular degeneration . Short-term over-exposure is the cause of sunburn , snow blindness , and solar retinopathy . UV rays , and therefore sunlight and sunlamps , are the only listed carcinogens that are known to have health benefits , and a number of public health organizations state that there needs to be a balance between the risks of having too much sunlight or too little . There is a general consensus that sunburn should always be avoided .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Health_effects_of_sunlight_exposure", "rank": 76, "score": 79361 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency Content: The Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency ( ARPANSA ) is an Australian body that monitors and identifies solar radiation and nuclear radiation risks to the population of Australia . It is identified as the main government body dealing with ionizing and non-ionizing radiation and publishes material regarding radiation protection . The agency publishes daily solar ultraviolet radiation ( UVR ) levels for many locations in Australia . It also sets Ultraviolet Protection Factor standards for protective clothing .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Australian_Radiation_Protection_and_Nuclear_Safety_Agency", "rank": 77, "score": 79277 }, { "content": "Title: Ultraviolet (disambiguation) Content: Ultraviolet refers to electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than that of visible light , but longer than soft X-rays . Ultraviolet or UltraViolet may also refer to :", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ultraviolet_(disambiguation)", "rank": 78, "score": 79159 }, { "content": "Title: UARS Content: UARS may refer to : Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite , an orbital observatory whose mission was to study the Earth 's atmosphere , particularly the protective ozone layer , and which crashed on Earth in 2011 Upper airway resistance syndrome , a sleep disorder characterized by airway resistance to breathing during sleep", "qid": "2853", "docid": "UARS", "rank": 79, "score": 79145 }, { "content": "Title: Photoevaporation Content: Photoevaporation denotes the process where energetic radiation ionises gas and causes it to disperse away from the ionising source . This typically refers to an astrophysical context where ultraviolet radiation from hot stars acts on clouds of material such as molecular clouds , protoplanetary disks , or planetary atmospheres .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Photoevaporation", "rank": 80, "score": 78638 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone therapy Content: Ozone therapy is a form of alternative medicine treatment that purports to increase the amount of oxygen in the body through the introduction of ozone . Various techniques have been suggested , with purported benefits including the treatment of cancer , AIDS , and multiple sclerosis , among others . There is no credible , peer reviewed evidence to support the use of ozone as a type of medical therapy . Ozone therapy is sold as an alternative treatment for various illnesses . Beginning in 1991 the FDA has prosecuted and sent to jail several people presenting themselves as medical doctors and selling ozone therapy products as a medical cure or operating medical clinics using ozone therapy for healing human illness . Arrests following similar activity have been made in other countries as well . At least 10 deaths have been related to ozone therapy or its lack of usefullness , in nine cases there had been investigation and in eight it was discovered that the practitioners had used false credentials .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ozone_therapy", "rank": 81, "score": 78458 }, { "content": "Title: Geocorona Content: The geocorona is the luminous part of the outermost region of the Earth 's atmosphere , the exosphere . It is seen primarily via far-ultraviolet light ( Lyman-alpha ) from the Sun that is scattered from neutral hydrogen . It extends to at least 15.5 Earth radii . The geocorona has been studied from outer space by the Astrid satellites and the Galileo spacecraft ( among others ) , using its ultraviolet spectrometer ( UVS ) during an Earth flyby .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Geocorona", "rank": 82, "score": 78419 }, { "content": "Title: DNA damage-binding protein Content: DNA damage-binding protein or UV-DDB is a protein complex that is responsible for repair of UV-damaged DNA . This complex is composed of two protein subunits , a large subunit DDB1 ( p127 ) and a small subunit DDB2 ( p48 ) . When cells are exposed to UV radiation , DDB1 moves from the cytosol to the nucleus and binds to DDB2 , thus forming the UV-DDB complex . This complex functions in nucleotide excision repair , recognising UV-induced ( 6-4 ) pyrimidine-pyrimidone photoproducts and cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "DNA_damage-binding_protein", "rank": 83, "score": 78357 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 84, "score": 78212 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone Monitoring Instrument Content: The Ozone Monitoring Instrument ( OMI ) is on board the NASA Aura . OMI can distinguish between aerosol types , such as smoke , dust , and sulfates , and can measure cloud pressure and coverage , which provide data to derive tropospheric ozone . OMI follows in the heritage of TOMS , SBUV , GOME , SCIAMACHY , and GOMOS . It is a wide-field-imaging spectrometer with a 114 ° across-track viewing angle range that provides a 2600 km wide swath , enabling measurements with a daily global coverage . OMI is continuing the TOMS record for total ozone and other atmospheric parameters related to ozone chemistry and climate . The OMI project is a cooperation between the Netherlands Agency for Aerospace Programmes ( NIVR ) , the Finnish Meteorological Institute ( FMI ) and the National Aeronatautics and Space Agency ( NASA ) . The OMI project was carried out under the direction of the NIVR and financed by the Ministries of Economic Affairs , Transport and Public Works and the Ministry of Education and Science . The instrument was built by Dutch Space in co-operation with Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research Science and Industry and SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research . The Finnish industry supplied the electronics . The scientific part of the OMI project is managed by KNMI ( principal investigator Prof. Dr. P.F. Levelt ) , in close co-operation with NASA and the Finnish Meteorological Institute .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ozone_Monitoring_Instrument", "rank": 85, "score": 77639 }, { "content": "Title: Ultraviolet catastrophe Content: The ultraviolet catastrophe , also called the Rayleigh -- Jeans catastrophe , was the prediction of late 19th century/early 20th century classical physics that an ideal black body at thermal equilibrium will emit radiation in all frequency ranges , emitting more energy as the frequency increases . By calculating the total amount of radiated energy ( i.e. , the sum of emissions in all frequency ranges ) , it can be shown that a blackbody would release an infinite amount of energy , contradicting the principles of conservation of energy and indicating that a new model for the behaviour of blackbodies was needed . The term `` ultraviolet catastrophe '' was first used in 1911 by Paul Ehrenfest , but the concept originated with the 1900 derivation of the Rayleigh -- Jeans law . The phrase refers to the fact that the Rayleigh-Jeans law accurately predicts experimental results at radiative frequencies below 105 GHz , but begins to diverge with empirical observations as these frequencies reach the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum . Since the first appearance of the term , it has also been used for other predictions of a similar nature , as in quantum electrodynamics and such cases as ultraviolet divergence .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ultraviolet_catastrophe", "rank": 86, "score": 77611 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone FC Content: Ozone Football Club is an Indian semi-professional football club based in Bangalore , Karnataka . Ozone compete as a member of the I-League 2nd Division , the second level of Indian football , and the Bangalore Super Division , the top division of Karnataka football .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Ozone_FC", "rank": 87, "score": 77574 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric duct Content: In telecommunication , an atmospheric duct is a horizontal layer in the lower atmosphere in which the vertical refractive index gradients are such that radio signals ( and light rays ) are guided or ducted , tend to follow the curvature of the Earth , and experience less attenuation in the ducts than they would if the ducts were not present . The duct acts as an atmospheric dielectric waveguide and limits the spread of the wavefront to only the horizontal dimension . Atmospheric ducting is a mode of propagation of electromagnetic radiation , usually in the lower layers of Earth 's atmosphere , where the waves are bent by atmospheric refraction . In over-the-horizon radar , ducting causes part of the radiated and target-reflection energy of a radar system to be guided over distances far greater than the normal radar range . It also causes long distance propagation of radio signals in bands that would normally be limited to line of sight . Normally radio `` ground waves '' propagate along the surface as creeping waves . That is , they are only diffracted around the curvature of the earth . This is one reason that early long distance radio communication used long wavelengths . The best known exception is that HF ( 3 -- 30 MHz . ) waves are reflected by the ionosphere . The reduced refractive index due to lower densities at the higher altitudes in the Earth 's atmosphere bends the signals back toward the Earth . Signals in a higher refractive index layer , i.e. , duct , tend to remain in that layer because of the reflection and refraction encountered at the boundary with a lower refractive index material . In some weather conditions , such as inversion layers , density changes so rapidly that waves are guided around the curvature of the earth at constant altitude . Phenomena of atmospheric optics related to atmospheric ducting include the green flash , Fata Morgana , superior mirage , mock mirage of astronomical objects and the Novaya Zemlya effect .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Atmospheric_duct", "rank": 88, "score": 77493 }, { "content": "Title: Mars atmospheric entry Content: Mars atmospheric entry is the entry into the atmosphere of Mars . High velocity entry into Martian air creates a CO2-N2 plasma , as opposed to O2-N2 for Earth air . Mars entry is affected by the radiative effects of hot CO2 gas and Martian dust suspended in the air . Flight regimes for entry , descent , and landing systems include aerocapture , hypersonic , supersonic , and subsonic . Thermal protection systems and atmospheric friction have been used historically to reduce most of the kinetic energy that needs to be lost prior to landing , with parachutes and , sometimes , a final bit of retropropulsion used in the final landing . High-altitude high-velocity retropropulsion is being researched for future transport flights landing heavier cargos . For example , Mars Pathfinder entered in 1997 . About 30 minutes prior to entry , the cruise stage and entry capsule separated . When the capsule hit the atmosphere it de-accelerated from about 7.3 km/s to 0.4 km/s ( 16330 mph to 900 mph ) over three minutes . As it descended the parachute opened to slow it down further , and soon after the heat shield was released . During entry a signal was relayed back to Earth , including semaphore signals for important events .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Mars_atmospheric_entry", "rank": 89, "score": 77467 }, { "content": "Title: Lightfastness Content: Lightfastness is a property of a colourant such as dye or pigment that describes how resistant to fading it is when exposed to light . Dyes and pigments are used for example for dyeing of fabrics , plastics or other materials and manufacturing paints or printing inks . The bleaching of the color is caused by the impact of electromagnetic radiation in the chemical structure of the molecules giving the color of the subject . The part of a molecule responsible for its color is called chromophore . Light encountering a painted surface can either alter or break the chemical bonds of the pigment , resulting the colors to bleach or change , in a process known as photodegradation . Materials that resist this effect are said to be lightfast . The electromagnetic spectrum of the sun contains wavelengths from gamma waves to radio waves . The high energy of ultraviolet radiation in particular accelerates the fading of the dye . The photon energy of UVA-radiation which is not absorbed by atmospheric ozone exceeds the dissociation energy of the carbon-carbon single bond , resulting in the cleavage of the bond and fading of the color . Inorganic colourants are considered to be more lightfast than organic colourants . Black colourants are usually considered the most lightfast . Lightfastness is measured by exposing a sample to a lightsource for a predefined period of time and then comparing it to an unexposed sample .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Lightfastness", "rank": 90, "score": 77323 }, { "content": "Title: Autoxidation Content: Autoxidation is any oxidation that occurs in open air or in presence of oxygen ( and sometimes UV radiation ) and forms peroxides and hydroperoxides . A classic example of autoxidation is that of simple ethers like diethyl ether , whose peroxides can be dangerously explosive . It can be considered to be a slow , flameless combustion of materials by reaction with oxygen . Autoxidation is important because it is a useful reaction for converting compounds to oxygenated derivatives , and also because it occurs in situations where it is not desired ( as in the destructive cracking of the rubber in automobile tires or in rancidification ) . Although virtually all types of organic materials can undergo air oxidation , certain types are particularly prone to autoxidation , including unsaturated compounds that have allylic or benzylic hydrogen atoms ; these materials are converted to hydroperoxides by autoxidation .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Autoxidation", "rank": 91, "score": 77315 }, { "content": "Title: Extreme ultraviolet Content: Extreme ultraviolet radiation ( EUV or XUV ) or high-energy ultraviolet radiation is electromagnetic radiation in the part of the electromagnetic spectrum spanning wavelengths from 124 nm down to 10 nm , and therefore ( by the Planck -- Einstein equation ) having photons with energies from 10 eV up to 124 eV ( corresponding to 124 nm to 10 nm respectively ) . EUV is naturally generated by the solar corona and artificially by plasma and synchrotron light sources . Its main uses are photoelectron spectroscopy , solar imaging , and lithography . In air , EUV is the most highly absorbed component of the electromagnetic spectrum , requiring high vacuum for transmission .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Extreme_ultraviolet", "rank": 92, "score": 77279 }, { "content": "Title: Langley extrapolation Content: Langley extrapolation is a method for determining the Sun 's irradiance at the top of the atmosphere with ground-based instrumentation , and is often used to remove the effect of the atmosphere from measurements of , for example , aerosol optical thickness or ozone . It is based on repeated measurements with a sun photometer operated at a given location for a cloudless morning or afternoon , as the Sun moves across the sky . It is named for American astronomer and physicist Samuel Pierpont Langley .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Langley_extrapolation", "rank": 93, "score": 77003 }, { "content": "Title: Brewer-Dobson circulation Content: Brewer-Dobson circulation is a model of atmospheric circulation , proposed by Alan Brewer in 1949 and Gordon Dobson in 1956 , which attempts to explain why tropical air has less ozone than polar air , even though the tropical stratosphere is where most atmospheric ozone is produced . It is a simple circulation model that posits the existence of a slow current in the winter hemisphere which redistributes air from the tropics to the extratropics . The Brewer-Dobson circulation is driven by atmospheric waves and may be speeding up due to climate change .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Brewer-Dobson_circulation", "rank": 94, "score": 76935 }, { "content": "Title: Allotropes of oxygen Content: There are several known allotropes of oxygen . The most familiar is molecular oxygen ( O2 ) , present at significant levels in Earth 's atmosphere and also known as dioxygen or triplet oxygen . Another is the highly reactive ozone ( O3 ) . Others include : Atomic oxygen ( O1 , a free radical ) . Singlet oxygen ( O2 * ) , either of two metastable states of molecular oxygen . Tetraoxygen ( O4 ) , another metastable form . Solid oxygen , existing in six variously colored phases , of which one is and another one metallic .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Allotropes_of_oxygen", "rank": 95, "score": 76863 }, { "content": "Title: Jon Shanklin Content: Jonathan Shanklin is a meteorologist who has worked at the British Antarctic Survey since 1977 . Together with Joe Farman and Brian G. Gardiner he discovered the `` Ozone Hole '' in the 1980s . Shanklin has described his role at the BAS as being that of a `` general dogsbody '' at the time of the discovery of the `` ozone hole '' . He calibrated an instrument called the Dobson Ozone Spectrophotometer which provided data on atmospheric ozone . In an article discussing the discovery , the BBC quotes him as saying Perhaps the most startling lesson from the ozone hole is just how quickly our planet can change . Given the speed with which humankind can affect it , following the precautionary principle is likely to be the safest road to future prosperity . Jon maintains the ozone pages at BAS . He plays cricket , is a bell-ringer , an active local naturalist and is a keen amateur astronomer , being Director of the British Astronomical Association 's Comet Section .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Jon_Shanklin", "rank": 96, "score": 76795 }, { "content": "Title: Reactive oxygen species Content: Reactive oxygen species ( ROS ) are chemically reactive chemical species containing oxygen . Examples include peroxides , superoxide , hydroxyl radical , and singlet oxygen . In a biological context , ROS are formed as a natural byproduct of the normal metabolism of oxygen and have important roles in cell signaling and homeostasis . However , during times of environmental stress ( e.g. , UV or heat exposure ) , ROS levels can increase dramatically . This may result in significant damage to cell structures . Cumulatively , this is known as oxidative stress . ROS are also generated by exogenous sources such as ionizing radiation .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Reactive_oxygen_species", "rank": 97, "score": 76506 }, { "content": "Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Paleoatmosphere", "rank": 98, "score": 76299 }, { "content": "Title: Sunlight Content: Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun , in particular infrared , visible , and ultraviolet light . On Earth , sunlight is filtered through Earth 's atmosphere , and is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon . When the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds , it is experienced as sunshine , a combination of bright light and radiant heat . When it is blocked by clouds or reflects off other objects , it is experienced as diffused light . The World Meteorological Organization uses the term `` sunshine duration '' to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter . Other sources indicate an `` Average over the entire earth '' of `` 164 Watts per square meter over a 24 hour day '' . The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative health effects , as it is both a principal source of vitamin D3 and a mutagen . Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach Earth from the surface of the Sun . A photon starting at the center of the Sun and changing direction every time it encounters a charged particle would take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to get to the surface . Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis , the process used by plants and other autotrophic organisms to convert light energy , normally from the Sun , into chemical energy that can be used to fuel the organisms ' activities .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Sunlight", "rank": 99, "score": 76241 }, { "content": "Title: Astronomy on Mars Content: In many cases astronomical phenomena viewed from the planet Mars are the same or similar to those seen from Earth but sometimes ( as with the view of Earth as an evening/morning star ) they can be quite different . For example , because the atmosphere of Mars does not contain an ozone layer , it is also possible to make UV observations from the surface of Mars .", "qid": "2853", "docid": "Astronomy_on_Mars", "rank": 100, "score": 76198 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Global Forecast System Content: The Global Forecast System ( GFS ) is a global numerical weather prediction system containing a global computer model and variational analysis run by the United States ' National Weather Service ( NWS ) . The mathematical model is run four times a day , and produces forecasts for up to 16 days in advance , but with decreased spatial resolution after 10 days . The forecast skill generally decreases with time ( as with any numerical weather prediction model ) and for longer term forecasts , only the larger scales retain significant accuracy . It is one of the predominant synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The GFS model is a spectral model with an approximate horizontal resolution of 13 km for the first 10 days and 27 km from 240 to 384 hours ( 16 days ) . In the vertical , the model is divided into 64 layers and temporally , it produces forecast output every hour for the first 120 hours , three hourly through day 10 and 12 hourly through day 16 . The output from the GFS is also used to produce model output statistics . In addition to the main model , the GFS is also the basis of a lower resolution 20-member ( 22 , counting the control and operational members ) ensemble that runs concurrently with the operational GFS and is available on the same time scales . This ensemble is referred to as the `` Global Ensemble Forecast System '' ( GEFS ) . Ensemble model output statistics are available out to 8 days . The GFS ensemble is combined with Canada 's Global Environmental Multiscale Model ensemble to form the North American Ensemble Forecast System ( NAEFS ) . As with most works of the U.S. government , GFS data is not copyrighted and is available for free in the public domain under provisions of U.S. law . Because of this , the model serves as the basis for the forecasts of numerous private , commercial and foreign weather companies . By 2015 the GFS model had fallen behind the accuracy of other global weather models . This was most notable in the GFS model incorrectly predicting Hurricane Sandy turning out to sea until 4 days before landfall ; while the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ' model predicted landfall correctly at 7 days . Much of this was suggested to be due to limits in computational resources within the National Weather Service . In response , the NWS purchased new supercomputers , increasing processing power from 776 teraflops to 5.78 petaflops . The agency has also been testing a potential replacement model with different mechanics , the flow-following , finite-volume Icosahedral Model ( FIM ) , since the early 2010s .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Global_Forecast_System", "rank": 1, "score": 110136 }, { "content": "Title: THORPEX Content: THORPEX ( stands for The Observing system Research and Predictability Experiment ) is an international research programme established in 2003 by the World Meteorological Organization to accelerate improvements in the utility and accuracy of weather forecasts up to two weeks ahead . It is part of the World Weather Research Programme and is a key component of the WMO Natural Disaster Reduction and Mitigation Programme .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "THORPEX", "rank": 2, "score": 108759 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Forecast System Content: __ NOTOC __ The Climate Forecast System or Coupled Forecast System ( both names abbreviated CFS ) is a medium to long range numerical weather prediction and a climate model run by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) to bridge weather and climate timescales . Version 2 became operational as CFSv2 in 2011 .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Climate_Forecast_System", "rank": 3, "score": 101968 }, { "content": "Title: Integrated Forecast System Content: The Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) is an operational global meteorological forecasting model . IFS is developed and maintained by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) based in Reading , England . Because of its source , it is often known as the `` ECMWF '' or the `` European model '' in North America , to distinguish it from the American Global Forecast System ( GFS ) . It is one of the predominant synoptic-scale medium-range models in general use worldwide ; its most prominent rivals in the 6 -- 10 day medium range include the GFS and the Canadian Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM and GDPS ) . The IFS is a global model that runs every twelve hours . Its output runs out to fifteen days in one-day intervals ( although output is only made available to most members of the public out to 7 to 10 days , depending on the variable ) . The operational model runs both in a deterministic forecast mode and as a 51-member ensemble . The current deterministic mode has a horizontal resolution of 16 km while the ensemble prediction systems have resolutions of 32 and 64 km , and 137 layers in the vertical resolution in the deterministic compared to 91 layers in the ensemble ; both modes ' vertical layers follow terrain at low levels . The IFS , like the GFS , uses spectral representation rather than a grid-based system . Because the IFS only offers output on a day-by-day interval , each individual ECMWF member country typically runs its own synoptic-scale forecast for the shorter ranges of 5 days or less , separate from the IFS , with smaller time intervals ( examples include the French ARPEGE , British Unified Model and German GME/ICON ) . In contrast to the GEM/GDPS ( which is copyrighted but freely licensed ) and the GFS ( which is public domain ) , the ECMWF 's proprietary data and forecasts are heavily restricted and require a licence for most output . A limited amount of the IFS 's output is released freely to the public and licenced under a Creative Commons licence that prohibits commercial usage or derivative works .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Integrated_Forecast_System", "rank": 4, "score": 98194 }, { "content": "Title: Consensus forecast Content: Used in a number of sciences , ranging from econometrics to meteorology , consensus forecasts are predictions of the future that are created by combining together several separate forecasts which have often been created using different methodologies . Also known as combining forecasts , forecast averaging or model averaging ( in econometrics and statistics ) and committee machines , ensemble averaging or expert aggregation ( in machine learning ) . Applications can range from forecasting the weather to predicting the annual Gross Domestic Product of a country or the number of cars a company or an individual dealer is likely to sell in a year . While forecasts are often made for future values of a time series , they can also be for one-off events such as the outcome of a presidential election or a football match .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Consensus_forecast", "rank": 5, "score": 97886 }, { "content": "Title: Nowcasting (meteorology) Content: Nowcasting is weather forecasting on a very short term mesoscale period of up to 2 hours according to the World Meteorological Organization and up to six hours according to other authors in the field . This forecast is an extrapolation in time of known weather parameters , including those obtained by means of remote sensing , using techniques that take into account a possible evolution of the air mass . This type of forecast therefore includes details that can not be solved by numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) models running over longer forecast periods .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Nowcasting_(meteorology)", "rank": 6, "score": 97582 }, { "content": "Title: Terminal aerodrome forecast Content: In meteorology and aviation , terminal aerodrome forecast ( TAF ) is a format for reporting weather forecast information , particularly as it relates to aviation . TAFs are issued every six hours for major civil airfields : 0000,0600,1200,1800 UTC , and generally apply to a 24 - or 30-hour period , and an area within approximately five statute miles ( or 5NM in Canada ) from the center of an airport runway complex . TAFS are issued every three hours for military airfields and some civil airfields and cover a period ranging from 3 hours to 24 hours . TAFs complement and use similar encoding to METAR reports . They are produced by a human forecaster based on the ground . For this reason there are considerably fewer TAF locations than there are airports for which METARs are available . TAFs can be more accurate than Numerical Weather Forecasts , since they take into account local , small-scale , geographic effects . In the United States the weather forecasters responsible for the TAFs in their respective areas are located within one of the 122 Weather Forecast Offices operated by the United States ' National Weather Service . In contrast , a trend type forecast ( TTF ) , which is similar to a TAF , is always produced by a person on-site where the TTF applies . In the United Kingdom most TAFs at military airfields are produced locally , however TAFs for civil airfields are produced at the Met Office headquarters in Exeter . The United States Air Force employs active duty enlisted personnel as TAF writers . Air Force weather personnel are responsible for providing weather support for all Air Force and Army operations . Different countries use different change criteria for their weather groups . In the United Kingdom , TAFs for military airfields use colour states as one of the change criteria . Civil airfields in the UK use slightly different criteria .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Terminal_aerodrome_forecast", "rank": 7, "score": 97334 }, { "content": "Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Ecological_forecasting", "rank": 8, "score": 95792 }, { "content": "Title: Weather forecasting Content: Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a given location . Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia , and formally since the nineteenth century . Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere at a given place and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will change . Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure , current weather conditions , and sky condition , weather forecasting now relies on computer-based models that take many atmospheric factors into account . Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon , which involves pattern recognition skills , teleconnections , knowledge of model performance , and knowledge of model biases . The inaccuracy of forecasting is due to the chaotic nature of the atmosphere , the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere , the error involved in measuring the initial conditions , and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes . Hence , forecasts become less accurate as the difference between current time and the time for which the forecast is being made ( the range of the forecast ) increases . The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome . There are a variety of end uses to weather forecasts . Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property . Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture , and therefore to traders within commodity markets . Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days . On an everyday basis , people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day . Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain , snow and wind chill , forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events , and to plan ahead and survive them . In 2014 , the US spent $ 5.1 billion on weather forecasting .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Weather_forecasting", "rank": 9, "score": 94949 }, { "content": "Title: Forecastfox Weather Content: Forecastfox Weather was a Firefox browser extension created by Ensolis that displays a summary of weather forecast for a given location in the status bar , menu bar or toolbar . The summary takes the form of icons alongside text labels , depicting sun , clouds or rain for one or more days ahead . Hovering over the icons shows more information such as temperature and wind speed . , the extension is no longer being updated . Current Firefox browsers indicate the downloads linked from www.getforecastfox.com ( version 2.2.2 ) as not compatible with Firefox 31 or later , an obstacle to deployment . Firefox 28 is supported . Third-party sources have versions which work with current browsers , but the extension still relies on the getforecastfox.com website to serve the extension 's configuration page . If that domain were to stop functioning , there is a strong risk that Forecastfox would no longer be installable . Deployment on current Firefox versions requires the Addon Bar ( Restored ) or Classic Theme , as the extension toolbar is no longer standard in the default browser . There is also a version of the extension for Google Chrome . Forecast information is provided by AccuWeather . Previously , the feed was provided by Weather.com but the terms of service became too restrictive .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecastfox_Weather", "rank": 10, "score": 94884 }, { "content": "Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "The_Weather_of_the_Future", "rank": 11, "score": 93139 }, { "content": "Title: Mesoscale discussion Content: A mesoscale discussion ( MD ) is a short-term technical weather forecast ( and nowcast ) issued by the NOAA National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) national guidance centers . They typically are issued 1-6 hours prior to a weather event and contain a map illustrating relevant meteorological variables and the area covered . Forecasts concerning thunderstorms , such as high winds , hail , and tornadoes are mesoscale convective discussions ( MCDs ) issued by the Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) and forecasts concerning precipitation ( heavy rainfall , flash flooding ) are mesoscale precipitation discussions ( MPDs ) issued by the Weather Prediction Center ( WPC ) .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Mesoscale_discussion", "rank": 12, "score": 92818 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical cyclone track forecasting Content: Tropical cyclone track forecasting involves predicting where a tropical cyclone is going to track over the next five days , every 6 to 12 hours . The history of tropical cyclone track forecasting has evolved from a single-station approach to a comprehensive approach which uses a variety of meteorological tools and methods to make predictions . The weather of a particular location can show signs of the approaching tropical cyclone , such as increasing swell , increasing cloudiness , falling barometric pressure , increasing tides , squalls , and heavy rainfall . The forces that affect tropical cyclone steering are the higher-latitude westerlies , the subtropical ridge , and the beta effect caused by changes of the coriolis force within fluids such as the atmosphere . Accurate track predictions depend on determining the position and strength of high - and low-pressure areas , and predicting how those areas will migrate during the life of a tropical system . Computer forecast models are used to help determine this motion as far out as five to seven days in the future .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Tropical_cyclone_track_forecasting", "rank": 13, "score": 92150 }, { "content": "Title: Financial forecast Content: A financial forecast is an estimate of future financial outcomes for a company or country ( for futures and currency markets ) . Using historical internal accounting and sales data , in addition to external market and economic indicators , a financial forecast is an economist 's best guess of what will happen to a company in financial terms over a given time period -- which is usually one year . See Financial modeling . Arguably , the most difficult aspect of preparing a financial forecast is predicting revenue . Future costs can be estimated by using historical accounting data ; variable costs are also a function of sales . Analysts often use information such as the 52-week high of stock prices to augment their fundamental analysis of stock prices . Unlike a financial plan or a budget a financial forecast does n't have to be used as a planning document . Outside analysts can use a financial forecast to estimate a company 's success in the coming year .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Financial_forecast", "rank": 14, "score": 91651 }, { "content": "Title: Forecast: Tomorrow Content: Forecast : Tomorrow is a 3-CD/1-DVD career-spanning compilation of recordings of Weather Report . The 37 tracks are presented chronologically , beginning with three tracks pre -- Weather Report , from ensemble duties with Miles Davis ( both Zawinul and Shorter ) , Cannonball Adderley ( Zawinul ) , and from a Shorter solo album . In addition to one unreleased track , the set closes with DJ Logic 's remix of a Weather Report track . The 4th disc in the package is a 2-hour DVD of a concert in Offenbach am Main , on September 29 , 1978 for the German TV program Rockpalast . The boxed set includes a 100-page book with notes on the set by compiler Bob Belden , a long essay on the band by Hal Miller , and a reminiscence of the 1978 concert by drummer Peter Erskine .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecast:_Tomorrow", "rank": 15, "score": 91165 }, { "content": "Title: Climate prediction Content: Climate prediction is a subset of numerical weather prediction dealing with generalized forecasts beyond the usual short-range and medium-range forecast periods . It is part of the broader science of climatology . Among items that include the phrase `` climate prediction '' in their name include : Climate Prediction Center , an agency of the United States government Climateprediction.net , a collaborative climate ensemble", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Climate_prediction", "rank": 16, "score": 90415 }, { "content": "Title: Numerical weather prediction Content: Numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) uses mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather based on current weather conditions . Though first attempted in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of computer simulation in the 1950s that numerical weather predictions produced realistic results . A number of global and regional forecast models are run in different countries worldwide , using current weather observations relayed from radiosondes , weather satellites and other observing systems as inputs . Mathematical models based on the same physical principles can be used to generate either short-term weather forecasts or longer-term climate predictions ; the latter are widely applied for understanding and projecting climate change . The improvements made to regional models have allowed for significant improvements in tropical cyclone track and air quality forecasts ; however , atmospheric models perform poorly at handling processes that occur in a relatively constricted area , such as wildfires . Manipulating the vast datasets and performing the complex calculations necessary to modern numerical weather prediction requires some of the most powerful supercomputers in the world . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models extends to only about six days . Factors affecting the accuracy of numerical predictions include the density and quality of observations used as input to the forecasts , along with deficiencies in the numerical models themselves . Post-processing techniques such as model output statistics ( MOS ) have been developed to improve the handling of errors in numerical predictions . A more fundamental problem lies in the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations that govern the atmosphere . It is impossible to solve these equations exactly , and small errors grow with time ( doubling about every five days ) . Present understanding is that this chaotic behavior limits accurate forecasts to about 14 days even with perfectly accurate input data and a flawless model . In addition , the partial differential equations used in the model need to be supplemented with parameterizations for solar radiation , moist processes ( clouds and precipitation ) , heat exchange , soil , vegetation , surface water , and the effects of terrain . In an effort to quantify the large amount of inherent uncertainty remaining in numerical predictions , ensemble forecasts have been used since the 1990s to help gauge the confidence in the forecast , and to obtain useful results farther into the future than otherwise possible . This approach analyzes multiple forecasts created with an individual forecast model or multiple models .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Numerical_weather_prediction", "rank": 17, "score": 90125 }, { "content": "Title: Forecast verification Content: Forecast verification is a subfield of the climate , atmospheric and ocean sciences dealing with validating , verifying and determining the predictive power of prognostic model forecasts . Because of the complexity of these models , forecast verification goes a good deal beyond simple measures of statistical association or mean error calculations .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecast_verification", "rank": 18, "score": 89925 }, { "content": "Title: Climate and Forecast Metadata Conventions Content: The Climate and Forecast ( CF ) metadata conventions are conventions for the description of Earth sciences data , intended to promote the processing and sharing of data files . The metadata defined by the CF conventions are generally included in the same file as the data , thus making the file `` self-describing '' . The conventions provide a definitive description of what the data values found in each netCDF variable represent , and of the spatial and temporal properties of the data , including information about grids , such as grid cell bounds and cell averaging methods . This enables users of files from different sources to decide which variables are comparable , and is a basis for building software applications with powerful data extraction , grid remapping , data analysis , and data visualization capabilities .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Climate_and_Forecast_Metadata_Conventions", "rank": 19, "score": 89780 }, { "content": "Title: Rapid update cycle Content: The Rapid Update Cycle ( RUC ) was an atmospheric prediction system that consisted primarily of a numerical forecast model and an analysis system to initialize the model . The RUC was designed to provide accurate short-range ( 0 - to 12-hr , later expanded to 18-hr in 2010 ) numerical forecast guidance for weather-sensitive users , such as those in the aviation community . Significant weather forecasting problems that occur in the 0 - to 12-hr range include severe weather in all seasons ( for example , tornadoes , thunderstorms , snow , and ice storms ) and hazards to aviation ( for example , clear air turbulence , icing , and downbursts ) . The RUC ran at the highest frequency of any forecast model at the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) , assimilating recent observations to provide very high frequency updates of current conditions and short-range forecasts . This update frequency was only once an hour ( the standard interval for ASOS observation reporting ) , and with computational limitations and the time required to assimilate all of the data , there is approximately a one-hour delay in producing the forecasts . Because of this , it was common practice to use a one-hour forecast from the RUC as a current analysis , as the one-hour forecast would come out only a few minutes before the time it is forecasting for . There is also little possibility for error in a one-hour forecast , meaning that the RUC 's one-hour forecast would not usually vary greatly from the actual state of the atmosphere at that particular point in time . The RUC was decommissioned on May 1 , 2012 ; it was replaced by the Rapid Refresh ( RR or RAP ) model , based on the WRF . Like the RUC , the Rapid Refresh model also runs hourly out to 18 hours on a 13 km grid spacing , but also covers a wider area . An experimental High Resolution Rapid Refresh ( HRRR ) ran by the Earth System Research Laboratory ( ESRL ) offers 3 km resolution at 15-minute intervals A backup version of the RUC continued to run until that too was stopped on May 15 , 2013 , thus formally bringing an end to the model .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Rapid_update_cycle", "rank": 20, "score": 89447 }, { "content": "Title: Rapid Refresh Content: The Rapid Refresh ( RR or RAP ) is a numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) model . The model is designed to provide short-range hourly weather forecasts for North America . The Rapid Refresh was officially made operational on May 1 , 2012 , replacing the Rapid Update Cycle ( RUC ) . The Rapid Refresh is run at the NOAA National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) . It is based on the framework of the Weather Research and Forecasting model ( WRF ) ; the Global Forecast System ( GFS ) provides the boundary parameters . The grid points are spaced every 13 km , with 50 vertical intervals extending up to the 10-hectopascal ( 10 mb ) level of the atmosphere . The model runs once each hour , with forecasts given hourly out to 18 hours . An experimental version of the Rapid Refresh runs at the Earth System Research Laboratory ( ESRL ) , a NOAA unit that develops models in the research stage prior to operational implementation . This version uses more modern model framework and also has a higher-resolution mode , the High Resolution Rapid Refresh ( HRRR ) , that uses a 3 km grid spacing and gives forecasts in 15-minute intervals ( though still only issued once an hour ) .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Rapid_Refresh", "rank": 21, "score": 89076 }, { "content": "Title: Forecastle Content: Forecastle ( pron . - sul ; commonly abbreviated `` fo ` c 's ` le '' ) refers to the upper deck of a sailing ship forward of the foremast , or the forward part of a ship with the sailors ' living quarters . Related to the latter meaning is the phrase `` before the mast '' which denotes anything related to ordinary sailors , as opposed to a ship 's officers .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecastle", "rank": 22, "score": 88864 }, { "content": "Title: Area forecast Content: An Aviation Area Forecast ( FA or ARFOR ) is a message product of the National Weather Service ( NWS ) in the United States . There are also weather charts forecast like SIGWX . FA encompasses the weather conditions over a large regional area and is considered one of the better sources of information for en-route weather . It is also beneficial in verifying airport conditions at airports that do not have terminal aerodrome forecasts . FA 's are issued three times daily in all 48 contiguous states of the United States , and modified as required . The NWS offices also issue FA 's for Alaska and Hawaii , but Alaska uses a slightly different format . Area forecasts ( FA 's ) : Issued 3 times daily Valid for 18 hours ( 12-hour forecast , plus 6-hour categorical outlook ) Cover an area the size of several states Visibility is always stated in statute miles ( SM ) Times are issued in UTC ( Coordinated Universal Time ) Comprise four sections a . A communications and header section i. Issue time of forecast ii . Valid times of the synopsis and the visual flight rules ( VFR ) CLOUDS/WX sections iii . Area of coverage b . A precautionary statement section i. Warns users to check the AIRMET section for IFR and/or mountain obscuration ii . Describes the hazards associated with all thunderstorm iii . Reminds users that all altitudes are given in MSL , unless noted as AGL or CIG ( ceiling ) c . A synopsis section i. Brief summary of the location and movement of fronts , pressure systems and circulation patterns for an 18-hour period ii . References to low ceilings , reduced visibility and/or strong winds may be included d . A VFR CLOUDS/WX section i. Contains a 12-hour specific forecast , followed by a 6-hour categorical outlook ii . Broken down into geographical areas , and/or states iii . Describes cloud and weather affecting VFR flight operations , including precipitation , thunderstorms , and sustained surface winds 20 Kts or greater . Also includes visibility when the forecast to visibility is between 3 and 6 SM and/or obstructions to visibility Some abbreviations that are used in FA 's include : OCNL Occasional > 50 % chance for < 1/2 of the forecast period ISOLD Isolated Single cells WDLY SCT Widely scattered < 25 % of the area affected SCT Scattered Areas of 25 % to 54 % of the area affected NMRS Numerous > 55 % of the area affected WDSPRD Widespread > 55 % of the area affected Status of an FA can be : AMD Amended Includes AIRMETs , SIGMETs , and Convective SIGMETs COR Corrected RTD Delayed", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Area_forecast", "rank": 23, "score": 88671 }, { "content": "Title: Forecast region Content: A forecast region is a unique geographical area for which individual weather reports are issued .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecast_region", "rank": 24, "score": 88607 }, { "content": "Title: Forecast Earth Content: Forecast Earth is the name for The Weather Channel 's environmental initiatives . It also was the name of an environment news program that ran on TWC from 2006 to 2008 .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecast_Earth", "rank": 25, "score": 87985 }, { "content": "Title: Trend type forecast Content: A trend type forecast ( TTF ) also known simply as a trend , is an aviation weather forecast written by a real person on location at a major airport or military base . A TTF is a professionally considered forecast for weather over a two-hour period , and is based on an actual weather report , such as a METAR or SPECI and appended to the end of it . A TTF is similar to or sometimes in addition to a TAF , a terminal aerodrome forecast , but during the TTF 's validity period is considered superior to a TAF .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Trend_type_forecast", "rank": 26, "score": 87858 }, { "content": "Title: Forecasting Content: Forecasting is the process of making predictions of the future based on past and present data and most commonly by analysis of trends . A commonplace example might be estimation of some variable of interest at some specified future date . Prediction is a similar , but more general term . Both might refer to formal statistical methods employing time series , cross-sectional or longitudinal data , or alternatively to less formal judgmental methods . Usage can differ between areas of application : for example , in hydrology the terms `` forecast '' and `` forecasting '' are sometimes reserved for estimates of values at certain specific future times , while the term `` prediction '' is used for more general estimates , such as the number of times floods will occur over a long period . Risk and uncertainty are central to forecasting and prediction ; it is generally considered good practice to indicate the degree of uncertainty attaching to forecasts . In any case , the data must be up to date in order for the forecast to be as accurate as possible .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecasting", "rank": 27, "score": 87776 }, { "content": "Title: Forecast error Content: In statistics , a forecast error is the difference between the actual or real and the predicted or forecast value of a time series or any other phenomenon of interest . Since the forecast error is derived from the same scale of data , comparisons between the forecast errors of different series can only be made when the series are on the same scale . In simple cases , a forecast is compared with an outcome at a single time-point and a summary of forecast errors is constructed over a collection of such time-points . Here the forecast may be assessed using the difference or using a proportional error . By convention , the error is defined using the value of the outcome minus the value of the forecast . In other cases , a forecast may consist of predicted values over a number of lead-times ; in this case an assessment of forecast error may need to consider more general ways of assessing the match between the time-profiles of the forecast and the outcome . If a main application of the forecast is to predict when certain thresholds will be crossed , one possible way of assessing the forecast is to use the timing-error -- the difference in time between when the outcome crosses the threshold and when the forecast does so . When there is interest in the maximum value being reached , assessment of forecasts can be done using any of : the difference of times of the peaks ; the difference in the peak values in the forecast and outcome ; the difference between the peak value of the outcome and the value forecast for that time point . Forecast error can be a calendar forecast error or a cross-sectional forecast error , when we want to summarize the forecast error over a group of units . If we observe the average forecast error for a time-series of forecasts for the same product or phenomenon , then we call this a calendar forecast error or time-series forecast error . If we observe this for multiple products for the same period , then this is a cross-sectional performance error . Reference class forecasting has been developed to reduce forecast error . Combining forecasts has also been shown to reduce forecast error .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecast_error", "rank": 28, "score": 87358 }, { "content": "Title: A.M. Weather Content: A.M. Weather was an American weather news program that ran from October 30 , 1978 to February 3 , 1995 and was broadcast on PBS member stations throughout the United States . The 15-minute daily program , which aired fifteen minutes before or after the hour ( depending on the station 's scheduling of the program ) and was produced by Maryland Public Television ( MPT ) , featured detailed forecasts presented by meteorologists from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . The program led the way in the use of computer graphics for televised weather reports , but had previously used hand-drawn maps and the show 's trademark yellow pointer .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "A.M._Weather", "rank": 29, "score": 87210 }, { "content": "Title: Forecast (808 State album) Content: Forecast is an compilation album by English electronic music group 808 State , which was released on 25 May 1993 by ZTT Records , exclusively in Japan . The album contains a collection of B-sides and remixes from the Gorgeous era .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecast_(808_State_album)", "rank": 30, "score": 87114 }, { "content": "Title: Probabilistic forecasting Content: Probabilistic forecasting summarizes what is known about , or opinions about , future events . In contrast to single-valued forecasts ( such as forecasting that the maximum temperature at given site on a given day will be 23 degrees Celsius , or that the result in a given football match will be a no-score draw ) , probabilistic forecasts assign a probability to each of a number of different outcomes , and the complete set of probabilities represents a probability forecast . Thus , probabilistic forecasting is a type of probabilistic classification . Weather forecasting represents a service in which probability forecasts are sometimes published for public consumption , although it may also be used by weather forecasters as the basis of a simpler type of forecast . For example forecasters may combine their own experience together with computer-generated probability forecasts to construct a forecast of the type `` we expect heavy rainfall '' . Sports betting is another field of application where probabilistic forecasting can play a role . The pre-race odds published for a horse race can be considered to correspond to a summary of bettors ' opinions about the likely outcome of a race , although this needs to be tempered with caution as bookmakers ' profits needs to be taken into account . In sports betting , probability forecasts may not be published as such , but may underlie bookmakers ' activities in setting pay-off rates , etc. .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Probabilistic_forecasting", "rank": 31, "score": 87056 }, { "content": "Title: History of numerical weather prediction Content: The history of numerical weather prediction considers how current weather conditions as input into mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather and future sea state ( the process of numerical weather prediction ) has changed over the years . Though first attempted manually in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of the computer and computer simulation that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself . ENIAC was used to create the first forecasts via computer in 1950 , and over the years more powerful computers have been used to increase the size of initial datasets as well as include more complicated versions of the equations of motion . The development of global forecasting models led to the first climate models . The development of limited area ( regional ) models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of tropical cyclone as well as air quality in the 1970s and 1980s . Because the output of forecast models based on atmospheric dynamics requires corrections near ground level , model output statistics ( MOS ) were developed in the 1970s and 1980s for individual forecast points ( locations ) . The MOS apply statistical techniques to post-process the output of dynamical models with the most recent surface observations and the forecast point 's climatology . This technique can correct for model resolution as well as model biases . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models only extends to about two weeks into the future , since the density and quality of observations -- together with the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations used to calculate the forecast -- introduce errors which double every five days . The use of model ensemble forecasts since the 1990s helps to define the forecast uncertainty and extend weather forecasting farther into the future than otherwise possible .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "History_of_numerical_weather_prediction", "rank": 32, "score": 87032 }, { "content": "Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera", "rank": 33, "score": 87019 }, { "content": "Title: Climatempo Content: TV Climatempo is a Brazilian TV channel specialising in weather forecasts . Forecasts are shown for more than 100 cities there is a five-day forecast for the capital . At the bottom of the screen , there is up-to-date information on what is happening in other cities , such as the relative humidity .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Climatempo", "rank": 34, "score": 86890 }, { "content": "Title: 2052: A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years Content: 2052 -- A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years is a 2012 book describing trends in global development . It is written by Jørgen Randers and is a follow-up to The Limits to Growth , which in 1972 was the first worldwide report by the Club of Rome . It differs in three ways from the previous report . First , it does not describe an impending disaster scenario , but shows only trends . Secondly , it is to be read in the light of experience since 1972 , namely , that all of humanity has responded to the report , but with a delay of 20 to 40 years . Thirdly , it offers not only future scenarios , it makes concrete proposals on how the individual should respond to emerging developments . Randers repeatedly points out that he does not want to predict specific events , only general trends .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "2052:_A_Global_Forecast_for_the_Next_Forty_Years", "rank": 35, "score": 86648 }, { "content": "Title: Local on the 8s Content: Local on the 8s ( or the Local Forecast ) is a program segment that airs on the American cable and satellite television network The Weather Channel . It provides viewers with information on current and forecasted weather conditions for their respective area ; a version of this segment is also available on the channel 's national satellite feed that features forecasts for each region of the United States . The name `` Local on the 8s '' comes from the timing of the segment , as airs at timeslots that end in `` 8 '' ( examples : 9:18 and 12:48 ) ; because of this manner of scheduling , the forecast segments air on the channel in ten-minute intervals . From 2006-2013 , each forecast segment has usually been preceded by a promo for one of The Weather Channel 's programs or services , leading into the segment with the announcer stating `` And now , your Local on the 8s '' . On November 12 , 2013 the promo segment was replaced by an intro that was built into the Local on the 8s '' segment .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Local_on_the_8s", "rank": 36, "score": 86149 }, { "content": "Title: The Forecast Content: The Forecast is an indie rock band from Peoria , Illinois . The Forecast 's sound is most recognizable for containing strong two and three part harmonies performed by combinations of their multiple vocalists , as heard in tracks such as `` Red as the Moon '' and `` One Hundred Percent '' . The band was started with Dustin Addis , the only remaining original member , in 2001 . The band 's current line up came together in the summer in 2004 when Shannon Burns and Matt Webb left their old band , Casting Lines . They released a split , a full-length album , and a four-song EP while signed to Thinker Thought Records . They released their first full-length album , with their current line-up , May 17 , 2005 titled Late Night Conversations . The Forecast 's Hit , '' These Lights '' was featured in MVP 06 NCAA Baseball . Their second album , In the Shadow of Two Gunmen was released on May 30 , 2006 via Victory Records and was promoted by a national tour with bands Socratic , Mashlin , and Tourmaline . Early in 2009 , the band self-released a five-song E.P titled `` Alive For The First Time '' . The E.P featured two new songs , two acoustic versions of old songs and a cover song . After spending more than two years unsigned , the group released a self-titled full-length through Eyeball Records on February 16 , 2010 . All four members of the Forecast have the band 's `` ambulance '' logo tattooed on them .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "The_Forecast", "rank": 37, "score": 86038 }, { "content": "Title: Weather window Content: A weather window occurs when weather forecasts indicate that a given set of marine operations or offshore construction activities can be performed within their maximum limits for wave height , wind speeds etc. . Critical elements for offshore operations are use of time and expected weather . Planning of marine operations should be based on an operation 's reference period defined as : Operation reference period ( TR ) = Estimated time of operation + Estimated unforeseen time If unforeseen time has not been identified , the operation reference period is normally set at twice the estimated operation time . Marine operations with a reference period less than 72 hours can be defined as weather-limited operations . These operations can be planned independently of statistical data and based only on weather forecasts . For weather-limited operations , critical factors such as forces , movements and acceleration shall be calculated in a rather worse weather condition ( design criterion ) than the weather in which it is planned to perform the operation ( operational criterion ) . This is due to the unreliability of weather forecasts . The longer the planned operation lasts , the greater the difference between the operational criterion and the design criterion . The relationship between the operational criterion and the design criterion is defined as the `` alpha factor '' . The variations in the alpha factor also take account of the fact that it is harder to estimate the wave height for small sea conditions than for larger sea conditions . As an example , operation planned to take 20 hours with a design criterion of significant wave height ( Hs ) 2.5 m will yield an operational criterion of 2.5 * 0.71 = 1.8 m . The maximum wave is about 1.86 times Hs ( depending on the period ) . Examples of alpha factors from the DNV Rules for Marine Operations , Part 1 , Chapter 2 , Planning of operations :", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Weather_window", "rank": 38, "score": 85713 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-18 Content: NOAA-18 , known before launch as NOAA-N , is a weather forecasting satellite run by NOAA . NOAA-N ( 18 ) was launched on May 20 , 2005 , into a sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 854 km above the Earth , with an orbital period of 102 minutes . It hosts the AMSU-A , MHS , AVHRR , Space Environment Monitor SEM/2 instrument and High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS ) instruments , as well as the SBUV/2 ozone-monitoring instrument . It is the first NOAA POES satellite to use MHS in place of AMSU-B . APT transmission frequency is 137.9125 MHz ( NOAA-18 changed frequencies with NOAA-19 on June 23 , 2009 ) .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "NOAA-18", "rank": 39, "score": 85416 }, { "content": "Title: Mount Forecast Content: Mount Forecast is a large mountain comprising several peaks , standing just northeast of Mount Brown-Cooper and 12.5 nmi southwest of Mount Pollard in the Prince Charles Mountains of Antarctica . It was napped from Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions surveys and air photos , 1956 -- 65 , and was mamed by the Antarctic Names Committee of Australia for M.J. Forecast , a weather observer at Wilkes Station , 1965 .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Mount_Forecast", "rank": 40, "score": 85334 }, { "content": "Title: Shipping Forecast Content: The Shipping Forecast is a BBC Radio broadcast of weather reports and forecasts for the seas around the coasts of the British Isles . It is produced by the Met Office and broadcast by BBC Radio 4 on behalf of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency . The forecasts sent over the Navtex system use a similar format and the same sea areas . The waters around the British Isles are divided into 31 sea areas , also known as weather areas ( see map below ) There are four broadcasts per day at the following ( UK local ) times : 0048 -- transmitted on FM and LW . Includes weather reports from an extended list of coastal stations at 0052 and an inshore waters forecast at 0055 and concludes with a brief UK weather outlook for the coming day . The broadcast finishes at approximately 0058 . 0520 -- transmitted on FM and LW . Includes weather reports from coastal stations at 0525 , and an inshore waters forecast at 0527 . 1201 -- normally transmitted on LW only . 1754 -- transmitted only on LW on weekdays , as an opt-out from the PM programme , but at weekends transmitted on both FM and LW . The unique and distinctive sound of these broadcasts has led to their attracting an audience much wider than that directly interested in maritime weather conditions . Many listeners find the repetition of the names of the sea areas almost hypnotic , particularly during the night-time broadcast at 0048 UK time .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Shipping_Forecast", "rank": 41, "score": 85315 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-17 Content: NOAA-17 was a weather forecasting satellite operated by NOAA . It was launched on 24 June 2002 , in a sun-synchronous orbit , 824 km above the Earth , orbiting every 101 minutes . It hosted the AMSU , AVHRR and High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HRIS ) instruments . The satellite was retired in 2013 . Automatic Picture Transmission frequency was 137.5 MHz . NOAA-17 was decommissioned on 10 April 2013 .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "NOAA-17", "rank": 42, "score": 84766 }, { "content": "Title: Forecast skill Content: Forecast Skill ( or skill score , forecast skill , prediction skill ) within the fields of forecasting and prediction is a generic term referring to the accuracy and/or degree of association of prediction to an observation or estimate of the actual value of what is being predicted ( formally , the predictand ) . In meteorology , forecast skill in weather forecasting , a motivating application , measures the superiority of a forecast over a simple historical baseline of past observations . The same forecast methodology can result in different skill measurements at different places , or even in the same place for different seasons ( e.g. spring weather might be driven by erratic local conditions , whereas winter cold snaps might correlate with observable polar winds ) . Forecast skill is often presented in the form of seasonal geographical maps . Forecast skill for single-value forecasts is commonly represented in terms of metrics such as correlation , root mean squared error , mean absolute error , relative mean absolute error , bias , and the Brier score , among others . The term ` forecast skill ' can be used both quantitatively and qualitatively . In the former case , skill could be equal to a statistic describing forecast performance , such as the correlation of the forecast with observations . In the latter case , it could either refer to forecast performance according to a single metric or to the overall forecast performance based on multiple metrics .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecast_skill", "rank": 43, "score": 84600 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Prediction Center Content: The Climate Prediction Center ( CPC ) is one of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction , which are a part of NOAA 's National Weather Service . It is located in College Park , Maryland . Its roots trace back to the late 18th century , with the United States Army Signal Corp taking over responsibility of the climate program in the late 19th century . Once it became part of the United States Weather Bureau , it was known as the Weather Bureau Climate and Crop Services . From 1957 through 1966 , the United States Weather Bureau 's Office of Climatology , located in Washington , D.C. and then Suitland , Maryland , published the Mariners Weather Log publication . Late in the 20th century , it was known as the Climate Analysis Center for a time , before evolving into CPC in 1995 . CPC issues climate forecasts valid weeks and months in advance .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Climate_Prediction_Center", "rank": 44, "score": 84152 }, { "content": "Title: Navy Global Environmental Model Content: The Navy Global Environmental Model ( NAVGEM ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer simulation run by the United States Navy 's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the NWS 's Global Forecast System , which runs out to 16 days , the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) and the CMC 's Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) , both of which run out 10 days , and the UK Met Office 's Unified Model , which runs out to 6 days , it is one of five synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The NAVGEM became operational in February 2013 , replacing the NOGAPS . It uses the same forecast range as the NOGAPS did ( three-hour intervals out 180 hours ) but also uses a refurbished dynamic core and improvements to the physics simulations compared to its predecessor . Category : Numerical climate and weather models Category : National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Navy_Global_Environmental_Model", "rank": 45, "score": 84085 }, { "content": "Title: Flood forecasting Content: Flood forecasting is the use of forecasted precipitation and streamflow data in rainfall-runoff and streamflow routing models to forecast flow rates and water levels for periods ranging from a few hours to days ahead , depending on the size of the watershed or river basin . Flood forecasting can also make use of forecasts of precipitation in an attempt to extend the lead-time available . Flood forecasting is an important component of flood warning , where the distinction between the two is that the outcome of flood forecasting is a set of forecast time-profiles of channel flows or river levels at various locations , while `` flood warning '' is the task of making use of these forecasts to tell decisions on warnings of floods .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Flood_forecasting", "rank": 46, "score": 83735 }, { "content": "Title: Forecast period (finance) Content: In finance , the forecast period is the time period in which the individual yearly cash flows are input to the discounted cash flow formula . Cash flows after the forecast period can only be represented by a fixed number such as the compound annual growth rate . There are no fixed rules for determining the duration of the forecast period . This article covers three methods of determining the forecast period .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecast_period_(finance)", "rank": 47, "score": 83544 }, { "content": "Title: CLIVAR Content: CLIVAR ( climate variability and predictability ) is a component of the World Climate Research Programme . Its purpose is to describe and understand climate variability and predictability on seasonal to centennial time-scales , identify the physical processes responsible for climate change and develop modeling and predictive capabilities for climate modelling .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "CLIVAR", "rank": 48, "score": 83267 }, { "content": "Title: Marine weather forecasting Content: Marine weather forecasting is the process by which mariners and meteorological organizations have attempted to forecast future weather conditions over the Earth 's oceans . Mariners have had rules of thumb regarding the navigation around tropical cyclones for many years , dividing a storm into halves and sailing through the normally weaker and more navigable half of their circulation . Marine weather forecasts by various weather organizations can be traced back to the sinking of the Royal Charter in 1859 and the RMS Titanic in 1912 . The wind is the driving force of weather at sea , as wind generates local wind waves , long ocean swells , and its flow around the subtropical ridge helps maintain warm water currents such as the Gulf Stream . The importance of weather over the ocean during World War II led to delayed or secret weather reports , in order to maintain a competitive advantage . Weather ships were established by various nations during World War II for forecasting purposes , and were maintained through 1985 to help with transoceanic plane navigation . Voluntary observations from ships , weather buoys , weather satellites , and numerical weather prediction have been used to diagnose and help forecast weather over the Earth 's ocean areas . Since the 1960s , numerical weather prediction 's role over the Earth 's seas has taken a greater role in the forecast process . Weather elements such as sea state , surface winds , tide levels , and sea surface temperature are tackled by organizations tasked with forecasting weather over open oceans and seas . Currently , the Japan Meteorological Agency , the United States National Weather Service , and the United Kingdom Met Office create marine weather forecasts for the Northern Hemisphere .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Marine_weather_forecasting", "rank": 49, "score": 83119 }, { "content": "Title: North American Ensemble Forecast System Content: The North American Ensemble Forecast System ( NAEFS ) is a joint project involving the Meteorological Service of Canada ( MSC ) in Canada , the National Weather Service ( NWS ) in the United States , and the National Meteorological Service of Mexico ( NMSM ) in Mexico providing numerical weather prediction ensemble guidance for the 1 - to 16-day forecast period . The NAEFS combines the Canadian MSC ( Global Environmental Multiscale Model ) and the US NWS global ensemble prediction systems ( Global Forecast System ) , improving probabilistic operational guidance over what can be built from any individual country 's ensemble . Model guidance from the NAEFS is incorporated into the forecasts of the respective national agencies . NAEFS operates on the fundamental principles of ensemble forecasting which provides a range of possible weather forecasts of the atmospheric state over a given forecast period . The initial state of the atmosphere and/or the numerical weather prediction model configuration are slightly varied to provide a range of possible forecast solutions . The global ensemble prediction systems at MSC and NWS use slightly different , but equally valid methods to initialize and integrate the atmospheric state . By combining the ensembles from both centers into one ensemble , the possible range of future atmospheric states for a given forecast period are better sampled , producing on average , improved estimates of the future atmospheric state and the associated uncertainty . NAEFS collaboration allows the national weather agencies to pool their research resources and make improvements to the ensemble prediction systems more quickly and efficiently . The exchange of knowledge allows research and operations to develop a new generation of ensemble products with the goal of improving timeliness and accuracy in alerting the public of high impact weather events .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "North_American_Ensemble_Forecast_System", "rank": 50, "score": 83113 }, { "content": "Title: North American Mesoscale Model Content: The North American Mesoscale Model ( NAM ) , refers to a numerical weather prediction model run by National Centers for Environmental Prediction for short-term weather forecasting . Currently , the Weather Research and Forecasting Non-hydrostatic Mesoscale Model ( WRF-NMM ) model is run as the NAM , thus , three names ( NAM , WRF , or NMM ) typically refer to the same model output . The WRF replaced the Eta model on June 13 , 2006 . The model is run four times a day ( 00 , 06 , 12 , 18 UTC ) out to 84 hours . It is currently run with 12 km horizontal resolution and with three-hour temporal resolution , providing finer detail than other operational forecast models . The NAM ensemble is known as the Short Range Ensemble Forecast ( SREF ) and runs out 87 hours .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "North_American_Mesoscale_Model", "rank": 51, "score": 82912 }, { "content": "Title: National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting Content: National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting ( NCMRWF ) is a national agency for weather forecasting under the Ministry of Earth Sciences , ( transferred from its former parent Ministry of Science and Technology ) , Government of India . It is a premier institute in India to provide Medium Range Weather Forecasts through deterministic Methods and to offer Agro-Advisory Service ( AAS ) to the farmers . NCMRWF offers research opportunities in Numerical Weather Prediction , Diagnostic Studies , Crop Weather Modeling and Computer Science . The National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting ( NCMRWF ) is a Centre of Excellence in Weather and Climate Modelling under the Ministry of Earth Sciences . The mission of the Centre is to continuously develop advanced numerical weather prediction systems , with increased reliability and accuracy over India and neighbouring regions through research , development and demonstration of new and novel applications , maintaining highest level of knowledge , skills and technical bases .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "National_Centre_for_Medium_Range_Weather_Forecasting", "rank": 52, "score": 82843 }, { "content": "Title: Meteorological astrology Content: Meteorological astrology or astrometeorology ( from Greek ἄστρον , astron , `` constellation , star '' ; μετέωρος , metéōros , `` high in the sky '' ; and - λογία , - logia ) is the practice of applying the astrological/astronomical placements of the Sun , Moon , and planets to attempt to forecast the weather . Astrometeorology is thousands of years old and based on astronomical positions that allegedly directly affect the weather on Earth . Ancient classical astrologers created weather forecasting known as meteorology by noting the positions of stars , planets , the Sun , and Moon . According to their texts , when planets occupy constellations as seen from Earth , and that are harmonious to one another , or that are favorable , the Earth in general experiences positive weather conditions . But when planets hold mathematical aspects that are discordant across regions of the Earth , the atmosphere responds and the weather is unseasonable . For centuries , forecasting advance weather , especially medium and long-range , was applied because it was the only way to know when to plant crops , navigate the seas and to predict the climate months in advance in preparation for harsh winter seasons . Meteorological phenomena correlated to planetary configurations were recorded by the ancient Babylonians in the 2nd century BC . Classical astrologers of note such as Claudius Ptolemy constructed a treatise on forecasting weather via astrological means , but it was not until the year 1686 that a large volume written in English was devoted only to astrometeorology by Dr. J. Goad in his book , Astro-Meteorologica published in London , England . Goad 's volume consisted of principles and rules forecasting weather astrologically . Johannes Kepler recorded meteorological observations to support his belief that the conjunction of Saturn and the Sun would produce cold weather .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Meteorological_astrology", "rank": 53, "score": 82762 }, { "content": "Title: Ensemble forecasting Content: Ensemble forecasting is a method used in numerical weather prediction . Instead of making a single forecast of the most likely weather , a set ( or ensemble ) of forecasts are produced . This set of forecasts aims to give an indication of the range of possible future states of the atmosphere . Ensemble forecasting is a form of Monte Carlo analysis . The multiple simulations are conducted to account for the two usual sources of uncertainty in forecast models : ( 1 ) the errors introduced by the use of imperfect initial conditions , amplified by the chaotic nature of the evolution equations of the atmosphere , this is often referred to as sensitive dependence on the initial conditions ; and ( 2 ) errors introduced because of imperfections in the model formulation , such as the approximate mathematical methods to solve the equations . Ideally , the verified future atmospheric state should fall within the predicted ensemble spread , and the amount of spread should be related to the uncertainty ( error ) of the forecast . In general , this approach can be used to make probabilistic forecasts of any dynamical system , and not just for weather prediction . Today ensemble predictions are commonly made at most of the major operational weather prediction facilities worldwide , including : National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP of the US ) European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) United Kingdom Met Office Météo-France Environment Canada Japan Meteorological Agency Bureau of Meteorology ( Australia ) China Meteorological Administration ( CMA ) Korea Meteorological Administration CPTEC ( Brazil ) Experimental ensemble forecasts are made at a number of universities , such as the University of Washington , and ensemble forecasts in the US are also generated by the US Navy and Air Force . There are various ways of viewing the data such as spaghetti plots , ensemble means or Postage Stamps where a number of different results from the models run can be compared .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Ensemble_forecasting", "rank": 54, "score": 82683 }, { "content": "Title: The Forecaster Content: The Forecaster is a regional newspaper in southern Maine . It is published weekly and distributed for free . It publishes several different versions , including `` The Forecaster '' covering the city of Portland ; `` Northern Forecaster '' , which covers the towns north of Portland ( Falmouth , Cumberland , Yarmouth , North Yarmouth , and Freeport ; the `` Southern Forecaster '' , which covers the towns south of Portland ( South Portland , Cape Elizabeth , and Scarborough ) ; and a `` Mid-Coast '' edition which covers towns farther east along the coast , including Brunswick , Topsham , Harpswell and Bath . It is owned by the Sun Media Group .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "The_Forecaster", "rank": 55, "score": 82652 }, { "content": "Title: Tim Palmer (physicist) Content: Timothy Noel Palmer CBE FRS ( born 31 December 1952 ) is a mathematical physicist by training . He has spent most of his career working on the dynamics and predictability of weather and climate . Amongst various research achievements , he pioneered the development of probabilistic ensemble forecasting techniques for weather and climate prediction ( at the Met Office and the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ) . These techniques are now standard in operational weather and climate prediction around the world , and are central for reliable decision making for many commercial and humanitarian applications .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Tim_Palmer_(physicist)", "rank": 56, "score": 82582 }, { "content": "Title: Storm Prediction Center Content: The Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) is a government agency that is part of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) , operating under the control of the National Weather Service ( NWS ) , which in turn is part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the United States Department of Commerce ( DoC ) . Headquartered at the National Weather Center in Norman , Oklahoma , the Storm Prediction Center is tasked with forecasting the risk of severe thunderstorms and tornadoes in the contiguous United States . It issues convective outlooks , mesoscale discussions , and watches as a part of this process . Convective outlooks are issued for the following eight days ( issued separately for Day 1 , Day 2 , Day 3 , and Days 4 -- 8 ) , and detail the risk of severe thunderstorms and tornadoes during the given forecast period , although tornado , hail and wind details are only available for Day 1 . Days 2 and 3 , as well as 4 -- 8 use a probabilistic scale , determining the probability for a severe weather event in percentage categories . Mesoscale discussions are issued to provide information on certain individual regions where severe weather is becoming a threat and states whether a watch is likely and details thereof , particularly concerning conditions conducive for the development of severe thunderstorms in the short term , as well as situations of isolated severe weather when watches are not necessary . Watches are issued when forecasters are confident that severe weather will occur , and usually precede the onset of severe weather by one hour , although this sometimes varies depending on certain atmospheric conditions that may inhibit or accelerate convective development . The agency is also responsible for forecasting fire weather ( indicating conditions that are favorable for wildfires ) in the contiguous U.S. , issuing fire weather outlooks for Days 1 , 2 , and 3 -- 8 , which detail areas with various levels of risk for fire conditions .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Storm_Prediction_Center", "rank": 57, "score": 82362 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-15 Content: NOAA-15 ( designated NOAA-K before launch ) is one of the NASA-provided TIROS series of weather forecasting satellite run by NOAA . It was launched on 13 May 1998 , and is currently operational , in a sun-synchronous orbit , 807 km above the Earth , orbiting every 101 minutes . It hosts the AMSU-A and AMSU-B instruments , the AVHRR and High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS/3 ) instruments , as well as a Space Environment Monitor ( SEM/2 ) . APT transmission frequency is 137.62 MHz . Due to problems with the S-band transmitter high-gain antennas , NOAA-15 has been configured for High Resolution Picture Transmission using the S-Band Transmitter # 2 ( 1702.5 MHz ) omnidirectional antenna .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "NOAA-15", "rank": 58, "score": 82284 }, { "content": "Title: Forecasting the End Content: Forecasting the End is a television series on The Weather Channel , focusing remote scientific possibilities for the end of the human race or the planet Earth . It first aired in March of 2013 .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecasting_the_End", "rank": 59, "score": 82130 }, { "content": "Title: THORPEX Interactive Grand Global Ensemble Content: The THORPEX Interactive Grand Global Ensemble ( TIGGE ) is an implementation of ensemble forecasting for global weather forecasting and is part of THORPEX , an international research programme established in 2003 by the World Meteorological Organization to accelerate improvements in the utility and accuracy of weather forecasts up to two weeks ahead .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "THORPEX_Interactive_Grand_Global_Ensemble", "rank": 60, "score": 82118 }, { "content": "Title: The Forecast (album) Content: The Forecast is the debut album and third release by Australian band In Fiction . One single has been released to radio from the album , `` Liar Liar '' .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "The_Forecast_(album)", "rank": 61, "score": 82062 }, { "content": "Title: Climatology Content: Climatology ( from Greek κλίμα , klima , `` place , zone '' ; and - λογία , - logia ) or climate science is the study of climate , scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time . This modern field of study is regarded as a branch of the atmospheric sciences and a subfield of physical geography , which is one of the Earth sciences . Climatology now includes aspects of oceanography and biogeochemistry . Basic knowledge of climate can be used within shorter term weather forecasting using analog techniques such as the El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) , the Madden -- Julian oscillation ( MJO ) , the North Atlantic oscillation ( NAO ) , the Northern Annular Mode ( NAM ) which is also known as the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) , the Northern Pacific ( NP ) Index , the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , and the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation ( IPO ) . Climate models are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate . Weather is known as the condition of the atmosphere over a period of time . While Climate has to do with the atmospheric condition over an extended to indefinite period of time .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Climatology", "rank": 62, "score": 81101 }, { "content": "Title: Centro de Previsão do Tempo e Estudos Climáticos Content: Centro de Previsão do Tempo e Estudos Climáticos ( CPTEC ) is the numerical weather prediction agency of Brazil , part of INPE ( National Institute for Space Research ) . Its mission is to provide the country with weather and climate forecasts . CPTEC is the most advanced center for numerical weather prediction and climate in Latin America , providing forecasts for short and medium-term climate and high precision , since the beginning of 1995 . CPTEC uses supercomputers and knowledge of its staff to achieve the same level as forecasting centers in more developed countries .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Centro_de_Previsão_do_Tempo_e_Estudos_Climáticos", "rank": 63, "score": 81063 }, { "content": "Title: Forecast Content: Forecast may refer to : Forecasting , the process of making statements about events which have not yet been observed Weather forecasting , the application of science and technology to predict the weather FORECAST ( model ) , system for managing ecosystems and forest growth Forecast , an ability attributed to the Pokémon Castform Forecast ( album ) , 1993 electronic music by 808 State Forecast : Tomorrow , a 2006 compilation album by the jazz group Weather Report `` Forecast ( Intro ) '' , a song by Amerie from Because I Love It", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecast", "rank": 64, "score": 81052 }, { "content": "Title: Ken Ring (writer) Content: Ken Ring is a writer from Auckland , New Zealand , who asserts that he can use lunar cycles to predict weather and earthquakes . He terms his predictions `` alternative weather '' and has authored books about the weather and climate . Ring publishes almanacs each year for New Zealand , Australia and Ireland in which he provides weather predictions for the entire year . His New Zealand almanac covers 64 towns . Ring 's methods are unscientific and have been widely criticised as fake and pseudoscience by many scientists in the fields of meteorology and geology . Ring says he predicted the 4 September 2010 Christchurch earthquake and the deadly 22 February 2011 Christchurch earthquake . He also said there would probably be an earthquake in Marlborough or north Canterbury `` just before noon '' on 20 March 2011 . This caused some residents to leave Christchurch and led to criticism from scientists and sceptics . Further research into his predictions showed that his forecasting record did not hold up under scrutiny .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Ken_Ring_(writer)", "rank": 65, "score": 80964 }, { "content": "Title: Reference class forecasting Content: Reference class forecasting or comparison class forecasting is a method of predicting the future by looking at similar past situations and their outcomes . Reference class forecasting predicts the outcome of a planned action based on actual outcomes in a reference class of similar actions to that being forecast . The theories behind reference class forecasting were developed by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky . The theoretical work helped Kahneman win the Nobel Prize in Economics .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Reference_class_forecasting", "rank": 66, "score": 80710 }, { "content": "Title: HIRLAM Content: HIRLAM , the High Resolution Limited Area Model , is a Numerical Weather Prediction ( NWP ) forecast system developed by the international HIRLAM programme .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "HIRLAM", "rank": 67, "score": 80661 }, { "content": "Title: Forecastle Festival Content: The Forecastle Festival is a three-day music , art , and environmental activism festival held annually in Louisville , Kentucky , since 2002 . The festival originated as a small gathering of local musicians in Louisville 's Tyler Park , and steadily grew into a national attraction that now includes major touring acts , national art collectives , outdoor industry partners , prominent speakers , and more . Forecastle was selected in 2012 as one of Rolling Stone 's `` Coolest Festivals '' and has an annual attendance of over 75,000 fans at Louisville Waterfront Park . In 2014 , the festival attracted attendees from 49 states , 2,192 cities , and 7 countries . Past headliners include The Black Keys , Jack White , Sam Smith , Outkast , Beck , The Avett Brothers , My Morning Jacket , The Flaming Lips , Widespread Panic and more", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecastle_Festival", "rank": 68, "score": 80553 }, { "content": "Title: Forecasting (heating) Content: Forecasting is a method of controlling building heating by calculating demand for heating energy that should be supplied to the building in each time unit . By combining physics of structures with meteorology , properties of the building , weather conditions including outdoor temperature , wind power and direction , as well as solar radiation can be taken into account . In the case of conventional heating control , only current outdoor temperature is considered . The starting point for developing the method of forecasting was the ENLOSS mathematical energy balance model developed by Prof. Roger Taesler from Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute in cooperation with Thorbjörn Geiser and Stefan Berglund , who are currently both employed at eGain Sweden AB . Forecasting method began to be introduced to use in the late 1980s . Until 2010 inclusive , forecasting method has been introduced in nearly seven million square metres of floorage of residential buildings and commercial premises . Forecasting method is offered and developed by many companies and organizations . Estimated data indicate 10 - 15 kWh/m2 reduction of average annual heat energy consumption . Since forecasting method contains information about future demand and is not in conflict with other methods of increasing energy efficiency , it is always a good foreground solution .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecasting_(heating)", "rank": 69, "score": 80524 }, { "content": "Title: Ron Shandler Content: In 1986 , Ron Shandler began publishing the Baseball Forecaster , an annual publication focused on applying sabermetrics to fantasy baseball , and founder of Baseball HQ , a website with the same focus . Shandler has an MBA from Hofstra University . Shandler is seen as a revolutionary thinker in both sabermetrics and fantasy baseball . Among his innovations in fantasy baseball are : LIMA Plan - Which stands for Low Investment Mound Aces , is a draft strategy for traditional 4x4 Rotisserie leagues . LIMA is named after pitcher José Lima , who was exemplified by the strategy . The strategy includes spending a maximum of $ 60 out of your $ 260 budget on pitching . No more than $ 30 on saves . Have your pitchers use as few innings as your league rules allow . Look to buy pitchers with strong strikeout-to-walk ratios , high strikeout per inning ratios and low home run per inning ratios . Spend the rest of your budget on hitting . Strand Rate - The percentage of baserunners a pitcher allows who fail to score ( Baseball Prospectus has a similar statistic , Bequeathed Runs Prevented ) . Shandler discovered that 72 percent of baserunners on average never cross the plate , so if a pitcher has a higher or lower strand rate there 's a chance it will affect his ERA in the opposite direction in the future . The concept of runners being stranded on base was probably not first conceived of by Shandler . Sabermetrician Keith Woolner has been researching support-neutral statistics since at least 1993 , and has often discussed concepts similar to Strand Rate ( e.g. , Bequeathed Runners inherited/stranded ) . Shandler created Tout Wars in 1997 after being fed up with the lack of promotion USA Today gave its annual LABR fantasy baseball experts league . He also founded the Annual Fantasy Baseball Symposium at the Arizona Fall League , one of the largest gatherings of fantasy baseball players , now in its 16th year . Shandler 's success as a fantasy player includes the most wins in major fantasy baseball expert leagues . He won both the NL and AL Tout Wars competitions in 1998 ( being the only time anyone has ever won dual championships in the history of national experts competitions ) , AL Tout Wars in 2000 , NL LABR in 2001 , and the Fantasy Sports Trade Association League in 2010 . He has contributed columns to the sports section of the Huffington Post , ESPN Magazine , ESPN.com , and USA Today . In 2004 , he was selected to help form an advisory board for the St. Louis Cardinals , which he served on for approximately two years . In 2004 , Shandler received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Fantasy Sports Trade Association . In 2012 , he was inducted into the Fantasy Sports Writers Association 's Hall of Fame . On April 30 , 2013 , Shandler announced he would be stepping down from running Baseball HQ , which he had sold to USA Today five years prior . He will continue to write his weekly columns for BaseballHQ.com and USA Today , contribute to the Baseball Forecaster and will remain active in the fantasy baseball community . He now runs his own site , RonShandler.com where he promotes his latest innovation : the Broad Assessment Balance Sheet ( BABS ) approach to fantasy baseball team construction .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Ron_Shandler", "rank": 70, "score": 80479 }, { "content": "Title: MM5 (weather model) Content: The MM5 ( short for Fifth-Generation Penn State/NCAR Mesoscale Model ) is a regional mesoscale model used for creating weather forecasts and climate projections . It is a community model maintained by Penn State University and the National Center for Atmospheric Research . The MM5 is a limited-area , terrain-following sigma coordinate model that is used to replicate or forecast mesoscale and regional scale atmospheric circulation . It has been updated many times since the 1970s to fix bugs , adapt to new technologies , and work on different types of computers and software . It is used in many different ways : for research and for weather prediction . In research , it is used to compare it to other models , to see what works and what does not work . Since the MM5 has high quality three-dimensional data , it is good for looking at the atmosphere and the weather patterns . It is also used for air quality models .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "MM5_(weather_model)", "rank": 71, "score": 80265 }, { "content": "Title: CCCma Content: CCCma ( Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis ) is part of the Climate Research Division of Environment Canada and is located at the University of Victoria , Victoria , British Columbia . Its purpose is to develop and apply climate models to improve understanding of climate change and make quantitative projections of future climate in Canada and globally . Its seasonal forecasting system provides climate forecasts over Canada on timescales of months to years .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "CCCma", "rank": 72, "score": 80231 }, { "content": "Title: Potential predictability Content: The term potential predictability is used in the context of weather forecasting to describe the extent that the future weather can be predicted in principle , i.e. , it describes the proportion of variance in the weather that arises from systematic factors rather than random noise .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Potential_predictability", "rank": 73, "score": 80193 }, { "content": "Title: Adam Scaife Content: Adam Arthur Scaife B.A. M.A. MSc PhD FRMetS ( born 18 March 1970 ) is a British physicist , and head of long range prediction at the Met Office . He is an honorary visiting Professor at Exeter University . Scaife carries out research into long range weather forecasting and computer modelling of the climate . Scaife has published over 100 peer reviewed studies on atmospheric dynamics , computer modelling and climate predictability and change and recently published popular science and academic books on meteorology .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Adam_Scaife", "rank": 74, "score": 80107 }, { "content": "Title: Egain forecasting Content: Egain forecasting is a method of controlling building heating by calculating demand for heating energy that should be supplied to the building in each time unit . By combining physics of structures with meteorology , properties of the building , weather conditions including outdoor temperature , wind power and direction , as well as solar radiation can be taken into account . In the case of conventional heating control , only current outdoor temperature is considered . The starting point for developing the method of eGain forecasting was the ENLOSS mathematical energy balance model developed by Prof. Roger Taesler from Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute in cooperation with Thorbjörn Geiser and Stefan Berglund , who are currently both employed at eGain Sweden AB . Forecasting method began to be introduced to use in the late 1980s . Until 2010 inclusive , forecasting method has been introduced in nearly seven million square metres of floorage of residential buildings and commercial premises . Estimated data indicate 10 - 15 kWh/m2 reduction of average annual heat energy consumption . Since forecasting method contains information about future demand and is not in conflict with other methods of increasing energy efficiency , it is always a good foreground solution .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Egain_forecasting", "rank": 75, "score": 79956 }, { "content": "Title: Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates Content: Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates , Inc ( WEFA Inc ) was a world-leading economics forecasting and consulting organisation founded by Nobel Prize winner Dr. Lawrence R. Klein . WEFA Inc was a spinoff of the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania , where Klein taught . WEFA Inc traced an interesting path ( see below for full details ) from its predecessor in 1961 ( the Economic Research Unit , discussed below ) , its initial launch in 1969 ( as Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates Inc ) , to its ultimate merger with DRI ( formerly Data Resources Inc. ) forming Global Insight in 2001 , and subsequent to that , Global Insight 's acquisition in 2008 by IHS Inc. .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Wharton_Econometric_Forecasting_Associates", "rank": 76, "score": 79775 }, { "content": "Title: Blizzard Watch Content: A Blizzard Watch is an advisory issued by the National Weather Service of the United States which means winds greater than 35 mph , mixed with falling or blowing snow , and visibilities of 1/4 mi or less is forecast for a period of 3 hours or more . A blizzard watch is issued 12 to 48 hours before an expected blizzard event . As the forecast solidifies , a blizzard watch will either be downgraded to a Winter Storm Warning or Winter Weather Advisory for blowing snow ( depending on accumulation amounts ) or upgraded to a Blizzard Warning .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Blizzard_Watch", "rank": 77, "score": 79626 }, { "content": "Title: Thaw (weather) Content: January thaw is a term applied to a thaw or rise in temperature in mid-winter found in mid-latitude North America . Sinusoidal estimates of expected temperatures , for northern locales , usually place the lowest temperatures around January 23 and the highest around July 24 , and provide fairly accurate estimates of temperature expectations . Actual average temperatures in North America usually significantly differ twice over the course of the year : Mid-autumn temperatures tend to be warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal model , creating the impression of extended summer warmth known as Indian summer . For five days around January 25 , temperatures are usually significantly warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal estimate , and also warmer than neighboring temperatures on both sides . During this `` thaw '' period , usually lasting for about a week , temperatures are generally about 6 ° C ( 10 ° F ) above normal . This varies from year to year , and temperatures fluctuate enough that such a rise in late-January temperature would be unremarkable ; what is remarkable ( and unexplained ) is the tendency for such rises to occur more commonly in late January than in mid-January or early February , which sinusoidal estimates have to be slightly warmer . In some regions ( such as northern Canada ) this phenomenon will not be manifest as a `` thaw '' in the technical sense , since temperatures will remain below freezing . The January thaw is believed to be a weather singularity . A possible physical mechanism for such phenomena was offered in the 1950s by E.G. Bowen : he suggested that some `` calendaricities '' ( as he called them ) might be explicable in terms of meteoric particles from cometary orbits acting as ice nuclei in terrestrial clouds ; his theory then received some support from several sources . However , Bowen 's ideas later fell out of favour with the development of atmospheric dynamic modelling techniques , although one of his rainfall peaks does seem to correspond with the date of the January thaw . Data analysis has not found statistically significant support for the supposed January thaw . The authors of this study state that `` the effects of sampling in finite climate records are wholly adequate to account for the existence of January thaw ` features ' in northeastern U.S. temperature data . ''", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Thaw_(weather)", "rank": 78, "score": 79590 }, { "content": "Title: Forecast bias Content: A forecast bias occurs when there are consistent differences between actual outcomes and previously generated forecasts of those quantities ; that is : forecasts may have a general tendency to be too high or too low . A normal property of a good forecast is that it is not biased . As a quantitative measure , the `` forecast bias '' can be specified as a probabilistic or statistical property of the forecast error . A typical measure of bias of forecasting procedure is the arithmetic mean or expected value of the forecast errors , but other measures of bias are possible . For example , a median-unbiased forecast would be one where half of the forecasts are too low and half too high : see Bias of an estimator . In contexts where forecasts are being produced on a repetitive basis , the performance of the forecasting system may be monitored using a tracking signal , which provides an automatically maintained summary of the forecasts produced up to any given time . This can be used to monitor for deteriorating performance of the system .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecast_bias", "rank": 79, "score": 79489 }, { "content": "Title: European Storm Forecast Experiment Content: The European Storm Forecast Experiment , known as ESTOFEX , is an initiative of a team of European meteorologists , and students in meteorology founded in 2002 . It serves as a platform for exchange of knowledge about forecasting severe convective storms in Europe and elsewhere . It is a voluntary organisation and is currently unfunded . It aims to raise awareness and provide real-time education about severe weather forecasting . It issues storm warnings on a daily basis . It also collects reports from the general public about severe convective weather incidents in order to validate its forecasts . ESTOFEX forecasts are published under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 license . Its definitions of severe convective weather phenomena are one or several of the following : severe : hail with a diameter of at least 2.0 cm tornado wind gusts with a speed of at least 25 m/s ( 92 km/h or about 48.6 knots ) excessive rainfall of at least 60 mm . extremely severe : hail with a diameter of at least 5.0 cm wind gusts with a speed of at least 33 m/s ( about 119 km/h or 65 knots ) a tornado of class F2 on the Fujita scale or stronger .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "European_Storm_Forecast_Experiment", "rank": 80, "score": 79384 }, { "content": "Title: Weather Research and Forecasting Innovation Act of 2017 Content: The Weather Research and Forecasting Innovation Act of 2017 ( H.R. 353 ) is a law providing for weather research and forecasting improvement , weather satellite and data innovation , and federal weather coordination . The bill was introduced into the United States House of Representatives during the 115th United States Congress . It was signed into law by President Donald Trump on April 18 , 2017 .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Weather_Research_and_Forecasting_Innovation_Act_of_2017", "rank": 81, "score": 79375 }, { "content": "Title: Quantitative precipitation forecast Content: The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast ( abbreviated QPF ) is the expected amount of melted precipitation accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area . A QPF will be created when precipitation amounts reaching a minimum threshold are expected during the forecast 's valid period . Valid periods of precipitation forecasts are normally synoptic hours such as 0000 , 0600 , 1200 and 1800 GMT . Terrain is considered in QPFs by use of topography or based upon climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail . Starting in the mid-to-late 1990s , QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States . Forecast models show significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the planetary boundary layer , or in the lowest levels of the atmosphere , which decreases with height . QPF can be generated on a quantitative , forecasting amounts , or a qualitative , forecasting the probability of a specific amount , basis . Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within 6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar image . The forecasts can be verified through use of rain gauge measurements , weather radar estimates , or a combination of both . Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Quantitative_precipitation_forecast", "rank": 82, "score": 79257 }, { "content": "Title: FORECAST (model) Content: FORECAST is a management-oriented , stand-level , forest-growth and ecosystem-dynamics model . The model was designed to accommodate a wide variety of silvicultural and harvesting systems and natural disturbance events ( e.g. , fire , wind , insect epidemics ) in order to compare and contrast their effect on forest productivity , stand dynamics , and a series of biophysical indicators of non-timber values .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "FORECAST_(model)", "rank": 83, "score": 79069 }, { "content": "Title: Health forecasting Content: Health forecasting is a new health care discipline initiated by the Met Office when Dr William Bird , a GP , became its first Clinical Director in 2002 . It is currently the subject of an innovative project run jointly by the Met Office and the National Health Service ( NHS ) in the United Kingdom . The natural environment affects human health . There are many cases in which the weather has a direct or indirect effect on the health of an individual . These include : Heat , which can cause up to a 30 % increase in mortality amongst the elderly and very young . Prevention can save lives . Cold , which contributes to 30 -- 40 thousand deaths each winter . Prevention consists of keeping active , eating well , dressing up appropriately , especially hat , gloves and coat when outside and keeping the indoor temperature at 21C . Thunderstorms , which can cause asthma epidemics if they occur during high levels of either pollen or fungal spores in the summer . Low boundary layers , which may increase the way viruses are transmitted by increasing the amount of stagnant air . Health forecasts help professionals and patients know when and where there is a risk of illness . Through this understanding , preventative action can be taken and health care capacity ( i.e. hospitals and doctors ) managed to reduce illness and death . The main strand of the Health Forecasting project is forecasting the risk of exacerbation for people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ) . COPD Health Forecasts are used to drive the provision of anticipatory care to people with COPD , helping them achieve their potential for independence and wellbeing . The service is being run in around 30 Primary Care Trusts with over 20,000 patient registered to receive alerts . In many areas alerts are provided by an automated interactive telephone . Evidence from several evaluations of the service have shown around a 20 % reduction in COPD related emergency admissions for practices using the service . On 26 February 2007 , the project won in the Innovative Service Award category at the Health and Social Care Awards 2006 . The Health and Social Care Awards are run annually in partnership between the Department of Health and the NHS Institute for Innovation and Improvement and are the most important opportunity within the NHS and social care to identify , recognise and reward excellence in the provision of care at the front line . The specific award recognises an innovative , new or improved service that is benefiting the delivery of health care for patients , users and carers . in 2011 Shanghai Meteorological Service and Shanghai Municipal Public Health Bureau jointly launched a health meteorological service that includes health forecasting for conditions such as colds , asthma , COPD and a heat health warning service . This will be developed based on a considerable amount of research to provide a service to improve healthcare in Shanghai .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Health_forecasting", "rank": 84, "score": 78815 }, { "content": "Title: National Centers for Environmental Prediction Content: The United States National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) delivers national and global weather , water , climate and space weather guidance , forecasts , warnings and analyses to its Partners and External User Communities . These products and services are based on a service-science legacy and respond to user needs to protect life and property , enhance that nation 's economy and support the nation 's growing need for environmental information . The centers form part of the National Weather Service . There are nine centers : Aviation Weather Center provides aviation warnings and forecasts of hazardous flight conditions at all levels within domestic and international air space . Climate Prediction Center monitors and forecasts short-term climate fluctuations and provides information on the effects climate patterns can have on the nation . Environmental Modeling Center develops and improves numerical weather , climate , hydrological and ocean prediction through a broad program in partnership with the research community . National Hurricane Center provides forecasts of the movement and strength of tropical weather systems and issues watches and warnings for the North Atlantic and the Eastern Pacific Ocean . NCEP Central Operations sustains and executes the operational suite of numerical analyses and forecast models and prepares NCEP products for dissemination . Ocean Prediction Center issues weather warnings and forecasts out to five days for the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans north of 30 degrees North . Space Weather Prediction Center provides space weather alerts and warnings for disturbances that can affect people and equipment working in space and on earth . Storm Prediction Center provides tornado and severe weather watches for the contiguous United States along with a suite of hazardous weather forecasts . Weather Prediction Center provides nationwide analysis and forecast guidance products out through seven days .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "National_Centers_for_Environmental_Prediction", "rank": 85, "score": 78787 }, { "content": "Title: Tony Peck Content: Tony Peck ( born September 5 , 1983 in Louisiana , Missouri ) is the drummer for Peoria , Illinois based band , The Forecast . He was raised in Pleasant Hill , Illinois and is a 2002 graduate of Pleasant Hill High School where he was active in the school 's music programs and was a 2002 recipient of the Arion Award . After graduating from high school he began touring and recording with several bands , including The Junior Varsity , for two years before being asked to join The Forecast in July 2004 . Tony currently resides in Quincy , Illinois . Tony uses C&C drums and Sabian cymbals .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Tony_Peck", "rank": 86, "score": 78498 }, { "content": "Title: Weather and Forecasting Content: Weather and Forecasting is a scientific journal published by the American Meteorological Society . Articles on forecasting and analysis techniques , forecast verification studies , and case studies useful to forecasters . In addition , submissions that report on changes to the suite of operational numerical models and statistical post-processing techniques , and articles that demonstrate the transfer of research results to the forecasting community .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Weather_and_Forecasting", "rank": 87, "score": 78398 }, { "content": "Title: Cash flow forecasting Content: Cash flow forecasting is important because if a business runs out of cash and is not able to obtain new finance , it will become insolvent . Cash flow is the life-blood of all businesses -- particularly start-ups and small enterprises . As a result , it is essential that management forecast ( predict ) what is going to happen to cash flow to make sure the s has enough to survive . How often management should forecast cash flow is dependent on the financial security of the business . If the business is struggling , or is keeping a watchful eye on its finances , the business owner should be forecasting and revising his or her cash flow on a daily basis . However , if the finances of the business are more stable and ` safe ' , then forecasting and revising cash flow weekly or monthly is enough . Here are the key reasons why a cash flow forecast is so important : Identify potential shortfalls in cash balances in advance -- think of the cash flow forecast as an `` early warning system '' . This is , by far , the most important reason for a cash flow forecast . Make sure that the business can afford to pay suppliers and employees . Suppliers who do n't get paid will soon stop supplying the business ; it is even worse if employees are not paid on time . Spot problems with customer payments -- preparing the forecast encourages the business to look at how quickly customers are paying their debts . Note -- this is not really a problem for businesses ( like retailers ) that take most of their sales in cash/credit cards at the point of sale . As an important discipline of financial planning -- the cash flow forecast is an important management process , similar to preparing business budgets . External stakeholders such as banks may require a regular forecast . Certainly , if the business has a bank loan , the bank will want to look at the cash flow forecast at regular intervals .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Cash_flow_forecasting", "rank": 88, "score": 78330 }, { "content": "Title: Weather Forecasting Improvement Act of 2013 Content: The Weather Forecasting Improvement Act of 2013 was a bill that intended to authorize appropriations over the 2014-2017 period for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) to improve forecasting of severe weather events . The bill also sought to authorize NOAA to carry out various other activities related to weather forecasting and research . The bill was introduced in the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Weather_Forecasting_Improvement_Act_of_2013", "rank": 89, "score": 78259 }, { "content": "Title: Forecasting Division of Western Norway Content: The Forecasting Division of Western Norway ( Vervarslinga på Vestlandet ) is a department of the Norwegian Meteorological Institute located in Bergen . It was established in 1918 . It prepares weather forecasting for the area between Nord-Trøndelag and Lista , as well as the fishing grounds around The British Isles and Iceland .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecasting_Division_of_Western_Norway", "rank": 90, "score": 78080 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Tanev Content: Peter Tanev ( born 1968 ) is a Danish weather presenter who has been presenting weather forecasts for TV 2 since 1996 . He has a bachelor 's degree in climatology from the University of Copenhagen . Tanev 's father was Bulgarian and he was raised as a Catholic . In addition to his work on television , Tanev also lectures about the weather , climate and the environment and has published two books .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Peter_Tanev", "rank": 91, "score": 78014 }, { "content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change", "rank": 92, "score": 77996 }, { "content": "Title: Metro Weather Service Content: Metro Weather Service , Inc. is a small business specializing in weather forecasting . It is based in Valley Stream , New York but has clients across North America . Metro Weather has a staff of meteorologists on-duty 24 hours a day , 7 days a week , providing accurate weather forecasts to clients all over North America .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Metro_Weather_Service", "rank": 93, "score": 77982 }, { "content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period", "rank": 94, "score": 77889 }, { "content": "Title: Masao Kanamitsu Content: Masao Kanamitsu ( November 6 , 1943 in Kumamoto , Japan -- August 17 , 2011 in Del Mar , California ) - was Japanese and American atmospheric scientist working in the field of data assimilation . His research greatly influenced global and regional climate change studies including development of breakthrough reanalysis and downscaling datasets and weather forecasting studies . He was the co-author of one of the most cited geophysics paper in his time . Kanamitsu was born in 1943 and was raised in Sapporo . He did his B.S. and M. Sc . in 1968 at Hokkaido University , Japan and M.Sc . and Ph. D. in 1975 at Florida State University . He was one of the large group of Japanese scientists who after the World War II greatly contributed to the development of the dynamic meteorology in the US and in the World including Syukuro Manabe , Taroh Matsuno , Kikuro Miyakoda , and Akio Arakawa . He served as a Forecaster at Japan Meteorological Agency , as a leader of the Global Modeling Branch , Development Division , and later as an Acting Chief of the Prediction Branch at the Climate Prediction Center of the National Meteorological Center . In 2001 he moved to Scripps Institution of Oceanography where he worked to the rest of his life . He had a group of young researchers working with him . Kanamitsu was instrumental in creating one of the most successful datasets used in global change studies - the NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis for which he received a Group Gold Medal from the Department of Commerce in 1997 . His 1996 reanalysis paper is one of the most celebrated paper in atmospheric science and geosciences - at the time of his death this paper was cited 7985 times . His publications report ambitious , multiyear in making , and extensive project to develop regional-scale climate change dataset based on the NCEP -- NCAR reanalysis for the period 1948 -- 2005 . This downscaling paved the way for local scale understanding of climate changes . In he worked out a problem of how to produce meteorological dataset such as winds , pressures , or temperature on fine scale ( say every 10 km ) if the measurements are performed every 200 km . This led to a concept of dynamical downscaling of climate analysis using regional models . He served as an editor for the Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan ( 1980 -- 1985 ) and the Monthly Weather Review ( 1991 -- 1993 ) . He was active scientifically to the end of his very productive life . At the time of his death he was a researcher at Scripps Institution of Oceanography where in relatively short time of about 10 years he wrote 35 papers . Kanamitsu was survived by his wife Mariko and he had daughter Tomoko . He enjoyed hiking in various mountain ranges around Japan , United States and Europe . He loved dogs . He received Meteorological Society of Japan award in 1983 . He was known as Kana among his friends .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Masao_Kanamitsu", "rank": 95, "score": 77796 }, { "content": "Title: Forecast Systems Laboratory Content: The Forecast Systems Laboratory ( FSL ) was a meteorological research and development laboratory in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) / Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . In October 2005 , it was merged with five other NOAA labs to form the Earth System Research Laboratory . FSL conducted applied meteorological research and development to improve and create short-term warning and weather forecast systems , models , and observing technology . Supercomputing and other leading-edge technology are used in these applications . FSL then transferred these new scientific and technological advances to its clients which include NOAA 's National Weather Service , the commercial and general aviation communities , the United States Air Force , many foreign weather forecasting services , and various private interests .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Forecast_Systems_Laboratory", "rank": 96, "score": 77703 }, { "content": "Title: Global Environmental Multiscale Model Content: The Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) , is an integrated forecasting and data assimilation system developed in the Recherche en Prévision Numérique ( RPN ) , Meteorological Research Branch ( MRB ) , and the Canadian Meteorological Centre ( CMC ) . Along with the NWS 's Global Forecast System ( GFS ) , which runs out to 16 days , the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) , which runs out 10 days , the Naval Research Laboratory Navy Global Environmental Model ( NAVGEM ) , which runs out eight days , and the UK Met Office 's Unified Model , which runs out to 6 days , it is one of the five predominant synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The GEM 's operational model , known as the Global Deterministic Prediction System ( GDPS ) , is currently operational for the global data assimilation cycle and medium-range forecasting , the regional data assimilation spin-up cycle and short-range forecasting . Furthermore , mesoscale forecasts ( distributed under the names Regional Deterministic Prediction System or RDPS for the coarser mesh and High Resolution Deterministic Prediction System or HRDPS for the finer mesh ) are produced overnight and are available to the operational forecasters . A growing number of meteorological applications are now either based on or use the GEM model . Output from the GEM goes out to 10 days , on par with the public output of the European Integrated Forecast System . The ensemble variant of the GEM is known as the Global Ensemble Prediction System ( GEPS ) . It has 20 members ( plus control ) and runs out 16 days , the same range as the American Global Forecast System . The GEPS runs alongside the GFS ensemble to form the North American Ensemble Forecast System . A Regional Ensemble Prediction System ( REPS ) , covering North America and also having 20 members plus control , runs out 72 hours . The GEM model has been developed to meet the operational weather forecasting needs of Canada for the coming years . These presently include short-range regional forecasting , medium-range global forecasting , and data assimilation . In the future they will include nowcasting at the meso-scales , and dynamic extended-range forecasting on monthly to seasonal timescales . The essence of the approach is to develop a single highly efficient model that can be reconfigured at run time to either run globally at uniform-resolution ( with possibly degraded resolution in the `` other '' hemisphere ) , or to run with variable resolution over a global domain such that high resolution is focused over an area of interest . The operational GEM model dynamics is formulated in terms of the hydrostatic primitive equations with a terrain following pressure vertical coordinate ( h ) . The time discretization is an implicit two-time-level semi-Lagrangian scheme . The spatial discretization is a Galerkin grid-point formulation on an Arakawa C-grid in the horizontal ( lat-lon ) and an unstaggered vertical discretization . The horizontal mesh can be of uniform or variable resolution , and furthermore can be arbitrarily rotated , the vertical mesh is also variable . The explicit horizontal diffusion is -2 on all prognostic variables . The operational GEM model is interfaced with a full complement of physical parametrizations , these currently include : solar and infrared radiation interactive with water vapor , carbon dioxide , ozone and clouds , prediction of surface temperature over land with the force-restore method , turbulence in the planetary boundary layer through vertical diffusion , diffusion coefficients based on stability and turbulent kinetic energy , surface layer based on Monin-Obukhov similarity theory , shallow convection scheme ( non precipitating ) , Kuo-type deep convection scheme ( global forecast system ) , Fritsch-Chappell type deep convection scheme ( regional forecast system ) , Sundqvist condensation scheme for stratiform precipitation , gravity wave drag . The next stage of development of the GEM model is to evaluate the non-hydrostatic version for mesoscale applications where the hydrostatic assumption breaks down . The limited-area ( open-boundary ) version is scheduled to follow . The distributed memory version of GEM is almost completed , it is a major recoding effort that is based upon a locally developed communication interface currently using Message Passing Interface . Research on the performance of different land surface schemes such as ISBA ( Interaction Soil-Biosphere-Atmosphere ) and CLASS ( Canadian Land Surface Scheme ) is making progress . The strategy is progressing towards a unified data assimilation and forecast system , at the heart of which lies a single multipurpose and multiscale numerical model . Output from Canadian forecast models such as the GEM is under Canadian crown copyright but is issued under a free license if properly attributed to Environment Canada . Various unofficial sites thus redistribute GEM data , including the GDPS and GEPS .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Global_Environmental_Multiscale_Model", "rank": 97, "score": 77583 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of Forecasting Content: The Journal of Forecasting is a peer-reviewed academic journal published eight times per year by John Wiley & Sons . The journal was established in 1982 and covers all aspects of forecasting , including subject areas such as statistics , economics , psychology , systems engineering , and social sciences . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2011 impact factor of 0.930 , ranking it 27th out of 54 journals in the category `` Planning & Development '' and 101st out of 168 journals in the category `` Management '' .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Journal_of_Forecasting", "rank": 98, "score": 77544 }, { "content": "Title: Zambretti Forecaster Content: The Zambretti Forecaster is a weather forecasting instrument used in conjunction with a barometer . It interprets the reading of a barometer into one forecast from a large selection of permutations after making allowances for variable factors . These include wind direction , a rising , falling or steady barometer , and the season .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Zambretti_Forecaster", "rank": 99, "score": 77287 }, { "content": "Title: Sailing weather prediction Content: Sailing weather prediction or Sailing weather routing is the art of weather forecasting and routing for adventurers and competitive sailors . Weather forecasting for sailing involves several activities such as weather training and coaching , dissemination of data for use in navigation and route planning software , race modeling which involves historical weather and sea state analysis for yacht and sail design , trip and adventure planning for distance races and record attempts , monitoring for departure and trip weather windows . It involves several type of events such as day races , long-distance races , around-the-world-races , and record attempts . It is routinely used in races such as Volvo Ocean Race , America 's Cup campaigns , and olympic classes regattas .", "qid": "2856", "docid": "Sailing_weather_prediction", "rank": 100, "score": 77073 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Aerodynamic heating Content: Aerodynamic heating is the heating of a solid body produced by its high-speed passage through air ( or by the passage of air past a test object in a wind tunnel ) , whereby its kinetic energy is converted to heat by skin friction on the surface of the object at a rate that depends on the viscosity and speed of the air . In science and engineering , it is most frequently a concern regarding meteors , reentry vehicles , and the design of high-speed aircraft . At high speeds through the air , the object 's kinetic energy is converted to heat through compression and friction . At lower speed , the object will lose heat to the air through which it is passing , if the air is cooler . The combined temperature effect of heat from the air and from passage through it is called the stagnation temperature ; the actual temperature is called the recovery temperature . These viscous dissipative effects to neighboring sub-layers make the boundary layer slow down via a non-isentropic process . Heat then conducts into the surface material from the higher temperature air . The result is an increase in the temperature of the material and a loss of energy from the flow . The forced convection ensures that other material replenishes the gases that have cooled to continue the process . The stagnation and the recovery temperature of a flow increases with the speed of the flow and are greater at high speeds . The total thermal loading of the object is a function of both the recovery temperature and the mass flow rate of the flow . Aerodynamic heating is greatest at high speed and in the lower atmosphere where the density is greater . In addition to the convective process described above , there is also Thermal radiation from the flow to the body and vice versa with the net direction set by the relative temperature of each . Aerodynamic heating increases with the speed of the vehicle . Its effects are minimal at subsonic speeds but at supersonic speeds beyond about M2 .2 it dictates the design/materials of the vehicle structure and internal systems . The heating effects are greatest at leading edges but the whole vehicle heats up to a stabilized temperature if it remains at speed . Aerodynamic heating is dealt with by the use of high temperature alloys for metals , the addition of insulation of the exterior of the vehicle , or the use of ablative material .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Aerodynamic_heating", "rank": 1, "score": 133898 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric circulation Content: Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air , and together with ocean circulation is the means by which thermal energy is redistributed on the surface of the Earth . The Earth 's atmospheric circulation varies from year to year , but the large scale structure of its circulation remains fairly constant . The smaller scale weather systems -- mid-latitude depressions , or tropical convective cells -- occur `` randomly '' , and long range weather predictions of those can not be made beyond ten days in practice , or a month in theory ( see Chaos theory and Butterfly effect ) . The Earth 's weather is a consequence of its illumination by the Sun , and the laws of thermodynamics . The atmospheric circulation can be viewed as a heat engine driven by the Sun 's energy , and whose energy sink , ultimately , is the blackness of space . The work produced by that engine causes the motion of the masses of air and in that process it redistributes the energy absorbed by the Earth 's surface near the tropics to space and incidentally to the latitudes nearer the poles . The large scale atmospheric circulation `` cells '' shift polewards in warmer periods ( for example , interglacials compared to glacials ) , but remain largely constant as they are , fundamentally , a property of the Earth 's size , rotation rate , heating and atmospheric depth , all of which change little . Over very long time periods ( hundreds of millions of years ) , a tectonic uplift can significantly alter their major elements , such as the jet stream , and plate tectonics may shift ocean currents . During the extremely hot climates of the Mesozoic , a third desert belt may have existed at the Equator .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Atmospheric_circulation", "rank": 2, "score": 124245 }, { "content": "Title: Air-mass thunderstorm Content: An air-mass thunderstorm , also called an `` ordinary '' , `` single cell '' , or `` garden variety '' thunderstorm , is a thunderstorm that is generally weak and usually not severe . These storms form in environments where at least some amount of Convective Available Potential Energy ( CAPE ) is present , but very low levels of wind shear and helicity . The lifting source , which is a crucial factor in thunderstorm development , is usually the result of uneven heating of the surface , though they can be induced by weather fronts and other low-level boundaries associated with wind convergence . The energy needed for these storms to form comes in the form of insolation , or solar radiation . Air-mass thunderstorms do not move quickly , last no longer than an hour , and have the threats of lightning , as well as showery light , moderate , or heavy rainfall . Heavy rainfall can interfere with microwave transmissions within the atmosphere . Lightning characteristics are related to characteristics of the parent thunderstorm , and could induce wildfires near thunderstorms with minimal rainfall . On unusual occasions there could be a weak downburst and small hail . They are common in temperate zones during a summer afternoon . Like all thunderstorms , the mean-layered wind field the storms form within determine motion . When the deep-layered wind flow is light , outflow boundary progression will determine storm movement . Since thunderstorms can be a hazard to aviation , pilots are advised to fly above any haze layers within regions of better visibility and to avoid flying under the anvil of these thunderstorms , which can be regions where hail falls from the parent thunderstorm . Vertical wind shear is also a hazard near the base of thunderstorms which have generated outflow boundaries .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Air-mass_thunderstorm", "rank": 3, "score": 119894 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric convection Content: Atmospheric convection is the result of a parcel-environment instability , or temperature difference , layer in the atmosphere . Different lapse rates within dry and moist air lead to instability . Mixing of air during the day which expands the height of the planetary boundary layer leads to increased winds , cumulus cloud development , and decreased surface dew points . Moist convection leads to thunderstorm development , which is often responsible for severe weather throughout the world . Special threats from thunderstorms include hail , downbursts , and tornadoes .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Atmospheric_convection", "rank": 4, "score": 119380 }, { "content": "Title: Turbulence Content: Turbulence or turbulent flow is a flow regime in fluid dynamics characterized by chaotic changes in pressure and flow velocity . It is in contrast to a laminar flow regime , which occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers , with no disruption between those layers . Turbulence is commonly observed in everyday phenomena such as surf , fast flowing rivers , billowing storm clouds , or smoke from a chimney , and most fluid flows occurring in nature and created in engineering applications are turbulent . Turbulence is caused by excessive kinetic energy in parts of a fluid flow , which overcomes the damping effect of the fluid 's viscosity . For this reason turbulence is easier to create in low viscosity fluids , but more difficult in highly viscous fluids . In general terms , in turbulent flow , unsteady vortices appear of many sizes which interact with each other , consequently drag due to friction effects increases . This would increase the energy needed to pump fluid through a pipe , for instance . However this effect can also be exploited by such as aerodynamic spoilers on aircraft , which deliberately `` spoil '' the laminar flow to increase drag and reduce lift . The onset of turbulence can be predicted by a dimensionless constant called the Reynolds number , which calculates the balance between kinetic energy and viscous damping in a fluid flow . However , turbulence has long resisted detailed physical analysis , and the interactions within turbulence creates a very complex situation . Richard Feynman has described turbulence as the most important unsolved problem of classical physics .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Turbulence", "rank": 5, "score": 117632 }, { "content": "Title: Weather Content: Weather is the state of the atmosphere , to the degree that it is hot or cold , wet or dry , calm or stormy , clear or cloudy . Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere , the troposphere , just below the stratosphere . Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity , whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time . When used without qualification , `` weather '' is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth . Weather is driven by air pressure , temperature and moisture differences between one place and another . These differences can occur due to the sun 's angle at any particular spot , which varies with latitude . The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the largest scale atmospheric circulations : the Hadley Cell , the Ferrel Cell , the Polar Cell , and the jet stream . Weather systems in the mid-latitudes , such as extratropical cyclones , are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow . Because the Earth 's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane , sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year . On Earth 's surface , temperatures usually range ± 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F to 100 ° F ) annually . Over thousands of years , changes in Earth 's orbit can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth , thus influencing long-term climate and global climate change . Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences . Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earth 's surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant . Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location . The Earth 's weather system is a chaotic system ; as a result , small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole . Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history , and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns . Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth . A famous landmark in the Solar System , Jupiter 's Great Red Spot , is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years . However , weather is not limited to planetary bodies . A star 's corona is constantly being lost to space , creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System . The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Weather", "rank": 6, "score": 116130 }, { "content": "Title: Convective instability Content: In meteorology , convective instability or stability of an air mass refers to its ability to resist vertical motion . A stable atmosphere makes vertical movement difficult , and small vertical disturbances dampen out and disappear . In an unstable atmosphere , vertical air movements ( such as in orographic lifting , where an air mass is displaced upwards as it is blown by wind up the rising slope of a mountain range ) tend to become larger , resulting in turbulent airflow and convective activity . Instability can lead to significant turbulence , extensive vertical clouds , and severe weather such as thunderstorms . Adiabatic cooling and heating are phenomena of rising or descending air . Rising air expands and cools due to the decrease in air pressure as altitude increases . The opposite is true of descending air ; as atmospheric pressure increases , the temperature of descending air increases as it is compressed . Adiabatic heating and adiabatic cooling are terms used to describe this temperature change . The adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which a rising or falling air mass lowers or increases per distance of vertical displacement . The ambient lapse rate is the temperature change in the ( non-displaced ) air per vertical distance . Instability results from difference between the adiabatic lapse rate of an air mass and the ambient lapse rate in the atmosphere . If the adiabatic lapse rate is lower than the ambient lapse rate , an air mass displaced upward cools less rapidly than the air in which it is moving . Hence , such an air mass becomes warmer relative to the atmosphere . As warmer air is less dense , such an air mass would tend to continue to rise . Conversely , if the adiabatic lapse rate is higher than the ambient lapse rate , an air mass displaced upward cools more rapidly than the air in which it is moving . Hence , such an airmass becomes cooler relative to the atmosphere . As cooler air is more dense , the rise of such an airmass would tend to be resisted . When air rises , moist air cools at a lower rate than dry air . That is , for the same vertical movement , a parcel of moist air will be warmer than a parcel of dry air . This is because of the condensation of water vapor in the air parcel due to expansion cooling . As water vapor condenses , latent heat is released into the air parcel . Moist air has more water vapor than dry air , so more latent heat is released into the parcel of moist air as it rises . Dry air does not have as much water vapor , therefore dry air cools at a higher rate with vertical movement than moist air . As a result of the latent heat that is released during water vapor condensation , moist air has a relatively lower adiabatic lapse rate than dry air . This makes moist air generally less stable than dry air ( see convective available potential energy -LSB- CAPE -RSB- ) . The dry adiabatic lapse rate ( for unsaturated air ) is 3 C-change per 1,000 vertical feet ( 300 m ) . The moist adiabatic lapse rate varies from 1.1 to per 1,000 vertical feet ( 300 m ) . The combination of moisture and temperature determine the stability of the air and the resulting weather . Cool , dry air is very stable and resists vertical movement , which leads to good and generally clear weather . The greatest instability occurs when the air is moist and warm , as it is in the tropical regions in the summer . Typically , thunderstorms appear on a daily basis in these regions due to the instability of the surrounding air . The ambient lapse rate differs in different meteorological conditions , but , on average , is 2 C-change per 1,000 vertical feet ( 300 m ) .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Convective_instability", "rank": 7, "score": 114413 }, { "content": "Title: Weatherization Content: Weatherization ( American English ) or weatherproofing ( British English ) is the practice of protecting a building and its interior from the elements , particularly from sunlight , precipitation , and wind , and of modifying a building to reduce energy consumption and optimize energy efficiency . Weatherization is distinct from building insulation , although building insulation requires weatherization for proper functioning . Many types of insulation can be thought of as weatherization , because they block drafts or protect from cold winds . Whereas insulation primarily reduces conductive heat flow , weatherization primarily reduces convective heat flow . In the United States , buildings use one third of all energy consumed and two thirds of all electricity . Due to the high energy usage , they are a major source of the pollution that causes urban air quality problems and pollutants that contribute to climate change . Building energy usage accounts for 49 percent of sulfur dioxide emissions , 25 percent of nitrous oxide emissions , and 10 percent of particulate emissions .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Weatherization", "rank": 8, "score": 113628 }, { "content": "Title: Weather front Content: A weather ( state of atmosphere ) front is a boundary separating two masses of air of different densities , and is the principal cause of meteorological phenomena outside the tropics . In surface weather analyses , fronts are depicted using various colored triangles and half-circles , depending on the type of front . The air masses separated by a front usually differ in temperature and humidity . Cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather , and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines . Warm fronts are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog . The weather usually clears quickly after a front 's passage . Some fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness , although there is invariably a wind shift . Cold fronts and occluded fronts generally move from west to east , while warm fronts move poleward . Because of the greater density of air in their wake , cold fronts and cold occlusions move faster than warm fronts and warm occlusions . Mountains and warm bodies of water can slow the movement of fronts . When a front becomes stationary , and the density contrast across the frontal boundary vanishes , the front can degenerate into a line which separates regions of differing wind velocity , known as a shearline . This is most common over the open ocean .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Weather_front", "rank": 9, "score": 113172 }, { "content": "Title: Weathering Content: Weathering is the breaking down of rocks , soil , and minerals as well as wood and artificial materials through contact with the Earth 's atmosphere , waters , and biological organisms . Weathering occurs in situ ( on site ) , that is , in the same place , with little or no movement , and thus should not be confused with erosion , which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water , ice , snow , wind , waves and gravity and then being transported and deposited in other locations . Two important classifications of weathering processes exist -- physical and chemical weathering ; each sometimes involves a biological component . Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with atmospheric conditions , such as heat , water , ice and pressure . The second classification , chemical weathering , involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or biologically produced chemicals also known as biological weathering in the breakdown of rocks , soils and minerals . While physical weathering is accentuated in very cold or very dry environments , chemical reactions are most intense where the climate is wet and hot . However , both types of weathering occur together , and each tends to accelerate the other . For example , physical abrasion ( rubbing together ) decreases the size of particles and therefore increases their surface area , making them more susceptible to rapid chemical reactions . The various agents act in concert to convert primary minerals ( feldspars and micas ) to secondary minerals ( clays and carbonates ) and release plant nutrient elements in soluble forms . The materials left over after the rock breaks down combined with organic material creates soil . The mineral content of the soil is determined by the parent material ; thus , a soil derived from a single rock type can often be deficient in one or more minerals needed for good fertility , while a soil weathered from a mix of rock types ( as in glacial , aeolian or alluvial sediments ) often makes more fertile soil . In addition , many of Earth 's landforms and landscapes are the result of weathering processes combined with erosion and re-deposition .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Weathering", "rank": 10, "score": 112714 }, { "content": "Title: Solar phenomena Content: Solar phenomena are the natural phenomena occurring within the magnetically heated outer atmospheres in the Sun . These phenomena take many forms , including solar wind , radio wave flux , energy bursts such as solar flares , coronal mass ejection or solar eruptions , coronal heating and sunspots . These phenomena are generated by a helical dynamo near the center of the Sun 's mass that generates strong magnetic fields and a chaotic dynamo near the surface that generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations . The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation . The collective effect of all solar variations within the Sun 's gravitational field is referred to as space weather . A major weather component is the solar wind , a stream of plasma released from the Sun 's upper atmosphere . It is responsible for the aurora , natural light displays in the sky in the Arctic and Antarctic . Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth , disrupting communications , as well as geomagnetic storms in Earth 's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere . Variations in solar intensity also affect Earth 's climate . These variations can explain events such as ice ages and the Great Oxygenation Event , while the Sun 's future expansion into a red giant will likely end life on Earth . Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the 8th century BCE . Babylonians inscribed and possibly predicted solar eclipses , while the earliest extant report of sunspots dates back to the Chinese Book of Changes , . The first extant description of the solar corona was in 968 , while the earliest sunspot drawing was in 1128 and a solar prominence was described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod . The invention of the telescope allowed major advances in understanding , allowing the first detailed observations in the 1600s . Solar spectroscopy began in the 1800s , from which properties of the solar atmosphere could be determined , while the creation of daguerreotypy led to the first solar photographs on 2 April 1845 . Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences , granulation and spectroscopy . Early in the 20th century , interest in astrophysics surged in America . A number of new observatories were built with solar telescopes around the world . The 1931 invention of the coronagraph allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Solar_phenomena", "rank": 11, "score": 110439 }, { "content": "Title: Viscosity index Content: Viscosity index ( VI ) is an arbitrary measure for the change of viscosity with variations in temperature . The lower the VI , the greater the change of viscosity of the oil with temperature and vice versa . It is used to characterize viscosity changes with relation to temperature in lubricating oil . The viscosity of liquids decreases as temperature increases . The viscosity of a lubricant is closely related to its ability to reduce friction . Generally , the least viscous lubricant which still forces the two moving surfaces apart is desired . If the lubricant is too viscous , it will require a large amount of energy to move ( as in honey ) ; if it is too thin , the surfaces will come in contact and friction will increase . Many lubricant applications require the lubricant to perform across a wide range of conditions , for example , automotive lubricants are required to reduce friction between engine components when the engine is started from cold ( relative to the engine 's operating temperatures ) up to 200 ° C when it is running . The best oils with the highest VI will remain stable and not vary much in viscosity over the temperature range . This allows for consistent engine performance within the normal working conditions . The VI scale was set up by the Society of Automotive Engineers ( SAE ) . The temperatures chosen arbitrarily for reference are 100 and . The original scale only stretched between 0 ( lowest VI oil , naphthenic ) and 100 ( best oil , paraffinnic ) but since the conception of the scale better oils have also been produced , leading to VIs greater than 100 ( see below ) . VI improving additives and higher quality base oils are widely used nowadays which increase the VIs attainable beyond the value of 100 . The Viscosity Index of synthetic oils ranges from 80 to over 400 . The viscosity index can be calculated using the following formula : where U is the oil 's kinematic viscosity at 40 ° C , and L and H are values based on the oil 's kinematic viscosity at 100 ° C. L and H are the values of viscosity at 40 ° C for oils of VI 0 and 100 respectively , having the same viscosity at 100 ° C as the oil whose VI we are trying to determine . These L and H values can be found in ASTM D2270 .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Viscosity_index", "rank": 12, "score": 108274 }, { "content": "Title: Chaos terrain Content: In astrogeology , chaos terrain ( or chaotic terrain ) is a planetary surface area where features such as ridges , cracks , and plains appear jumbled and enmeshed with one another . Chaos terrain is a notable feature of the planets Mars and Mercury , Jupiter 's moon Europa , and the dwarf planet Pluto . In scientific nomenclature , `` chaos '' is used as a component of proper nouns ( e.g. , `` Aureum Chaos '' on Mars ) .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Chaos_terrain", "rank": 13, "score": 106763 }, { "content": "Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology", "qid": "2857", "docid": "LOWERN", "rank": 14, "score": 106672 }, { "content": "Title: Drag (physics) Content: In fluid dynamics , drag ( sometimes called air resistance , a type of friction , or fluid resistance , another type of friction or fluid friction ) is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid . This can exist between two fluid layers ( or surfaces ) or a fluid and a solid surface . Unlike other resistive forces , such as dry friction , which are nearly independent of velocity , drag forces depend on velocity . Drag force is proportional to the velocity for a laminar flow and the squared velocity for a turbulent flow . Even though the ultimate cause of a drag is viscous friction , the turbulent drag is independent of viscosity . Drag forces always decrease fluid velocity relative to the solid object in the fluid 's path .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Drag_(physics)", "rank": 15, "score": 106416 }, { "content": "Title: Chaotic mixing Content: In chaos theory and fluid dynamics , chaotic mixing is a process by which flow tracers develop into complex fractals under the action of a fluid flow . The flow is characterized by an exponential growth of fluid filaments . Even very simple flows , such as the blinking vortex , or finitely resolved wind fields can generate exceptionally complex patterns from initially simple tracer fields . The phenomenon is still not well understood and is the subject of much current research .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Chaotic_mixing", "rank": 16, "score": 106321 }, { "content": "Title: Chaos (journal) Content: Chaos : An Interdisciplinary Journal of Nonlinear Science is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering nonlinear systems and describing the manifestations in a manner comprehensible to researchers from a broad spectrum of disciplines . The editor-in-chief is Jürgen Kurths of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Chaos_(journal)", "rank": 17, "score": 106050 }, { "content": "Title: Fair weather condition Content: Fair weather condition concerns the electric field and the electric current in the air as well as the conductivity of the atmosphere . It is the electrostatic longitudinal modes and electromagnetic transverse mode or state of different meteorological conditions , concerning measurements of atmospheric electrical and meteorological parameters . Fair weather have as component parts an expansive stability range during natural fluctuations .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Fair_weather_condition", "rank": 18, "score": 105504 }, { "content": "Title: Wake low Content: A wake low , or wake depression , is a mesoscale low-pressure area which trails the mesoscale high following a squall line . Due to the subsiding warm air associated with the systems formation , clearing skies are associated with the wake low . Once difficult to detect in surface weather observations due to their broad spacing , the formation of mesoscale weather station networks , or mesonets , has increased their detection . Severe weather , in the form of high winds , can be generated by the wake low when the pressure difference between the mesohigh preceding it and the wake low is intense enough . When the squall line is in the process of decay , heat bursts can be generated near the wake low . Once new thunderstorm activity along the squall line concludes , the wake low associated with it weakens in tandem .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Wake_low", "rank": 19, "score": 105459 }, { "content": "Title: Low-dimensional chaos in stellar pulsations Content: Low-dimensional chaos in stellar pulsations is the current interpretation of an established phenomenon . The light curves of intrinsic variable stars with large amplitudes have been known for centuries to exhibit behavior that goes from extreme regularity , as for the classical Cepheids and the RR Lyrae stars , to extreme irregularity , as for the so-called Irregular variables . In the Population II stars this irregularity gradually increases from the low period W Virginis variables through the RV Tauri variables into the regime of the semiregular variables .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Low-dimensional_chaos_in_stellar_pulsations", "rank": 20, "score": 105197 }, { "content": "Title: Downburst Content: A downburst is a strong ground-level wind system that emanates from a point source above and blows radially , that is , in a straight line in all directions , from the point of contact at ground level . Often producing damaging winds , it may be confused with a tornado , where high-velocity winds circle a central area , and air moves inward and upward ; by contrast , in a downburst , winds are directed downward and then outward from the surface landing point . Downbursts are created by an area of significantly rain-cooled air that , after reaching ground level , spreads out in all directions producing strong winds . Dry downbursts are associated with thunderstorms with very little rain , while wet downbursts are created by thunderstorms with high amounts of rainfall . Microbursts and macrobursts are downbursts at very small and larger scales respectively . Another variety , the heat burst , is created by vertical currents on the backside of old outflow boundaries and squall lines where rainfall is lacking . Heat bursts generate significantly higher temperatures due to the lack of rain-cooled air in their formation . Downbursts create vertical wind shear or microbursts , which is dangerous to aviation .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Downburst", "rank": 21, "score": 104703 }, { "content": "Title: Subsidence (atmosphere) Content: Subsidence in the Earth 's atmosphere is most commonly caused by low temperatures : as air cools , it becomes denser and moves towards the ground , just as warm air becomes less dense and moves upwards . Cool subsiding air is subject to adiabatic warming which tends to cause the evaporation of any clouds that might be present . Subsidence generally causes high barometric pressure as more air moves into the same space : the polar highs are areas of almost constant subsidence , as are the horse latitudes , and these areas of subsidence are the sources of much of the world 's prevailing wind . Subsidence also causes many smaller-scale weather phenomena , such as morning fog . An extreme form of subsidence is a downburst , which can result in damage similar to that produced by a tornado . A milder form of subsidence is referred to as downdraft . Category : Atmosphere Category : Basic meteorological concepts and phenomena", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Subsidence_(atmosphere)", "rank": 22, "score": 104249 }, { "content": "Title: Whirlwind Content: A whirlwind is a weather phenomenon in which a vortex of wind ( a vertically oriented rotating column of air ) forms due to instabilities and turbulence created by heating and flow ( current ) gradients . Whirlwinds occur all over the world and in any season .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Whirlwind", "rank": 23, "score": 104175 }, { "content": "Title: Anabatic wind Content: An anabatic wind , from the Greek anabasis , verbal of anabainein meaning moving upward , is a warm wind which blows up a steep slope or mountain side , driven by heating of the slope through insolation . It is also known as an upslope flow . These winds typically occur during the daytime in calm sunny weather . A hill or mountain top will be radiatively warmed by the Sun which in turn heats the air just above it . Air at a similar altitude over an adjacent valley or plain does not get warmed so much because of the greater distance to the ground below it . The effect may be enhanced if the lower lying ground is shaded by the mountain and so receives less heat . The air over the hill top is now warmer than the air at a similar altitude around it and will rise through convection . This creates a lower pressure region into which the air at the bottom of the slope flows , causing the wind . It is common for the air rising from the tops of large mountains to reach a height where it cools adiabatically to below its dew point and forms cumulus clouds . These can then produce rain or even thunderstorms . Anabatic winds are particularly useful to soaring glider pilots who can use them to increase the aircraft 's altitude . Anabatic winds can be detrimental to the maximum downhill speed of cyclists . Conversely , catabatic winds are down-slope winds , frequently produced at night by the opposite effect , the air near to the ground losing heat to it faster than air at a similar altitude over adjacent low-lying land . Monsoon winds are similarly generated , but on a continental scale and seasonal cycle .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Anabatic_wind", "rank": 24, "score": 104137 }, { "content": "Title: Hot and high Content: In aviation , hot and high is a condition of low air density due to high ambient temperature and high airport elevation . Air density decreases with increasing temperature and altitude . At any given true airspeed , lower air density reduces the amount of lift generated by the wings or the rotors of an aircraft , which may hamper an aircraft 's performance and hence its ability to operate safely . The reduced density also reduces the performance of the aircraft 's engine , compounding the effect . Aviators gauge air density by calculating the density altitude . `` Hot '' and `` high '' do not have to be mutually inclusive of one another , though this tends to be the exception . If an airport is especially hot or high , the other condition need not be present . Temperatures can change from one hour to the next , while the elevation of an airport always remains constant . The fact that temperatures decrease at higher elevations mitigates the `` hot and high '' effect to a certain extent .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Hot_and_high", "rank": 25, "score": 104114 }, { "content": "Title: Heat burst Content: In meteorology , a heat burst is a rare atmospheric phenomenon characterized by gusty winds and a rapid increase in temperature and decrease in dew point ( moisture ) . Heat bursts typically occur during night-time and are associated with decaying thunderstorms . Although this phenomenon is not fully understood , it is theorized that the event is caused when rain evaporates ( virga ) into a parcel of cold dry air high in the atmosphere making the air denser than its surroundings . The parcel descends rapidly , warming due to compression , overshoots its equilibrium level and reaches the surface , similar to a downburst . Recorded temperatures during heat bursts have reached well above 38 ° C , sometimes rising by 20 F-change or more within only a few minutes . More extreme events have also been documented , where temperatures have been reported to exceed 120 ° F. However , such extreme events have never been officially verified . Heat bursts are also characterized by extremely dry air and are sometimes associated with very strong , even damaging , winds .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Heat_burst", "rank": 26, "score": 103989 }, { "content": "Title: List of areas of chaos terrain on Mars Content: This is a list of areas of chaos terrain officially named by the International Astronomical Union on the planet Mars . Chaos terrain ( or chaotic terrain ) is an astrogeological term used to denote planetary surface areas where features such as ridges , cracks , and plains appear jumbled and enmeshed with one another . Coordinates are in planetocentric latitude with east longitude . Areas of chaos terrain are usually named after a nearby albedo feature as in line with the IAU 's rules on planetary nomenclature . Such an albedo feature must feature on the maps of Mars made by either Giovanni Schiaparelli or Eugène Michel Antoniadi and are listed at Classical albedo features on Mars .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "List_of_areas_of_chaos_terrain_on_Mars", "rank": 27, "score": 103683 }, { "content": "Title: Stone flaming Content: Stone flaming or thermaling is the application of high temperature to the surface of stone to make it look like natural weathering . The sudden application of a torch to the surface of stone causes the surface layer to expand and flake off , exposing rough stone . Flaming works well on granite , because granite is made up of minerals with differing heat expansion rates .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Stone_flaming", "rank": 28, "score": 103143 }, { "content": "Title: Warm front Content: A warm front is a density discontinuity located at the leading edge of a homogeneous warm air mass , and is typically located on the equator-facing edge of an isotherm gradient . Warm fronts lie within broader troughs of low pressure than cold fronts , and move more slowly than the cold fronts which usually follow because cold air is denser and less easy to remove from the Earth 's surface . This also forces temperature differences across warm fronts to be broader in scale . Clouds ahead of the warm front are mostly stratiform , and rainfall gradually increases as the front approaches . Fog can also occur preceding a warm frontal passage . Clearing and warming is usually rapid after frontal passage . If the warm air mass is unstable , thunderstorms may be embedded among the stratiform clouds ahead of the front , and after frontal passage thundershowers may continue . On weather maps , the surface location of a warm front is marked with a red line of semicircles pointing in the direction of travel .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Warm_front", "rank": 29, "score": 103071 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal low Content: Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Thermal_low", "rank": 30, "score": 102070 }, { "content": "Title: Stop Climate Chaos Content: Stop Climate Chaos is a climate change coalition of primarily environmental and international development NGOs that was formed in September 2005 . The coalition ran the I Count campaign in 2006 -- 07 and organised The Wave , a campaign focused on the climatic impacts of energy production which took place on 5 December 2009 in the run-up to the UN talks in Copenhagen . The coalition encourages individuals to lobby the UK government for what they see as positive policies on climate change . From 2005 to 2010 the director of the coalition was Ashok Sinha . There is also a Scottish secretariat called Stop Climate Chaos Scotland .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Stop_Climate_Chaos", "rank": 31, "score": 102026 }, { "content": "Title: Heat wave Content: A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather , which may be accompanied by high humidity , especially in oceanic climate countries . While definitions vary , a heat wave is measured relative to the usual weather in the area and relative to normal temperatures for the season . Temperatures that people from a hotter climate consider normal can be termed a heat wave in a cooler area if they are outside the normal climate pattern for that area . The term is applied both to hot weather variations and to extraordinary spells of hot which may occur only once a century . Severe heat waves have caused catastrophic crop failures , thousands of deaths from hyperthermia , and widespread power outages due to increased use of air conditioning . A heat wave is considered extreme weather , and a danger because heat and sunlight may overheat the human body .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Heat_wave", "rank": 32, "score": 101453 }, { "content": "Title: Thunderstorm Content: A thunderstorm , also known as an electrical storm , lightning storm , or thundershower , is a storm characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic effect on the Earth 's atmosphere , known as thunder . Thunderstorms occur in association with a type of cloud known as a cumulonimbus . They are usually accompanied by strong winds , heavy rain , and sometimes snow , sleet , hail , or , in contrast , no precipitation at all . Thunderstorms may line up in a series or become a rainband , known as a squall line . Strong or severe thunderstorms , known as supercells , rotate as do cyclones . While most thunderstorms move with the mean wind flow through the layer of the troposphere that they occupy , vertical wind shear sometimes causes a deviation in their course at a right angle to the wind shear direction . Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm , moist air , sometimes along a front . As the warm , moist air moves upward , it cools , condenses , and forms a cumulonimbus cloud that can reach heights of over 20 km . As the rising air reaches its dew point temperature , water vapor condenses into water droplets or ice , reducing pressure locally within the thunderstorm cell . Any precipitation falls the long distance through the clouds towards the Earth 's surface . As the droplets fall , they collide with other droplets and become larger . The falling droplets create a downdraft as it pulls cold air with it , and this cold air spreads out at the Earth 's surface , occasionally causing strong winds that are commonly associated with thunderstorms . Thunderstorms can form and develop in any geographic location but most frequently within the mid-latitude , where warm , moist air from tropical latitudes collides with cooler air from polar latitudes . Thunderstorms are responsible for the development and formation of many severe weather phenomena . Thunderstorms , and the phenomena that occur along with them , pose great hazards . Damage that results from thunderstorms is mainly inflicted by downburst winds , large hailstones , and flash flooding caused by heavy precipitation . Stronger thunderstorm cells are capable of producing tornadoes and waterspouts . There are four types of thunderstorms : single-cell , multi-cell cluster , multi-cell lines , and supercells . Supercell thunderstorms are the strongest and the most associated with severe weather phenomena . Mesoscale convective systems formed by favorable vertical wind shear within the tropics and subtropics can be responsible for the development of hurricanes . Dry thunderstorms , with no precipitation , can cause the outbreak of wildfires from the heat generated from the cloud-to-ground lightning that accompanies them . Several means are used to study thunderstorms : weather radar , weather stations , and video photography . Past civilizations held various myths concerning thunderstorms and their development as late as the 18th century . Beyond the Earth 's atmosphere , thunderstorms have also been observed on the planets of Jupiter , Saturn , Neptune , and , probably , Venus .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Thunderstorm", "rank": 33, "score": 100707 }, { "content": "Title: Viscosity Content: The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress . For liquids , it corresponds to the informal concept of `` thickness '' ; for example , honey has a much higher viscosity than water . Viscosity is a property of the fluid which opposes the relative motion between the two surfaces of the fluid in a fluid that are moving at different velocities . When the fluid is forced through a tube , the particles which compose the fluid generally move more quickly near the tube 's axis and more slowly near its walls ; therefore some stress ( such as a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube ) is needed to overcome the friction between particle layers to keep the fluid moving . For a given velocity pattern , the stress required is proportional to the fluid 's viscosity . A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid . Zero viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures in superfluids . Otherwise , all fluids have positive viscosity , and are technically said to be viscous or viscid . In common parlance , however , a liquid is said to be viscous if its viscosity is substantially greater than that of water , and may be described as mobile if the viscosity is noticeably less than water . A fluid with a relatively high viscosity , such as pitch , may appear to be a solid .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Viscosity", "rank": 34, "score": 100595 }, { "content": "Title: Martian chaos terrain Content: Chaos terrain on Mars is distinctive ; nothing on Earth compares to it . Chaos terrain generally consists of irregular groups of large blocks , some tens of kilometers across and a hundred or more meters high . The tilted and flat topped blocks form depressions hundreds of metres deep . A chaotic region can be recognized by a rat 's nest of mesas , buttes , and hills , chopped through with valleys which in places look almost patterned . Some parts of this chaotic area have not collapsed completely -- they are still formed into large mesas , so they may still contain water ice . Chaos regions formed long ago . By counting craters ( more craters in any given area means an older surface ) and by studying the valleys ' relations with other geological features , scientists have concluded the channels formed 2.0 to 3.8 billion years ago .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Martian_chaos_terrain", "rank": 35, "score": 100494 }, { "content": "Title: Decoupling (meteorology) Content: In weather forecasting , decoupling is boundary-layer decoupling of atmospheric layers over land at night . During the day when the sun shines and warms the land , air at the surface of the earth is heated and rises . This rising air mixes the atmosphere near the earth . At night this process stops and air near the surface cools as the land loses heat by radiating in the infrared . If winds are light , air near the surface of the earth can become much colder , compared to the air above it , than if more mixing of air layers occurred . Category : Weather forecasting", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Decoupling_(meteorology)", "rank": 36, "score": 100461 }, { "content": "Title: Weathervane effect Content: Weathervaning or weathercocking is a phenomenon experienced by fixed wing aircraft on the ground and rotorcraft on the ground and when hovering . Aircraft on the ground have a natural pivoting point on an axis through the main landing gear contact points -LSB- disregarding the effects of toe in/toe out of the main gear -RSB- . As most of the side area of an aircraft will typically be behind this pivoting point , any crosswind will create a yawing moment tending to turn the nose of the aircraft into the wind . It is not to be confused with directional stability , as experienced by aircraft in flight . The term also refers to a similar phenomenon in fin-guided small rockets which , when launched vertically , will tend to turn into a flight path that takes them upwind .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Weathervane_effect", "rank": 37, "score": 99618 }, { "content": "Title: Friction Content: Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces , fluid layers , and material elements sliding against each other . There are several types of friction : Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact . Dry friction is subdivided into static friction ( `` stiction '' ) between non-moving surfaces , and kinetic friction between moving surfaces . Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other . Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid surfaces . Skin friction is a component of drag , the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the surface of a body . Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes deformation . When surfaces in contact move relative to each other , the friction between the two surfaces converts kinetic energy into thermal energy ( that is , it converts work to heat ) . This property can have dramatic consequences , as illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing pieces of wood together to start a fire . Kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy whenever motion with friction occurs , for example when a viscous fluid is stirred . Another important consequence of many types of friction can be wear , which may lead to performance degradation or damage to components . Friction is a component of the science of tribology . Friction is desirable and important in supplying traction to facilitate motion on land . Most land vehicles rely on friction for acceleration , deceleration and changing direction . Sudden reductions in traction can cause loss of control and accidents . Friction is not itself a fundamental force . Dry friction arises from a combination of inter-surface adhesion , surface roughness , surface deformation , and surface contamination . The complexity of these interactions makes the calculation of friction from first principles impractical and necessitates the use of empirical methods for analysis and the development of theory . Friction is a non-conservative force - work done against friction is path dependent . In the presence of friction , some energy is always lost in the form of heat . Thus mechanical energy is not conserved .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Friction", "rank": 38, "score": 99323 }, { "content": "Title: Cold-core low Content: A cold-core low , also known as an upper level low or cold-core cyclone , is a cyclone aloft which has an associated cold pool of air residing at high altitude within the Earth 's troposphere . It is a low pressure system which strengthens with height in accordance with the thermal wind relationship . These systems can be referred to as upper level lows . If a weak surface circulation forms in response to such a feature at subtropical latitudes of the eastern north Pacific or north Indian oceans , it is called a subtropical cyclone . Cloud cover and rainfall mainly occurs with these systems during the day . Severe weather , such as tornadoes , can occur near the center of cold-core lows . Cold lows can help spawn cyclones with significant weather impacts , such as polar lows , and Von Karman Vortices . In regard to tropical cyclones , cold lows can lead directly to their development due to their associated cold pool of air aloft or by acting as additional outflow channels to aid in further development .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Cold-core_low", "rank": 39, "score": 98517 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal Content: A thermal column ( or thermal ) is a column of rising air in the lower altitudes of Earth 's atmosphere , a form of atmospheric updraft . Thermals are created by the uneven heating of Earth 's surface from solar radiation , and are an example of convection , specifically atmospheric convection . The Sun warms the ground , which in turn warms the air directly above it .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Thermal", "rank": 40, "score": 98464 }, { "content": "Title: Iani Chaos Content: Iani Chaos is a region of chaos terrain at the south end of the outflow channel Ares Vallis , of the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle ( MC-19 ) region of the planet Mars , centered at approximately ~ 342 ° E , 2 ° S . This is the source region of Ares Vallis . The chaotic terrain is widely believed to have formed via the removal of subsurface water or ice , resulting in flooding at the surface , and the formation of Ares Vallis . Within Iani Chaos , deposited stratigraphically above the chaotic terrain , are smooth , low-slope , intermediate-to-light-toned deposits that are rich in a hydrated mineral that is most likely gypsum as well as hematite .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Iani_Chaos", "rank": 41, "score": 98259 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature dependence of liquid viscosity Content: The temperature dependence of liquid viscosity is the phenomenon by which liquid viscosity tends to decrease ( or , alternatively , its fluidity tends to increase ) as its temperature increases . This can be observed , for example , by watching how cooking oil appears to move more fluidly upon a frying pan after being heated by a stove .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Temperature_dependence_of_liquid_viscosity", "rank": 42, "score": 97901 }, { "content": "Title: Severe weather Content: Severe weather refers to any dangerous meteorological phenomena with the potential to cause damage , serious social disruption , or loss of human life . Types of severe weather phenomena vary , depending on the latitude , altitude , topography , and atmospheric conditions . High winds , hail , excessive precipitation , and wildfires are forms and effects of severe weather , as are thunderstorms , downbursts , lightning , tornadoes , waterspouts , tropical cyclones , and extratropical cyclones . Regional and seasonal severe weather phenomena include blizzards , snowstorms , ice storms , and duststorms .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Severe_weather", "rank": 43, "score": 97053 }, { "content": "Title: Chaotic Wrestling Light Heavyweight Championship Content: The Chaotic Wrestling ( CW ) Light Heavyweight Championship was a professional wrestling title in American independent promotion Chaotic Wrestling . The title was first won by Short Sleeve Sampson in Andover , Massachusetts on April 21 , 2001 . There have been a total of 4 recognized individual champions , who have had a combined 4 official reigns . On February 16 , 2002 , after being unified with the CW Television Championship , Dukes Dalton retires both titles after winning the New England Championship .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Chaotic_Wrestling_Light_Heavyweight_Championship", "rank": 44, "score": 97051 }, { "content": "Title: Butterfly effect Content: The butterfly effect is the concept that small causes can have large effects . Initially , it was used with weather prediction but later the term became a metaphor used in and out of science . In chaos theory , the butterfly effect is the sensitive dependence on initial conditions in which a small change in one state of a deterministic nonlinear system can result in large differences in a later state . The name , coined by Edward Lorenz for the effect which had been known long before , is derived from the metaphorical example of the details of a tornado ( exact time of formation , exact path taken ) being influenced by minor perturbations such as the flapping of the wings of a distant butterfly several weeks earlier . Lorenz discovered the effect when he observed that runs of his weather model with initial condition data that was rounded in a seemingly inconsequential manner would fail to reproduce the results of runs with the unrounded initial condition data . A very small change in initial conditions had created a significantly different outcome . The idea that small causes may have large effects in general and in weather specifically was used from Henri Poincaré to Norbert Wiener . Edward Lorenz 's work placed the concept of instability of the atmosphere onto a quantitative base and linked the concept of instability to the properties of large classes of dynamic systems which are undergoing nonlinear dynamics and deterministic chaos . The butterfly effect is exhibited by very simple systems . For example , the randomness of the outcomes of throwing dice depends on this characteristic to amplify small differences in initial conditions -- the precise direction , thrust , and orientation of the throw -- into significantly different dice paths and outcomes , which makes it virtually impossible to throw dice exactly the same way twice .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Butterfly_effect", "rank": 45, "score": 96913 }, { "content": "Title: Quantum turbulence Content: Quantum turbulence is the name given to the turbulent flow -- the chaotic motion of a fluid at high flow rates -- of quantum fluids , such as superfluids which have been cooled to temperatures close to absolute zero .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Quantum_turbulence", "rank": 46, "score": 96866 }, { "content": "Title: James Murdoch Austin Content: James Murdoch Austin ( May 25 , 1915 -- November 26 , 2000 ) was a New Zealand American meteorologist . He was notable for his pioneering modeling of the meteorology of air pollution , especially that of smokestack particulates . He is also notable as the doctoral advisor of the pioneer of chaos theory and early practitioner of numerical weather prediction , Edward Norton Lorenz .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "James_Murdoch_Austin", "rank": 47, "score": 96799 }, { "content": "Title: Air cooling Content: Air cooling is a method of dissipating heat . It works by expanding the surface area of or increasing the flow of air over the object to be cooled , or both . An example of the former is to add cooling fins to the surface of the object , either by making them integral or by attaching them tightly to the object 's surface ( to ensure efficient heat transfer ) . In the case of the latter , it is done by using a fan blowing air into or onto the object one wants to cool . The addition of fins to a heat sink increases its total surface area , resulting in greater cooling effectiveness . In all cases , the air has to be cooler than the object or surface from which it is expected to remove heat . This is due to the second law of thermodynamics , which states that heat will only move spontaneously from a hot reservoir ( the heat sink ) to a cold reservoir ( the air ) .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Air_cooling", "rank": 48, "score": 96686 }, { "content": "Title: AIRMET Content: An AIRMET , or Airmen 's Meteorological Information , is a concise description of weather phenomena that are occurring or may occur ( forecast ) along an air route that may affect aircraft safety . Compared to SIGMETs , AIRMETs cover less severe weather : moderate turbulence and icing , sustained surface winds of 30 knots or more , or widespread restricted visibility . AIRMETs are broadcast on the ATIS at ATC facilities , and are referred to as Weather Advisories . AIRMETs are valid for six hours . NOTE : The definition has changed and no longer says `` light aircraft '' ; AIRMETs are intended for all aircraft . There are three types of AIRMET , all identified by a phonetic letter : S ( Sierra ) , T ( Tango ) , and Z ( Zulu ) . AIRMET SIERRA ( Mountain obscuration or IFR ) ceilings less than 1000 feet and/or visibility less than 3 miles affecting over 50 % of the area at one time ; extensive mountain obscuration AIRMET TANGO ( Turbulence ) Light - moderate turbulence , sustained surface winds of 30 knots or more AIRMET ZULU ( Icing ) Light - moderate icing , freezing levels For an authority to issue an AIRMET , applicable conditions must be widespread . `` Widespread '' means that the applicable area covers at least 3000 square miles . Because conditions across the forecast period can move across the area , it is possible that only a small portion of the area is affected at any time . AIRMETs are routinely issued for six-hour periods beginning at 0145Z during Daylight Saving Time and at 0245Z during Standard Time . AIRMETS are also amended as necessary due to changing weather conditions or issuance/cancellation of a SIGMET . Graphical representation of AIRMETs can be found at : https://www.aviationweather.gov/ . Select the G-AIRMET checkbox for `` Graphical AIRMET '' .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "AIRMET", "rank": 49, "score": 96445 }, { "content": "Title: Outflow (meteorology) Content: Outflow , in meteorology , is air that flows outwards from a storm system . It is associated with ridging , or anticyclonic flow . In the low levels of the troposphere , outflow radiates from thunderstorms in the form of a wedge of rain-cooled air , which is visible as a thin rope-like cloud on weather satellite imagery or a fine line on weather radar imagery . Low-level outflow boundaries can disrupt the center of small tropical cyclones . However , outflow aloft is essential for the strengthening of a tropical cyclone . If this outflow is undercut , the tropical cyclone weakens . If two tropical cyclones are in proximity , the upper level outflow from the system to the west can limit the development of the system to the east .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Outflow_(meteorology)", "rank": 50, "score": 96354 }, { "content": "Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Polar_High", "rank": 51, "score": 96230 }, { "content": "Title: Apparent temperature Content: Apparent temperature is the temperature equivalent perceived by humans , caused by the combined effects of air temperature , relative humidity and wind speed . The measures are most commonly applied to perceived outdoor temperatures , but also apply to indoors , especially to saunas or when homes or workplaces are not sufficiently heated or cooled or insulated to provide comfortable or healthy conditions . The heat index and humidex measure the effect of humidity on the perception of temperatures above 80 ° F ( 27 degrees C ) . In humid conditions , the air feels much hotter , because of the reduction in evaporation of perspiration . The wind chill factor measures the effect of wind speed on cooling of the human body below 50 ° F ( 10 degrees C ) . As airflow increases over the skin , more heat will be removed . Standard models and conditions are used . The wet-bulb globe temperature ( WBGT ) combines the effects of radiation , humidity , temperature and wind speed on the perception of temperature . It is not often used as the resulting figure is very location specific ( e.g. cloud cover and/or wind shielding ) .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Apparent_temperature", "rank": 52, "score": 96165 }, { "content": "Title: Friction loss Content: In fluid flow , friction loss ( or skin friction ) is the loss of pressure or `` head '' that occurs in pipe or duct flow due to the effect of the fluid 's viscosity near the surface of the pipe or duct . In mechanical systems such as internal combustion engines , the term refers to the power lost in overcoming the friction between two moving surfaces , a different phenomenon .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Friction_loss", "rank": 53, "score": 96058 }, { "content": "Title: Chaos theory Content: Chaos theory is a branch of mathematics focused on the behavior of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions . ` Chaos ' is an interdisciplinary theory stating that within the apparent randomness of chaotic complex systems , there are underlying patterns , constant feedback loops , repetition , self-similarity , fractals , self-organization , and reliance on programming at the initial point known as sensitive dependence on initial conditions . The butterfly effect describes how a small change in one state of a deterministic nonlinear system can result in large differences in a later state , e.g. a butterfly flapping its wings in Brazil can cause a tornado in Texas . Small differences in initial conditions ( such as those due to rounding errors in numerical computation ) yield widely diverging outcomes for such dynamical systems -- a response popularly referred to as the butterfly effect - rendering long-term prediction of their behavior impossible in general . This happens even though these systems are deterministic , meaning that their future behavior is fully determined by their initial conditions , with no random elements involved . In other words , the deterministic nature of these systems does not make them predictable . This behavior is known as deterministic chaos , or simply chaos . The theory was summarized by Edward Lorenz as : Chaotic behavior exists in many natural systems , such as weather and climate . It also occurs spontaneously in some systems with artificial components , such as road traffic . This behavior can be studied through analysis of a chaotic mathematical model , or through analytical techniques such as recurrence plots and Poincaré maps . Chaos theory has applications in several disciplines , including meteorology , sociology , physics , environmental science , computer science , engineering , economics , biology , ecology , and philosophy . The theory formed the basis for such fields of study as complex dynamical systems , edge of chaos theory , self-assembly process .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Chaos_theory", "rank": 54, "score": 95761 }, { "content": "Title: Polynomial chaos Content: Polynomial chaos ( PC ) , also called Wiener chaos expansion , is a non-sampling-based method to determine evolution of uncertainty in a dynamical system , when there is probabilistic uncertainty in the system parameters . PC was first introduced by Norbert Wiener where Hermite polynomials were used to model stochastic processes with Gaussian random variables . It can be thought of as an extension of Volterra 's theory of nonlinear functionals for stochastic systems . According to Cameron and Martin such an expansion converges in the sense for any arbitrary stochastic process with finite second moment . This applies to most physical systems .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Polynomial_chaos", "rank": 55, "score": 95633 }, { "content": "Title: Meteorological disasters Content: Meteorological disasters are caused by extreme weather , e.g. rain , drought , snow , extreme heat or cold , ice , or wind . Violent , sudden and destructive change to the environment related to , produced by , or affecting the earth 's atmosphere , especially the weather-forming processes . Examples of weather disasters include blizzard , cyclones , droughts , hailstorms , heat waves , hurricanes , floods ( caused by rain ) , and tornadoes .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Meteorological_disasters", "rank": 56, "score": 95624 }, { "content": "Title: Inflow (meteorology) Content: Inflow is the flow of a fluid into a large collection of that fluid . Within meteorology , inflow normally refers to the influx of warmth and moisture from air within the Earth 's atmosphere into storm systems . Extratropical cyclones are fed by inflow focused along their cold front and warm fronts . Tropical cyclones require a large inflow of warmth and moisture from warm oceans in order to develop significantly , mainly within the lowest 1 km of the atmosphere . Once the flow of warm and moist air is cut off from thunderstorms and their associated tornadoes , normally by the thunderstorm 's own rain-cooled outflow boundary , the storms begin to dissipate . Rear inflow jets behind squall lines act to erode the broad rain shield behind the squall line , and accelerate its forward motion .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Inflow_(meteorology)", "rank": 57, "score": 95457 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric instability Content: Atmospheric instability is a condition where the Earth 's atmosphere is generally considered to be unstable and as a result the weather is subjected to a high degree of variability through distance and time . Atmospheric stability is a measure of the atmosphere 's tendency to encourage or deter vertical motion , and vertical motion is directly correlated to different types of weather systems and their severity . In unstable conditions , a lifted thing , such as a parcel of air will be warmer than the surrounding air at altitude . Because it is warmer , it is less dense and is prone to further ascent . In meteorology , instability can be described by various indices such as the Bulk Richardson Number , lifted index , K-index , convective available potential energy ( CAPE ) , the Showalter , and the Vertical totals . These indices , as well as atmospheric instability itself , involve temperature changes through the troposphere with height , or lapse rate . Effects of atmospheric instability in moist atmospheres include thunderstorm development , which over warm oceans can lead to tropical cyclogenesis , and turbulence . In dry atmospheres , inferior mirages , dust devils , steam devils , and fire whirls can form . Stable atmospheres can be associated with drizzle , fog , increased air pollution , a lack of turbulence , and undular bore formation .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Atmospheric_instability", "rank": 58, "score": 95136 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal expansion Content: Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in shape , area , and volume in response to a change in temperature . Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance . When a substance is heated , the kinetic energy of its molecules increases . Thus , the molecules begin vibrating/moving more and usually maintain a greater average separation . Materials which contract with increasing temperature are unusual ; this effect is limited in size , and only occurs within limited temperature ranges ( see examples below ) . The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the material 's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Thermal_expansion", "rank": 59, "score": 95065 }, { "content": "Title: Anticyclone Content: An anticyclone ( that is , opposite to a cyclone ) is a weather phenomenon defined by the United States National Weather Service 's glossary as `` a large-scale circulation of winds around a central region of high atmospheric pressure , clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere , counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere '' . Effects of surface-based anticyclones include clearing skies as well as cooler , drier air . Fog can also form overnight within a region of higher pressure . Mid-tropospheric systems , such as the subtropical ridge , deflect tropical cyclones around their periphery and cause a temperature inversion inhibiting free convection near their center , building up surface-based haze under their base . Anticyclones aloft can form within warm core lows such as tropical cyclones , due to descending cool air from the backside of upper troughs such as polar highs , or from large scale sinking such as the subtropical ridge .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Anticyclone", "rank": 60, "score": 94975 }, { "content": "Title: Frontogenesis Content: Frontogenesis is a meteorological process of tightening of horizontal temperature gradients to produce fronts . In the end , two types of fronts form : cold fronts and warm fronts . A cold front is a narrow line where temperature decreases rapidly . A warm front is a narrow line of warmer temperatures and essentially where much of the precipitation occurs . Frontogenesis occurs as a result of a developing baroclinic wave . According to Hoskins & Bretherton ( 1972 , p. 11 ) , there are eight mechanisms that influence temperature gradients : horizontal deformation , horizontal shearing , vertical deformation , differential vertical motion , latent heat release , surface friction , turbulence and mixing , and radiation . Semigeostrophic frontogenesis theory focuses on the role of horizontal deformation and shear .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Frontogenesis", "rank": 61, "score": 94968 }, { "content": "Title: Microviscosity Content: Microviscosity , also known as microscopic viscosity , is the friction experienced by a single particle undergoing diffusion because of its interaction with its environment at the micrometer length scale . The concept of microviscosity is intimately related to the concept of single particle diffusion and can be measured using microrheology . Understanding microviscosity requires an understanding of viscosity and diffusion i.e. macroscopic viscosity and bulk diffusion and where their assumptions break down at the micro to nanometer scale where physicists are still trying to replace phenomenological laws with physical laws governing the behavior of single particle mobility . In the field of biophysics , a typical microviscosity problem is understanding how a biomolecule 's mobility is hindered within a cellular compartment which will depend upon many factors such as the size , shape , charge , quantity and density of both the diffusing particle and all members of its environment . Microviscosity can be probed by measuring the rotational correlation time of a probe molecule using either fluorescence correlation spectroscopy or the linewidths of the probe 's electron spin resonance . The friction experienced by a single particle can be thought of as a microscopic viscosity ( microviscosity ) and should not necessarily agree with the bulk viscosity since it is a measure of the probe 's local friction whereas bulk viscosity analogously would be the measure of an infinitely large probe . Both the crowding density and relative size of each co-solute in a mixture will contribute to the measured microviscosity as assessed by altered translational mobility .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Microviscosity", "rank": 62, "score": 94903 }, { "content": "Title: Stormy Weather (novel) Content: Stormy Weather is a 1995 novel by Carl Hiaasen . It takes place in the chaotic aftermath of Hurricane Andrew in South Florida , including insurance scams , street fights , hunt for food and shelter , corrupt bureaucracy , ravaged environment and disaster tourists .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Stormy_Weather_(novel)", "rank": 63, "score": 94786 }, { "content": "Title: Clear-air turbulence Content: Clear-air turbulence ( CAT ) is the turbulent movement of air masses in the absence of any visual clues such as clouds , and is caused when bodies of air moving at widely different speeds meet . The atmospheric region most susceptible to CAT is the high troposphere at altitudes of around 7000 - as it meets the tropopause . Here CAT is most frequently encountered in the regions of jet streams . At lower altitudes it may also occur near mountain ranges . Thin cirrus clouds can also indicate high probability of CAT . CAT can be hazardous to the comfort , but rarely the safety , of air travelers . CAT in the jet stream is expected to become stronger and more frequent because of climate change , with transatlantic wintertime CAT increasing by 59 % ( light ) , 94 % ( moderate ) , and 149 % ( severe ) by the time of CO2 doubling .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Clear-air_turbulence", "rank": 64, "score": 94758 }, { "content": "Title: Tornado Content: A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or , in rare cases , the base of a cumulus cloud . They are often referred to as twisters , whirlwinds or cyclones , although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern . Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes , they are often visible in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud , with a cloud of rotating debris and dust beneath it . Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 mph , are about 250 ft across , and travel a few miles ( several kilometers ) before dissipating . The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 mph , are more than 2 mi in diameter , and stay on the ground for dozens of miles ( more than 100 km ) . Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado , landspout and waterspout . Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current , connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud . They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water , but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes . These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator , and are less common at high latitudes . Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado , dust devil , fire whirls , and steam devil . Downbursts are frequently confused with tornadoes , though their action is dissimilar . Tornadoes have been observed and documented on every continent except Antarctica . However , the vast majority of tornadoes occur in the Tornado Alley region of the United States , although they can occur nearly anywhere in North America . They also occasionally occur in south-central and eastern Asia , northern and east-central South America , Southern Africa , northwestern and southeast Europe , western and southeastern Australia , and New Zealand . Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data , such as hook echoes or debris balls , as well as through the efforts of storm spotters . There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes . The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale . An F0 or EF0 tornado , the weakest category , damages trees , but not substantial structures . An F5 or EF5 tornado , the strongest category , rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers . The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes . Doppler radar data , photogrammetry , and ground swirl patterns ( cycloidal marks ) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Tornado", "rank": 65, "score": 94370 }, { "content": "Title: Operation Shed Light Content: Operation Shed Light was a crash development project in aerial warfare , initiated in 1966 by the United States Air Force to increase the ability to accurately strike at night or in adverse weather . During the 1960s the United States military worked hard to interdict the movement of men and materiel along the Ho Chi Minh trail . The North Vietnamese were experts in the use of weather and darkness to conceal their movement , and understanding the superiority of American air power put their skills immediately to good use . US forces seeking to impede the steady flow of supplies attempted to locate largely static targets during the day with poor results . The United States Air Force , focused toward nuclear weapons and delivery of such munitions against static strategic targets had spent little effort in expanding its tactical capabilities since the end of the World War II . Operation Shed Light sought to rectify this by bringing together improved tactics and technology . The programs were subsequently centered on improved communication and navigation aids for all-weather and night flying , sensor equipment for seeing through clouds , foliage , and darkness , improved equipment and methods for target marking and battlefield illumination , and aircraft and tactics to utilize these developments . In the end , few of the programs would yield applicable results and most of the aircraft developed under its umbrella would largely fall into obscurity . The most applicable developments were those that could be mainstreamed such as the work done on navigation and communication and sensor equipment .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Operation_Shed_Light", "rank": 66, "score": 94330 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway breakdown Content: Runaway breakdown is a theory of lightning initiation proposed by Alex Gurevich in 1992 . Electrons in air have a mean free path of ~ 1 cm . Fast electrons which move at a large fraction of the speed of light have a mean free path up to 100 times longer . Given the long free paths , an electric field can accelerate these electrons to energies far higher than that of initially static electrons . If they strike air molecules , more relativistic electrons will be released , creating an avalanche multiplication of `` runaway '' electrons . This process , relativistic runaway electron avalanche , has been hypothesized to lead to electrical breakdown in thunderstorms , but only when a source of high-energy electrons from a cosmic ray is present to start the `` runaway '' process . The resulting conductive plasma trail , many tens of meters long , is suggested to supply the `` seed '' which triggers a lightning flash .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Runaway_breakdown", "rank": 67, "score": 94323 }, { "content": "Title: Storm Content: A storm is any disturbed state of an environment or astronomical body 's atmosphere especially affecting its surface , and strongly implying severe weather . It may be marked by significant disruptions to normal conditions such as strong wind , hail , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation ( snowstorm , rainstorm ) , heavy freezing rain ( ice storm ) , strong winds ( tropical cyclone , windstorm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere as in a dust storm , blizzard , sandstorm , etc. . Storms have the potential to harm lives and property via storm surge , heavy rain or snow causing flooding or road impassibility , lightning , wildfires , and vertical wind shear ; however , systems with significant rainfall and duration help alleviate drought in places they move through . Heavy snowfall can allow special recreational activities to take place which would not be possible otherwise , such as skiing and snowmobiling . The English word comes from Proto-Germanic * sturmaz meaning `` noise , tumult '' .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Storm", "rank": 68, "score": 94048 }, { "content": "Title: List of meteorological phenomena Content: A meteorological phenomenon is a weather event that can be explained by the principles of meteorology . Such events include : Acid rain Air mass Anticyclone Arctic cyclone Ball lightning Clouds Crow Instability Derecho Diamond dust Drought Dust devil Dust storm El Niño Extratropical cyclone Foehn wind Hail Halo Heat wave Hurricane Ice crystals Ice pellets Indian summer Kelvin -- Helmholtz instability La Nina Lake effect snow Light pillar Lightning Mesocyclone Morning glory cloud Novaya Zemlya Effect Rain Rain and snow mixed Rainbow Raining animals Sleet ; see Ice pellets and Rain and snow mixed Snow Squall St. Elmo 's fire Subtropical cyclone Sun dog Sun shower Supercell Temperature inversion Thunder Thundersnow Thunderstorm Tornado Tropical storm Tsunami Weather front Wind Zud", "qid": "2857", "docid": "List_of_meteorological_phenomena", "rank": 69, "score": 93530 }, { "content": "Title: Santa Ana winds Content: The Santa Ana winds are strong , extremely dry down-slope winds that originate inland and affect coastal Southern California and northern Baja California . They originate from cool , dry high-pressure air masses in the Great Basin . Santa Ana winds are known for the hot dry weather that they bring in the fall ( often the hottest of the year ) , but they can arise at other times of the year . They often bring the lowest relative humidities of the year to coastal Southern California . These low humidities , combined with the warm , compressionally-heated airmass , plus high wind speeds , create critical fire weather conditions . Known as `` devil winds '' , Santa Anas are infamous for fanning regional wildfires .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Santa_Ana_winds", "rank": 70, "score": 93351 }, { "content": "Title: Chaotics Content: CHAOTICS is a strategic business framework and platform for dealing with economic turbulence defined and developed in 2008 by marketing guru Philip Kotler of Northwestern University 's Kellogg School of Management and global business strategy expert John Caslione of GCS Business Capital , LLC . Based on the concept that the world economy has entered into a new economic era of uncertainty , CHAOTICS provides methods to allow companies to live with increased risk and uncertainty in an age of heightened turbulence and its consequent chaos . This involves creating and implementing a set of new strategic behaviors defined by Kotler and Caslione as well as building an early warning system , a scenario construction system , and a quick response system to manage and market during recessions and other turbulent economic conditions .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Chaotics", "rank": 71, "score": 93001 }, { "content": "Title: Cold front Content: A cold front is defined as the leading edge of a cooler mass of air , replacing at ground level a warmer mass of air , which lies within a fairly sharp surface trough of low pressure . It forms in the wake of an extratropical cyclone , at the leading edge of its cold air advection pattern , which is also known as the cyclone 's dry conveyor belt circulation . Temperature changes across the boundary can exceed 30 C-change . When enough moisture is present , rain can occur along the boundary . If there is significant instability along the boundary , a narrow line of thunderstorms can form along the frontal zone . If instability is less , a broad shield of rain can move in behind the front , which increases the temperature difference across the boundary . Cold fronts are stronger in the fall and spring transition seasons and weakest during the summer . When a cold front catches up with the preceding warm front , the portion of the boundary that does so is then known as an occluded front .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Cold_front", "rank": 72, "score": 92920 }, { "content": "Title: Surface weather observation Content: Surface weather observations are the fundamental data used for safety as well as climatological reasons to forecast weather and issue warnings worldwide . They can be taken manually , by a weather observer , by computer through the use of automated weather stations , or in a hybrid scheme using weather observers to augment the otherwise automated weather station . The ICAO defines the International Standard Atmosphere ( ISA ) , which is the model of the standard variation of pressure , temperature , density , and viscosity with altitude in the Earth 's atmosphere , and is used to reduce a station pressure to sea level pressure . Airport observations can be transmitted worldwide through the use of the METAR observing code . Personal weather stations taking automated observations can transmit their data to the United States mesonet through the Citizen Weather Observer Program ( CWOP ) , the UK Met Office through their Weather Observations Website ( WOW ) , or internationally through the Weather Underground Internet site . A thirty-year average of a location 's weather observations is traditionally used to determine the station 's climate .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Surface_weather_observation", "rank": 73, "score": 92890 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical rain belt Content: Rainfall and the tropical climate dominate the tropical rain belt , which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year , roughly following the solar equator . The tropical rain belt is an area of active rain that is positioned mostly around the tropics . According to the website Journey North , the reason the rain belt is situated near the tropics can be attributed to the fact that most of the sun 's radiation is directed toward the equator , which is located in the middle of the tropics . This solar radiation generates large amounts of heat near the equator providing tropical regions with higher temperatures than most other regions on Earth . With all this solar radiation , the air around the tropics begins to warm up . Because hot air is less dense than cold air , the hot air rises into the upper levels of the atmosphere and as a result , cold air filters down into the lower levels of the atmosphere . The dynamics that provide the tropics with the rain belt are founded on the principal that warmer air is able to retain more moisture than colder air . When the colder air replaces the warmer air in the lower atmosphere , the abundant moisture from the tropics loses the ability to be stored in the atmosphere . As a result , the excess moisture that can not be held by the colder air is then turned into thunderstorms and rain showers . These thunderstorms and rain showers are usually located along the equator , but they will extend out to the Tropic of Cancer , which is the 23.5 north latitude , as well as the Tropic of Capricorn , which is the 23.5 south latitude . It is largely a manifestation of the ITCH ( incorrect citation ) . The tropical rain belt lies in the southern hemisphere of the Indian ocean and western Pacific ocean roughly from October to March , and during this time the northern tropics experience a dry season in which precipitation is very rare , and days are typically hot and sunny throughout . From April to September , the rain belt lies in the northern hemisphere , and a wet season occurs there , while the southern tropics experience their dry season . The rain belt reaches roughly as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn in the western Pacific ocean . Its variation in the Western Hemisphere is minimal , roughly between the equator and the 15th parallel north latitude . Near these latitudes , there is one wet season and one dry season annually . On the equator , there are two wet and two dry seasons as the rain belt passes over twice a year , one moving north and one moving south . Between the tropics and the equator , locations may experience both a short wet and a long wet season . Local geography may substantially modify these climate patterns .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Tropical_rain_belt", "rank": 74, "score": 92506 }, { "content": "Title: Vertical draft Content: An updraft is a small‐scale current of rising air , often within a cloud . Localized regions of warm or cool air will exhibit vertical movement . A mass of warm air will typically be less dense than the surrounding region , and so will rise until it reaches the air is either warmer or less dense than itself . The converse will occur for a mass of cool air , and is known as subsidence . This movement of large volumes of air , especially when regions of hot , wet air rise , can create large clouds , and is the central source of thunderstorms . Drafts can also be conceived by low or high pressure regions . A low pressure region will attract air from the surrounding area , which will move towards the center and then rise , creating an updraft . A high pressure region will then attract air from the surrounding area , which will move towards the center and sink , spawning a downdraft . Updrafts and downdrafts , along with wind shear in general , are a major contributor to airplane crashes during takeoff and landing in a thunderstorm . Extreme cases , known as downbursts and microbursts can be deadly and difficult to predict or observe . The crash of Delta Air Lines Flight 191 on its final approach before landing at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport in 1985 was presumably caused by a microburst , and prompted the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) to research and deploy new storm detection radar stations at some of the major airports , notably the ones in the South , Midwest , and Northeast United States where wind shear affects air safety . Downbursts can cause extensive localized damage , similar to that caused by tornadoes . Downburst damage can be differentiated from that of a tornado because the resulting destruction is circular and radiates away from the center . Tornado damage radiates inward , towards the center of the damage . The term downdraft can also refer to a type of backdraft which occurs through chimneys which have fireplaces on the lowermost levels ( such as basements ) of multi-level buildings . It involves cold air coming down the chimney due to low air pressure , and makes it hard to light fires , and can push soot and carbon monoxide into domiciles .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Vertical_draft", "rank": 75, "score": 92040 }, { "content": "Title: Mist Content: Mist is a phenomenon caused by small droplets of water suspended in air . Physically , it is an example of a dispersion . It is most commonly seen where warm , moist air meets sudden cooling , such as in exhaled air in the winter , or when throwing water onto the hot stove of a sauna . It can be created artificially with aerosol canisters if the humidity and temperature conditions are right . It can also occur as part of natural weather , when humid air cools rapidly , for example when the air comes into contact with surfaces that are much cooler than the air . The formation of mist , as of other suspensions , is greatly aided by the presence of nucleation sites on which the suspended water phase can congeal . Thus even such unusual sources as small particulates from volcanic eruptions , releases of strongly polar gases , and even the magnetospheric ions associated with polar lights can in right conditions trigger the formation of mist .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Mist", "rank": 76, "score": 91927 }, { "content": "Title: Shitstorm Content: Shitstorm is a vulgar dysphemism for a chaotic and unpleasant situation . The term may specifically refer to : Shitstorm , a band on the Robotic Empire record label `` Shitstorm '' , a song by Murder Squad from their 2003 album Ravenous , Murderous `` Shitstorm '' , a song by the band Casey Jones from their 2006 album The Messenger `` Shitstorm '' , a song by Strapping Young Lad from their 2005 album Alien In the German language , the term is used as a loanword and refers more specifically to a sudden , massive outburst of negative criticism on social media .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Shitstorm", "rank": 77, "score": 91637 }, { "content": "Title: Chaotic scattering Content: Chaotic scattering is a branch of chaos theory dealing with scattering systems displaying a strong sensitivity to initial conditions . In a classical scattering system there will be one or more impact parameters , b , in which a particle is sent into the scatterer . This gives rise to one or more exit parameters , y , as the particle exits towards infinity . While the particle is traversing the system , there may also be a delay time , T -- the time it takes for the particle to exit the system -- in addition to the distance travelled , s , which in certain systems , i.e. , `` billiard-like '' systems in which the particle undergoes lossless collisions with hard , fixed objects , the two will be equivalent -- see below . In a chaotic scattering system , a minute change in the impact parameter , may give rise to a very large change in the exit parameters .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Chaotic_scattering", "rank": 78, "score": 91555 }, { "content": "Title: Outline of tropical cyclones Content: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to tropical cyclones : Tropical cyclone -- storm system characterized by a large low-pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and heavy rain . Tropical cyclones strengthen when water evaporated from the ocean is released as the saturated air rises , resulting in condensation of water vapor contained in the moist air . They are fueled by a different heat mechanism than other cyclonic windstorms such as nor'easter s , European windstorms , and polar lows . The characteristic that separates tropical cyclones from other cyclonic systems is that at any height in the atmosphere , the center of a tropical cyclone will be warmer than its surroundings ; a phenomenon called `` warm core '' storm systems .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Outline_of_tropical_cyclones", "rank": 79, "score": 91455 }, { "content": "Title: Space weathering Content: Space weathering is the damage that occurs to any object exposed to the harsh environment of outer space . Bodies without atmospheres ( including the Moon , Mercury , the asteroids , comets , and most of the moons of other planets ) incur many weathering processes : collisions of galactic cosmic rays and solar cosmic rays , irradiation , implantation , and sputtering from solar wind particles , and bombardment by different sizes of meteorites and micrometeorites . Space weathering is important because these processes affect the physical and optical properties of the surface of many planetary bodies . Therefore , it is critical to understand the effects of space weathering in order to properly interpret remotely sensed data .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Space_weathering", "rank": 80, "score": 91295 }, { "content": "Title: Thunder Content: Thunder is the sound caused by lightning . Depending on the distance and nature of the lightning , thunder can range from a sharp , loud crack to a long , low rumble ( brontide ) . The sudden increase in pressure and temperature from lightning produces rapid expansion of the air surrounding and within a bolt of lightning . In turn , this expansion of air creates a sonic shock wave , similar to a sonic boom , which produces the sound of thunder , often referred to as a clap , crack , peal of thunder , or boom .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Thunder", "rank": 81, "score": 91076 }, { "content": "Title: Hadamard's dynamical system Content: In physics and mathematics , the Hadamard dynamical system or Hadamard 's billiard is a chaotic dynamical system , a type of dynamical billiards . Introduced by Jacques Hadamard in 1898 , it is the first dynamical system to be proven chaotic . The system considers the motion of a free ( frictionless ) particle on a surface of constant negative curvature , the simplest compact Riemann surface , which is the surface of genus two : a donut with two holes . Hadamard was able to show that every particle trajectory moves away from every other : that all trajectories have a positive Lyapunov exponent . Frank Steiner argues that Hadamard 's study should be considered to be the first-ever examination of a chaotic dynamical system , and that Hadamard should be considered the first discoverer of chaos . He points out that the study was widely disseminated , and considers the impact of the ideas on the thinking of Albert Einstein and Ernst Mach . The system is particularly important in that in 1963 , Yakov Sinai , in studying Sinai 's billiards as a model of the classical ensemble of a Boltzmann -- Gibbs gas , was able to show that the motion of the atoms in the gas follow the trajectories in the Hadamard dynamical system .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Hadamard's_dynamical_system", "rank": 82, "score": 91066 }, { "content": "Title: Weather Eye Content: The Weather Eye was a trade name for a Nash Motors-designed fresh-air system for automobile passenger compartment heating , cooling , and ventilating . The Nash `` All-Weather Eye '' was the first automobile air conditioning system for the mass market . The use of the Weather Eye name for automobile passenger heating and air conditioning systems continued in American Motors ( AMC ) vehicles . The design principles of the Nash Weather Eye system are now in use by nearly every motor vehicle .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Weather_Eye", "rank": 83, "score": 90957 }, { "content": "Title: Cyclone Content: In meteorology , a cyclone is a large scale air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure . Cyclones are characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate about a zone of low pressure . The largest low-pressure systems are polar vortices and extratropical cyclones of the largest scale ( the synoptic scale ) . Warm-core cyclones such as tropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones also lie within the synoptic scale . Mesocyclones , tornadoes and dust devils lie within the smaller mesoscale . Upper level cyclones can exist without the presence of a surface low , and can pinch off from the base of the Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough during the summer months in the Northern Hemisphere . Cyclones have also been seen on extraterrestrial planets , such as Mars and Neptune . Cyclogenesis describes the process of cyclone formation and intensification . Extratropical cyclones begin as waves in large regions of enhanced mid-latitude temperature contrasts called baroclinic zones . These zones contract and form weather fronts as the cyclonic circulation closes and intensifies . Later in their life cycle , extratropical cyclones occlude as cold air masses undercut the warmer air and become cold core systems . A cyclone 's track is guided over the course of its 2 to 6 day life cycle by the steering flow of the subtropical jet stream . Weather fronts mark the boundary between two masses of air of different temperature , humidity , and densities , and are associated with the most prominent meteorological phenomena . Strong cold fronts typically feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather , and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines . Such fronts form west of the circulation center and generally move from west to east ; warm fronts form east of the cyclone center and are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog . Warm fronts move poleward ahead of the cyclone path . Occluded fronts form late in the cyclone life cycle near the center of the cyclone and often wrap around the storm center . Tropical cyclogenesis describes the process of development of tropical cyclones . Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity , and are warm core . Cyclones can transition between extratropical , subtropical , and tropical phases . Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land , and can lead to tornado formation . Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones , but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear . In the Atlantic and the northeastern Pacific oceans , a tropical cyclone is generally referred to as a hurricane ( from the name of the ancient Central American deity of wind , Huracan ) , in the Indian and south Pacific oceans it is called a cyclone , and in the northwestern Pacific it is called a typhoon .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Cyclone", "rank": 84, "score": 90852 }, { "content": "Title: Chaotic hysteresis Content: A nonlinear dynamical system exhibits chaotic hysteresis if it simultaneously exhibits chaotic dynamics ( chaos theory ) and hysteresis . As the latter involves the persistence of a state , such as magnetization , after the causal or exogenous force or factor is removed , it involves multiple equilibria for given sets of control conditions . Such systems generally exhibit sudden jumps from one equilibrium state to another ( sometimes amenable to analysis using catastrophe theory ) . If chaotic dynamics appear either prior to or just after such jumps , or are persistent throughout each of the various equilibrium states , then the system is said to exhibit chaotic hysteresis . Chaotic dynamics are irregular and bounded and subject to sensitive dependence on initial conditions .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Chaotic_hysteresis", "rank": 85, "score": 90535 }, { "content": "Title: Static Weather Content: A Static Weather is the representation of weather ( e.g. Precipitation ( meteorology ) , fog , wind ) that is uniform through the simulation battlespace ( e.g. the entire simulation battlespace has fog ) .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Static_Weather", "rank": 86, "score": 90509 }, { "content": "Title: Weather god Content: A weather god is a deity in mythology associated with weather phenomena such as thunder , lightning , rain and wind . They feature commonly in polytheistic religions , frequently as the head of the pantheon . Storm gods are conceived of as wielding thunder and lightning . They are typically male , powerful and irascible rulers . Notable examples include the Indo-European deities derived from the Proto-Indo-European Dyeus . The Indo-European storm god is sometimes imagined as distinct from the ruling sky god . In these cases , he has names separate from the Dyeus etymon , either Perkwunos or Taran .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Weather_god", "rank": 87, "score": 90499 }, { "content": "Title: Electrical storm (disambiguation) Content: Electrical storm may refer to : A thunderstorm A medical condition of chaotic electrical activity of the heart , usually manifested by ventricular tachycardia Electrical Storm ( song ) , song by U2 Electrical Storm ( album ) , the debut solo album by Ed Kuepper An Electric Storm , the debut album by White Noise", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Electrical_storm_(disambiguation)", "rank": 88, "score": 90442 }, { "content": "Title: Magnetohydrodynamic turbulence Content: Magnetohydrodynamic turbulence concerns the chaotic regimes of magnetofluid flow at high Reynolds number . Magnetohydrodynamics ( MHD ) deals with what is a quasi-neutral fluid with very high conductivity . The fluid approximation implies that the focus is on macro length-and-time scales which are much larger than the collision length and collision time respectively .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Magnetohydrodynamic_turbulence", "rank": 89, "score": 90274 }, { "content": "Title: Air stagnation Content: Air stagnation is a phenomenon which occurs when an air mass remains over an area for an extended period . Due to light winds and lack of precipitation , pollutants can not be cleared from the air , either gaseous ( like ozone ) or particulate ( like soot or dust ) . Subsidence produced directly under the subtropical ridge can lead to a buildup of particulates in urban areas under the ridge , leading to widespread haze . If the low level relative humidity rises towards 100 percent overnight , fog can form . In the United States , the National Weather Service issues an Air Stagnation Advisory when these conditions are likely to occur .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Air_stagnation", "rank": 90, "score": 90015 }, { "content": "Title: Global storm activity of 2008 Content: Global storm activity of 2008 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2008 to December 31 , 2008 . A winter storm is an event in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Major dust storms , Hurricanes , cyclones , tornados , gales , flooding and rainstorms are also caused by such phenomena to a lesser or greater existent . A storm ( from Proto-Germanic * sturmaz `` noise , tumult '' ) is any disturbed state of an astronomical body 's atmosphere , especially affecting its surface , and strongly implying severe weather . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Storms are created when a centre of low pressure develops , with a system of high pressure surrounding it . This combination of opposing forces can create winds and result in the formation of storm clouds , such as the cumulonimbus . Small , localized areas of low pressure can form from hot air rising off hot ground , resulting in smaller meteorological disturbances such as dust devils and whirlwinds .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Global_storm_activity_of_2008", "rank": 91, "score": 89999 }, { "content": "Title: Conamara Chaos Content: Conamara Chaos is a region of chaotic terrain on Jupiter 's moon Europa . It is named after Connemara ( Conamara ) in Ireland due to its similarly rugged landscape . Conamara Chaos is a landscape produced by the disruption of the icy crust of Europa . The region consists of rafts of ice that have moved around and rotated . Surrounding these plates is a lower matrix of jumbled ice blocks which may have been formed as water , slush , or warm ice rose up from below the surface . The region is cited as evidence for a liquid ocean below Europa 's icy surface .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Conamara_Chaos", "rank": 92, "score": 89986 }, { "content": "Title: Chaos communications Content: Chaos communications is an application of chaos theory which is aimed to provide security in the transmission of information performed through telecommunications technologies . By secure communications , one has to understand that the contents of the message transmitted are inaccessible to possible eavesdroppers . In chaos communications security ( i.e. , privacy ) is based on the complex dynamic behaviors provided by chaotic systems . Some properties of chaotic dynamics , such as complex behaviour , noise-like dynamics ( pseudorandom noise ) and spread spectrum , are used to encode data . On the other hand , chaos being a deterministic phenomenon , it is possible to decode data using this determinism . In practice , implementations of chaos communications devices resort to one of two chaotic phenomena : synchronization of chaos , or control of chaos . To implement chaos communications using such properties of chaos , two chaotic oscillators are required as a transmitter ( or master ) and receiver ( or slave ) . At the transmitter , a message is added onto a chaotic signal and then , the message is masked in the chaotic signal . As it carries the information , the chaotic signal is also called chaotic carrier . Synchronizing of these oscillators is similar to synchronizing random neural nets in neural cryptography . When chaos synchronization is used , a basic scheme of a communications device ( Cuomo and Oppenheim 1993 ) is made by two identical chaotic oscillators . One of them is used as the transmitter , and the other as the receiver . They are connected in a configuration where the transmitter drives the receiver in such a way that identical synchronization of chaos between the two oscillators is achieved . For the purpose of transmission of information , at the transmitter , a message is added as a small perturbation to the chaotic signal that drives the receiver . In this way , the message transmitted is masked by the chaotic signal . When the receiver synchronizes to the transmitter , the message is decoded by a subtraction between the signal sent by transmitter and its copy generated at the receiver by means of the synchronization of chaos mechanism . This works because , whilst the transmitter output contains the chaotic carrier plus the message , the receiver output is made only by a copy of the chaotic carrier without the message .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Chaos_communications", "rank": 93, "score": 89850 }, { "content": "Title: Stop Climate Chaos Scotland Content: Stop Climate Chaos Scotland ( SCCS ) is a coalition of organisations in Scotland that are campaigning on climate change , including trade and student unions , environmental and international development organisations , faith and community groups . The coalition has close links with the Stop Climate Chaos coalition in London although it is a separately constituted organisation . Stop Climate Chaos Scotland played a key role in the development of the Climate Change ( Scotland ) Act 2009 , the strongest climate change legislation in the world . Stop Climate Chaos Scotland now works to ensure that the commitments set out in the Scottish Climate Change Act become a reality and that Scotland meets its targets to reduce emissions by 42 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 . As Scotland 's own emissions account for only a relatively small percentage of the global total , SCCS is also working with civil society groups in other countries to promote the Scottish climate change example .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Stop_Climate_Chaos_Scotland", "rank": 94, "score": 89770 }, { "content": "Title: High-pressure area Content: A high-pressure area , high or anticyclone is a region where the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the planet is greater than its surrounding environment . Winds within high-pressure areas flow outward from the higher pressure areas near their centers towards the lower pressure areas further from their centers . Gravity adds to the forces causing this general movement , because the higher pressure compresses the column of air near the center of the area into greater density -- and so greater weight compared to lower pressure , lower density , and lower weight of the air outside the center . However , because the planet is rotating underneath the atmosphere , and frictional forces arise as the planetary surface drags some atmosphere with it , the air flow from center to periphery is not direct , but is twisted due to the Coriolis effect , or the merely apparent force that arise when the observer is in a rotating frame of reference . Viewed from above this twist in wind direction is in the same direction as the rotation of the planet . The strongest high-pressure areas are associated with cold air masses which push away out of polar regions during the winter when there is less sun to warm neighboring regions . These Highs change character and weaken once they move further over relatively warmer water bodies . Somewhat weaker but more common are high-pressure areas caused by atmospheric subsidence , that is , areas where large masses of cooler drier air descend from an elevation of 8 to 15 km after the lower temperatures have precipitated out the water vapor . Many of the features of Highs may be understood in context of middle - or meso-scale and relatively enduring dynamics of a planet 's atmospheric circulation . For example , massive atmospheric subsidences occur as part of the descending branches of Ferrel cells and Hadley cells . Hadley cells help form the subtropical ridge , steer tropical waves and tropical cyclones across the ocean and is strongest during the summer . The subtropical ridge also helps form most of the world 's deserts . On English-language weather maps , high-pressure centers are identified by the letter H. Weather maps in other languages may use different letters or symbols .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "High-pressure_area", "rank": 95, "score": 89595 }, { "content": "Title: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature Content: The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Effect_of_radiation_on_perceived_temperature", "rank": 96, "score": 89526 }, { "content": "Title: Chaotic cryptology Content: Chaotic cryptography is the application of the mathematical chaos theory to the practice of the cryptography , the study or techniques used to privately and securely transmit information with the presence of a third-party or adversary . The use of chaos or randomness in cryptography has long been sought after by entities wanting a new way to encrypt messages . However , because of the lack of thorough , provable security properties and low acceptable performance , chaotic cryptography has encountered setbacks . In order to use chaos theory efficiently in cryptography , the chaotic maps should be implemented such that the entropy generated by the map can produce required Confusion and diffusion . Properties in chaotic systems and cryptographic primitives share unique characteristics that allow for the chaotic systems to be applied to cryptography . If chaotic parameters , as well as cryptographic keys , can be mapped symmetrically or mapped to produce acceptable and functional outputs , it will make it next to impossible for an adversary to find the outputs without any knowledge of the initial values . Since chaotic maps in a real life scenario require a set of numbers that are limited , they may , in fact , have no real purpose in a cryptosystem if the chaotic behavior can be predicted . One of the most important issues for any cryptographic primitive is the security of the system . However , in numerous cases , chaos-based cryptography algorithms are proved unsecure . The main issue in many of the cryptanalyzed algorithms is the inadequacy of the chaotic maps implemented in the system .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Chaotic_cryptology", "rank": 97, "score": 89519 }, { "content": "Title: Troposphere Content: The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth 's atmosphere , and is also where nearly all weather takes place . It contains approximately 75 % of the atmosphere 's mass and 99 % of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols . The average depths of the troposphere are 20 km in the tropics , 17 km in the mid latitudes , and 7 km in the polar regions in winter . The lowest part of the troposphere , where friction with the Earth 's surface influences air flow , is the planetary boundary layer . This layer is typically a few hundred meters to 2 km deep depending on the landform and time of day . Atop the troposphere is the tropopause , which is the border between the troposphere and stratosphere . The tropopause is an inversion layer , where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness . The word troposphere derives from the for `` turn , turn toward , trope '' and '' - sphere '' ( as in , the Earth ) , reflecting the fact that rotational turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere 's structure and behaviour . Most of the phenomena associated with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Troposphere", "rank": 98, "score": 89513 }, { "content": "Title: Urban heat island Content: An urban heat island ( UHI ) is an urban area or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities . The temperature difference usually is larger at night than during the day , and is most apparent when winds are weak . UHI is most noticeable during the summer and winter . The main cause of the urban heat island effect is from the modification of land surfaces . Waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor . As a population center grows , it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature . The less-used term heat island refers to any area , populated or not , which is consistently hotter than the surrounding area . Monthly rainfall is greater downwind of cities , partially due to the UHI . Increases in heat within urban centers increases the length of growing seasons , and decreases the occurrence of weak tornadoes . The UHI decreases air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone , and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on their ecosystems . Not all cities have a distinct urban heat island . Mitigation of the urban heat island effect can be accomplished through the use of green roofs and the use of lighter-colored surfaces in urban areas , which reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat . There are concerns raised about possible contribution from urban heat islands to global warming . Research on China and India indicates that urban heat island effect contributes to climate warming by about 30 % . On the other hand , one 1999 comparison between urban and rural areas proposed that the urban heat island effects have little influence on global mean temperature trends . Many studies reveal increases in the severity of the effect with the progress of climate change .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Urban_heat_island", "rank": 99, "score": 89444 }, { "content": "Title: Arsinoes Chaos Content: Arsinoes Chaos is in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle on Mars . It is 200.08 km in diameter . Its location is 7.66 S and 332.08 E. Arsinoes Chaos was named after the daughter of Ptolemy Lagun and Bernice and the name was approved in 1982 . Chaos terrain on Mars is distinctive ; nothing on Earth compares to it . Chaos terrain generally consists of irregular groups of large blocks , some tens of kilometres across and a hundred or more meters high . The tilted and flat topped blocks form depressions hundreds of metres deep . A chaotic region can be recognized by a rat 's nest of mesas , buttes , and hills , chopped through with valleys which in places look almost patterned . Some parts of this chaotic area have not collapsed completely -- they are still formed into large mesas , so they may still contain water ice . Some buttes and mesas in Arsinoes display layering . Many places on Mars show rocks arranged in layers . Rock can form layers in a variety of ways . Volcanoes , wind , or water can produce layers . Layers can be hardened by the action of groundwater . Martian ground water probably moved hundreds of kilometers , and in the process it dissolved many minerals from the rock it passed through . When ground water surfaces in low areas containing sediments , water evaporates in the thin atmosphere and leaves behind minerals as deposits and/or cementing agents . Consequently , layers of dust could not later easily erode away since they were cemented together . On Earth , mineral-rich waters often evaporate forming large deposits of various types of salts and other minerals . A detailed discussion of layering with many Martian examples can be found in Sedimentary Geology of Mars .", "qid": "2857", "docid": "Arsinoes_Chaos", "rank": 100, "score": 89244 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit Content: Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit featured in press discussions of disputes over access to data from instrumental temperature records , particularly during the Climatic Research Unit email controversy which began in November 2009 . The UK Freedom of Information Act ( FOIA ) came into effect in 2005 , and FOI requests were made to the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) for the raw data from weather stations used in developing instrumental temperature record datasets , for copies of agreements under which the raw data was obtained from meteorology institutions , and also for email correspondence relating to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report . In many cases the raw data which CRU had obtained from National Meteorological Organisations was subject to restrictions on redistribution : on 12 August 2009 CRU announced that they were seeking permission to waive these restrictions , and on 24 November 2009 the university stated that over 95 % of the CRU climate data set had already been available for several years , with the remainder to be released when permissions were obtained . In a decision announced on 27 July 2011 the Information Commissioner 's Office ( ICO ) required release of raw data even though permissions had not been obtained or in one instance had been refused , and on 27 July 2011 CRU announced release of the raw instrumental data not already in the public domain , with the exception of Poland which was outside the area covered by the FOIA request . A 2008 FOI request by David Holland for emails discussing work on the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report was refused by the university . In November 2009 he alleged that CRU emails posted online discussed deleting the emails he had requested : in January 2010 the Deputy Information Commissioner told a journalist that this indicated an offence under section 77 of the FOIA , but prosecution was time-barred by statute of limitations . Newspapers misrepresented this as a decision in relation to raw data , and the issue was discussed by the House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee inquiry , which found there had been a lack of openness . The ICO decision published on 7 July 2010 stated that this potential offence had not been investigated as it was time-barred . As Holland was content not to proceed with his complaint against the university , no further action was needed , but the ICO would `` consider whether further action is appropriate to secure future compliance . '' In September 2011 the ICO issued new guidance to universities . This described exceptions and exemptions to protect research , including allowance for internal exchange of views between academics and researchers free from external scrutiny , as well as commending actively disclosing information when it is in the public interest .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Freedom_of_Information_requests_to_the_Climatic_Research_Unit", "rank": 1, "score": 202475 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy Content: The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy", "rank": 2, "score": 182940 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents", "rank": 3, "score": 169771 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit Content: The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change . With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit", "rank": 4, "score": 150421 }, { "content": "Title: German Advisory Council on Global Change Content: The Scientific Advisory Council on Global Change ( German : Wissenschaftlicher Beirat der Bundesregierung Globale Umweltveränderungen , WBGU ) is an independent , scientific advisory body to the German Federal Government , established in 1992 in the run-up to the Rio Earth Summit ( UNCED ) . The Council 's principal tasks are to : analyse global environment and development problems and report on these , review and evaluate national and international research in the field of global change , provide early warning of new issue areas , identify gaps in research and to initiate new research , monitor and assess national and international policies for the achievement of sustainable development , elaborate recommendations for action and research and raise public awareness and heighten the media profile of global change issues . The WBGU also comments on current events , such as the UN Climate Change Conferences ( e.g. , in Paris 2015 ) , the UN Conference on Sustainable Development 2012 ( Rio +20 ) , the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals ( 2015 ) , the United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development ( Habitat III ) ( 2016 ) or Germany ´ s G20 presidency in 2017 .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "German_Advisory_Council_on_Global_Change", "rank": 5, "score": 118511 }, { "content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change", "rank": 6, "score": 117906 }, { "content": "Title: Phil Jones (climatologist) Content: Philip Douglas Jones ( born April 22 , 1952 ) retired from his positions as the Director of the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) and as a Professor in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) at the end of 2016 . Jones was replaced as CRU director by Tim Osborn and has taken up a position as a Professorial Fellow at the UEA from January 2017 . His research interests include instrumental climate change , palaeoclimatology , detection of climate change and the extension of riverflow records in the UK . He has also published papers on the temperature record of the past 1000 years . He is known for maintaining a time series of the instrumental temperature record . This work was featured prominently in both the 2001 and 2007 IPCC reports , where he was a contributing author to Chapter 12 , Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes , of the Third Assessment Report and a Coordinating Lead Author of Chapter 3 , Observations : Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change , of the AR4 .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Phil_Jones_(climatologist)", "rank": 7, "score": 117540 }, { "content": "Title: Attorney General of Virginia's climate science investigation Content: The Attorney General of Virginia 's climate science investigation was a `` Civil Investigative Demand '' initiated in April 2010 by Virginia Attorney General Ken Cuccinelli for a wide range of records held by the University of Virginia related to five grant applications for research work by a leading climate scientist Michael E. Mann , who was an assistant professor at the university from 1999 to 2005 . The demand was issued under the Virginia Fraud Against Taxpayers Act in connection with claims by Cuccinnelli that Mann had possibly violated state fraud laws in relation to five research grants , by allegedly manipulating data . No evidence of wrongdoing was presented to support the claim . Mann 's earlier work had been targeted by climate change skeptics in the hockey stick controversy , and allegations against him were renewed in late 2009 in the Climatic Research Unit email controversy but found to be groundless in a series of investigations . Widespread concerns were raised by University of Virginia 's faculty and numerous scientists and science organizations that Cuccinelli 's actions posed a threat to academic freedom , and would have a chilling effect on research in the state . The university filed a court petition and the judge dismissed Cuccinelli 's demand on the grounds that no justification had been shown for the investigation . Cuccinelli tried to re-open his case by issuing a revised subpoena , and appealed the case to the Virginia Supreme Court . The case was defended by the university , and the court ruled that Cuccinelli did not have the authority to make these demands . The outcome was hailed as a victory for academic freedom .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Attorney_General_of_Virginia's_climate_science_investigation", "rank": 8, "score": 115048 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Authority Content: The Climate Change Authority is an Australian statutory agency established under the Climate Change Authority Act 2011 . It began operations on 1 July 2012 . Its role is to review various climate change policies , including the Carbon Farming Initiative and National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting system , and to advise the Australian Government and Parliament on other matters as requested . The Authority has no legislative or executive powers , which remain with the Government and Parliament of the day . The Authority is presently undertaking a Special Review into Australia 's policies and targets for reducing emissions in the context of its international commitments and those of other countries . The Special Review is due to be completed by 30 June 2016 . The Authority has a Board comprising a Chair and eight permanent members : Dr Wendy Craik ( Chair ) , Stuart Allinson ( Acting Chair ) , Kate Carnell AO , Professor David Karoly , Professor John Quiggin , Professor Clive Hamilton , The Hon. John Sharp , Dr Alan Finkel and Danny Price . A tenth member , Andrew Macintosh , sits as an associate member until the conclusion of the Special Review . Dr Finkel is an ex officio member of the Authority as Australia 's Chief Scientist , replacing the former Chief Scientist Ian Chubb . The original Chair of the Authority was former Reserve Bank of Australia Governor and Treasury Secretary , Bernie Fraser . He resigned from the position in September 2015 . The agency is based in Melbourne where it has the advantage of being able to work closely with the Productivity Commission . The agency was allocated A$ 6.2 million in the 2012-13 financial year . The Australian Government , under Liberal leadership , is in the process of abolishing the Climate Change Authority , a move which has been heavily criticised .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Climate_Change_Authority", "rank": 9, "score": 113343 }, { "content": "Title: James Croll Content: James Croll , FRS , ( 2 January 1821 -- 15 December 1890 ) was a 19th-century Scottish scientist who developed a theory of climate change based on changes in the Earth 's orbit .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "James_Croll", "rank": 10, "score": 113062 }, { "content": "Title: Civilian Review and Complaints Commission for the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Content: The Civilian Review and Complaints Commission for the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( CRCC ) is an independent Canadian government agency responsible for examining complaints of improper on-duty conduct of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police . The Commission was previously known as the Commission for Public Complaints Against the RCMP ( CPC ) . The name was when the Enhancing Royal Canadian Mounted Police Accountability Act came into force . The chair of the CRCC is Ian McPhail , Q.C. . He was appointed as vice-chair on January 18 , 2010 and as Chair on July 14 , 2014 . Anyone , including a non-citizen , who has a concern about the on-duty conduct of an RCMP member can make a complaint . You do not have to be directly involved in the incident ; you can make a complaint on behalf of someone else , or as a witness to an incident . When a member of the public contacts the Commission , they are provided with same-day access to an experienced analyst who then assesses the needs of that person and identifies possible options for a way forward to addressing their concerns . These options include : Enquiries may include requests for information about police authority , obtaining assistance in furthering an investigation or gaining an understanding of the role of Crown counsel . Alternative Dispute Resolution ( ADR ) : The Commission employs skilled analysts , trained in mediation , who function as neutral and objective intermediaries to assist with conflict resolution between the public and the RCMP . A formal complaint involves a complainant and a CPC analyst completing an official complaint form . The complaint is then written up and sent to the RCMP for investigation . If the complainant is dissatisfied with the RCMP 's investigation , he or she can request that the CPC conduct a review of the investigation .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Civilian_Review_and_Complaints_Commission_for_the_Royal_Canadian_Mounted_Police", "rank": 11, "score": 108442 }, { "content": "Title: Freedom of information laws by country Content: Freedom of Information laws ( FOI laws ) allow access by the general public to data held by national governments . The emergence of freedom of information legislation was a response to increasing dissatisfaction with the secrecy surrounding government policy development and decision making . They establish a `` right-to-know '' legal process by which requests may be made for government-held information , to be received freely or at minimal cost , barring standard exceptions . Also variously referred to as open records , or sunshine laws ( in the United States ) , governments are typically bound by a duty to publish and promote openness . In many countries there are constitutional guarantees for the right of access to information , but these are usually unused if specific support legislation does not exist .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Freedom_of_information_laws_by_country", "rank": 12, "score": 108286 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program", "rank": 13, "score": 107610 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Vulnerability Monitor Content: The Climate Vulnerability Monitor ( CVM ) is an independent global assessment of the effect of climate change on the world 's populations brought together by panels of key international authorities . The Monitor was launched in December 2010 in London and Cancun to coincide with the UN Cancun Summit on climate change ( COP-16 ) . Developed by DARA and the Climate Vulnerable Forum , the report is meant to serve as a new tool to assess global vulnerability to various effects of climate change within different nations . The report distills leading science and research for a clearer explanation of how and where populations are being affected by climate change today ( 2010 ) and in the near future ( 2030 ) , while pointing to key actions that reduce these impacts . DARA and the Climate Vulnerable Forum launched the 2nd edition of the Climate Vulnerability Monitor on 26 September 2012 at the Asia Society , New York .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Climate_Vulnerability_Monitor", "rank": 14, "score": 107510 }, { "content": "Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 15, "score": 107499 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 16, "score": 106977 }, { "content": "Title: Friends of Science Content: Friends of Science ( FoS ) is a Canadian non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary , Alberta . The organization takes a position that humans are largely not responsible for the currently observed global warming , contrary to the established scientific position on the subject . Rather , they propose that `` the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change , '' not human activity . They argued against the Kyoto Protocol . The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year . They are considered by many to promote climate change denial . They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry . Madhav Khandekar , Chris de Freitas , Tim Patterson and Sallie Baliunas act as advisers to the Friends of Science with their work cited in Friends ' publications . Douglas Leahey has been president since December , 2009 .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Friends_of_Science", "rank": 17, "score": 106455 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report", "rank": 18, "score": 106241 }, { "content": "Title: Access to public information in Moldova Content: Access to public information and freedom of information ( FOI ) refer to the right to access information held by public bodies also known as `` right to know '' . Access to public information is considered of fundamental importance for the effective functioning of democratic systems , as it enhances governments ' and public officials ' accountability , boosting people participation and allowing their informed participation into public life . The fundamental premise of the right to access public information is that the information held by governmental institutions is in principle public and may be concealed only on the basis of legitimate reasons which should be detailed in the law . Access to information , just as media independence and pluralism remain critical issues in the Republic of Moldova . Despite numerous calls for media legislation reform , the government of Moldova has not made significant steps to improve access to information according to the country 's international obligations , including a convention with the Council of Europe . Public officials widely impede access to public information through refusals , delays or incomplete answers , without sanctions . In 2014 , the Independent Journalism Center ( IJC ) presented to Parliament amendments to improve the law on access to information , provide additional guarantees for journalists and limit unjustified limitations of access to public information by public officials . However , the draft law has not yet been adopted . According to the Executive Director of the Association of Independent Press , Petru Macovei , overall the law on access to information is good , but it is compromised by a non-collaborative attitude of the public authorities .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Access_to_public_information_in_Moldova", "rank": 19, "score": 106204 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 20, "score": 105675 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 21, "score": 105149 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 22, "score": 104552 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''", "qid": "2862", "docid": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 23, "score": 104419 }, { "content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment", "rank": 24, "score": 103942 }, { "content": "Title: Stern Review Content: The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change is a 700-page report released for the Government of the United Kingdom on 30 October 2006 by economist Nicholas Stern , chair of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London School of Economics ( LSE ) and also chair of the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) at Leeds University and LSE . The report discusses the effect of global warming on the world economy . Although not the first economic report on climate change , it is significant as the largest and most widely known and discussed report of its kind . The Review states that climate change is the greatest and widest-ranging market failure ever seen , presenting a unique challenge for economics . The Review provides prescriptions including environmental taxes to minimise the economic and social disruptions . The Stern Review 's main conclusion is that the benefits of strong , early action on climate change far outweigh the costs of not acting . The Review points to the potential impacts of climate change on water resources , food production , health , and the environment . According to the Review , without action , the overall costs of climate change will be equivalent to losing at least 5 % of global gross domestic product ( GDP ) each year , now and forever . Including a wider range of risks and impacts could increase this to 20 % of GDP or more , also indefinitely . Stern believes that 5 -- 6 degrees of temperature increase is `` a real possibility . '' The Review proposes that one percent of global GDP per annum is required to be invested to avoid the worst effects of climate change . In June 2008 , Stern increased the estimate for the annual cost of achieving stabilisation between 500 and 550 ppm CO2e to 2 % of GDP to account for faster than expected climate change . There has been a mixed reaction to the Stern Review from economists . Several economists have been critical of the Review , for example , a paper by Byatt et al. ( 2006 ) describes the Review as `` deeply flawed '' . Some economists ( such as Brad DeLong and John Quiggin ) have supported the Review . Others have criticised aspects of Review 's analysis , but argued that some of its conclusions might still be justified based on other grounds , e.g. , see papers by Martin Weitzman ( 2007 ) and Dieter Helm ( 2008 ) .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Stern_Review", "rank": 25, "score": 103266 }, { "content": "Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 26, "score": 102342 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Climate_Change_Act_2008", "rank": 27, "score": 102322 }, { "content": "Title: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium Content: The Ny-Ålesund Symposium is an annual high level international event where top researchers and politicians , senior business executives , representatives of NGOs and other decision makers meet to share experiences and to discuss climate change solutions . The topics are related to the challenges of climate change , other environmental issues , and issues directly connected to the Arctic and the Northern areas which could have major global consequences . Participation is limited to 45 people , by invitation only . The Symposium takes place on Svalbard at 79 degrees north . It is the world 's northernmost permanent settlement and is only 1200 km from the North Pole . The Norwegian Government has transformed this former mining community into a major base for scientific research and environmental monitoring in the Arctic . The base hosts scientists from more than 20 nations and plays an important role in international climate change research . It is owned and operated by the governmental company Kings Bay AS , a coal mining company in earlier days . The scenery is exceptional , with a backdrop of unspoiled Arctic nature . The purpose of the Symposium is to exchange knowledge , improve the understanding and seek solutions of the challenging impacts these issues have both on the Arctic regions and internationally . The Symposium is organized by Kings Bay AS in cooperation with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research , the Ministry of the Environment -RSB- , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , the Ministry of Trade and Industry , the Ministry of Justice and the Police , and the -LSB- Research Council of Norway -RSB- . Statkraft AS is a co-organizer and sponsor of the Symposium . The secretariat is by CICERO Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo . His Royal Highness Crown Prince Haakon of Norway is patron of the Symposium . The first Symposium was arranged in March 2006 . The main themes for the symposia have been : 2006 - The changing Arctic - new opportunities and challenges 2007 - The changing Arctic - global climate change - the need for action 2008 - Global climate change and research challenges 2009 - Climate change : Understanding global politics towards Copenhagen and beyond 2010 - The Changing Arctic and Its Global Implications 2011 - cancelled due to volcanic ash cloud 2012 - Towards a green economy : the role of technology 2013 - The Changing Arctic - Opportunity or Threat 2014 - Breaking the Climate Stalemate", "qid": "2862", "docid": "The_Ny-Ålesund_Symposium", "rank": 28, "score": 102227 }, { "content": "Title: Committee on Climate Change Content: The Committee on Climate Change is an independent non-departmental public body , formed under the Climate Change Act ( 2008 ) to advise the UK and devolved Governments and Parliaments on tackling and preparing for climate change . The Committee provides advice on setting carbon budgets ( for the UK Government carbon budgets are designed to place a limit or ceiling on the level of economy-wide emissions that can be emitted in a five-year period ) , and reports regularly to the Parliaments and Assemblies on the progress made in reducing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Committee_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 29, "score": 101977 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Policy Foundation Content: The Global Warming Policy Foundation ( GWPF ) is a think tank in the United Kingdom , whose stated aims are to challenge `` extremely damaging and harmful policies '' envisaged by governments to mitigate anthropogenic global warming . It promotes climate change denial . In 2014 , when the Charity Commission ruled that the GWPF had breached rules on impartiality , a non-charitable organisation called the `` Global Warming Policy Forum '' or `` GWPF '' was created as a wholly owned subsidiary , to do lobbying that a charity could not . The GWPF website carries an array of articles `` sceptical '' of scientific findings of anthropogenic global warming and its impacts .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Global_Warming_Policy_Foundation", "rank": 30, "score": 101812 }, { "content": "Title: Garnaut Climate Change Review Content: Professor Ross Garnaut led two climate change reviews , the first commencing in 2007 and the second in 2010 . The first Garnaut Climate Change Review was a study by Professor Ross Garnaut , commissioned by then Opposition Leader , Kevin Rudd and by the Australian State and Territory Governments on 30 April 2007 . After the election on 24 November 2007 , Prime Minister of Australia Kevin Rudd confirmed the participation of the Commonwealth Government in the Review . The Review examined the impacts of climate change on the Australian economy , and recommended medium to long-term policies and policy frameworks to improve the prospects for sustainable prosperity . Some observers have remarked that the Garnaut Review would be Australia 's version of the Stern Review . A number of forums were held around Australia to engage the public on various issues relating to the Review . The Secretariat to support the Review was based in the Victorian Department of Premier and Cabinet . The final report of the Garnaut Review was delivered on 30 September 2008 .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Garnaut_Climate_Change_Review", "rank": 31, "score": 101767 }, { "content": "Title: U.S. Global Change Research Information Office Content: The United States Global Change Research Information Office or GCRIO provides access to data and information on climate change research and global change-related educational resources on behalf of the various US Federal Agencies that are involved in the US Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) . The GCRIO handles requests for documents related to USCRP . They also have outreach services to both domestic ( Federal , state , and local ) and international target audiences ( including governments , institutions , researchers , educators , students , and the general public ) in an effort to showcase relevant activities and results of the US Global Change Research Program and to help increase the awareness of the availability of data and information resources of the participating Federal Agencies .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "U.S._Global_Change_Research_Information_Office", "rank": 32, "score": 101207 }, { "content": "Title: Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy Content: The Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) is a climate change research centre in England . It is hosted jointly by the University of Leeds and the London School of Economics and Political Science ( LSE ) . CCCEP is part of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment , which is chaired by Lord Nicholas Stern of Brentford , former Chief Economist of the World Bank and author of the widely known Stern Review . CCCEP was established in 2008 , and is funded by the ESRC . Its mission is to advance public and private action on climate change through rigorous , innovative research . In pursuit of its mission , CCCEP has five research themes in its phase 2 programme : Understanding green growth and climate-compatible development Advancing climate finance and investment Evaluating the performance of climate policies Managing climate risks and uncertainties and strengthening climate services Enabling rapid transitions in mitigation and adaptation In October 2016 , The Daily mail reported allegations that CCCEP had fraudulently obtained millions of dollars from UK taxpayers by claiming credit for research they did not produce . The organization responded to the claims saying that the alleged fraud was an overreaction to a clerical error .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Centre_for_Climate_Change_Economics_and_Policy", "rank": 33, "score": 101064 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 34, "score": 100817 }, { "content": "Title: Climate risk management Content: Climate Risk Management ( CRM ) is a term is used for a large and growing body of work , bridging the climate change adaptation , disaster management and development sectors , amongst many others .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Climate_risk_management", "rank": 35, "score": 100398 }, { "content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Leipzig_Declaration", "rank": 36, "score": 100381 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 37, "score": 100095 }, { "content": "Title: Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections Content: The Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections ( CROI ) is an annual scientific meeting devoted to the understanding , prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS and the opportunistic infections associated with AIDS . Thousands of leading researchers and clinicians from around the world convene in a different location in North America each year for the Conference .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Conference_on_Retroviruses_and_Opportunistic_Infections", "rank": 38, "score": 99610 }, { "content": "Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Vicky_Pope", "rank": 39, "score": 99253 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow", "rank": 40, "score": 99123 }, { "content": "Title: Unguroiu River Content: The Unguroiu River is a tributary of the Crişul Alb River in Romania .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Unguroiu_River", "rank": 41, "score": 98481 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Climate Council Content: The Copenhagen Climate Council is a global collaboration between international business and science founded by the leading independent think tank in Scandinavia , Monday Morning , based in Copenhagen . The councilors of the Copenhagen Climate Council have come together to create global awareness of the importance of the UN Climate Summit ( COP15 ) in Copenhagen , December 2009 , and to ensure technical and public support and assistance to global decision makers when agreeing on a new climate treaty to replace the Kyoto Protocol from 1997 .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Copenhagen_Climate_Council", "rank": 42, "score": 98054 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)", "rank": 43, "score": 97514 }, { "content": "Title: Indigenous peoples and the UN-REDD Program in Panama Content: Following a series of disputes regarding the participation of indigenous peoples in the Panama UN-REDD National Programme , the National Coordinating Body of the Indigenous Peoples of Panama ( COONAPIP ) announced their withdrawal from the climate change mitigation program on February 25 , 2013 . COONAPIP , which brings together the country ´ s seven indigenous peoples and their 12 traditional indigenous representative structures , cited a failure to ensure guarantees of respect for indigenous rights and the full and effective participation of indigenous peoples , and a breach of agreements made during the process of the program ´ s approval . In March 2013 , the Panama UN-REDD National Programme was suspended pending the results of an independent investigation and evaluation . The dispute was highlighted as an important development in the broader context of global policy efforts to implement initiatives to Reduce Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation ( REDD + ) , which were at the time grappling with issues around the participation of indigenous peoples and forest communities in related initiatives , including the implementation of Free , Prior and Informed Consent . Preliminary results of an independent investigation and evaluation commissioned by the UN-REDD Programme were published , as well as a study of the conflict by a Central American non-governmental research center . In December 2013 , the Panama UN-REDD National Programme was reopened following agreement between the Panama Government , through its National Environmental Authority ( ANAM ) , and indigenous peoples , through the National Coordinating Entity of Indigenous Peoples in Panama ( COONAPIP ) . This was realized through extensive consultations between ANAM and COONAPIP to resolve issues and develop an Environmental Agenda between indigenous peoples and the ANAM , which includes a revised result framework of the UN-REDD National Joint Programme of Panama . The General Assembly of COONAPIP , which took place on 29 November 2013 in Playa Muerto , in the Darien province of Panama , approved the Environmental Agenda jointly developed between ANAM and COONAPIP . On the reopening of the National Programme in Panama , Candido Mezua , President of COONAPIP said , `` We feel satisfied that the process followed with ANAM will help us to correct issues , and COONAPIP is going to engage again in the Programme . '' He added , `` It is time to trust again '' . Mezua emphasized that REDD + had to be conducted with full respect for the rights of indigenous peoples , asking for the support of UN agencies to ensure that rights such as free , prior and informed consent ( FPIC ) are respected and appropriate grievance mechanisms are made available for indigenous peoples . He further underscored the complexities and nuances of REDD + and offered COONAPIP 's contribution to national REDD + efforts . In December 2013 , UN-REDD Programme Policy Board congratulated Panama on its progress towards resolving the differences with the National Coordinating Body of Indigenous Peoples in Panama ( COONAPIP ) and announced the approval of a no-cost extension of Panama 's National UN-REDD Programme until June 2015 . The extension was approved together with a review of the new results framework of the Programme and with the full agreement of COONAPIP , who co-presented on a panel with the Government of Panama 's National Environment Authority ( ANAM ) at the Eleventh Meeting of the UN-REDD Programme Policy Board , which took place from 9-10 December 2013 in Geneva . The UN-REDD Programme Policy Board , composed of representatives of partner countries , indigenous peoples and civil society , donor countries and UN agencies , was deeply appreciative of progress made in Panama and of the joint efforts of COONAPIP , ANAM and the UN-REDD Programme to resolve the conflict . Members noted that the experiences in Panama provided valuable lessons for other REDD + countries and highlighted the importance of strong stakeholder engagement processes .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Indigenous_peoples_and_the_UN-REDD_Program_in_Panama", "rank": 44, "score": 97401 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Commission Content: The Climate Commission was an independent body established in 2011 by the Federal Government of Australia to communicate `` reliable and authoritative information '' about climate change in Australia . Abolished by a newly elected government in September 2013 , it was relaunched as an independent non-profit organisation called the Climate Council .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Climate_Commission", "rank": 45, "score": 97205 }, { "content": "Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists", "rank": 46, "score": 97135 }, { "content": "Title: Common Reporting Standard Content: The Common Reporting Standard ( CRS ) , formally referred to as the Standard for Automatic Exchange of Financial Account Information , is an information standard for the automatic exchange of information ( AEoI ) , developed in the context of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) . The legal basis for exchange of data is the Convention on Mutual Administrative Assistance in Tax Matters and the idea is based on the USA Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act ( FATCA ) implementation agreements .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Common_Reporting_Standard", "rank": 47, "score": 97089 }, { "content": "Title: National Climate Assessment Content: The National Climate Assessment ( NCA ) is a United States government interagency ongoing effort on climate change science conducted under the auspices of the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The NCA is a major product of the U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which coordinates a team of experts and receives input from a Federal Advisory Committee . The Fourth National Climate Assessment is being developed . For the Third National Climate Assessment , released in 2014 , USGCRP coordinated hundreds of experts and received advice from a sixty-member Federal Advisory Committee . NCA research is integrated and summarized in the mandatory ongoing National Climate Assessment Reports . The reports are `` extensively reviewed by the public and experts , including federal agencies and a panel of the National Academy of Sciences . The First National Climate Assessment was published in 2000 . The First National Climate Assessment Report was `` prepared by the National Assessment Synthesis Team ( NAST ) , an advisory committee chartered under the Federal Advisory Committee Act to help the US Global Change Research Program fulfill its mandate under the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The National Science and Technology Council forwarded the report to the President and Congress for their consideration as required by the Global Change Research Act . Administrative support for the US Global Change Research Program is provided by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research , which is sponsored by the National Science Foundation ( NCA 2000 ) . '' Between 2002 and 2009 , USGCRP previously known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) , produced twenty-one Synthesis and Assessment Products ( SAPs ) . The second NCA was published in 2009 and the third was released in 2014 . NCA 's overarching goal according to their May 20 , 2011 engagement strategy summary , `` is to enhance the ability of the U.S. to anticipate , mitigate , and adapt to changes in the global environment ( NCA 2011:2 ) . '' According to the USGCRP official website the NCA , In 2013 , the President 's Climate Action Plan released by the Executive Office of the President specifically noted the importance of the National Climate Assessments in achieving the goal of `` Using Sound Science to Manage Climate Impacts '' .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "National_Climate_Assessment", "rank": 48, "score": 97015 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Council Content: The Climate Council is an Australian independent non-profit organisation formed to provide independent , authoritative climate change information to the Australian public . It was formed by former members of the Climate Commission after it was abolished by the federal government . It is funded by donations from the public .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Climate_Council", "rank": 49, "score": 96980 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 50, "score": 96467 }, { "content": "Title: Subsidiary Body of Scientific and Technological Advice Content: The Subsidiary Body of Scientific and Technological Advice ( SBSTA ) is a subsidiary body of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) Conference of the Parties ( COP ) . It meets at least twice a year to advise the COP on matters of science , technology and methodology . It is designed to be open to participation by all parties and to be multidisciplinary . It advises on guidelines for improving standards of national communications and emission inventories . Its roles defined in Article 9 of the UNFCCC are : ( a ) Provide assessments of the state of scientific knowledge relating to climate change and its effects ; ( b ) Prepare scientific assessments on the effects of measures taken in the implementation of the Convention ; ( c ) Identify innovative , efficient and state-of-the-art technologies and know-how and advise on the ways and means of promoting development and/or transferring such technologies ; ( d ) Provide advice on scientific programmes , international cooperation in research and development related to climate change , as well as on ways and means of supporting endogenous capacity-building in developing countries ; and ( e ) Respond to scientific , technological and methodological questions that the Conference of the Parties and its subsidiary bodies may put to the body .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Subsidiary_Body_of_Scientific_and_Technological_Advice", "rank": 51, "score": 96222 }, { "content": "Title: Science Review Board Content: The Science Advisory Board is a United States group of independent scientists selected by the Administrator of the EPA to advise on the scientific and technical aspects of environmental problems and issues and who , at the request of the Administrator , review the scientific aspects of any reports or other written products prepared by the agency . Congress established the Board when it enacted the Environmental Research , Development , and Demonstration Authorization Act of 1978 ( P.L. 95-477 ) .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Science_Review_Board", "rank": 52, "score": 96199 }, { "content": "Title: Michael MacCracken Content: Michael Calvin MacCracken ( born 1942 ) , has been Chief Scientist for Climate Change Programs with the Climate Institute in Washington DC since 2002 ; he was also elected to its Board of Directors in 2006 .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Michael_MacCracken", "rank": 53, "score": 96070 }, { "content": "Title: Views on the Kyoto Protocol Content: This article is about certain views on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . A 2007 study by Gupta et al. assessed the literature on climate change policy which showed no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol , that assert these agreements have , or will , succeed in fully solving the climate problem . It was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed . The Framework Convention and its Protocol , include provisions for future policy actions to be taken . Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is `` the only game in town , '' and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions ( Aldy et al. . , 2003 , p. 9 ) . Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 5 ) . On the other hand , many economists think that the commitments are stronger than is justified . Particularly in the US , many economists have also been critical of the failure to include quantified commitments for developing countries ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 31 ) .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Views_on_the_Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 54, "score": 95915 }, { "content": "Title: Energy Change Institute Content: The Energy Change Institute is a research centre at the Australian National University in Canberra , dedicated to the study of `` carbon free forms of energy production '' and their application in response to climate change . It focuses on energy research and education ranging from `` the science and engineering of energy generation and energy efficiency , to energy regulation , economics , sociology , security and policy . '' The ECI claims to be technology and policy neutral . The ECI maintains a close relationship with its sister organisation , the ANU Climate Change Institute and shares a common secretariat . The institute 's director is Professor Kenneth Baldwin . The ECI comprises more than 200 researchers and contains more than $ 100 million of research facilities . The ANU ECI is a partner in the Australia Indonesia Centre , and Professor Baldwin chairs the AIC Energy Research Cluster .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Energy_Change_Institute", "rank": 55, "score": 95835 }, { "content": "Title: Lucia Liljegren Content: Lucia Liljegren is an American mechanical engineer who has worked at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory ( on projects related to remediation and storage of radioactive waste ) and as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at Iowa State University . She is best known ( as Lucia ) for her global warming/climate change blog The Blackboard ( Where Climate Talk Gets Hot ! ) , online since 2007 . Professor Judith Curry , a climatologist at Georgia Tech , calls Lucia `` probably the least controversial person in the climate blogosphere , because of her cheerfulness and sense of humor , honesty , and open mindedness . '' In the climate change debate , Lucia classifies herself as a `` lukewarmer '' : a person who recognizes global warming , but doubts the severity of the problem , and the certainty of climate science predictions . The Blackboard was one of the first sites to post some of the CRU emails leaked in the 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Lucia_Liljegren", "rank": 56, "score": 95782 }, { "content": "Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "I'm_not_a_scientist", "rank": 57, "score": 95774 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 58, "score": 95503 }, { "content": "Title: Jimmy Adegoke Content: James O. Adegoke ( born 1963 ) is an award-winning climate scientist and professor at the University of Missouri-Kansas City ( UMKC ) where he served as Chair of the Department of Geosciences ( 2008-2010 ) . He also served as an appointee of the Mayor of Kansas City Missouri on the city 's Environmental Management Commission ( EMC ) and has testified before the South Africa Parliament 's Portfolio Committee on Science and Technology and the Climate Change Committee of the Nigerian House of Representatives . In the United States , he has testified at the United States House of Representatives for the United States House Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming . He also serves on the Technical Advisory Board of several United Nations ( UN ) applied science programs , including the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) project on the application of remote sensing for water resources and ecosystem management in Africa .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Jimmy_Adegoke", "rank": 59, "score": 94874 }, { "content": "Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "John_F._B._Mitchell", "rank": 60, "score": 94810 }, { "content": "Title: Independent forest monitoring Content: Independent forest monitoring ( IFM ) is a tool for assessing and strengthening legal compliance in the forest sector internationally . By complementing official forest law enforcement activities with the objectivity and public credibility of an independent third party , IFM can improve transparency in the short term while contributing to the development of a sound legislative and regulatory framework for responsible forest management . Transparency was emphasized as a key element in reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation ( REDD ) by the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) at the Conference of the Parties ( COP-15 ) in Copenhagen in December 2009 in its decisions on methodological guidance for forest monitoring systems .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Independent_forest_monitoring", "rank": 61, "score": 94733 }, { "content": "Title: Institute of Atmospheric Physics AS CR Content: The Institute of Atmospheric Physics AS CR , also designated as the IAP , is part of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic ( AS CR ) . Within the IAP research institutions are combined in order to cover the whole field of science and humanities . The IAP was established in 1964 , developed from a previously existing institute . This former institute 's main focus was observation , and interpretation of data of tropospheric processes . In 1994 another former institute joined the IAP which then extended its research purview to the entire atmosphere , from the boundary layer up to interplanetary space . In 2007-2008 the IAP organized several international workshops and meetings . The institute is staffed by 111 persons ( 2008 ) and forty percent of those hold the PhD degree or its equivalent . Throughout the years staff members have published research in a variety of international and national peer reviewed journals , as well as various books , chapters in books , and monographs . Also , the IAP participates in international research programs , and many international research projects . For example it participates in the Climate and Weather of the Sun-Earth System ( CAWSES ) program , and the GEO-6 ( Galileo for Scientific User Community ) research project .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Institute_of_Atmospheric_Physics_AS_CR", "rank": 62, "score": 94491 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment", "rank": 63, "score": 94139 }, { "content": "Title: Chicago Review Press Content: Chicago Review Press , or CRP , is a U.S. book publisher and an independent company founded in 1973 . Chicago Review Press publishes approximately 60 new titles yearly under five imprints : Chicago Review Press , Lawrence Hill Books , Academy Chicago , Ball Publishing , and Zephyr Press . They describe their books as `` a little quirky , a little edgy , smart '' .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Chicago_Review_Press", "rank": 64, "score": 94104 }, { "content": "Title: Independent foreclosure review Content: As part of a consent order with federal bank regulators , the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency ( OCC ) , the Office of Thrift Supervision ( OTS ) ( independent bureaus of the U.S. Department of the Treasury ) , and the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System , fourteen mortgage servicers and their affiliates are identifying customers who were part of a foreclosure action on their primary residence between January 1 , 2009 and December 31 , 2010 . The Federal Reserve announced on April 9 that Rust Consulting would begin mailing out checks on April 12 , 2013 . On April 25 , 2013 , Representative Elijah Cummings introduced legislation to create a monitor for the Independent Foreclosure Review : HR 1706 , `` The Mortgage Settlement Monitoring Act of 2013 '' The Independent Foreclosure Review provides homeowners the opportunity to request an independent review of their foreclosure process . If the review finds that financial injury occurred because of errors or other problems during their home foreclosure process , the homeowners may receive compensation or other remedy .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Independent_foreclosure_review", "rank": 65, "score": 93948 }, { "content": "Title: Congressional Research Service Content: The Congressional Research Service ( CRS ) , known as Congress 's think tank , is a public policy research arm of the United States Congress . As a legislative branch agency within the Library of Congress , CRS works primarily and directly for Members of Congress , their Committees and staff on a confidential , nonpartisan basis . Its staff of approximately 600 employees includes lawyers , economists , reference librarians , and social , natural , and physical scientists . In fiscal year 2016 , CRS was appropriated a budget of roughly $ 106.9 million by Congress . CRS is joined by two major congressional support agencies . The Congressional Budget Office provides Congress with budget-related information , reports on fiscal , budgetary , and programmatic issues , and analyses of budget policy options , costs , and effects . The Government Accountability Office assists Congress in reviewing and monitoring the activities of government by conducting independent audits , investigations , and evaluations of federal programs . Collectively , the three agencies employ more than 4,000 people . CRS reports are widely regarded as in depth , accurate , objective , and timely , but as a matter of policy they are not made available to members of the public by CRS , except in certain circumstances . There have been numerous attempts to pass legislation requiring all reports to be made available online , most recently in 2017 , but none have been enacted . Instead , the public must request individual reports from their Senators and Representatives in Congress , purchase them from private vendors , or search for them in various web archives of previously released documents .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Congressional_Research_Service", "rank": 66, "score": 93809 }, { "content": "Title: Paul J. Crutzen Content: Paul Jozef Crutzen ( -LSB- pʌul ˈjoːzəf ˈkrɵtsə ( n ) -RSB- ; born 3 December 1933 ) is a Dutch , Nobel Prize-winning , atmospheric chemist . He is known for work on climate change research and for popularizing the term Anthropocene to describe a proposed new era when human actions have a drastic effect on the Earth .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Paul_J._Crutzen", "rank": 67, "score": 93771 }, { "content": "Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 68, "score": 93684 }, { "content": "Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme", "rank": 69, "score": 93542 }, { "content": "Title: Global Change Research Act of 1990 Content: The Global Change Research Act 1990 is a United States law requiring research into global warming and related issues . It requires a report to Congress every four years on the environmental , economic , health and safety consequences of climate change . According to a summary by the Congressional Research Service , the Act : `` Directs the President , through the Federal Coordinating Council on Science , Engineering , and Technology ( Council ) , to establish the Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences to carry out Council functions under specified provisions of the National Science and Technology Policy , Organization , and Priorities Act of 1976 relating to global change research , to increase the effectiveness and productivity of Federal global change research efforts . Directs the President to establish an interagency United States Global Change Research Program to improve understanding of global change . Requires the Chairman of the Council , through the Committee , to develop a National Global Change Research Plan for implementation of the Program . Sets forth required Plan contents and research elements , including that the Plan provide recommendations for collaboration within the Federal Government and among nations . Requires the Chairman to enter into an agreement with the National Research Council to : ( 1 ) evaluate the scientific content of the Plan ; and ( 2 ) provide information and advice and recommended priorities for future global change research . Requires the Committee to provide general guidance each year to each Federal agency or department participating in the Program with respect to preparation of requests for appropriations related to the Program . Requires the Council , at least every four years , through the Committee , to submit to the President and the Congress an assessment regarding the findings of the Program and associated uncertainties , the effects of global change , and current and major long-term trends in global change . Requires that the research findings of the Committee and of Federal agencies and departments be made available to the Environmental Protection Agency and all Federal agencies and departments . Title II : International Cooperation in Global Change Research - International Cooperation in Global Change Research Act of 1990 - Declares that the President should direct the Secretary of State to initiate discussions with other nations on : ( 1 ) international agreements to coordinate global change research ; and ( 2 ) an international research protocol for cooperation on the development of energy technologies which have minimally adverse effects on the environment . Directs the President to establish an Office of Global Change Research Information to disseminate to foreign governments and their citizens , businesses , and institutions scientific research useful in preventing , mitigating , or adapting to the effects of global change . Title III : Growth Decision Aid - Directs the Secretary of Commerce to : ( 1 ) conduct a study on the implications of growth and development on urban , suburban , and rural communities ; and ( 2 ) based on the study , produce a decision aid to assist State and local authorities in planning and managing growth and development while preserving community character . '' Following the publication of the first National Climate Assessment Report there were accusations that information was being suppressed , leading to complacency around public works , such as New Orleans flood defences . Greenpeace , the Center for Biological Diversity and Friends of the Earth challenged the delay in federal district court on August 21 , 2007 . A judge ruled that an updated national assessment must be produced by May 31 , 2008 .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Global_Change_Research_Act_of_1990", "rank": 70, "score": 93238 }, { "content": "Title: Forest Eleven Content: Forest Eleven ( F-11 ) is a group of tropical rainforest countries that found together in 2007 to defend their interests in the UNFCCC climate change negotiations . It initially consisted of the eleven members Brazil , Cameroon , Colombia , Congo ( Brazzaville ) , DR Congo , Costa Rica , Gabon , Indonesia , Malaysia , Papua New Guinea and Peru . In 2010 Guatemala , Guyana and Suriname joined the group .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Forest_Eleven", "rank": 71, "score": 92794 }, { "content": "Title: Saleemul Huq Content: Saleemul Huq ( সালিমুল হক born 2 October 1952 ) is a Bangladeshi scientist based in London . He is a Senior Fellow in the Climate Change Group at the International Institute for Environment and Development ( IIED ) .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Saleemul_Huq", "rank": 72, "score": 92721 }, { "content": "Title: Freedom of Information Act 1982 Content: The Freedom of Information Act 1982 ( FOI ) is Australian Commonwealth Freedom of Information legislation which gives members of the public rights of access to official documents of the Government of the Commonwealth and of its agencies .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Freedom_of_Information_Act_1982", "rank": 73, "score": 92627 }, { "content": "Title: Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change Content: The Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change ( or CSCCC ) is an entity that maintains a website and describes itself as a global group of non-profit organizations with a mission of `` seek -LSB- ing -RSB- to educate the public about the science and economics of climate change in an impartial manner . '' The Coalition identifies its membership as including 60 independent nonprofit organisations from 40 countries `` who share a commitment to improving public understanding about a range of public policy issues . '' It calls itself `` a free-market alternative to mainstream environmentalism . '' An Indian news media report states that it was founded by the International Policy Network , a London-based organization that receives support from Exxon Mobil . The group publishes background papers and opinion editorials on the science and economics of climate change and maintains a blog . Its Civil Society Report on Climate Change was published in 2007 , shortly before the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change conference in Bali . CSCCC experts make media appearances , such as Julian Morris 's 2007 feature on Larry King Live and his televised debate in 2008 with IPCC head Rajendra Pachauri . This IPN in the UK has Julian Morris as Executive Director . It is actually a part of the Atlas Group/Network ( aka Atlas Economic Research Institute ) which was founded by UK factory-chicken king , Sir Antony Fisher ( one of PM Margaret Thatcher 's economic gurus ) and American Loctite millionaire Richard Krieble . They had funding support from Krieble , Richard Mellon Scaife , and Philip Morris . Fisher is reputed to have had a primary hand in establishing up to 150 libertarian think-tanks around the world . Fisher 's daughter , Linda Whetstone , now works for the ( Fisher-founded ) Adam Smith Institute . She is also the chairperson of the International Policy Network , and is on the Boards of Directors of the Mont Pelerin Society , the Institute of Economic Affairs and the Atlas Group in the USA . Coalitions and networks of this kind a common with Atlas Group think-tanks , and many of their key staff and directors serve on many different organisations . This faux-multiplicity amplifies the apparent strength of the public attacks on climate-change science . See also the Stockholm Network . and", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Civil_Society_Coalition_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 74, "score": 92495 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 75, "score": 92471 }, { "content": "Title: Central Reserve Police Force Content: The Central Reserve Police Force ( CRPF ) is the largest of India 's Central Armed Police Forces . It functions under the aegis of Ministry of Home Affairs ( MHA ) of the Government of India . The CRPF 's primary role lies in assisting the State/Union Territories in police operations to maintain law and order and counter insurgency . It came into existence as the Crown Representative 's Police on 27 July 1939 . After Indian Independence , it became the Central Reserve Police Force on enactment of the CRPF Act on 28 December 1949 . Besides Law and Order and counter-insurgency duties , the role of CRPF in the General Elections , held repeatedly during the past few years , has been very significant and vital . This is especially true for the trouble-ridden states of Jammu and Kashmir , Bihar and in the North East . During the Parliamentary elections of September 1999 , the CRPF played a major role in the security arrangements . Of late , CRPF contingents are also being deployed in UN missions . With 235 battalions and various other establishments , the CRPF is considered India 's largest paramilitary force and has a sanctioned strength of 308,862 personnel .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Central_Reserve_Police_Force", "rank": 76, "score": 92461 }, { "content": "Title: Sujatha Byravan Content: Sujatha Byravan is Principal Research Scientist at the Center for Study of Science , Technology and Policy ( CSTEP ) . Until 2012 , she was Senior Fellow at the Centre for Development Finance in IFMR where the focus of her work was primarily on adaptation to global warming . Her interests are in the broad areas of science , technology and development and are grounded in her technical background and education in the biological sciences . Her recent projects and publications have been on India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change , sea level rise , environmental migrants and exiles , including so-called ` climate refugees ' , biotechnology policy , innovation , and science for sustainable development . Between 2002 and 2007 , she was Executive Director and President of the Council for Responsible Genetics ( CRG ) , a non-profit/non-governmental organization devoted to fostering informed debate on the social , ethical and environmental implications of new genetic technologies . CRG carries out policy research , education and advocacy . Byravan received a PhD in molecular biology in 1989 from the University of South Carolina . She completed post-doctoral work from 1993 to 1995 at UCLA . She then worked in India as a science writer and freelance journalist . Topics she has written on include science policy , gender issues , and Indian environmental concerns and politics . During that time , Byravan also became a fellow of the Rockefeller Foundation 's LEAD ( Leadership for Environment and Development ) Program ( 1995 to 1997 ) . She later served as Director of the Fellows Program at LEAD International from 1999-2002 , and in that capacity was responsible for developing and executing the program for the graduates of LEAD , who number over 1,300 and work all over the world in various sectors . Byravan is also a fellow of the Salzburg Global Seminar on Biotechnology : Legal , Ethical and Social Issues . She received a Rockefeller Foundation Residential Fellowship at Bellagio in 2007 . She is on the board of LEAD ( India ) .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Sujatha_Byravan", "rank": 77, "score": 92284 }, { "content": "Title: Dennis Tirpak Content: Dennis Tirpak is an expert on Climate Change . He is a Senior Fellow at the World Resources Institute . He was the director of Global Climate Change Policy at the United States Environmental Protection Agency for ten years . He was the Coordinator of Science and Technology at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for nine years . He was the head of the climate change unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) for three years . He has also worked on the Montreal Protocol and held positions in industry with Texaco and Alcoa . He is one of the coordinating lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice President Al Gore . He advises national governments and industry as an associate with the International Institute for Sustainable Development in Canada and a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute in Washington , D.C. He was the Chairman of The International Scientific Steering Committee for Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations which took place at the invitation of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2005 . In 1989 he co-authored the first report to Congress , The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change on the United States , and has written a scientific and policy history on climate change and contributed to many publications including the New York Times in an op-ed titled `` How Green is My Taxi '' .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Dennis_Tirpak", "rank": 78, "score": 92224 }, { "content": "Title: Premier's Climate Change Council Content: The Premier 's Climate Change Council was established by the Government of South Australia under the Climate Change and Greenhouse Emissions Reduction Act 2007 . The Council provides independent advice to the Minister responsible for Climate Change about matters related to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and climate change adaptation and was formed during the Rann Government . The Council 's membership represents the business community , the environment and conservation sector , the scientific community and state and local governments . It is chaired by prominent South Australian businessman Bruce Carter , who was appointed to the role in 2011 . In 2013 , Michelle Lensink MLC questioned the efficacy of the Premier 's Climate Change Council , and asked the Minister for the environment , Ian Hunter about the absence of the Council 's 2011-12 annual report from the Council 's website . In 2013 , the Council published South Australia 's Climate Change Vision : Pathways to 2050 to advise Premier Jay Weatherill and his government on future planning and policy directions for the state . In September 2015 , Bruce Carter said of the Council : '' `` We want to encourage a wide range of views around climate change measures that are dynamic and adaptive . ''", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Premier's_Climate_Change_Council", "rank": 79, "score": 92151 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 80, "score": 92050 }, { "content": "Title: Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration Content: The Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration was created as part of the Clear Skies Initiative in February 2002 by George W. Bush , as a Cabinet-level effort to coordinate climate change science and technology research . The White House says : `` The Secretary of Commerce and Secretary of Energy will lead the effort , in close coordination with the President 's Science Advisor . The research effort will continue to be coordinated through the National Science and Technology Council in accordance with the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . ''", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Committee_on_Climate_Change_Science_and_Technology_Integration", "rank": 81, "score": 92042 }, { "content": "Title: Will Steffen Content: Will Steffen ( born 1947 ) is an American chemist . He was the executive director of the Australian National University ( ANU ) Climate Change Institute and a member of the Australian Climate Commission until its abolishment in September 2013 . From 1998 to 2004 , he was the executive director of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , a co-ordinating body of national environmental change organisations based in Stockholm .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Will_Steffen", "rank": 82, "score": 91971 }, { "content": "Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change", "rank": 83, "score": 91876 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change", "rank": 84, "score": 91865 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 85, "score": 91740 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme", "rank": 86, "score": 91672 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992", "rank": 87, "score": 91468 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Change (journal) Content: Climatic Change is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media covering cross-disciplinary work on all aspects of climate change and variability . It was established in 1978 and the editors-in-chief are Michael Oppenheimer ( Princeton University ) and Gary Yohe ( Wesleyan University ) .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Climatic_Change_(journal)", "rank": 88, "score": 91390 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy", "rank": 89, "score": 91372 }, { "content": "Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Nature_Climate_Change", "rank": 90, "score": 91335 }, { "content": "Title: ACM Computing Reviews Content: ACM Computing Reviews ( CR ) is a scientific journal that reviews literature in the field of computer science . It is published by the Association for Computing Machinery and the editor-in-chief is Carol Hutchins ( New York University ) .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "ACM_Computing_Reviews", "rank": 91, "score": 91143 }, { "content": "Title: Congressional Review Act Content: The Congressional Review Act ( CRA ) is a law that was enacted by the United States Congress under House Speaker Newt Gingrich as Section 251 of the Contract with America Advancement Act of 1996 and signed into law by President Bill Clinton on March 29 , 1996 . The law empowers Congress to review , by means of an expedited legislative process , new federal regulations issued by government agencies and , by passage of a joint resolution , to overrule a regulation . Once a rule is thus repealed , the CRA also prohibits the reissuing of the rule in substantially the same form or the issuing of a new rule that is substantially the same `` unless the reissued or new rule is specifically authorized by a law enacted after the date of the joint resolution disapproving the original rule '' ( 5 U.S. Code § 801 ( b ) ( 2 ) ) . Congress has a window of time lasting 60 legislative days ( i.e. , days that Congress is actually in session , rather than simple calendar days ) to disapprove of any given rule by simple majority vote ; otherwise , the rule will go into effect at the end of this period . Prior to 2017 , the CRA had only been successfully invoked once to overturn a rule ( in 2001 ; see below ) . In January 2017 , however , with a new Republican president , the Republican-controlled 115th Congress began passing a series of disapproval resolutions to overturn a variety of rules issued under the Obama administration . Ultimately , fourteen of these resolutions were passed and signed into law ; a fifteenth resolution was passed by the House but failed in the Senate . Because of the shortness of legislative sessions during the 114th Congress , the 115th Congress was able to target rules passed by the Obama administration as far back as May 2016 . On May 16 , 2017 , Senators Cory Booker and Tom Udall introduced , a bill to repeal the Congressional Review Act .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Congressional_Review_Act", "rank": 92, "score": 91076 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture", "rank": 93, "score": 90831 }, { "content": "Title: Chris Turney Content: Christian S. M. Turney FGS FRGS is Professor of Climate Change and Earth Science at University of New South Wales . He was educated at St Bede 's School , graduated from the University of East Anglia with a BSc in Environmental Science and completed his PhD at Royal Holloway , University of London . He was previously Professor of Physical Geography University of Exeter . He was awarded the J.G. Russell Award ( 2004 ) by the Australian Academy of Science , the inaugural Sir Nicholas Shackleton Medal by the International Union for Quaternary Research in 2007 , a Philip Leverhulme Prize in 2008 , the Bigsby Medal of the Geological Society of London in 2009 , and the Frederick White Prize by the Australian Academy of Science in 2014 . In 2013 − 14 he led an expedition to the Antarctic entitled `` Spirit of Mawson '' , aimed at highlighing the decline in sea ice due to climate change . The expedition was abandoned when its Russian ship became stuck in unusually large amounts of sea ice .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Chris_Turney", "rank": 94, "score": 90807 }, { "content": "Title: Christopher Flavin Content: Christopher Flavin is the former president of the Worldwatch Institute , an independent research organization focused on natural resource and environmental issues , based in Washington , DC . He is also a founding member of the Board of Directors of the Business Council for Sustainable Energy and is a member of the National Academy of Sciences Board on Energy and Environmental Systems , the Climate Institute , and the Environmental and Energy Study Institute . His research and writing focus is international energy and climate policy . Flavin has participated in several notable international conferences , including the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and the Climate Change Conference in Kyoto , Japan , in 1997 . He has testified before national and state legislatures and meets frequently with government and international leaders . Flavin is a native of Monterey , California and a cum laude graduate of Williams College , where he studied economics , biology , and environmental studies .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Christopher_Flavin", "rank": 95, "score": 90678 }, { "content": "Title: Center for Regulatory Effectiveness Content: The Center for Regulatory Effectiveness ( CRE ) is an industry-funded , for-profit think tank . It focuses on federal agency compliance with `` good government '' laws which regulate the regulators . These `` good government '' laws include the Data Quality Act , the Paperwork Reduction Act , Executive Orders on regulatory review , the Unfunded Mandates Act , the Regulatory Flexibility Act and the Congressional Review Act . CRE was formed by former career officials of the White House Office of Management and Budget . The head of the firm is Jim Tozzi . It has been criticised as a front organisation for industries which seek to undermine the regulatory process , notably by Chris C. Mooney in his book The Republican War on Science . One of CRE 's projects to promote public participation in the regulatory process is the establishment of the Interactive Public Docket .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Center_for_Regulatory_Effectiveness", "rank": 96, "score": 90621 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference was held in Cancún , Mexico , from 29 November to 10 December 2010 . The conference is officially referred to as the 16th session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 6th session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol . In addition , the two permanent subsidiary bodies of the UNFCCC -- the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice ( SBSTA ) and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation ( SBI ) -- held their 33rd sessions . The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference extended the mandates of the two temporary subsidiary bodies , the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA ) , and they met as well .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "2010_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 97, "score": 90602 }, { "content": "Title: Global Roundtable on Climate Change Content: The Global Roundtable on Climate Change , convened by the Earth Institute at Columbia University brought together representatives from corporations , research institutions , and government organizations to discuss the scientific consensus , economics , technology , and public policy issues associated with climate change . Following preliminary research and discussions , the group first met in 2005 and held a series of public and private meetings over the next five year . The Roundtable had five objectives : Improve global consensus on the science , technology , economics , and policy issues of anthropogenic climate change . Review technology and policy proposals for mitigating climate change while meeting global energy demand . Support research and prototypes of technologies and policies that address climate change . Provide a forum for discussion , analysis , and exchange of ideas from the represented groups . Support proposals and initiatives generated by the Roundtable 's discussions . Participants in the Roundtable meetings : ABB , Air France , Alcan , Alcoa , Alliant Energy , Allianz , American Electric Power , BASF , Bayer , Calvert Group , China Renewable Energy Industry Association , Citigroup , Coalition of Rainforest Nations , Columbia University , Deutsche Telekom , DuPont , Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand , Endesa , Environmental Defense , Eskom , Eni , Exelon , Fairfield University , FPL Group , General Electric , Iberdrola , ING Group , Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , International Gas Union , Munich Re , National Grid , NRG Energy , Rainforest Alliance , Republic of Iceland , Ricoh , Suntech Power , Swiss Re , Vattenfall , Volvo , World Council on Churches , World Petroleum Council , and many others . The Roundtable was funded by a grant from the Lenfest Foundation . Jeffrey Sachs , Director of the Earth Institute served as Chair . David L. Downie served as Director of the Global Roundtable on Climate Change before leaving the Earth Institute to join Fairfield University . On February 20 , 2007 , the Roundtable released `` The Path to Climate Sustainability : A Joint Statement by the Global Roundtable on Climate Change '' . The Joint Statement outlines a post-Kyoto framework and has been endorsed by over 100 of the Roundtable participating corporations and organizations . The Statement outlines ways to effect change at the levels of policy and industry , particularly in regards to creating sustainable energy systems necessary for achieving economic growth . In addition to its internal discussions , which were aimed at information exchange , education and consensus building , and development of the parthbreaking Joint Statement , Roundtable participants also participated in public forums . For example , David L. Downie organized two side-event panels during sessions of the global climate negotiations that featured presentations by Roundtable Participants , including himself , regarding how businesses and scientists were working together to lower greenhouse gas emissions . David L. Downie also discussed the Roundtable and related issues at other events during the climate negotiations and in other forums", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Global_Roundtable_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 98, "score": 90530 }, { "content": "Title: Tim Flannery Content: for | the baseball player and coach | Tim Flannery Timothy Fridtjof `` Tim '' Flannery ( born 28 January 1956 ) is an Australian mammalogist , palaeontologist , environmentalist and global warming activist . He was the Chief Commissioner of the Climate Commission , a Federal Government body providing information on climate change to the Australian public . On 23 September 2013 Flannery announced that he would join other sacked commissioners to form the independent Climate Council , that would be funded by the community . Tim Flannery is currently a Professorial Fellow at the Melbourne Sustainable Society Institute , University of Melbourne . Professor Flannery was named Australian of the Year in 2007 and previously , until mid-2013 , was a professor at Macquarie University and held the Panasonic Chair in Environmental Sustainability . He is also chairman of the Copenhagen Climate Council , an international climate change awareness group . His sometimes controversial views on shutting down conventional coal-fired power stations for electricity generation in the medium term are frequently cited in the media .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Tim_Flannery", "rank": 99, "score": 90142 }, { "content": "Title: Jim Salinger Content: Michael Jim Salinger is an Auckland-based climate change scientist who formerly worked for the Crown Research Institute National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research ( NIWA ) . He was a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . From 2006 to 2010 , Salinger was President of the Commission for Agricultural Meteorology at the World Meteorological Organization . On 23 April 2009 , Salinger was dismissed by NIWA , ostensibly for breaching NIWA 's media policy . Salinger had represented NIWA to the public and media for many years and the dismissal caused a ` wide public outcry ' according to Television New Zealand . The Institute of Agricultural and Horticultural Science described the incident as a ` national embarrassment ' . In late May 2009 , Salinger stated that mediation with NIWA over the dismissal had failed and that he would be lodging a claim with the Employment Relations Authority . On 19 October 2009 , the Employment Relations Authority in Auckland began a hearing into Salinger 's dismissal ; during the hearing it emerged the Salinger has suffered from depression . In December 2009 , the Employment Relations Authority upheld Salinger 's dismissal . In 2012 , Salinger was Lorry Lokey Visiting Professor at Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment .", "qid": "2862", "docid": "Jim_Salinger", "rank": 100, "score": 89995 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: List of scientific skeptics Content: This is a list of notable people that promote or practice scientific skepticism . In general , they favor science and are opposed to pseudoscience and quackery . They are generally skeptical of parapsychology , the paranormal , and alternative medicine . James Alcock , psychologist . Author of several skeptical books and articles . Isaac Asimov , biochemist , author . Wrote or edited over 500 popular science , other nonfiction , and science fiction books , including the Foundation series . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Robert A. Baker , psychologist , author . Wrote books on ghosts , alien abductions and false memory syndrome . Banachek , mentalist . participant in Project Alpha . Real name Steve Shaw Stephen Barrett , psychiatrist . Cofounder of the National Council Against Health Fraud , critic of alternative medicine . Founder of the Quackwatch website . Barry Beyerstein , psychologist . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Susan Blackmore , parapsychologist . Author , lecturer , and broadcaster . Maarten Boudry , philosopher and author . Derren Brown , mentalist , critic of alleged psychics and spiritual mediums . Robert Todd Carroll , philosopher . Author of The Skeptic 's Dictionary book and website . Milbourne Christopher , magician . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Derek Colanduno and Robynn McCarthy , co-hosts of the podcast Skepticality : The Official Podcast of Skeptic Magazine . David Colquhoun , pharmacologist and author of the website Improbable Science . Brian Cox , physicist Narendra Dabholkar , author and the founder-president of Maharashtra Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti . Richard Dawkins , evolutionary biologist and author known for promoting the gene-centric view of evolution ( in his book The Selfish Gene ) , coining of the term meme , and atheist activism . Daniel Dennett , philosopher . Author of Darwin 's Dangerous Idea : Evolution and the Meanings of Life and Breaking the Spell : Religion as a Natural Phenomenon . Jared Diamond , scientist , author and member of the editorial board of Skeptic . Ann Druyan , popular science author and current head of the Planetary Society . Widow of the astronomer Carl Sagan . Brian Dunning , host of skeptical podcast Skeptoid . Mark Edward Skeptologist , column on Skepticblog , invented term Guerrilla Skepticism . Exposes psychics , steering member of IIG and author of tell-all psychic book . Richard Feynman , theoretical physicist known for his work in quantum mechanics . Kendrick Frazier , Editor of the Skeptical Inquirer . Martin Gardner , author , recreational mathematician . Writer of the long-running ` Mathematical Games ' column in Scientific American , and a longstanding columnist for the Skeptical Inquirer . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Pamela L. Gay , astronomer , co-host of Astronomy Cast , assistant research professor in the STEM center at SIUE and project director for CosmoQuest . Susan Gerbic , the founder of Guerrilla Skepticism on Wikipedia which has the mission of improving the skeptical content of Wikipedia . Ben Goldacre , physician , journalist . Author of the `` Bad Science '' column in The Guardian ( UK newspaper ) . David Gorski , surgical oncologist . A.k.a. Orac of Respectful Insolence . Critic of complimentary and alternative medicine . Stephen Jay Gould , paleontologist , evolutionary biologist , historian of science , Harvard University . Sven Ove Hansson , philosopher . Founding Chairperson of the Swedish Skeptics ( Vetenskap och Folkbildning ) and Editor of the organisation 's journal Folkvett . Sam Harris ( author ) , neuroscientist and author . Christopher Hitchens , journalist and author . Douglas Hofstadter , physicist , artificial intelligence researcher . Author of Pulitzer Prize-winning book Gödel , Escher , Bach : The Eternal Golden Braid and Scientific American column `` Metamagical Themas '' . Harry Houdini , magician . Critic of Modern Spiritualism who exposed fraudulent psychics and mediums and publicized their methods . George Hrab American skeptical musician , podcaster , speaker and emcee at The Amaz!ng Meeting Ray Hyman , psychologist , critic of parapsychology . Longstanding contributor to the Skeptical Inquirer . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Jamie Hyneman , co-creator of the TV show MythBusters . Leo Igwe , Nigerian human rights advocate . Edward Jenner , English physician and scientist who pioneered smallpox vaccine . Penn Jillette magician , half of Penn & Teller duo . Creator and host of the television series Bullshit ! Philip J. Klass , aerospace journalist . Known for his investigations of UFOs . Longstanding contributor to the Skeptical Inquirer . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Paul Kurtz , philosopher , author . Founder of CSICOP ( now CSI ) , Publisher of the Skeptical Inquirer . Michael Leunig , cartoonist . Ash Lieb , artist , comedian and writer . Scott Lilienfeld , professor of psychology , author , Consulting Editor for Skeptical Inquirer and Committee for Skeptical Inquiry Fellow Pat Linse , illustrator . Cofounder of the Skeptics Society , Copublisher and Art Director of Skeptic magazine . Creator of Junior Skeptic magazine . Daniel Loxton , illustrator , writer . Editor of Junior Skeptic magazine ( bound into Skeptic magazine ) . Tim Minchin , comedian , musician , actor . Has many songs illustrating his skepticism , most notably , Storm . Rob Nanninga , writer and editor of Skepter . Joe Nickell , investigator of the paranormal , author . Columnist for the Skeptical Inquirer . Steven Novella , neurologist . Founder of the New England Skeptical Society and host of The Skeptics ' Guide to the Universe podcast . James Oberg , aerospace journalist . Critic of UFOs and claims of a moon landing hoax . Robert L. Park , physicist , and author of Voodoo Science . Massimo Pigliucci , professor of philosophy at City University of New York and co-host of the skeptical podcast , Rationally Speaking . Steven Pinker , Canadian experimental psychologist , cognitive scientist , linguist , popular science author , Harvard College Professor and advocate of evolutionary psychology and the computational theory of mind . Philip Plait , astronomer , author . Founder of the Bad Astronomy website . Massimo Polidoro , writer , journalist . Student of James Randi , Co-Founder and Executive Director of CICAP , Research Fellow of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Basava Premanand publisher of the Indian Skeptic magazine and chairman of the Indian CSICOP . Benjamin Radford , Managing Editor of the Skeptical Inquirer . James Randi , magician . Founder of the James Randi Educational Foundation . Notable for offering a million dollar cash reward for verifiable demonstration under laboratory conditions of any paranormal ability or event . Conceived and directed Project Alpha . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Emily Rosa , Guinness World Record youngest medical researcher ; at age 11 , published her study in the Journal of the American Medical Association on therapeutic touch , showing practitioners could n't feel the `` human energy field '' when not looking . Carl Sagan , astronomer , popular science author , and media personality . Advocate for SETI , founder of the Planetary Society , host of the TV series Cosmos and author of The Demon Haunted World : Science as a Candle in the Dark . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Adam Savage , co-creator of the TV series MythBusters . Eugenie Scott , anthropologist . Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education ( NCSE ) , critic of creationism and intelligent design . Robert Sheaffer , author . UFO investigator , columnist for the Skeptical Inquirer . Michael Shermer , historian , popular science author , founder of the Skeptics Society . Copublisher and Editor of Skeptic magazine . Also current writer for the Scientific American column `` Skeptic '' . Simon Singh , popular British science author . Julia Sweeney , actress , comedian , author and performer of Letting Go of God . Teller , magician , half of Penn & Teller duo . Creator and host of the television series Bullshit ! Marcello Truzzi , sociologist . First editor of the Skeptical Inquirer . Critic of organized skepticism . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Rebecca Watson , founder of Skepchick blog . Richard Wiseman , psychologist . Paul Zenon , magician and comedian .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "List_of_scientific_skeptics", "rank": 1, "score": 199626 }, { "content": "Title: Religious skepticism Content: Religious skepticism is a type of skepticism relating to religion . Religious skeptics question religious authority and are not necessarily anti-religious but are those skeptical of a specific or all religious beliefs and/or practices . Some are deists , believing in a non-interventionist god ( s ) and rejecting mainstream religions . Socrates was one of the first religious skeptics of whom there are records ; he questioned the legitimacy of the beliefs of his time in the existence of the Greek gods .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Religious_skepticism", "rank": 2, "score": 168394 }, { "content": "Title: Jewish skeptics Content: Jewish skeptics are Jewish individuals ( historically , Jewish philosophers ) who have held skeptical views on matters of the Jewish religion . In general , these skeptical views regard some or all of the `` principles of faith , '' whatever these may be ( see Maimonides , Albo ) , but historically Jewish skepticism is directed either at ( 1 ) the existence of the God of Judaism or ( 2 ) the authenticity and veracity of the Torah .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Jewish_skeptics", "rank": 3, "score": 165619 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptic (U.S. magazine) Content: Skeptic , colloquially known as Skeptic magazine , is a quarterly science education and science advocacy magazine published internationally by The Skeptics Society , a nonprofit organization devoted to promoting scientific skepticism and resisting the spread of pseudoscience , superstition , and irrational beliefs . Founded by Michael Shermer , founder of the Skeptics Society , the magazine was first published in the spring of 1992 and is published through Millennium Press . Shermer remains the Publisher and Editor-in-Chief of the magazine and the magazine 's Co-publisher and Art Director is Pat Linse . Other noteworthy members of its editorial board include Oxford University evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins , Pulitzer Prize-winning scientist Jared Diamond , magician and escape artist turned educator James `` The Amazing '' Randi , actor , comedian , and Saturday Night Live alumna Julia Sweeney , professional mentalist Mark Edward , Science writer Daniel Loxton , Lawrence M. Krauss and Christof Koch Skeptic has an international circulation with over 50,000 subscriptions and is on newsstands in the U.S. and Canada as well as Europe , Australia , and other countries .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skeptic_(U.S._magazine)", "rank": 4, "score": 161626 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptics Society Content: The Skeptics Society is a nonprofit , member-supported organization devoted to promoting scientific skepticism and resisting the spread of pseudoscience , superstition , and irrational beliefs . The Skeptics Society was founded by Michael Shermer as a Los Angeles-area skeptical group to replace the defunct Southern California Skeptics . After the success of its magazine , Skeptic , introduced in early 1992 , it became a national and then international organization . The stated mission of Skeptics Society and Skeptic magazine `` is the investigation of science and pseudoscience controversies , and the promotion of critical thinking . ''", "qid": "2867", "docid": "The_Skeptics_Society", "rank": 5, "score": 157589 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific foreknowledge in sacred texts Content: The belief in scientific foreknowledge in sacred texts is the belief that certain sacred texts document an awareness of the natural world that was later discovered by technology and science . This includes the belief that the sacred text grants a higher awareness of the natural world , like those views held by some Orthodox Jews about the Hebrew Bible ( Tanakh ) , by some Muslims regarding the Quran , by certain Christians regarding the Christian Bible , and by certain Hindus regarding the Hindu scriptures . Skeptics have stated some of these attempts are examples of confirmation bias . Scriptural literalism ( specifically creationism and some forms of biblical archaeology ) is a related ideology , but strictly the reverse process of aligning scientific observation with scriptural reading rather than aligning scriptural reading with scientific observation .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Scientific_foreknowledge_in_sacred_texts", "rank": 6, "score": 154205 }, { "content": "Title: Moral skepticism Content: Moral skepticism ( or moral scepticism ) is a class of metaethical theories all members of which entail that no one has any moral knowledge . Many moral skeptics also make the stronger , modal , claim that moral knowledge is impossible . Moral skepticism is particularly opposed to moral realism : the view that there are knowable , objective moral truths . Defenders of some form of moral skepticism include Pyrrho , Aenesidemus , Sextus Empiricus , David Hume , J. L. Mackie ( 1977 ) , Max Stirner , Friedrich Nietzsche , Richard Joyce ( 2001 ) , Michael Ruse , Joshua Greene , Richard Garner , Walter Sinnott-Armstrong ( 2006b ) , and the psychologist James Flynn . Strictly speaking , Gilbert Harman ( 1975 ) argues in favor of a kind of moral relativism , not moral skepticism . However , he has influenced some contemporary moral skeptics .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Moral_skepticism", "rank": 7, "score": 154110 }, { "content": "Title: Skepter Content: Skepter is a popular science magazine of the Dutch skeptical foundation Stichting Skepsis . It describes paranormal or controversial theories and methods from a skeptical perspective .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skepter", "rank": 8, "score": 152665 }, { "content": "Title: Glasgow Skeptics Content: Glasgow Skeptics is a skeptical organisation based in Glasgow , Scotland . It aims to promote public understanding of science , critical thinking , and freedom of expression .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Glasgow_Skeptics", "rank": 9, "score": 151945 }, { "content": "Title: Radical skepticism Content: Radical skepticism or radical scepticism is the philosophical position that knowledge is most likely impossible . Radical skeptics hold that doubt exists as to the veracity of every belief and that certainty is therefore never justified . To determine the extent to which it is possible to respond to radical skeptical challenges is the task of epistemology or `` the theory of knowledge '' . Several Ancient Greek philosophers , including Plato , Cratylus , Carneades , Arcesilaus , Aenesidemus , Pyrrho , and Sextus Empiricus have been viewed as having expounded theories of radical skepticism . In modern philosophy , two representatives of radical skepticism are Michel de Montaigne ( most famously known for his skeptical remark , Que sçay-je ? , ` What do I know ? ' in Middle French ; modern French Que sais-je ? ) and David Hume ( particularly as set out in A Treatise of Human Nature , Book 1 : `` Of the Understanding '' ) . As radical skepticism can be used as an objection for most or all beliefs , many philosophers have attempted to refute it . For example , Bertrand Russell wrote `` Skepticism , while logically impeccable , is psychologically impossible , and there is an element of frivolous insincerity in any philosophy which pretends to accept it . ''", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Radical_skepticism", "rank": 10, "score": 146442 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptic Society Content: The Skeptic Society ( Russian : Общество скептиков , Óbščestvo skeptikov ) is a Russian-speaking skeptical society . Its aim is to spread critical thinking , popularise science , educate the general public , promote and teach critical and skeptical thinking skills and create a platform for science and skepticism communication .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skeptic_Society", "rank": 11, "score": 146022 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental skepticism Content: Environmental skepticism is the belief that claims by environmentalists , and the environmental scientists who support them , are false or exaggerated . The term is also applied to those who are critical of environmentalism in general . Environmental skepticism is closely linked with anti-environmentalism and climate change denial . Environmental skeptics have argued that the extent of harm coming from human activities is less certain than some scientists and scientific bodies claim , or that it is too soon to be introducing curbs in these activities on the basis of existing evidence , or that further discussion is needed regarding who should pay for such environmental initiatives . One of the focus themes in the environmental skeptics movement is the idea that environmentalism is a growing threat to social and economic progress and the civil liberties . The popularity of the term was enhanced by Bjørn Lomborg 's book The Skeptical Environmentalist . Lomborg approached environmental claims from a statistical and economic standpoint , and concluded that often the claims made by environmentalists were overstated . Lomborg argued , on the basis of cost -- benefit analysis , that few environmentalist claims warranted serious concern . However , in 2010 , Lomborg stated that he believes in the need for `` tens of billions of dollars a year to be invested in tackling climate change '' and declared global warming to be `` undoubtedly one of the chief concerns facing the world today '' and `` a challenge humanity must confront '' . He summarized his position , saying `` Global warming is real - it is man-made and it is an important problem . But it is not the end of the world . ''", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Environmental_skepticism", "rank": 12, "score": 145936 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptical Science Content: Skeptical Science ( occasionally abbreviated SkS ) is a climate science blog and information resource created in 2007 by Australian cognitive scientist John Cook . In addition to publishing articles on current events relating to climate science and climate policy , the site maintains a large database of articles analyzing the merit of arguments commonly put forth by those who oppose the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skeptical_Science", "rank": 13, "score": 144119 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptic (UK magazine) Content: The Skeptic is a British magazine and is billed as `` the UK 's longest running and foremost sceptical magazine , which examines science , skepticism , secularism , critical thinking and claims of the paranormal . ''", "qid": "2867", "docid": "The_Skeptic_(UK_magazine)", "rank": 14, "score": 142917 }, { "content": "Title: Skepticality Content: Skepticality is the official biweekly podcast of The Skeptics Society 's Skeptic magazine . Beginning in May 2005 , the podcast explores rational thought , skeptical ideas , and famous myths from around the world and throughout history . Each episode is an audio magazine featuring regular segments by contributors who are specialized in specific areas of critical thought followed by featured content which is usually in the form of an interview with a researcher , author , or individual who is helping promote skeptical thought and/or science in an effective way . It has featured interviews with James Randi , and scientists , such as authors and astronomers Phil Plait and Neil deGrasse Tyson , Greg Graffin from Bad Religion , Adam Savage from the MythBusters , songwriter Jill Sobule , author Ann Druyan and scientist Bill Nye . Skepticality is co-hosted by Derek Colanduno and `` Swoopy '' Robynn McCarthy .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skepticality", "rank": 15, "score": 142560 }, { "content": "Title: Science and the Catholic Church Content: The relationship between the Roman Catholic Church and science is a widely debated subject . Historically , the Church has often been a patron of sciences . It has been prolific in the foundation of schools , universities and hospitals , and many clergy have been active in the sciences . Historians of science such as Pierre Duhem credit medieval Catholic mathematicians and philosophers such as John Buridan , Nicole Oresme , and Roger Bacon as the founders of modern science . Duhem found `` the mechanics and physics , of which modern times are justifiably proud , to proceed by an uninterrupted series of scarcely perceptible improvements from doctrines professed in the heart of the medieval schools . '' Yet , the conflict thesis and other critiques emphasize historical or contemporary conflict between the Catholic Church and science , citing in particular the trial of Galileo as evidence . For its part , the Catholic Church teaches that science and the Christian faith are complementary , as can be seen from the Catechism of the Catholic Church which states in regards to faith and science : Though faith is above reason , there can never be any real discrepancy between faith and reason . Since the same God who reveals mysteries and infuses faith has bestowed the light of reason on the human mind , God can not deny himself , nor can truth ever contradict truth . ... Consequently , methodical research in all branches of knowledge , provided it is carried out in a truly scientific manner and does not override moral laws , can never conflict with the faith , because the things of the world and the things of faith derive from the same God . The humble and persevering investigator of the secrets of nature is being led , as it were , by the hand of God in spite of himself , for it is God , the conserver of all things , who made them what they are . Catholic scientists , both religious and lay , have led scientific discovery in many fields . From ancient times , Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals and the Church remains the single greatest private provider of medical care and research facilities in the world . Following the Fall of Rome , monasteries and convents remained bastions of scholarship in Western Europe and clergymen were the leading scholars of the age -- studying nature , mathematics , and the motion of the stars ( largely for religious purposes ) . During the Middle Ages , the Church founded Europe 's first universities , producing scholars like Robert Grosseteste , Albert the Great , Roger Bacon , and Thomas Aquinas , who helped establish the scientific method . During this period , the Church was also a great patron of engineering for the construction of elaborate cathedrals . Since the Renaissance , Catholic scientists have been credited as fathers of a diverse range of scientific fields : Jean-Baptiste Lamarck ( 1744-1829 ) prefigured the theory of evolution with Lamarckism , Friar Gregor Mendel ( 1822-1884 ) pioneered genetics , and Fr Georges Lemaitre ( 1894-1966 ) proposed the Big Bang cosmological model . The Jesuits have been particularly active , notably in astronomy . Church patronage of sciences continues through elite institutions like the Pontifical Academy of Sciences and Vatican Observatory . This view of the Church as a patron of sciences is contested by some , who speak either of an historically varied relationship which has shifted , from active and even singular support , to bitter clashes ( with accusations of heresy ) -- or of an enduring intellectual conflict between religion and science . Enlightenment philosophers such as Voltaire were famously dismissive of the achievements of the Middle Ages . In the 19th century , the `` conflict thesis '' emerged to propose an intrinsic conflict or conflicts between the Church and science . The original historical usage of the term asserted that the Church has been in perpetual opposition to science . Later uses of the term denote the Church 's epistemological opposition to science . The thesis interprets the relationship between the Church and science as inevitably leading to public hostility , when religion aggressively challenges new scientific ideas as in the Galileo Affair . An alternative criticism is that the Church opposed particular scientific discoveries that it felt challenged its authority and power -- particularly through the Reformation and on through the Enlightenment . This thesis shifts the emphasis away from the perception of the fundamental incompatibility of religion per se and science-in-general to a critique of the structural reasons for the resistance of the Church as a political organisation . The Church itself rejects the notion of innate conflict . The Vatican Council ( 1869/70 ) declared that `` Faith and reason are of mutual help to each other . '' The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1912 proffers that `` The conflicts between science and the Church are not real , '' and states that belief in such conflicts are predicated on false assumptions . Pope St. John Paul II summarised the Catholic view of the relationship between faith and reason in the encyclical Fides et Ratio , saying that `` faith and reason are like two wings on which the human spirit rises to the contemplation of truth ; and God has placed in the human heart a desire to know the truth -- in a word , to know himself -- so that , by knowing and loving God , men and women may also come to the fullness of truth about themselves . '' The present Papal astronomer Brother Guy Consolmagno describes science as an `` act of worship '' and as `` a way of getting intimate with the Creator . ''", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Science_and_the_Catholic_Church", "rank": 16, "score": 142528 }, { "content": "Title: Lists about skepticism Content: Scientific skepticism ( also spelled scepticism ) is the practice of questioning whether claims are supported by empirical research and have reproducibility , as part of a methodological norm pursuing `` the extension of certified knowledge '' . Scientific skepticism , or skepticism for short , manifests itself since the 20th century as a societal phenomenon involving several individuals and more or less organised groups through several different media , commonly referred to as `` the skeptical movement '' . This is a compilation of the various lists about skepticism with articles in Wikipedia . List of books about skepticism List of notable skeptics List of notable debunkers List of prizes for evidence of the paranormal List of skeptical conferences List of skeptical magazines List of skeptical organizations List of skeptical podcasts", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Lists_about_skepticism", "rank": 17, "score": 142025 }, { "content": "Title: Young Australian Skeptics Content: The Young Australian Skeptics ( YAS ) is an Australian skeptical organisation whose primary focus is its collaborative blog , which attempts to address topics central to science , critical thinking and scientific skepticism . The group has published a Skeptical Blog Anthology Book reviewed in Scientific American , and has been represented in national broadcast media in Australia and North America , skeptically addressing conspiracy theories , as well as discussing topics specific to young members of the skeptical movement .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Young_Australian_Skeptics", "rank": 18, "score": 141823 }, { "content": "Title: Philosophical skepticism Content: For a general discussion of skepticism , see Skepticism . Philosophical skepticism ( UK spelling scepticism ; from Greek σκέψις skepsis '' , `` inquiry '' ) is both a philosophical school of thought and a method that questions the possibility of certainty in knowledge . It is generally agreed that knowledge requires justification . It is not enough to have a true belief : one must also have good reasons for that belief . Skeptics claim that it is not possible to have an adequate justification . Skepticism is not a single position but covers a range of different positions . In the ancient world there were two main skeptical traditions . Academic skepticism took the dogmatic position that knowledge was not possible ; Pyrrhonian skeptics refused to take a dogmatic position on any issue -- including skepticism . Radical skepticism ends in the paradoxical claim that one can not know anything -- including that one can not know about knowing anything . Skepticism can be classified according to its scope . Local skepticism involves being skeptical about particular areas of knowledge , e.g. moral skepticism , skepticism about the external world , or skepticism about other minds , whereas global skepticism is skeptical about the possibility of any knowledge at all . Skepticism can also be classified according to its method . In the Western tradition there are two basic approaches to skepticism . Cartesian skepticism -- named somewhat misleadingly after René Descartes , who was not a skeptic but used some traditional skeptical arguments in his Meditations to help establish his rationalist approach to knowledge -- attempts to show that any proposed knowledge claim can be doubted . Agrippan skepticism focuses on the process of justification rather than the possibility of doubt . According to this view there are three ways in which one might attempt to justify a claim but none of them are adequate : one can keep on providing further justification but this leads to an infinite regress ; one can stop at a dogmatic assertion ; or one can argue in circular reasoning , never reaching a viable conclusion . Philosophical skepticism is distinguished from methodological skepticism in that philosophical skepticism is an approach that questions the possibility of certainty in knowledge , whereas methodological skepticism is an approach that subjects all knowledge claims to scrutiny with the goal of sorting out true from false claims .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Philosophical_skepticism", "rank": 19, "score": 141641 }, { "content": "Title: Skepticon Content: Skepticon is one of the largest skeptic and secular conventions held in the United States . It was co-founded by Missouri State University students Lauren Lane and JT Eberhard . Guest speakers are invited to discuss skepticism , science , education , activism , and other related topics . This free event is in part sponsored by organizations including American Atheists and the American Humanist Association , among others . To explain the goals of the event organizer JT Eberhard wrote : `` Skeptics conferences are an important part of the movement . They not only grant people access to the icons of the movement , they also arm those in attendance with information ; the key weapon for the side of reason . They also provide a sense of community for a group of people who can often feel isolated in a largely religious population . ''", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skepticon", "rank": 20, "score": 141045 }, { "content": "Title: Launceston Skeptics Content: The Launceston Skeptics is a nonprofit organisation that promotes scientific skepticism in Launceston , Tasmania . Founded in 2010 by Jin-oh Choi through a meetup group , the organisation has participated in community events , challenged the claims of ghosts , and hosts regular meetups in Launceston . Their mission is to encourage the media to adopt a more critical outlook , encourage scientific knowledge and address questions about human rights and social issues .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Launceston_Skeptics", "rank": 21, "score": 139242 }, { "content": "Title: Irish Skeptics Society Content: The Irish Skeptics Society ( ISS ) is a scientific skeptical organisation based in Ireland . It was launched in December 2002 and publishes a newsletter called Skeptical Times . The ISS is a member of the European Council of Skeptical Organisations ( ECSO ) . The organisation regularly sponsors lectures on a variety of topics including self-awareness , tolerance , evolution and popularisation of science . In 2004 they sponsored a lecture by James Randi . They are a signatory to Sense About Science 's Keep Libel Laws out of Science campaign . Spokespersons from the organisation such as founding member Paul O'Donoghue ( a clinical psychologist ) are often quoted on paranormal and pseudoscience topics such as homeopathy , magnet therapy , Spiral Dynamics and UFOs in the Irish press . Paul O'Donoghue has commented on the amount of coverage alternative medicine gets in the media . The Irish Skeptics Society hosted the 13th European Skeptics Congress from 7 to 9 September 2007 at the Davenport Hotel in Dublin .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Irish_Skeptics_Society", "rank": 22, "score": 138742 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptic's Toolbox Content: The Skeptic 's Toolbox is an annual four-day workshop devoted to scientific skepticism . It was formed by psychologist and now-retired University of Oregon professor Ray Hyman , has been held every August since 1992 , and is sponsored by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry . The workshop focuses on educating people to be better critical thinkers , and involves a central theme . The attendees are broken up into groups and given tasks that they must work on together and whose results they must present in front of the entire group on the last day .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skeptic's_Toolbox", "rank": 23, "score": 138037 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe Content: The Skeptics ' Guide to the Universe is a weekly , 80-minute podcast hosted by Steven Novella , MD , and a panel of `` skeptical rogues '' . It is the official podcast of the New England Skeptical Society . The show features discussions of recent scientific developments in layman 's terms , and interviews authors , people in the area of science and other famous skeptics . The show also includes discussions of myths , conspiracy theories , pseudoscience , the paranormal , and many general forms of superstition , from the point of view of scientific skepticism . Steven Novella , the host of the show , has been particularly active in debunking pseudoscience in medicine . His activities include opposing the claims of anti-vaccine activists , homeopathy practitioners and individuals denying the link between HIV and AIDS .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "The_Skeptics'_Guide_to_the_Universe", "rank": 24, "score": 137898 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptic (disambiguation) Content: Skeptic may refer to : One who practises skepticism Skeptic ( U.S. magazine ) , magazine of The Skeptics Society , edited by Michael Shermer", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skeptic_(disambiguation)", "rank": 25, "score": 136966 }, { "content": "Title: Academic skepticism Content: Academic skepticism refers to the skeptical period of ancient Platonism dating from around 266 BC , when Arcesilaus became head of the Platonic Academy , until around 90 BC , when Antiochus of Ascalon rejected skepticism , although individual philosophers , such as Favorinus and his teacher Plutarch continued to defend Academic skepticism after this date . Unlike the existing school of skepticism , the Pyrrhonists , they maintained that knowledge of things is impossible . Ideas or notions are never true ; nevertheless , there are degrees of probability , and hence degrees of belief , which allow one to act . The school was characterized by its attacks on the Stoics and on their belief in convincing impressions which lead to true knowledge . The most important Academic skeptics were Arcesilaus , Carneades , and Philo of Larissa .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Academic_skepticism", "rank": 26, "score": 136736 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptics in the Pub Content: Skeptics in the Pub ( abbreviated SITP ) is an informal social event designed to promote fellowship and social networking among skeptics , critical-thinkers , freethinkers , rationalists and other like-minded individuals . It provides an opportunity for skeptics to talk , share ideas and have fun in a casual atmosphere , and discuss whatever topical issues come to mind , while promoting skepticism , science , and rationality .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skeptics_in_the_Pub", "rank": 27, "score": 135993 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Skeptics Content: Australian Skeptics is a loose confederation of like-minded organisations across Australia that began in 1980 . Australian Skeptics investigate paranormal and pseudoscientific claims using scientific methodologies . This page covers all Australian skeptical groups who are of this mindset . The title `` Australian Skeptics '' can be easily confused with one of the more prominent groups , `` Australian Skeptics Inc. '' which is based in Sydney and is one of the central organising groups within the Australian Skeptics .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Australian_Skeptics", "rank": 28, "score": 135888 }, { "content": "Title: Skepticism Content: Skepticism ( American English ) or scepticism ( British English ; see spelling differences ) is generally any questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more items of putative knowledge or belief . It is often directed at domains , such as morality ( moral skepticism ) , religion ( skepticism about the existence of God ) , or knowledge ( skepticism about the possibility of knowledge , or of certainty ) . Formally , skepticism as a topic occurs in the context of philosophy , particularly epistemology , although it can be applied to any topic such as politics , religion , and pseudoscience . Philosophical skepticism comes in various forms . Radical forms of skepticism deny that knowledge or rational belief is possible and urge us to suspend judgment on many or all controversial matters . More moderate forms of skepticism claim only that nothing can be known with certainty , or that we can know little or nothing about the `` big questions '' in life , such as whether God exists or whether there is an afterlife . Religious skepticism is `` doubt concerning basic religious principles ( such as immortality , providence , and revelation ) '' . Scientific skepticism concerns testing beliefs for reliability , by subjecting them to systematic investigation using the scientific method , to discover empirical evidence for them .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skepticism", "rank": 29, "score": 133407 }, { "content": "Title: List of books about skepticism Content: This list of books about skepticism is a skeptic 's library of works centered on scientific skepticism , religious skepticism , critical thinking , scientific literacy , and refutation of claims of the paranormal . It also includes titles about atheism , irreligion , books for `` young skeptics '' and related subjects . It is intended as a starting point for research into these areas of study . Collections in the realm of skepticism , science literacy , and freethought exist both online and in brick-and-mortar libraries . The complete works of Robert G. Ingersoll are available online at both the Secular Web and as part of the Internet Archive project The Drew University Library hosts a collection of pamphlets by and about Mr. Ingersoll . In 2013 the Library of Congress announced the opening of the Seth MacFarlane Collection of the Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan Archive which includes more than 1,500 boxes of donated material . MacFarlane donated the funds which allowed the Library of Congress to purchase a collection of Carl Sagan 's notes from Anne Druyan ( widow of Carl Sagan ) because of his concern over fading science literacy .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "List_of_books_about_skepticism", "rank": 30, "score": 133400 }, { "content": "Title: Merseyside Skeptics Society Content: The Merseyside Skeptics Society ( MSS ) is a nonprofit organisation that promotes scientific skepticism in Merseyside and the United Kingdom . Founded in 2009 , the society has campaigned against the use of homeopathy , challenged the claims of psychics , and hosts regular events in Liverpool , podcasts , and an annual conference in Manchester , QED : Question . Explore . Discover . As part of their Liverpool Skeptics in the Pub events the society hosts guest speakers , who have included Simon Singh , David Nutt , and Robert Llewellyn . It also organises the awareness and protest against homeopathy campaign , 10:23 .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Merseyside_Skeptics_Society", "rank": 31, "score": 132909 }, { "content": "Title: Criticism of Christianity Content: Criticism of Christianity has a long history stretching back to the initial formation of the religion during the Roman Empire . Critics have attacked Christian beliefs and teachings as well as Christian actions , from the Crusades to modern terrorism . The intellectual arguments against Christianity include the suppositions that it 's a faith of violence , corruption , superstition , polytheism , and bigotry . In the early years of Christianity , the Neoplatonic philosopher Porphyry emerged as one of the major critics with his book Against the Christians . Porphyry argued that Christianity was based on false prophecies that had not yet materialized . Following the adoption of Christianity under the Roman Empire , dissenting religious voices were gradually suppressed by both governments and ecclesiastical authorities . A millennium later , the Protestant Reformation led to a fundamental split in European Christianity and rekindled critical voices about the Christian faith , both internally and externally . With the Scientific Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment , Christianity experienced additional attacks from major thinkers and philosophers , such as Voltaire , David Hume , Thomas Paine , and the Baron d'Holbach . The central theme of these critiques negated the historical accuracy of the Christian Bible and focused on the perceived corruption of Christian religious authorities . Other thinkers , like Immanuel Kant , launched the first systematic and comprehensive assaults against Christian theology by attempting to refute arguments for theism . In modern times , Christianity has faced substantial criticism from a wide array of political movements and ideologies . In the late eighteenth century , the French Revolution saw a number of politicians and philosophers criticizing traditional Christian doctrines , precipitating a wave of secularism in which hundreds of churches were closed down and thousands of priests were deported . Following the French Revolution , prominent philosophers of liberalism and communism , such as John Stuart Mill and Karl Marx , criticized Christian doctrine on the grounds that it was conservative and anti-democratic . Friedrich Nietzsche claimed that Christianity fostered a kind of slave morality that suppressed the desires contained in the human will . The Russian Revolution , the Chinese Revolution , and several other modern revolutionary movements have also led to the criticism of Christian ideas . The formal response of Christians to such criticisms is described as Christian apologetics . Philosophers like Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas have been some of the most prominent defenders of the Christian religion since its foundation .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Criticism_of_Christianity", "rank": 32, "score": 132549 }, { "content": "Title: Unscientific America Content: Unscientific America : How Scientific Illiteracy Threatens Our Future is a nonfiction book by Chris Mooney and Sheril Kirshenbaum . It was a New York Times best seller . In the book , the authors tackle the problem of scientific illiteracy in America . The authors criticize scientists for talking down to the misinformed and insulting the religious while calling for more friendly and magnanimous science advocates . They also blame the New Atheist movement , the creation -- evolution controversy , the entertainment industry , the media , and science skeptics .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Unscientific_America", "rank": 33, "score": 132259 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptical movement Content: The skeptical movement ( also spelled sceptical ) is a modern social movement promoting the idea of scientific skepticism ( also called rational skepticism ) . Scientific skepticism is the application of skeptical philosophy , critical thinking skills , and knowledge of science and its methods to empirical claims , while remaining agnostic or neutral to non-empirical claims ( except those that directly impact the practice of science ) . The movement has the goal of investigating claims made on fringe topics and determining if they are supported by empirical research and are reproducible , as part of a methodological norm pursuing `` the extension of certified knowledge '' . The process followed is sometimes referred to as skeptical inquiry . Roots of the movement can be found in the 19th century when questions began to be publicly raised regarding the unquestioned acceptance of claims of spiritism , various widely held superstitions , and pseudoscience . Medical quackery was also targeted by publications such as the Dutch Vereniging tegen de Kwakzalverij ( 1881 ) . The Belgian Comité Para ( 1949 ) has been deemed the oldest `` broad mandate '' skeptical organization . Using that organization as a template , in 1976 , Paul Kurtz and Marcello Truzzi founded the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry in Amherst , New York . The North American skeptical organization , which provides journals and publications , inspired similar associations worldwide .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skeptical_movement", "rank": 34, "score": 132256 }, { "content": "Title: Hieronymus Dungersheim Content: Hieronymus Dungersheim or Dungersheym von Ochsenfart ( 1465 , Ochsenfurt -- 1540 ) was a German Catholic theologian and controversialist ( skeptic ) . A professor of the University of Leipzig , he was an early opponent of the Lutherans there .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Hieronymus_Dungersheim", "rank": 35, "score": 131223 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Vaccination-Skeptics Network Content: The Australian Vaccination-Skeptics Network , formerly known as the Australian Vaccination Network ( AVN ) , is an Australian anti-vaccination pressure group registered in New South Wales . As Australia 's most controversial anti-vaccination organisation , it has lobbied against a variety of vaccination-related programs , downplayed the danger of childhood diseases such as measles and pertussis , championed the cause of alleged vaccination victims , and promoted the use of ineffective alternatives such as homeopathy and chiropractic . The vast majority of doctors agree that opposition to vaccination applies to a fringe medical science viewpoint . The group has been described as a provider of `` misleading , inaccurate , and deceptive '' vaccination information by the New South Wales Health Care Complaints Commission ( HCCC ) , and has been heavily criticised by doctors and other experts on immunisation . The group has been called the `` stronghold of the anti-vaccination movement '' in Australia and is subject to widespread criticism from medical professionals , scientists and other proponents of vaccination . It has also been criticised for harassing the parents of a victim of vaccine-preventable disease , and for promoting the false idea that shaken baby syndrome is actually vaccine injury . On 14 October 2010 , the organisation 's right to fund-raise was stripped from it by the New South Wales Office of Liquor , Gaming and Racing , stating that its appeals had `` not been conducted in good faith for charitable purposes '' . In December 2012 , the New South Wales Office of Fair Trading issued an order for the group to change its name within two months or be de-registered . The department described the group 's name as being `` misleading and a detriment to the community '' . The group changed its name in February 2014 .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Australian_Vaccination-Skeptics_Network", "rank": 36, "score": 130927 }, { "content": "Title: Robert Todd Carroll Content: Robert Todd Carroll ( May 18 , 1945 -- August 25 , 2016 ) was an American writer and academic . Carroll is best known for his contributions in the field of skepticism ; he achieved notability by publishing The Skeptic 's Dictionary online in 1994 . He was elected a fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry in 2010 . He described himself as a naturalist , an atheist , a materialist , a metaphysical libertarian , and a positivist . His published books include Becoming a Critical Thinker ; The Skeptic 's Dictionary ; The Skeptic 's Dictionary for Kids ; The Critical Thinker 's Dictionary ; Unnatural Acts : Critical Thinking , Skepticism , and Science Exposed ! ; The Commonsense Philosophy of Religion of Edward Stillingfleet ; Student Success Guide : Writing Skills and Student Success Guide : Reading Skills . He was a professor of philosophy at Sacramento City College from 1977 until his retirement in 2007 .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Robert_Todd_Carroll", "rank": 37, "score": 130149 }, { "content": "Title: Basava Premanand Content: Basava Premanand ( 17 February 1930 -- 4 October 2009 ) was a skeptic and rationalist from Kerala , India . He organised many tours around rural India for the promotion of scientific thinking , exposing alleged miracles and scams carried out by various gurus and spreading awareness of superstition . Premanand was the founder of the Federation of Indian Rationalist Associations , the convener of Indian CSICOP and the owner-publisher-editor of the monthly magazine The Indian Skeptic , which scientifically investigates paranormal occurrences in India . He was known as one of the most vocal critics of Satya Sai Baba .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Basava_Premanand", "rank": 38, "score": 129981 }, { "content": "Title: Skepsis ry Content: Skepsis ry or the Finnish Association of Skeptics is a Finnish scientific skepticism organization founded in 1987 .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skepsis_ry", "rank": 39, "score": 128940 }, { "content": "Title: Cyber-utopianism Content: Cyber-utopianism -- the belief that online communication is in itself emancipatory , and that the Internet favors the oppressed rather than the oppressor -- has accompanied the Internet from its beginnings ; and was the subject of critique by the Critical Art Ensemble as early as 1995 . While the romantic view of cyberspace was partially dented by the bursting of the dot-com bubble , utopian views of the internet continued to re-invent themselves through the Noughties . Douglas Rushkoff sings the praises of Web 2.0 by stating , `` The Internet 's ability to network human beings is its very life 's blood . It fosters communication , collaboration , sharing , helpfulness , and community ... The ideas , information , and applications now launching on Web sites around the world capitalize on the transparency , usability , and accessibility that the internet was born to deliver '' . The rise of Internet censorship and surveillance across the world has led to a growing number of `` cyber skeptics '' arguing that repressive governments are able to adapt their tactics to respond to threats , using technology against the interests of dissenting movements . In 2011 , cyber-utopianism , particularly in global politics , was powerfully critiqued by Evgeny Morozov in his 2011 book The Net Delusion : The Dark Side of Internet Freedom . Acknowledging his own past as a cyber-utopian , Morozov calls the belief naive and stubborn for its refusal to acknowledge the downside -- the opportunities for authoritarian monitoring and control -- of cyber-space . He goes on to blame the `` former hippies '' in the 1990s , for causing this utopian belief . `` Cyber-utopians ambitiously set out to build a new and improved United Nations , only to end up with a digital Cirque du Soleil ''", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Cyber-utopianism", "rank": 40, "score": 128822 }, { "content": "Title: Acceptance of evolution by religious groups Content: Although biological evolution has been vocally opposed by some religious groups , many other groups accept the scientific position , sometimes with additions to allow for theological considerations . The positions of such groups are described by terms including `` theistic evolution '' , `` theistic evolutionism '' or `` evolutionary creation '' . Theistic evolutionists believe that there is a God , that God is the creator of the material universe and ( by consequence ) all life within , and that biological evolution is a natural process within that creation . Evolution , according to this view , is simply a tool that God employed to develop human life . According to the American Scientific Affiliation , a Christian organization of scientists : According to Eugenie Scott , Director of the US National Center for Science Education , `` In one form or another , Theistic Evolutionism is the view of creation taught at the majority of mainline Protestant seminaries , and it is the official position of the Catholic church '' . Theistic evolution is not a scientific theory , but a particular view about how the science of evolution relates to religious belief and interpretation . Theistic evolution supporters can be seen as one of the groups who reject the conflict thesis regarding the relationship between religion and sciencethat is , they hold that religious teachings about creation and scientific theories of evolution need not contradict . Proponents of this view are sometimes described as Christian Darwinists .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Acceptance_of_evolution_by_religious_groups", "rank": 41, "score": 128019 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptic's Walk Content: The Skeptic 's Walk ( French : La Promenade du sceptique ) is a book by Denis Diderot , completed in 1747 . It was first published in 1830 . The book is separated into two parts ; the first being a critique of religion , and the second a philosophical debate .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "The_Skeptic's_Walk", "rank": 42, "score": 127588 }, { "content": "Title: Narrative of the abduction phenomenon Content: The narrative of the abduction phenomenon is an alleged core of similarity in contents and chronology underlying various claims of forced temporary abduction of humans by apparently otherworldly beings . Proponents of the abduction phenomenon contend that this similarity is evidence of the veracity of the phenomenon as an objective reality , although this belief is disregarded by most scientists , who regard alien abduction as a purely psychological and cultural phenomenon . Skeptics of the abduction phenomenon contend that similarities between reports arise from commonalities rooted in human psychology and neurology or cast doubt on the presence of similarities between reports at all . They note the evolving contents of abduction claims and the apparent effect of culture on the details of the narratives as evidence that the phenomenon is a purely subjective experience . Skeptics also point out the likelihood of large numbers of hoaxes being present in the abduction literature . Currently the skeptical perspective is the most prevalent among scientists and academics . Many scientists believe that pro-abduction researchers are practising pseudoscience , alleging that they lack the skepticism and methodological rigor of true scientists . Believers assert that it is unlikely for hundreds of people to independently generate such similar narratives while apparently having no knowledge of each other 's claims . Some abduction investigators attempt to confirm the reality of events reported in abduction claims through observation or experimentation , although such efforts are generally dismissed as pseudoscientific by mainstream academics .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Narrative_of_the_abduction_phenomenon", "rank": 43, "score": 127246 }, { "content": "Title: D. J. Grothe Content: Douglas James `` D. J. '' Grothe ( born June 25 , 1973 ) is an American writer and public speaker who talks about issues at the nexus of science , critical thinking , secularism , religion and the paranormal . As an active skeptic , he has served in leadership roles for both the Center for Inquiry and the James Randi Educational Foundation . He has hosted the radio show and podcast For Good Reason and is particularly interested in the psychology of belief and the steps involved in deception and self-deception . His writing has been published by both Skeptical Inquirer magazine and The Huffington Post . He also co-edited On the Beauty of Science , about the worldview and life 's work of Nobel Laureate Herbert Hauptman . Grothe currently serves as a board member of The Institute for Science and Human Values .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "D._J._Grothe", "rank": 44, "score": 127138 }, { "content": "Title: Euroscepticism Content: Euroscepticism ( also known as EU-scepticism , from the Greek word scepsis meaning doubt ) means criticism of the European Union ( EU ) . Some observers , however , prefer to understand opposition to and total rejection of the EU ( anti-EU-ism ) as ` Euroscepticism ' . Traditionally , the main source of Euroscepticism has been the notion that integration weakens the nation state , and a desire to slow , halt or reverse integration within the EU . Other views often held by Eurosceptics include perceptions of a democratic deficit in the European Union or a belief that the EU is too bureaucratic . Euroscepticism should not be confused with anti-Europeanism , which refers to the rejection of the culture of Europe and Europeanisation , and sentiments , opinions and discrimination against European ethnic groups . A Eurobarometer survey of EU citizens in 2009 showed that support for membership of the EU was lowest in Latvia , the United Kingdom ( UK ) and Hungary . By 2016 , the countries viewing the EU most unfavourably were Greece , France , Spain and the UK . Euroscepticism is found in political parties across the political spectrum ; however , the rise in populist right-wing parties in Europe is strongly linked to a rise in Euroscepticism on the continent . Trust in the EU and its institutions has declined strongly since a peak in 2007 . A referendum held in 2016 asking whether the UK should remain a member of , or leave , the EU resulted in a majority of votes in favour of leaving the EU .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Euroscepticism", "rank": 45, "score": 127130 }, { "content": "Title: Dave Thomas (skeptic) Content: Dave Thomas ( born 1953 ) is a physicist and mathematician best known for his scientific skepticism research and writings . He is a graduate of the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology , and his work covers the Roswell and Aztec UFO sightings , the Bible code , global warming , the 9/11 Truth movement and chemtrails . Many of Thomas ' articles have been published in Skeptical Inquirer magazine .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Dave_Thomas_(skeptic)", "rank": 46, "score": 126478 }, { "content": "Title: Abortion and the Catholic Church in the United States Content: The Catholic Church and abortion in the United States deals with the views and activities of the Catholic Church in the United States in relation to the abortion debate . The Catholic Church opposes abortion and has campaigned against abortion in the United States , both saying that it is immoral and making statements and taking actions in opposition to its classification as legal . Many Catholics in the United States disagree with the official position promulgated by the Church ; the views of these people range from allowing exceptions in a generally pro-life position , to complete acceptance of abortion . There is a distinction between practicing Catholics and non-practicing Catholics on the issue ; practicing Catholics , along with Latino Catholics , are far more likely to be pro-life , while non-practicing Catholics are more likely to be pro-choice . In recent decades , the church 's opposition to abortion , and specifically the actions it has taken against pro-choice Catholics , has often been the subject of controversy .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Abortion_and_the_Catholic_Church_in_the_United_States", "rank": 47, "score": 126359 }, { "content": "Title: Postdiction Content: Postdiction involves explanation after the fact . In skepticism , it is considered an effect of hindsight bias that explains claimed predictions of significant events such as plane crashes and natural disasters . In religious contexts , theologians frequently refer to postdiction using the Latin term vaticinium ex eventu ( foretelling after the event ) . Through this term , skeptics postulate that many biblical prophecies ( and similar prophecies in other religions ) appearing to have come true may have been written after the events supposedly predicted , or that the text or interpretation may have been modified after the event to fit the facts as they occurred . Skeptics of premonition use these terms in response to claims made by psychics , astrologers and other paranormalists to have predicted an event , when the original prediction was vague , catch-all , or otherwise non-obvious . Most predictions from such figures as Nostradamus and James Van Praagh express the future with such seemingly deliberate vagueness and ambiguity as to make interpretation nearly impossible before the event , rendering them useless as predictive tools . After the event has occurred , however , the psychics or their supporters shoehorn details into the prediction by using selective thinking -- emphasizing the `` hits '' , ignoring the `` misses '' -- in order to lend credence to the prophecy and to give the impression of an accurate `` prediction '' . Inaccurate predictions are omitted . Supporters of a prediction sometimes contend that the problem lies not with the wording of the prediction , but with the interpretation -- an argument sometimes used by supporters of religious texts . This argument may lead to the question : `` What is the point of a prediction that can not be interpreted correctly before the event ? '' However , the argument is not that the prediction could not have been interpreted correctly prior to the event , but simply that it was not in the case in question , thus the question is working from a false premise . Of course , any `` prediction '' that is so vague as to not be correctly interpreted before the event it allegedly `` predicted '' is functionally equivalent to no prediction at all .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Postdiction", "rank": 48, "score": 126246 }, { "content": "Title: NZ Skeptics Content: The NZ Skeptics is a New Zealand incorporated society created in 1986 , with the aim of promoting critical thinking . The main areas of interest to the NZ Skeptics are claims of psychic abilities , alternative medicine , creationism and other pseudoscientific claims . At its founding in 1986 it was known as the New Zealand Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal ( NZCSICOP ) . In 2007 the name was formally changed to NZ Skeptics Incorporated .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "NZ_Skeptics", "rank": 49, "score": 125729 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptic's Dictionary Content: The Skeptic 's Dictionary is a collection of cross-referenced skeptical essays by Robert Todd Carroll , published on his website skepdic.com and in a printed book . The skepdic.com site was launched in 1994 and the book was published in 2003 with nearly 400 entries . As of January 2011 the website has over 700 entries . A comprehensive single-volume guides to skeptical information on pseudoscientific , paranormal , and occult topics , the bibliography contains some seven hundred references for more detailed information . According to the back cover of the book , the on-line version receives approximately 500,000 hits per month .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "The_Skeptic's_Dictionary", "rank": 50, "score": 125517 }, { "content": "Title: List of deists Content: This is a partial list of people who have been categorized as deists , the belief in a deity based on natural religion only , or belief in religious truths discovered by people through a process of reasoning , independent of any revelation through scripture or prophets . They have been selected for their influence on Deism , or for their fame in other areas . Abraham Lincoln ( 1809 -- 1865 ) , Sixteenth president of the United States of America . He never joined any church but can be described as a Christian deist but was a skeptic as a young man and sometimes ridiculed revivalists . As a young man , Lincoln enjoyed reading the works of deists such as Thomas Paine and Voltaire . He drafted a pamphlet incorporating such ideas but did not publish it . After charges of hostility to Christianity almost cost him a congressional bid , he kept his unorthodox beliefs private . James Adams labelled Lincoln as a deist . It has been reported that in 1834 he wrote a manuscript essay challenging orthodox Christianity modelled on Paine 's book The Age of Reason , which a friend supposedly burned to protect him from ridicule . He seemed to believe in an all-powerful God , who shaped events and , by 1865 , was expressing those beliefs in major speeches . Alfred M. Mayer ( 1836 -- 1897 ) , American physicist . Al-Maʿarri ( 973 -- 1058 ) , was a blind Arab philosopher , poet and writer , and a controversial rationalist . Anaxagoras ( c. 500 -- 428 BC ) , Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher . Andrei Sakharov ( 1921 -- 1989 ) , Soviet nuclear physicist , dissident , and human rights activist . Antony Flew ( 1923 -- 2010 ) , British philosopher and prominent former atheist Adam Smith ( 1723 -- 1790 ) , Scottish Philosopher and economist ; considered the father of modern economics Ahmad Kasravi ( 1890 -- 1946 ) , Iranian linguist , historian and reformer . Benjamin Franklin ( 1706 -- 90 ) , American polymath ; one of the Founding Fathers of the United States Brett Gurewitz ( 1962 -- ) , guitarist and songwriter for the American punk rock band Bad Religion Carl Friedrich Gauss ( 1777 -- 1855 ) , German mathematician and physical scientist who contributed significantly to many fields , including number theory , statistics , analysis , differential geometry , geodesy , geophysics , electrostatics , astronomy and optics . Charles Lyell ( 1797 -- 1875 ) , British lawyer and the foremost geologist of his day . He is best known as the author of Principles of Geology , which popularised James Hutton 's concepts of uniformitarianism . Charles Sanders Peirce ( 1839 -- 1914 ) , American philosopher , logician , mathematician , and scientist , sometimes known as `` the father of pragmatism '' . He was educated as a chemist and employed as a scientist for 30 years . Today he is appreciated largely for his contributions to logic , mathematics , philosophy , scientific methodology , and semiotics , and for his founding of pragmatism . Colin Maclaurin ( 1698 -- 1746 ) , Scottish mathematician who made important contributions to geometry and algebra . The Maclaurin series , a special case of the Taylor series , are named after him . Dmitri Mendeleev ( 1834 -- 1907 ) , Russian chemist and inventor . He is credited as being the creator of the first version of the periodic table of elements . Ethan Allen ( 1738 -- 89 ) , early American revolutionary and guerrilla leader Edward Herbert , 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury ( 1583 -- 1648 ) , British soldier , diplomat , historian , poet and religious philosopher Elihu Palmer ( 1764 -- 1806 ) , American author and advocate of deism Émilie du Châtelet ( 1706 -- 1749 ) , French mathematician , physicist , and author during the Age of Enlightenment . Her crowning achievement is considered to be her translation and commentary on Isaac Newton 's work Principia Mathematica . Ernest Rutherford ( 1871 -- 1937 ) , New Zealand chemist and `` father '' of nuclear physics , who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908 `` for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements , and the chemistry of radioactive substances '' . Friedrich Schiller ( 1759 -- 1805 ) , German poet , philosopher , historian , and playwright . Gottfried Leibniz ( 1646 -- 1716 ) , German mathematician and philosopher . He is best known for developing infinitesimal calculus independently of Isaac Newton , and his mathematical notation has been widely used ever since it was published . He has also been labeled a Christian as well . Gotthold Ephraim Lessing ( 1729 -- 1781 ) , German writer , philosopher , dramatist , publicist , and art critic George Washington ( 1732 -- 1799 ) , one of the Founding Fathers of the United States and the 1st President of the United States Harish-Chandra ( 1923 -- 1983 ) , Indian mathematician , who did fundamental work in representation theory , especially Harmonic analysis on semisimple Lie groups . Harmony Korine ( 1973 -- ) , American film director , producer , screenwriter , and author . Henrik Wergeland ( 1808 -- 1845 ) , Norwegian poet and theologist ( by self-definition ) . Hermann Weyl ( 1885 -- 1955 ) , German mathematician and theoretical physicist . Humphry Davy ( 1778 -- 1829 ) , British chemist and inventor . James Heckman ( 1944 -- ) , American economist who shared the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 2000 for his pioneering work in econometrics and microeconomics . James Hutton ( 1726 -- 1797 ) , Scottish physician , geologist , naturalist , chemical manufacturer and experimental agriculturalist . His work helped to establish the basis of modern geology . His theories of geology and geologic time , also called deep time , came to be included in theories which were called plutonism and uniformitarianism . James Madison ( 1751 -- 1836 ) , `` Father of the United States Constitution '' , one of the Founding Fathers of the United States , and the 4th President of the United States James Watt ( 1736 -- 1819 ) , Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer whose improvements to the Newcomen steam engine were fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both his native Great Britain and the rest of the world . Jean-Baptiste Lamarck ( 1744 -- 1829 ) , French naturalist . He was a soldier , biologist , academic , and an early proponent of the idea that evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws . Jean le Rond d'Alembert ( 1717 -- 1783 ) , French mathematician , mechanician , physicist , philosopher , and music theorist . He was also co-editor with Denis Diderot of the Encyclopédie . John Muir ( 1838 -- 1914 ) , Scottish-born American naturalist , author , and early advocate of preservation of wilderness in the United States . John Locke ( 1632 -- 1704 ) , influential English philosopher in the field of empiricism José Rizal ( 1861 -- 1896 ) , a Filipino patriot , philosopher , medical doctor , poet , journalist , novelist , political scientist , painter and polyglot . Considered to be one of the Philippines ' most important heroes and martyrs whose writings and execution contributed to the igniting of the Philippine Revolution . He is also considered as Asia 's first modern non-violent proponent of freedom . Jules Verne ( 1828 -- 1905 ) , French author who pioneered the science fiction genre in Europe . He is best known for his novels Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea , Journey to the Center of the Earth , and Around the World in Eighty Days . Leonardo da Vinci ( 1452 -- 1519 ) , Italian Renaissance polymath : painter , sculptor , architect , musician , scientist , mathematician , engineer , inventor , anatomist , geologist , cartographer , botanist , and writer . Ludwig Boltzmann ( 1844 -- 1906 ) , Austrian physicist famous for his founding contributions in the fields of statistical mechanics and statistical thermodynamics . Luis Walter Alvarez ( 1911 -- 1988 ) , American experimental physicist and inventor , who spent nearly all of his long professional career on the faculty of the University of California , Berkeley . He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1968 , and took out over 40 patents , some of which led to commercial products . Lysander Spooner ( 1808 -- 1887 ) , American anarchist , philosopher and abolitionist Mark Twain ( 1835 -- 1910 ) , American author and humorist Martin Gardner ( 1914 -- 2010 ) , American popular mathematics and science writer specializing in recreational mathematics , but with interests encompassing micromagic , stage magic , literature ( especially the writings of Lewis Carroll and G. K. Chesterton ) , philosophy , scientific skepticism , and religion . Matthew Tindal ( 1657 -- 1733 ) , controversial English author whose works were influential on Enlightenment thinking Max Born ( 1882 -- 1970 ) , German-British physicist and mathematician who was instrumental in the development of quantum mechanics . He also made contributions to solid-state physics and optics and supervised the work of a number of notable physicists in the 1920s and 30s . Born won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics ( shared with Walther Bothe ) . Max Planck ( 1858 -- 1947 ) , German physicist , regarded as the founder of quantum theory . Maximilien Robespierre ( 1758 -- 94 ) , French revolutionary and lawyer Mikhail Lomonosov ( 1711 -- 1765 ) , Russian polymath , scientist and writer , who made important contributions to literature , education , and science . Among his discoveries was the atmosphere of Venus . His spheres of science were natural science , chemistry , physics , mineralogy , history , art , philology , optical devices and others . Lomonosov was also a poet and influenced the formation of the modern Russian literary language . Moses Mendelssohn ( 1729 -- 1796 ) , German philosopher influential in the Jewish Haskalah Napoleon Bonaparte ( 1769 -- 1821 ) , French military and political leader Neil Armstrong ( 1930 -- 2012 ) , American NASA astronaut , test pilot , aerospace engineer , university professor , United States Naval Aviator , and the first person to set foot upon the Moon . Nick Cave ( 1957 -- ) , Australian musician , songwriter , poet , author and actor . Paul Davies ( 1946 -- ) , British physicist and science writer and broadcaster Rodrigo Duterte ( 1945 - ) , 16th President of the Philippines . Simon Newcomb ( 1835 -- 1909 ) , Canadian-American astronomer and mathematician . Thomas Alva Edison ( 1847 -- 1931 ) , American inventor and businessman . Thomas Jefferson ( 1743 -- 1826 ) , author of the Jefferson Bible , an American Founding Father , the principal author of the U.S. Declaration of Independence , and the third President of the United States . Thomas Paine ( 1737 -- 1809 ) , English pamphleteer , revolutionary , radical , inventor , and intellectual , and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States Victor Hugo ( 1802 -- 85 ) , French writer , artist , activist and statesman Voltaire ( 1694 -- 1778 ) , French Enlightenment writer and philosopher Walter Kohn ( 1923 -- ) , Austrian-born American theoretical physicist . He was awarded , with John Pople , the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1998 . William Lloyd Garrison ( 1805 -- 1879 ) , American abolitionist , journalist , and social reformer . He is best known as the editor of the abolitionist newspaper The Liberator , and was one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society , he promoted `` immediate emancipation '' of slaves in the United States . William Hogarth ( 1697 -- 1764 ) , English painter , visual artist and pioneering cartoonist Wolfgang Pauli ( 1900 -- 1958 ) , Austrian theoretical physicist . In 1945 , he received the Nobel Prize in Physics . He is best known for his work on Pauli principle and spin theory .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "List_of_deists", "rank": 51, "score": 125320 }, { "content": "Title: Föreningen Vetenskap och Folkbildning Content: Vetenskap och Folkbildning ( Swedish : Science and Popular Enlightenment ) or The Swedish Skeptics ' Association , abbreviated as VoF , is a Swedish skeptics ' association . It was founded in 1982 with the purpose to raise the general public 's awareness of scientific methods and results . The association publishes the quarterly journal Folkvett and organises lectures on themes related to science and pseudoscience . Since 1987 the association has annually awarded prizes for `` Enlightener of the Year '' and `` Misleader of the Year '' .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Föreningen_Vetenskap_och_Folkbildning", "rank": 52, "score": 124646 }, { "content": "Title: Skepticon (disambiguation) Content: Skepticon may refer to : Skepticon , an American annual skeptical conference in Springfield , Missouri . Skepticon , a Russian-language annual skeptical conference in Moscow , see Skeptic Society . SkepKon , a German-language annual skeptical conference in a German , Austrian or Swiss city , see Gesellschaft zur wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung von Parawissenschaften . SkeptiCalCon , an American annual skeptical conference in Oakland , California . SkepchickCon , an American annual scientific skepticism track at CONvergence .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skepticon_(disambiguation)", "rank": 53, "score": 124460 }, { "content": "Title: Acatalepsy Content: Acatalepsy ( from the Greek α̉ - , privative , and καταλαμβάνειν , to seize ) , in philosophy , is incomprehensibleness , or the impossibility of comprehending or conceiving a thing . Acatalepsy is the incomprehensibility of all things ; the doctrine held by the ancient Skeptic philosophers , that human knowledge never amounts to certainty , but only to probability . The Pyrrhonians attempted to show , while Academic skeptics of the Platonic Academy asserted an absolute acatalepsia ; all human science or knowledge , according to them , went no further than to appearances and verisimilitude . It is the antithesis of the Stoic doctrine of katalepsis or Apprehension . According to the Stoics , katalepsis was true perception , but to the Skeptics , all perceptions were acataleptic , i.e. bore no conformity to the objects perceived , or , if they did bear any conformity , it could never be known .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Acatalepsy", "rank": 54, "score": 124060 }, { "content": "Title: Ray Hyman Content: Ray Hyman ( born June 23 , 1928 , Chelsea , Massachusetts ) is a Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of Oregon in Eugene , Oregon , and a noted critic of parapsychology . Hyman along with James Randi , Martin Gardner and Paul Kurtz is one of the founders of the modern skeptical movement . He is the founder and leader of the Skeptic 's Toolbox . Hyman serves on the Executive Council for the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Ray_Hyman", "rank": 55, "score": 123829 }, { "content": "Title: Ibn al-Rawandi Content: Abu al-Hasan Ahmad ibn Yahya ibn Ishaq al-Rawandi , commonly known as Ibn al-Rawandi ( ابن راوندی 827 -- 911 CE ) , was an early skeptic of Islam and a critic of religion in general . In his early days , he was a Mu ` tazilite scholar , but after rejecting the Mu ` tazilite doctrine , he adhered to Shia Islam for a brief period before becoming a freethinker who repudiated Islam and revealed religion . Although none of his works have survived , his opinions had been preserved through his critics , Muslim apologists and the surviving books that answered him . His book with the most preserved fragments ( through an Ismaili book refuting Al-Rawandi 's ideology ) is the Kitab al-Zumurrud ( The Book of the Emerald ) .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Ibn_al-Rawandi", "rank": 56, "score": 123308 }, { "content": "Title: Carneades Content: Carneades ( -LSB- kɑrˈniːədiːz -RSB- Καρνεάδης , Karneadēs , `` of Carnea '' ; 214/3 -- 129/8 BC ) was an Academic skeptic born in Cyrene . By the year 159 BC , he had started to refute all previous dogmatic doctrines , especially Stoicism , and even the Epicureans whom previous skeptics had spared . As head of the Academy , he was one of three philosophers sent to Rome in 155 BC where his lectures on the uncertainty of justice caused consternation among the leading politicians . He left no writings and many of his opinions are known only via his successor Clitomachus . He seems to have doubted the ability , not just of the senses but of reason too , in acquiring truth . His skepticism was , however , moderated by the belief that we can , nevertheless , ascertain probabilities of truth , to enable us to live and act correctly .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Carneades", "rank": 57, "score": 122967 }, { "content": "Title: Agrippa the Skeptic Content: Agrippa was a Pyrrhonist philosopher who probably lived towards the end of the 1st century CE . He is regarded as the author of `` The Five ` Tropes ' ( or ` Modes ' ) of Agrippa '' , which are purported to establish the impossibility of certain knowledge .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Agrippa_the_Skeptic", "rank": 58, "score": 122389 }, { "content": "Title: Hungarian Skeptic Society Content: The Hungarian Skeptic Society ( HSS ) ( Hungarian : Szkeptikus Társaság Egyesület ) is a skeptic organisation based in Hungary . Founded in 2006 , it has been a member of the European Council of Skeptical Organisations ( ECSO ) since 2007 . Its current president is Gábor Hraskó , who also serves as the chairman of the ECSO since 2013 .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Hungarian_Skeptic_Society", "rank": 59, "score": 122349 }, { "content": "Title: Klub Sceptyków Polskich Content: Klub Sceptyków Polskich or KSP ( English : Polish Skeptics Club or Polish Sceptics Club ) is a non-profit , non-governmental organisation actively engaged in the promotion of critical thinking , scientific skepticism and scientific methods . It unites scientists and people interested in science and scientific research in Poland .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Klub_Sceptyków_Polskich", "rank": 60, "score": 121099 }, { "content": "Title: Indian CSICOP Content: Indian CSICOP is a well-known rationalist group based at Podanur , Tamil Nadu , India . Founded by Basava Premanand ( 1930 -- 2009 ) . Indian CSICOP is in the forefront of the rationalist campaigns in India which attempt to expose perceived miracles and to eradicate superstitions . Indian CSICOP is an affiliate of the US-based skeptical group CSICOP and it publishes Indian Skeptic , a rationalist periodical . It is also affiliated to the Federation of Indian Rationalist Associations , which is an apex body of about 65 rationalist , atheist and organizations aimed at popularization of science among laypersons . It is an associate member of International Humanist and Ethical Union based in London . One of the main targets of criticism by the Indian Skeptic are the miracles and magic of the guru Sathya Sai Baba .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Indian_CSICOP", "rank": 61, "score": 120881 }, { "content": "Title: Criticisms of anti-scientific viewpoints Content: Criticisms of anti-scientific viewpoints are many and varied . Most seem to focus on the confusion of conceptual metaphors arising in the process of learning science and negotiating acceptance of scientific truth in the larger culture . In Western education , for instance , students are encouraged to make systematic neutrally-based thinking central , as not taking sides in regard to cultural / ethical / religious traditions and conflicts between them . A common result is that other viewpoints tend to be ranked in comparison to the sciences , particularly the most experimentally-based sciences such as physics or chemistry : they are taken to be the model of neutral systematic reasoning . Mathematics and physics thus tend to be valued more highly as sources of insights into reality , than , say , music or religion . But many societies see those as sources of truth too , and have been skeptical of claims based on mathematics or the sciences -- particularly since this mode of thought has been understood to be characteristic of the West and therefore to have something in common with such things as imperialism and colonialism . What is necessarily in common is rarely specified . Recent philosophic manifestos by literary deconstructionists , radical feminists , and opponents of science generally ( e.g. , religious , cultural , political , etc. ) , have concentrated on what is claimed to be an unhealthy link between science and the humanities . The majority of these writers using the term scientism use it in a pejorative fashion , stressing the alleged unhealthy linkages or a claimed suppression by ` science ' of other viewpoints . These writers typically view science as little more than a socially constructed ideology , neither having nor deserving any privileged position in comparison to others . In this view , scientists `` bully '' non-scientists with `` oppressive '' words such as logic , experiment , objectivity , etc. . Many people ( and certainly many scientists ) believe this type of criticism to be little more than an essentially anti-scientific ` science envy ' , having little to do with science itself and much more to do with cultural fears , political difficulties , and unfortunate social histories . Philosopher Susan Haack writes : One manifestation of science-envy is the mathematical ( or logical ) pseudo-rigor with which much recent philosophical writing is afflicted . This , to speak bluntly , is a kind of affected obscurity . Not that recourse to the languages of mathematics or logic never helps to make a philosophical argument or thesis clearer ; of course , it does . But it can also stand in the way of real clarity by disguising failure to think deeply or critically enough about the concepts being manipulated with -LSB- an -RSB- impressive logical sophistication . And it has come to be , too often , what Charles Sykes calls `` Profspeak '' -- using unnecessary symbols to convey a false impression of depth and rigor . Science-envy is manifested also by those who -- hoping to enhance their prestige by close association with the sciences -- contort themselves in attempts to show that this or that philosophical problem can be quickly settled by some scientific result , or to displace philosophical problems in favor of scientific ones . The result is at best a covert change of subject , at worst a self-undermining absurdity . No scientific investigation can tell us whether science is epistemologically special , and if so , how , or whether a theory 's yielding true predictions is an indication of its truth , and if so , why , and so on ; yet , unless these were not only legitimate questions , but legitimate questions with less-than-skeptical answers , it is incomprehensible how one could be justified , as the most ambitious style of scientism proposes , in doing science instead of philosophy . ( Source : Science , Scientism , and Anti-Science in the Age of Preposterism , Susan Haack , Skeptical Inquirer Magazine , 1997 . )", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Criticisms_of_anti-scientific_viewpoints", "rank": 62, "score": 120450 }, { "content": "Title: Criticism of the Catholic Church Content: Criticism of the Catholic Church includes the observations made about the current or historical Catholic Church , in its actions , teachings , omissions , structure , or nature . The logical disagreements are covered on a denominational basis . Criticisms may regard the concepts of papal primacy and supremacy , or aspects of church structure , governance , and particular practices . Since the Catholic Church is the largest Christian church representing over half of all Christians and one sixth of the world 's population , these criticisms may not necessarily represent the majority view of all Christians and non-Christians . Criticism of the Catholic Church in previous centuries was more closely related to theological and ecclesiological disputes . The Protestant Reformation ( 16th-century Europe ) came about due to abuses of church practices by corrupt clergy in addition to these same theological disputes . Political disputes compounded the theological grievances between Protestants and Catholics and to this day the debate begun at the Reformation has been reflected in the diversity of Christian denominations . Some contemporary criticisms of the Catholic Church relate to philosophy and culture e.g. , Christianity vs. humanism .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Criticism_of_the_Catholic_Church", "rank": 63, "score": 119060 }, { "content": "Title: Dan King (skeptic) Content: Dan King ( 1791-1864 ) was an American physician and early skeptical writer . King was born in Mansfield , Connecticut . He practiced medicine in Rhode Island and Massachusetts until his retirement in 1859 . King is most notable for his book Quackery Unmasked ( 1858 ) which heavily criticized homeopathy and other alternative medicine claims . He was also critical of the use of tobacco and published a book on its negative health effects .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Dan_King_(skeptic)", "rank": 64, "score": 118772 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptik.ee Content: skeptik.ee is the website and primary communication outlet of MTÜ Eesti Skeptik , a non-profit organisation established in 2007 and dedicated to the study of paranormal phenomena and claims , and coordination of communication between skeptics . It aims to popularize science among students and promote skeptical thought in Estonia .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skeptik.ee", "rank": 65, "score": 118729 }, { "content": "Title: Michael Marshall (skeptic) Content: Michael `` Marsh '' Marshall ( 13 August 1983 ) is a British skeptical activist , freelance journalist , public speaker , podcaster , author and blogger . He is co-founder and vice-president of the Merseyside Skeptics Society and co-host of its official podcast Skeptics with a K , project director of the Good Thinking Society , and has occasionally written for The Times , The Guardian and New Statesman .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Michael_Marshall_(skeptic)", "rank": 66, "score": 118651 }, { "content": "Title: Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy Content: The Eastern Orthodox Church is opposed to the Roman Catholic doctrine of papal supremacy . While not denying that some form of primacy could exist for Rome 's bishop , Orthodox Christians argue that the tradition of Rome 's primacy in the early Church was not equivalent to the current doctrine of supremacy .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Eastern_Orthodox_opposition_to_papal_supremacy", "rank": 67, "score": 118276 }, { "content": "Title: Science Friction: Where the Known Meets the Unknown Content: Science Friction : Where the Known Meets the Unknown is a 2004 book by Michael Shermer , a historian of science and founder of The Skeptics Society . It contains thirteen essays about `` personal barriers and biases that plague and propel science , especially when scientists push against the unknown . What do we know , and what do we not know ? '' These include an essay relating the author 's experience of a day spent learning cold reading techniques well enough to be accepted as a psychic . As well as covering skepticism and pseudoscience , Shermer discusses other topics touching on the subject of encouraging scientific thought , such as sport psychology and the writings of Stephen Jay Gould .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Science_Friction:_Where_the_Known_Meets_the_Unknown", "rank": 68, "score": 118246 }, { "content": "Title: Edinburgh Skeptics Content: Edinburgh Skeptics ( Edinburgh Skeptics Society ) is a nonprofit organisation that promotes science , reason and critical thinking in Edinburgh and throughout Scotland . It was founded in 2009 . The Society hosts regular social and educational events in Edinburgh and has campaigned against the use of homeopathy and challenged claims of ghost sightings . The Society organizes regular talks as part of `` Skeptics in the Pub '' . The speaker invited to launch the group in March 2009 was Chris French . Subsequent speakers have included David Aaronovitch and Julian Baggini . In 2010 the Society created the award-winning Skeptics on the Fringe event , which is held annually during the Edinburgh Festival Fringe . Skeptics on the Fringe won an Ockham Award after a vote by the readers of The Skeptic magazine in 2013 and has been awarded 4 stars by the publication Broadway Baby . Speakers such as Simon Singh , Richard Wiseman , A C Grayling , Edzard Ernst and Paul Zenon have taken part in this event . Other Fringe activities include themed walking tours of Edinburgh . Current activities include a range of talks held as part of the Edinburgh International Science Festival , a cinema night , a discussion group and a mobile stall to deliver science and rationalism outreach to the public . In 2015 the Society started the Edinburgh Skeptics Podcast on a variety of platforms with content including interviews with various personalities as well as recordings of the Society 's events . In the past the Society has also co-hosted special events , such as a talk by Marc Abrahams , founder of the Ig Nobel Prizes and continues to work with various groups in the scientific and skeptical community .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Edinburgh_Skeptics", "rank": 69, "score": 118221 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience Content: The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience is a collection of articles that discuss the Skeptics Society 's scientific findings of investigations into popular pseudoscientific and supernatural claims . It has been called `` a 2-volume set with an attitude . '' The editor , Michael Shermer , director of the Skeptics Society , pulled together articles originally published in Skeptic magazine with some conceptual overviews and historical documents to create this two-volume encyclopedia . Pat Linse is listed as a contributing editor . It was published by ABC-CLIO in 2002 . The encyclopedia has five sections . The first volume is composed of alphabetical write-ups on the scientific view of pseudoscientific concepts such as the `` Bermuda Triangle and dowsing , Shroud of Turin and Feng Shui , spiritualism and biorhythms , placebo effect and graphology , Alien abductions and UFOs , crop circles and astrology '' , followed by a section of investigations and discussions . The second volume explores such subjects in more depth with sections containing case studies , `` for and against '' essays , and historical documents . This final section has been criticized for containing only five documents .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "The_Skeptic_Encyclopedia_of_Pseudoscience", "rank": 70, "score": 118138 }, { "content": "Title: Galileo affair Content: The Galileo affair was a sequence of events , beginning around 1610 , culminating with the trial and condemnation of Galileo Galilei by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1633 for his support of heliocentrism ( il processo a Galileo Galilei ) . In 1610 , Galileo published his Sidereus Nuncius ( Starry Messenger ) , describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new telescope , namely the phases of Venus and the Galilean moons of Jupiter . With these observations he promoted the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus ( published in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium in 1543 ) . Galileo 's initial discoveries were met with opposition within the Catholic Church , and in 1616 the Inquisition declared heliocentrism to be formally heretical . Heliocentric books were banned and Galileo was ordered to refrain from holding , teaching or defending heliocentric ideas . Galileo went on to propose a theory of tides in 1616 , and of comets in 1619 ; he argued that the tides were evidence for the motion of the Earth . In 1632 Galileo , now an old man , published his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems , which implicitly defended heliocentrism , and was immensely popular . Responding to mounting controversy over theology , astronomy and philosophy , the Roman Inquisition tried Galileo in 1633 and found him `` vehemently suspect of heresy '' , sentencing him to indefinite imprisonment . Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642 .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Galileo_affair", "rank": 71, "score": 118022 }, { "content": "Title: Scepticism in law Content: Scepticism in law is a school of jurisprudence that was a reaction against the idea of natural law , but also a response to the ` formalism ' of legal positivists . Legal scepticism is sometimes known as legal realism . According to Richard Posner , `` The skeptical vein in American thinking about law runs from Holmes to the legal realists to the critical legal studies movement , while behind Holmes stretches a European skeptical legal tradition that runs from Thrasymachus ( in Plato 's Republic ) to Hobbes and Bentham and beyond '' .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Scepticism_in_law", "rank": 72, "score": 117855 }, { "content": "Title: Religious views of Abraham Lincoln Content: The religious views of Abraham Lincoln are a matter of interest among scholars and the public . Lincoln grew up in a highly religious Baptist family . He never joined any Church , and was a skeptic as a young man and sometimes ridiculed revivalists . He frequently referred to God and had a deep knowledge of the Bible , often quoting it . Lincoln attended Protestant church services with his wife and children , and after two of them died he became more intensely concerned with religion . Although Lincoln never made an unambiguous public profession of Christian belief , several people who knew him personally , such as Chaplain of the Senate Phineas Gurley and Mary Todd Lincoln , claimed that he believed in Christ in the religious sense . However , close friends who had known Lincoln for years , such as Ward Hill Lamon and William Herndon , rejected the idea that he was a believing Christian . During his 1846 run for the House of Representatives , in order to dispel accusations concerning his religious beliefs , Lincoln issued a handbill stating that he had `` never denied the truth of the Scriptures '' . He seemed to believe in an all-powerful God , who shaped events and , by 1865 , was expressing those beliefs in major speeches .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Religious_views_of_Abraham_Lincoln", "rank": 73, "score": 117365 }, { "content": "Title: Barry Beyerstein Content: Barry L Beyerstein ( May 19 , 1947 -- June 25 , 2007 ) was a scientific skeptic and professor of psychology at Simon Fraser University in Burnaby , British Columbia . Beyerstein 's research explored brain mechanisms of perception and consciousness , the effects of drugs on the brain and mind , sense of smell and its lesser-known contributions to human cognition and emotion . He was founder and chair of the BC Skeptics Society . A Fellow and member of the Executive Council of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal ( CSICOP ) , now known as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry . Associate editor of the Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine Journal as well as a contributor to Skeptical Inquirer Magazine . Beyerstein was one of the original faculty of CSICOP 's Skeptic 's Toolbox . Beyerstein was a co-founder of the Canadians for Rational Health Policy and a member of the Advisory Board of the Drug Policy Foundation of Washington D.C. . He was a founding board member of the Canadian Foundation for Drug Policy and contributed to the International Journal of Drug Policy . According to long-time friend James Alcock , Beyerstein once addressed the House of Commons Standing Committee on Health during discussions leading up to the passage of the Controlled Substances Act '' . Along with his brother Dale , Barry was active `` in the British Columbia Civil Liberties Association '' .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Barry_Beyerstein", "rank": 74, "score": 117039 }, { "content": "Title: Božidar Knežević Content: Božidar Knežević ( 3 March 1862 , Ub - 18 February 1905 , Belgrade ) was a Serbian philosopher and writer . Student of Serbian literature , literary critic , master skeptic , he was one of the influential men of his time in Serbia . Although he was educated for the priesthood , he turned from Orthodox religion to a faith in science and in social regeneration under the guidance of the intellectual elite . For him the unpardonable sin was dogmatism , since he believed that neither religious , nor historical , nor scientific knowledge is wholly accurate . He said , `` The entire truth does not rest in any particular theory , idea or principle , as these are only particles of the whole truth ... ''", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Božidar_Knežević", "rank": 75, "score": 116959 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptical theism Content: Skeptical theism is the view that we should remain skeptical of our ability to discern whether our perceptions about evil can be considered good evidence against the existence of the orthodox Christian God . The central thesis of skeptical theism is that it would not be surprising for an infinitely intelligent and knowledgeable being 's reasons for permitting evils to be beyond human comprehension . That is , what may seem like pointless evils may be necessary for a greater good or to prevent equal or even greater evils . This central thesis may be argued from a theistic perspective , but is also argued to defend positions of agnosticism . Skeptical theism can be an informally held belief based on theistic doctrine , but the origin of the term ` skeptical theist ' is a 1996 paper by agnostic Purdue Philosopher Paul Drapier , `` The Skeptical Theist . Following Draper 's publication , the term ` skeptical theism ' was adopted in academic philosophy and has developed into a family of positions supporting skeptical theism 's central skeptical thesis ; we should remain skeptical of claims that human beings can discern God 's reasons for evils . One argument is based on analogy , likening our understanding of God 's motives to those of a child grasping a parent 's reasons for seeking painful medical treatment , for example . Other approaches are the limitations on the human ability to understand the moral realm , and appeals to epistemic factors such as sensitivity or contextual requirements . In the philosophy of religion , skeptical theism is not a broad skepticism toward human knowledge of God , but is instead putatively presented as a response to philosophical propositions , such as those focused on drawing `` all things considered '' inductive conclusions about God 's motives from perceived circumstances . Additionally , skeptical theism is not a position used to defend all forms of theism , though it is most often presented in the defense of orthodox Christian theism . Moreover , skeptical theism is not supported by all theists and some who support its skeptical positions are not theists . In philosophy , skeptical theism is a defense of theistic or agnostic positions argued to undercut a crucial premise in the atheology argument from evil , a claim that God could have no good reasons for allowing certain types of evil . It is also presented in response to other atheological arguments claiming to know God 's purposes based on circumstances , such as the argument from divine hiddenness .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skeptical_theism", "rank": 76, "score": 116814 }, { "content": "Title: Young Skeptics Content: Young Skeptics is an after school program sponsored by The Better News Club , Inc. ( BNC ) , an incorporated non-profit organization run by a board of directors consisting of unpaid volunteers.Young Skeptics ' mission statement says `` The mission of Young Skeptics is to promote and facilitate critical thinking and evidence-based learning among the youth of local school districts . We believe in discovery through tangible problem solving and the scientific method , and refrain from offering supernatural explanations for occurrences in nature . Young Skeptics is committed to teaching children how to think , not what to think . '' It ran a pilot program for elementary school children in Monroe County , New York . Young Skeptics is undergoing national expansion . Its first remote chapter will begin in February 2017 in San Luis Obispo , California .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Young_Skeptics", "rank": 77, "score": 116437 }, { "content": "Title: Science for the People (podcast) Content: Science for the People ( formerly Skeptically Speaking ) is an Edmonton-based , weekly podcast and radio show that aims to explore issues pertaining to science , skepticism and rational thinking through interviews . The show has featured interviews with prominent skeptics , researchers , and scientists including Adam Savage , Derek Colanduno , Phil Plait , and Carl Zimmer .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Science_for_the_People_(podcast)", "rank": 78, "score": 116124 }, { "content": "Title: The International Network of Cholesterol Skeptics Content: The International Network of Cholesterol Skeptics ( or THINCS ) is a group of scientists , physicians , and other academicians from around the world who dispute the widely accepted lipid hypothesis of atherosclerosis . THINCS was founded in January 2003 , and its founder and current spokesman is Uffe Ravnskov .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "The_International_Network_of_Cholesterol_Skeptics", "rank": 79, "score": 115894 }, { "content": "Title: Susan Gerbic Content: Susan Marie Gerbic ( born August 8 , 1962 ) is an American skeptical activist living in Salinas , California . Gerbic is the co-founder of Monterey County Skeptics , founder of Skeptic Action , leader of Guerrilla Skepticism on Wikipedia ( GSoW ) , a regular contributor to Skepticality , and contributes to Skeptical Inquirer .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Susan_Gerbic", "rank": 80, "score": 115643 }, { "content": "Title: Internet Infidels Content: Internet Infidels , Inc. is a Colorado Springs , Colorado-based nonprofit educational organization founded in 1995 by Jeffery Jay Lowder and Brett Lemoine . Its mission is to use the Internet to promote a view that supernatural forces or entities do not exist ( metaphysical naturalism ) . Internet Infidels maintains a website of educational resources about agnosticism , atheism , freethought , humanism , secularism , and other nontheistic viewpoints particularly relevant to nonbelievers and skeptics of the paranormal . Relevant resources include rebuttals to arguments made by religious apologists and theistic philosophers , transcripts of debates between believers and nonbelievers , and responses from opponents of a naturalistic worldview . The site has been referred to by one of its critics , Christian apologist Gary Habermas , as `` one of the Internet 's main Web sites for skeptics '' and by skeptical physicist Taner Edis as `` a major Web site serving nonbelievers '' . Its tagline is `` a drop of reason in a pool of confusion '' .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Internet_Infidels", "rank": 81, "score": 115157 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptics Content: Skeptics were a New Zealand post-punk band from 1979 to 1990 . They became notorious in 1987 for an unusually graphic music video entitled `` AFFCO '' .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "The_Skeptics", "rank": 82, "score": 115093 }, { "content": "Title: List of Catholic scientists Content: Many Catholics , both clerics and laypersons alike , have made significant contributions to the development of science and mathematics from the Middle Ages to today . These scientists include Galileo Galilei , René Descartes , Nicolas Copernicus , Louis Pasteur , Blaise Pascal , André-Marie Ampère , Gregor Mendel , Charles-Augustin de Coulomb , Pierre de Fermat , Antoine Laurent Lavoisier , Marin Mersenne , Alessandro Volta , Augustin-Louis Cauchy , Pierre Duhem , Jean-Baptiste Dumas , Roger Boscovich , Pierre Gassendi , and Georgius Agricola .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "List_of_Catholic_scientists", "rank": 83, "score": 115085 }, { "content": "Title: Anticlericalism and Freemasonry Content: The question of whether Freemasonry is Anticlerical is the subject of debate . The Catholic Church has long been an outspoken critic of Freemasonry , and some scholars have often accused the fraternity of anticlericalism . The Catholic Church forbids its members to join any Masonic society under pain of interdiction . Freemasons usually take a diametrically opposite view , stating that there is nothing in Freemasonry that is in any way contrary to Catholicism or any other religious faith . Whether Freemasonry is Anticlerical often depends on how one defines Anticlericalism and what branch of Freemasonry one is talking about .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Anticlericalism_and_Freemasonry", "rank": 84, "score": 114528 }, { "content": "Title: Doubting Thomas Content: A doubting Thomas is a skeptic who refuses to believe without direct personal experience -- a reference to the Apostle Thomas , who refused to believe that the resurrected Jesus had appeared to the ten other apostles , until he could see and feel the wounds received by Jesus on the cross . In art , the episode ( formally called the Incredulity of Thomas ) has been frequently depicted since at least the 5th century , with its depiction reflecting a range of theological interpretations .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Doubting_Thomas", "rank": 85, "score": 114481 }, { "content": "Title: Indifferentism Content: Indifferentism , in the Roman Catholic faith , is the belief held by some that no one religion or philosophy is superior to another . The Catholic Church ascribes indifferentism to many atheistic , materialistic , pantheistic , and agnostic philosophies . There are three basic types of indifferentism described by Catholic apologetics : absolute , restricted , and liberal or latitudinarian indifferentism . Indifferentism was first explicitly identified and opposed by Pope Gregory XVI , in his encyclical Mirari vos . Religious Indifferentism is to be distinguished from political indifferentism , which is applied to the policy of a state that treats all the religions within its borders as being on an equal footing before the law of the country . Indifferentism is not to be confounded with religious indifference . The former is primarily a theory disparaging the value of religion ; the latter term designates the conduct of those who , whether they do or do not believe in the necessity and utility of religion , do in fact neglect to fulfill its duties .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Indifferentism", "rank": 86, "score": 114205 }, { "content": "Title: Etienne Vermeersch Content: Etienne Vermeersch ( born May 2 , 1934 in Sint-Michiels ( nowadays part of Bruges ) ) is a Belgian ( moral ) philosopher , skeptic , opinion maker and debater . He is one of the founding fathers of the abortion and euthanasia law in Belgium . He is also former Vice-Rector of the Ghent University . Vermeersch became an atheist after five years with the Society of Jesus ( Jesuits ) . He broke with his belief when he was 25 , like most of his colleagues at the time . Later he became a philosophical materialist . In the 1990s there was some commotion in the Belgian media when Vermeersch wrote a rational-scientific article entitled ` Why the Christian God can not exist ' . In January 2008 , Vermeersch was chosen by hundred prominent Flemings as the most influential intellectual of Flanders .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Etienne_Vermeersch", "rank": 87, "score": 114047 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptics with a K Content: Skeptics with a K ( SwaK ) is the official podcast of the Merseyside Skeptics Society , a skeptical organisation based in Liverpool , UK .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Skeptics_with_a_K", "rank": 88, "score": 113528 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptic (film) Content: The Skeptic is a 2009 American suspense thriller film written and directed by Tennyson Bardwell . Starring Tim Daly , Zoe Saldana , and Tom Arnold , and featuring Robert Prosky and Edward Herrmann , it depicts the story of an attorney who inherits a seemingly haunted house , though he does not believe in the supernatural . Written in the 1980s , the film was shot in upstate New York from late 2005 through 2006 . Completed in 2008 , it was screened at the Cannes Film Festival before being purchased by IFC Films for airing on their video on demand channel as well as a limited theatrical release . The film received poor reviews and was criticized for its lack of suspense , poor dialogue , and for being reminiscent of 1970s television horror films .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "The_Skeptic_(film)", "rank": 89, "score": 113033 }, { "content": "Title: Evolution and the Catholic Church Content: Since the publication of Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species in 1859 , the attitude of the Catholic Church on the theory of evolution has slowly been refined . Early contributions to the development of evolutionary theory were made by Catholic scientists such as Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and the Augustinian monk Gregor Mendel . For nearly a century , the papacy offered no authoritative pronouncement on Darwin 's theories . In the 1950 encyclical Humani generis , Pope Pius XII confirmed that there is no intrinsic conflict between Christianity and the theory of evolution , provided that Christians believe that the individual soul is a direct creation by God and not the product of purely material forces . , the Church supports theistic evolution ( ism ) , also known as evolutionary creation , although Catholics are free not to believe in any part of evolutionary theory . The Catholic Church holds no official position on the theory of creation or evolution , leaving the specifics of either theistic evolution or literal creationism to the individual within certain parameters established by the Church . According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church , any believer may accept either literal or special creation within the period of an actual six-day , twenty-four-hour period , or they may accept the belief that the earth evolved over time under the guidance of God . Catholicism holds that God initiated and continued the process of his evolutionary creation , that Adam and Eve were real people ( the Church rejects polygenism ) and affirms that all humans , whether specially created or evolved , have and have always had specially created souls for each individual . Catholic schools in the United States and other countries teach evolution as part of their science curriculum . They teach the fact that evolution occurs and the modern evolutionary synthesis , which is the scientific theory that explains how evolution proceeds . This is the same evolution curriculum that secular schools teach . Bishop Francis X. DiLorenzo of Richmond , chair of the Committee on Science and Human Values , wrote in a letter sent to all U.S. bishops in December 2004 : `` Catholic schools should continue teaching evolution as a scientific theory backed by convincing evidence . At the same time , Catholic parents whose children are in public schools should ensure that their children are also receiving appropriate catechesis at home and in the parish on God as Creator . Students should be able to leave their biology classes , and their courses in religious instruction , with an integrated understanding of the means God chose to make us who we are . ''", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Evolution_and_the_Catholic_Church", "rank": 90, "score": 113028 }, { "content": "Title: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems Content: The Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems ( Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo ) is a 1632 Italian-language book by Galileo Galilei comparing the Copernican system with the traditional Ptolemaic system . It was translated into Latin as Systema cosmicum ( Cosmic System ) in 1635 by Matthias Bernegger . The book was dedicated to Galileo 's patron , Ferdinando II de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany , who received the first printed copy on February 22 , 1632 . In the Copernican system , the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun , while in the Ptolemaic system , everything in the Universe circles around the Earth . The Dialogue was published in Florence under a formal license from the Inquisition . In 1633 , Galileo was found to be `` vehemently suspect of heresy '' based on the book , which was then placed on the Index of Forbidden Books , from which it was not removed until 1835 ( after the theories it discussed had been permitted in print in 1822 ) . In an action that was not announced at the time , the publication of anything else he had written or ever might write was also banned in Catholic countries .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems", "rank": 91, "score": 112916 }, { "content": "Title: Americanism (heresy) Content: Americanism was a group of related views among American Catholics denounced as heresies by the Holy See . This was because these views tended to endorse the separation of church and state and encourage individualistic thinking . European `` continental conservative '' clerics thought they detected signs of modernism or classical liberalism of the sort the Pope had condemned in the Syllabus of Errors in 1864 . They feared that these doctrines were held by and taught in the 1890s by many members of the American Catholic hierarchy , who denied that they held these views . Pope Leo XIII wrote against these ideas in his encyclical Testem benevolentiae nostrae to Cardinal James Gibbons . In 1898 , Pope Leo XIII lamented an America where church and state are `` dissevered and divorced '' and wrote of his preference for a closer relationship between the Catholic Church and the State along European lines . The long-term result was that the Irish Catholics who largely controlled the Catholic Church in the United States increasingly demonstrated their total loyalty to the Pope , and traces of liberal thought in the Catholic colleges were suppressed . At bottom it was a cultural conflict , as the continental conservative Europeans , angered at the heavy attacks on the Catholic church in Germany , France and other countries , did not appreciate the active individualism , self-confidence , and optimism of the Church in America .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Americanism_(heresy)", "rank": 92, "score": 112445 }, { "content": "Title: Excommunication of Catholic politicians who support abortion Content: Since the Catholic Church opposes abortion , some Catholic bishops have threatened to refuse communion or to impose excommunication upon Catholic politicians who support abortion . In some cases , officials have stated that the politicians should refrain from receiving communion ad normam canon 915 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law ; in others , excommunication has been suggested .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Excommunication_of_Catholic_politicians_who_support_abortion", "rank": 93, "score": 112394 }, { "content": "Title: Lisa the Skeptic Content: `` Lisa the Skeptic '' is the eighth episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 23 , 1997 . On an archaeological dig with her class , Lisa discovers a skeleton that resembles an angel . All of the townspeople believe that the skeleton actually came from an angel , but skeptical Lisa attempts to persuade them that there must be a rational scientific explanation . The episode 's writer , David X. Cohen , developed the idea after visiting the American Museum of Natural History , and decided to loosely parallel themes from the Scopes Monkey Trial . The episode also makes allusions to actual hoaxes , such as the Cardiff Giant . The episode received generally positive reviews . It has been discussed in the context of virtual reality , ontology , existentialism , and skepticism ; it has also been used in Christian religious education classes to initiate discussion about angels , skepticism , science , and faith .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Lisa_the_Skeptic", "rank": 94, "score": 112339 }, { "content": "Title: Gábor Hraskó Content: Gábor Hraskó ( born 26 August 1963 ) is a Hungarian science communicator and skeptic , well-known within the Hungarian and international movement as the president of the Hungarian Skeptic Society and chairman of the European Council of Skeptical Organisations . He is a member of the Club of Hungarian Science Journalists , author of the `` X-Aknák '' popular science blog , and was co-editor and co-host of the television series of the same name . Hraskó is a scientific and technical consultant for the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Gábor_Hraskó", "rank": 95, "score": 111487 }, { "content": "Title: Die Skeptiker Content: Die Skeptiker ( English : The Skeptics ) is a German punk band , founded in 1986 in East Berlin . Die Skeptiker were part of the so-called Die anderen Bands ( the other bands in accordance to the mainstream bands in East Germany ) which played political lyrics that criticised life in the GDR . In 2000 , their singer , Eugen Balanskat , founded Roter Mohn ( later renamed to Rotorfon ) playing punk rock cover versions of 1920s - 1940s songs . The band reformed in 2006 to mark their 20th anniversary . Since then , the band has toured throughout Germany .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Die_Skeptiker", "rank": 96, "score": 111475 }, { "content": "Title: SkeptiCamp Content: SkeptiCamps are smallish grassroots conferences where scientific skeptics come together and participate and present . Some are operated in the style of an unconference .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "SkeptiCamp", "rank": 97, "score": 111149 }, { "content": "Title: Christian Order Content: Christian Order is a British-based monthly magazine for Traditionalist Catholics which was described by John Beaumont of Fidelity magazine in 1996 as `` most influential of the conservative Catholic journals in the United Kingdom '' . It was originally devoted to the Catholic response to social issues , taking a distributist stance sceptical of the welfare state . In the 1970s a number of contributors were attracted such as George Telford ( former vice-chairman and Secretary to the Catechetical Commission of the Bishops of England and Wales ) and the lay author Michael Davies . The magazine 's rationale is presented in confrontational terms : The Neocatechumenal Way is criticized in the magazine as `` heretical '' ( Lutheran ) and a `` Trojan horse '' in the Church . In an article published in the magazine , CJ O'Hehir described Ireland as `` the most anti-Catholic Catholic country in the world , and the most monolithically liberal of the world 's democracies . '' The magazine has republished articles from Daylight , the magazine of the Catholic creationist Daylight Origins Society . It has been criticised by Searchlight magazine for having among its contributors `` extremists '' ( including John Vennari ) , a `` race-baiter '' ( E. Michael Jones ) and an `` antisemitic conspiracist '' ( Robert Sungenis ) , and the website Catholic Culture suggests that its contents should be looked at in `` a critical light '' due to `` a bias against Church leaders , Vatican II , and the New Mass. . ''", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Christian_Order", "rank": 98, "score": 111051 }, { "content": "Title: James Alcock Content: James E. Alcock ( born 24 December 1942 ) is a Canadian educator . He has been a Professor of Psychology at York University ( Canada ) since 1973 . Alcock is a noted critic of parapsychology and is a Fellow and Member of the Executive Council for the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry . He is a member of the Editorial Board of The Skeptical Inquirer , and a frequent contributor to the magazine . He has also been a columnist for Humanist Perspectives Magazine . In 1999 , a panel of skeptics named him among the two dozen most outstanding skeptics of the 20th century . In May 2004 , CSICOP awarded Alcock CSI 's highest honor , the In Praise of Reason Award . Alcock is also an amateur magician and is a member of the International Brotherhood of Magicians .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "James_Alcock", "rank": 99, "score": 110954 }, { "content": "Title: Kylie Sturgess Content: Kylie Sturgess is the President of the Atheist Foundation of Australia , an award-winning blogger , author and independent podcast host of The Token Skeptic Podcast . A Philosophy and Religious Education teacher with over ten years experience in education , Sturgess has lectured on teaching critical thinking , feminism , new media and anomalistic beliefs worldwide . She is a Member of the James Randi Educational Foundation ( JREF ) Education Advisory Panel and regularly writes editorial for numerous publications , and has spoken at The Amazing Meeting Las Vegas , Dragon * Con ( US ) , QED Con ( UK ) . She was a presenter and Master of Ceremonies for the 2010 Global Atheist Convention and returns to the role in 2012 . Her most recent book The Scope of Skepticism was released in 2012 . She is a presenter at Perth 's community radio station RTRFM .", "qid": "2867", "docid": "Kylie_Sturgess", "rank": 100, "score": 110436 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Governorship of Rick Perry Content: Rick Perry succeeded to the office of Governor of Texas on December 21 , 2000 when George W. Bush resigned as Governor to prepare for his presidential inauguration . Perry became the first Texas A&M graduate to serve as governor . Perry is a member of the Republican Governors Association , the National Governors Association , the Western Governors Association , and the Southern Governors Association . Perry is currently serving as Chairman of the Republican Governors Association ; he previously served as its Chairman in 2008 . Perry has advocated an emphasis on accountability , raising expectations , and funding programs that work in order to improve the quality of Texas schools . Perry 's campaigns for lieutenant governor and governor focused on a tough stance on crime . In June 2002 , he vetoed a ban on the execution of mentally retarded inmates . He has also supported block grants for crime programs . Perry has also supported tort reform to limit malpractice lawsuits against doctors , and as lieutenant governor he had tried and failed to limit class action awards and allowing plaintiffs to allocate liability awards among several defendants . In 2003 , Perry sponsored a controversial state constitutional amendment to cap medical malpractice awards , which was narrowly approved by voters . According to a tort reform advocate , this legislation has resulted in a 21.3 percent decrease in malpractice insurance rates . According to the Texas Medical Board , there has also been a significant increase in the number of doctors seeking to practice in the state . Perry has drawn attention for his criticism of the Obama administration 's handling of the recession , and for turning down approximately $ 555 million in stimulus money for unemployment insurance . Perry was lauded by the Texas Public Policy Foundation for this decision and his justification -- that the funds and the mandatory changes to state law would have placed an enduring tax burden on employers . In September 2009 , Perry declared that Texas was recession-proof : `` As a matter of fact ... someone had put a report out that the first state that 's coming out of the recession is going to be the state of Texas ... I said , ` We 're in one ? Paul Burka , senior executive editor of Texas Monthly , criticized Perry 's remarks , saying `` You can not be callous and cavalier when people are losing their jobs and their homes . '' The Los Angeles Times reported on August 16 , 2011 , that Perry received $ 37 million over 10 years from just 150 donors , which adds up to over a third of the $ 102 million he had raised as governor through December 2010 , according to the group Texans for Public Justice . Almost half of those donors received big contracts , tax breaks or appointments during Perry 's tenure . On July 8 , 2013 , Perry announced he would not seek reelection to an unprecedented fourth full four-year term in the election in November 2014 , during a press conference at Holt Caterpillar in San Antonio , Texas with family and friends present .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Governorship_of_Rick_Perry", "rank": 1, "score": 170798 }, { "content": "Title: Rick Perry Content: James Richard Perry ( born March 4 , 1950 ) is an American politician who is the 14th and current United States Secretary of Energy , serving in the Trump Administration . Prior to his cabinet position , Perry served as the 47th Governor of Texas from December 2000 to January 2015 . A Republican , he was elected Lieutenant Governor of Texas in 1998 and assumed the governorship in December 2000 when then-governor George W. Bush resigned to become President of the United States . Perry was the longest-serving governor in Texas history . Perry was elected three times to full gubernatorial terms and is the fourth Texas governor ( after Allan Shivers , Price Daniel and John Connally ) to serve three terms . With a tenure in office of 14 years , 30 days , Perry was , at the time he left office , the second longest-serving current U.S. governor ( after Terry Branstad of Iowa ) . Perry ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination for President of the United States in 2012 and 2016 . On December 14 , 2016 , Donald Trump announced his intention to nominate the longtime Texas governor as his Secretary of Energy . On March 2 , 2017 , he was confirmed by the United States Senate in a 62 -- 37 vote .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Rick_Perry", "rank": 2, "score": 164983 }, { "content": "Title: Rick Perry veto controversy Content: On August 15 , 2014 , Texas Governor Rick Perry was indicted by a Travis County grand jury , but has since been cleared on all charges . The first charge of the indictment was abuse of official capacity , a first-degree felony , for threatening to veto $ 7.5 million in funding for the Public Integrity Unit , a state public corruption prosecutors department . The second charge , which has since been ruled unconstitutional , was coercion of a public servant , a third-degree felony , for seeking the resignation of Travis County District Attorney Rosemary Lehmberg , a Democrat , after she was convicted of drunk driving , and incarcerated . Perry pleaded not guilty to both charges . On July 24 , 2015 , the Texas Third Court of Appeals dismissed the indictment for coercion of a public official , on the basis that the indictment violates his First Amendment rights to free speech . The indictment for abuse of power , a charge which his lawyers said is a misdemeanor , was likewise dismissed , in February 2016 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Rick_Perry_veto_controversy", "rank": 3, "score": 163873 }, { "content": "Title: Political positions of Rick Perry Content: Rick Perry is an American politician who served as the 47th Governor of Texas from 2000 to 2015 . He was a candidate for the nomination of the Republican Party for President of the United States in 2012 and 2016 , and currently serves as the United States Secretary of Energy .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Political_positions_of_Rick_Perry", "rank": 4, "score": 160776 }, { "content": "Title: Texas gubernatorial election, 2002 Content: The 2002 Texas gubernatorial election was held on November 5 , 2002 to elect the Governor of Texas . Incumbent Republican Governor Rick Perry , who had ascended to the governorship after the resignation of George W. Bush , was elected to his first full term in office , winning 58 % of the vote to Democrat Tony Sanchez 's 40 % . Perry carried 218 out of 254 counties , while Sanchez only carried 36 . Exit polls showed Perry easily won Anglos ( 72 % to 28 % ) while Sanchez won African Americans ( 85 % to 15 % ) and Latinos ( 65 % to 35 % ) . His second inauguration for a first full four-year term began on January 21 , 2003 on the Texas State Capitol South Grounds .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Texas_gubernatorial_election,_2002", "rank": 5, "score": 159827 }, { "content": "Title: Jan-Åke Gustafsson Content: Jan-Åke Gustafsson ( born 1943 , Sweden ) is a Swedish scientist and professor in Biology , Biochemistry and Medical Nutrition . When he decided to move to Houston , Texas , USA , in 2008 , the State of Texas decided to give a major US $ 5.5 million research grant to the University of Houston , enabling the establishment of the Center of Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling under the leadership of Jan-Åke Gustafsson . The grant was announced at a February 5 , 2009 , press conference by Rick Perry , Governor of Texas and running for the Republican nomination for President of the United States in the 2012 presidential election . Recruiting top international scientists , world-leaders in their respective field , and providing them with grants to enable them to establish top scientific institutions in Texas , is part of the government of the State of Texas ' vision to establish top-tier research and educational institutions in the state , institutions that will be able to rival the top institutions on the American East and West Coasts . The importance of research and scientific progress to the senior levels of the Texas government was illustrated by personal interest that governor Rick Perry took in the recruitment of professor Gustafsson and the establishment of the center . Jan-Åke Gustafsson holds two parallel professorships : Robert A. Welch Professor of Biology and Biochemistry ( 80 % ) at the University of Houston 's Department of Biology and Biochemistry , as well as Professor of Medical Nutrition ( 20 % ) at Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm , Sweden . Gustafsson is one of Europe 's leading scientists in the fields of medicine and natural science . Jan-Åke Gustafsson has received numerous international and national scientific awards , honorary doctor - and professorships , e.g. Honorary professor of the Beijing University in Beijing , People 's Republic of China ; Honorary doctor of the University of Chongqing , Chongqing , PRC ; Honorary Doctor of the University of Milan , Milan , Italy ; the Lorenzini Foundation 's Gold Medal , Lorenzini Foundation , Milan , Italy and the Nordic Fernström Prize , often referred to as the `` Little Nobel Prize '' , the Fernström Foundation , Copenhagen , Denmark . He is one of the scientists in Sweden that receives the largest annual research and science grants , i.e. government - and private funding , for his research projects . Gustafsson is most well known for his longstanding accomplishments in the field of nuclear receptors , including his discovery of the previously unknown estrogen receptor beta . His work at the University of Houston is focused on establishing academic and industry collaborations with the goal of finding new treatments for diseases , such as cancer , diabetes and metabolic syndrome . Jan-Åke Gustafsson received his PhD from the Karolinska institutet in 1968 , followed by an MD from the same university in 1971 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Jan-Åke_Gustafsson", "rank": 6, "score": 159358 }, { "content": "Title: Rick Perry presidential campaign, 2016 Content: The 2016 presidential campaign of Rick Perry , the 47th Governor of Texas , was officially launched on June 4 , 2015 . This campaign constituted Perry 's second consecutive bid for the Republican nomination for President of the United States . Perry announced on September 11 , 2015 , that he had suspended his campaign . On January 25 , 2016 , Perry announced that he will endorse Presidential candidate and fellow Texan , Senator Ted Cruz .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Rick_Perry_presidential_campaign,_2016", "rank": 7, "score": 159057 }, { "content": "Title: Texas gubernatorial election, 2010 Content: The 2010 Texas gubernatorial election was held on Tuesday , November 2 , 2010 , to elect the Governor of Texas . Incumbent Republican Governor Rick Perry ran successfully for election to a third consecutive term . He won the Republican primary against U.S. Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison . The former Mayor of Houston , Bill White , won the Democratic nomination . Kathie Glass , a lawyer from Houston and previous candidate for Texas Attorney General , won the Libertarian nomination . Deb Shafto was the nominee of the Texas Green Party . Andy Barron , an orthodontist from Lubbock , was a declared write-in candidate . The Lieutenant Governor of Texas is elected on a separate ticket . As a result , the Governor-elect and Lieutenant Governor-elect may be , and have in the past been , of different political parties . For that race , Linda Chavez-Thompson won the Democratic Party nomination and avoided a runoff ; incumbent Republican Lieutenant Governor David Dewhurst won re-election . Scott Jameson was the Libertarian nominee . Perry 's fourth inauguration was held on January 18 , 2011 at the Texas State Capitol grounds . Exit Polls showed Perry winning Anglos ( 71 % to 29 % ) , while White performed well among African Americans ( 88 % to 12 % ) and Latinos ( 61 % to 38 % ) The Governor of Texas and Lieutenant Governor of Texas are both sworn-in on the third Tuesday of January every four years . Perry 's fourth inauguration for a third full four-year term began on January 18 , 2011 on the State Capitol South Grounds .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Texas_gubernatorial_election,_2010", "rank": 8, "score": 155416 }, { "content": "Title: Fed Up! (book) Content: Fed Up ! Our Fight to Save America from Washington is a 2010 political non-fiction book authored by Governor of Texas Rick Perry and his senior advisor Chip Roy , published by Little , Brown and Company . It was released shortly after Perry 's re-election to a third term as governor . The book analyzes states ' rights and the growing role of the federal government , demonstrating Perry 's support for federalism . In the book , he argues that state sovereignty was dominant at the founding of the United States , but was lost through time as the federal government overreached through excessive spending , over-taxation and over-regulation . Perry feels that this has led to frustration among the populace , which gave rise to the Tea Party movement . The book charts a course to end the growth of the federal government . While the book takes aim at the political culture in Washington , D.C. , it also promotes the concept of American exceptionalism , particularly in the view that the American people are `` fed up '' with the nation not realizing its true potential .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Fed_Up!_(book)", "rank": 9, "score": 151987 }, { "content": "Title: Texas gubernatorial election, 2014 Content: The 2014 Texas gubernatorial election was held on November 4 , 2014 to elect the Governor of Texas . Incumbent Republican Governor Rick Perry , who had served since the resignation of then-Governor George W. Bush on December 21 , 2000 , declined to run for an unprecedented fourth full term , making this the first open election for governor since 1990 . The election took place between nominees who were selected on March 4 , 2014 : Republican State Attorney General Greg Abbott and Democratic State Senator Wendy Davis . Also on the ballot were Libertarian Party candidate Kathie Glass and Green Party candidate Brandon Parmer . Abbott was projected to carry the election , and ultimately won handily with a 20 percentage point advantage . Exit polls showed Abbott winning Anglos ( 73 % to 26 % ) , while Davis received majorities among African Americans ( 92 % to 7 % ) and Latinos ( 55 % to 44 % ) . Abbott took office on January 20 , 2015 , as the 48th Governor of Texas .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Texas_gubernatorial_election,_2014", "rank": 10, "score": 150030 }, { "content": "Title: Texas gubernatorial election, 2006 Content: The 2006 Texas gubernatorial election was held on November 7 , 2006 elect the Governor of Texas . The election was a rare four-way race , with incumbent Republican Governor Rick Perry running for re-election against Democrat Chris Bell and Independents Carole Keeton Strayhorn and Kinky Friedman . Perry was re-elected to a second full term in office , winning 39 % of the vote to Bell 's 30 % , Strayhorn 's 18 % and Friedman 's 12 % . Perry carried 209 out of the state 's 254 counties , while Bell carried 39 and Strayhorn carried 6 . Exit polls revealed that Perry won the Anglo vote with 46 % , while Bell got 22 % , Strayhorn got 16 % and Friedman got 15 % . Bell won 63 % of African Americans , while Perry got 16 % , Strayhorn got 15 % and Friedman got 4 % . Bell also won the Latino vote with 41 % , while Perry got 31 % , Strayhorn got 18 % and Friedman got 4 % . Perry was inaugurated for a second full four-year term on January 16 , 2007 . The ceremony was held inside the House of Representatives chamber at the Texas Capitol after thunderstorms cancelled the planned outdoor ceremony .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Texas_gubernatorial_election,_2006", "rank": 11, "score": 147354 }, { "content": "Title: 2006 Texas gubernatorial election Content: The 2006 Texas gubernatorial election was held on November 7, 2006, to elect the Governor of Texas. The election was a rare five-way race, with incumbent Republican Governor Rick Perry running for re-election against Democrat Chris Bell and Independents Carole Keeton Strayhorn and Kinky Friedman, as well as Libertarian nominee James Werner. Perry was re-elected to a second full term in office, winning 39% of the vote to Bell's 30%, Strayhorn's 18% and Friedman's 12%. Perry carried 209 out of the state's 254 counties, while Bell carried 39 and Strayhorn carried 6. Exit polls revealed that Perry won the Anglo vote with 46%, while Bell got 22%, Strayhorn got 16% and Friedman got 15%. Bell won 63% of African Americans, while Perry got 16%, Strayhorn got 15% and Friedman got 4%. Bell also won the Latino vote with 41%, while Perry got 31%, Strayhorn got 18% and Friedman got 4%. Perry was inaugurated for a second full four-year term on January 16, 2007. The ceremony was held inside the House of Representatives chamber at the Texas Capitol after thunderstorms cancelled the planned outdoor ceremony.", "qid": "2868", "docid": "2006_Texas_gubernatorial_election", "rank": 12, "score": 146405 }, { "content": "Title: Anita Thigpen Perry Content: Mary Anita Thigpen Perry ( born May 5 , 1952 ) was the longest-serving First Lady of Texas ; being in that role from 2000 to 2015 . She is the wife of former Governor and current United States Secretary of Energy Rick Perry . As First Lady of Texas , she had been an active advocate for nursing and other health care issues . The Anita Thigpen Perry Endowment at the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio focuses on nutrition , cardiovascular disease , health education , and early childhood development . In 2008 , the Anita Thigpen Perry School of Nursing at Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center was renamed in her honor .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Anita_Thigpen_Perry", "rank": 13, "score": 145743 }, { "content": "Title: Rick Perry 2012 presidential campaign Content: The Rick Perry presidential campaign of 2012 began when Rick Perry, four-term Governor of Texas, announced via a spokesman on August 11, 2011, that he would be running for the 2012 Republican Party nomination for president of the United States.Perry was considered as a potential candidate since as early as the 2008 presidential election, initially denying he was interested in the office but later becoming more open-minded. He formally launched his campaign on August 13, 2011, in Charleston, South Carolina. While he was initially successful in fundraising and was largely considered a serious contender for the nomination, he struggled during the debates and his poll numbers began to decline. After finishing fifth with just over 10% of the vote in the Iowa caucuses on January 3, 2012, Perry considered dropping out of the presidential race but did not. After a poor showing in New Hampshire and with \"lagging\" poll numbers in South Carolina, Perry formally announced he was suspending his campaign on January 19, 2012.", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Rick_Perry_2012_presidential_campaign", "rank": 14, "score": 145219 }, { "content": "Title: James Browning (Texas politician) Content: James Nathan Browning ( March 13 , 1850 -- November 9 , 1921 ) was a Texas politician and lawyer . He served as Lieutenant Governor from 1899 -- 1903 . He had earlier served as a member of the Texas House of Representatives ( 1883 -- 89 , 1891 ) . A later Lieutenant Governor , Rick Perry , made the following comments when he was sworn in on January 19 , 1999 . One hundred years and two days ago , Governor Joseph Sayers and Lieutenant Governor James Browning came to the 11-year-old Capitol building during one of the coldest winters ever recorded in Texas and took the oath of office . The Texans assembled on that day could not have imagined what the 20th century would bring or the role Texans would play in the most American of centuries . Browning was born in Clark County , Arkansas , and is buried in Amarillo , Texas .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "James_Browning_(Texas_politician)", "rank": 15, "score": 144239 }, { "content": "Title: Strong (advertisement) Content: `` Strong '' was a political advertisement issued by Texas Governor Rick Perry 's presidential campaign in December 2011 for the 2012 Republican Party presidential primaries . The ad was targeted to American Christian , socially conservative voters . It raised controversy for addressing gays in the military and religion in public schools , largely due to Perry 's disapproval of the former . The video went viral , inspiring a number of parodies . During the primaries , it became one of the most disliked videos on YouTube and is the twenty-first most-disliked video as of May 2017 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Strong_(advertisement)", "rank": 16, "score": 144025 }, { "content": "Title: Rick Perry presidential campaign, 2012 Content: The Rick Perry presidential campaign of 2012 began when Rick Perry , four-term Governor of Texas , announced via a spokesman on August 11 , 2011 , that he would be running for the 2012 Republican Party nomination for president of the United States . Perry was considered as a potential candidate since as early as the 2008 presidential election , initially denying he was interested in the office but later becoming more open-minded . He formally launched his campaign on August 13 , 2011 , in Charleston , South Carolina . While he was initially successful in fundraising and was briefly considered a serious contender for the nomination , he struggled during the debates and his poll numbers began to decline . After finishing fifth with just over 10 % of the vote in the Iowa caucuses on January 3 , 2012 , Perry considered dropping out of the presidential race but did not . After a poor showing in New Hampshire and with `` lagging '' poll numbers in South Carolina , Perry formally announced he was suspending his campaign on January 19 , 2012 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Rick_Perry_presidential_campaign,_2012", "rank": 17, "score": 143984 }, { "content": "Title: Texas Tax Reform Commission Content: The Texas Tax Reform Commission ( TTRC ) was created by Texas Governor Rick Perry in 2005 to modernize the state tax system and provide long-term property tax relief as well as sound financing for public schools . Upon the Commission 's creation , Governor Perry requested that the `` ultimate recommendations on reforming the state tax structure focus on the goals of lowering property taxes , ensuring greater tax fairness , and providing a long-term , reliable source of funding for public schools '' in Texas . On November 4 , 2005 , Perry named the 24 members of the Commission . The team included a diverse , bipartisan group of private sector leaders representing all segments of the Texas economy . John Sharp , a Democrat and former Texas Comptroller from 1991 to 1999 , was chosen to steer the Commission as its chairman . Over the next four months , the Commission would travel across the State of Texas , holding hearings at which public input by citizens was encouraged . On March 29 , 2006 , the Commission released its Final Report .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Texas_Tax_Reform_Commission", "rank": 18, "score": 143613 }, { "content": "Title: Greg Abbott Content: Gregory Wayne Abbott ( born November 13 , 1957 ) is an American lawyer and Republican politician who currently serves as the 48th Governor of Texas since January 2015 . During the Governorship of his predecessor , Rick Perry , Abbott was the 50th Attorney General of Texas . Abbott was only the second Republican to serve as Attorney General of Texas since Reconstruction . Prior to assuming the office of Attorney General , he was a justice on the Texas Supreme Court , a position to which he was initially appointed in 1995 by then-Governor George W. Bush . He is noted outside of Texas for successfully advocating the right of the state of Texas to display the Ten Commandments in front of the Texas State Capitol in Austin , in a 2005 United States Supreme Court case known as Van Orden v. Perry .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Greg_Abbott", "rank": 19, "score": 140430 }, { "content": "Title: Days of Prayer for Rain in the State of Texas Content: The Days of Prayer for Rain in the State of Texas refers to a designated three-day period from Friday , April 22 , 2011 , to Sunday , April 24 , 2011 , during which Texas governor Rick Perry asked that Texans pray for `` the healing of our land -LSB- Texas -RSB- '' and for an end to the drought . The governor noted that in the past , Texans `` have been strengthened , assured and lifted up through prayer '' , and thus believes the prayer to be an appropriate measure . Perry designated the Days of Prayer in a gubernatorial proclamation issued on April 21 . Precedents for his action included similar initiatives in Texas at the municipal level and a prayer service for rain led by Georgia governor Sonny Perdue in 2007 . The proclamation , which did not specify a text for the prayer and called for the `` Days of Prayer '' to begin on Good Friday , received some criticism .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Days_of_Prayer_for_Rain_in_the_State_of_Texas", "rank": 20, "score": 139448 }, { "content": "Title: Phil Wilson (Texas politician) Content: Samuel Philip `` Phil '' Wilson ( born October 5 , 1967 ) was the Texas Secretary of State , the state 's chief elections officer , from 2007 to 2008 . He was appointed effective July 1 , 2007 , by Republican Governor Rick Perry . Wilson was the 106th person to hold the position and the fifth individual to have served since Perry assumed the governorship in December 2000 . On June 11 , 2008 , Wilson announced his resignation , effective July 6 , to `` pursue other opportunities . '' Wilson became senior vice president for public affairs for Luminant , an electric energy company . Wilson was succeeded as Secretary of State by San Antonio businesswoman Esperanza `` Hope '' Andrade , a previous Perry appointee to the Texas Transportation Commission . Wilson was preceded in the office by John Roger Williams , a businessman from Weatherford , who also stated in his resignation announcement that he intended to `` pursue other opportunities '' . Wilson was previously Perry 's deputy chief of staff . Perry personally swore Wilson into office as Secretary of State . In addition to handling election matters , the Secretary of State is the governor 's liaison with Mexico and the state 's officer of protocol . The office serves as the formal repository for official and business records , publishes government rules and regulations , and attests to the governor 's signature on official documents . As secretary of state , Wilson continued to serve as Perry 's designee on the Texas Enterprise Fund ( $ 185 million ) and the Emerging Technology Fund ( $ 200 million ) . He also led the Governor 's Office of Economic Development and Tourism . `` Phil 's new role will allow my office to coordinate with the Office of Secretary of State in a seamless way to expand trade , economic development , emerging technology initiatives in the private sector and higher education , and workforce development , '' Perry said in a 2007 press release . While the deputy chief of staff , Wilson oversaw the governor 's initiatives in economic development , job creation , federal funding , military base realignment and closure , and policy development . Under Wilson 's leadership , the Enterprise Fund leveraged $ 10 billion in capital investment , along with the creation of 45,000 jobs . Wilson also led public relations and media strategies for the $ 20 million annual Texas tourism campaign . Wilson was Perry 's communications director in 2002 and 2003 . Prior to 2002 , he was an aide for nearly a decade to Republican U.S. Senator Phil Gramm . He was the East Texas Gramm director based in Tyler and then the state director anchored in Dallas . He also did a stint as communications director for Republican former Railroad Commissioner Charles R. Matthews . Wilson was reared in Brownwood , the seat of Brown County in central Texas , where his father , Samuel Wilson , was a professor at the Douglas MacArthur Academy of Freedom at Baptist-affiliated Howard Payne University . Wilson graduated in 1990 from Baptist-affiliated Hardin-Simmons University in Abilene , with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science and history . He thereafter received a Master of Business Administration from the Cox School of Business at Southern Methodist University in Dallas . At Hardin-Simmons , Wilson received the `` Tomorrow 's Leaders Today '' Award and the George Skiles Anderson Award as the outstanding male graduate . He was also named to Who 's Who Among American Colleges and Universities and was a founding member of Theta Alpha Zeta . Democratic State Senator Kirk Watson of Austin , an unsuccessful candidate for attorney general in 2002 , called Wilson `` extremely competent . He works hard ; he knows his business ; he 's a real straight shooter . '' Wilson lives in Austin with his wife , the former Kristen Kincaid , whom he married in Tyler , Texas , in 1992 . They attend the Hill Country Bible Church , pastored by Tim Hawks . Wilson has apparently recovered from two bouts of cancer . He said that fighting the disease taught him never to give up on the implementation of his goals . In addition to Williams and Wilson , previous secretaries of state under Governor Perry were Democrat Henry Cuellar and Republicans Gwyn Shea and Geoff Connor .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Phil_Wilson_(Texas_politician)", "rank": 21, "score": 139328 }, { "content": "Title: Texas Conference for Women Content: The Texas Conference for Women is a nonprofit , nonpartisan leadership conference for women of all ages and backgrounds . The first annual conference was held in 2000 in Austin , Texas . From 2000 until 2014 , former Governor Rick Perry and former First Lady Anita Perry served as the official hosts of the event , which has featured keynote speakers including Dr. Maya Angelou , poet , author , educator and historian ; Sarah Ferguson , Duchess of York , writer and family health advocate ; Carly Fiorina , former CEO of HP ; Maria Hinojosa , Emmy-nominated journalist and author ; and Melinda French Gates , co-founder of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation . Traditionally , the conference has attracted a sold-out crowd of more than 7,500 women . The one-day event consists of keynote addresses and breakout sessions led by experts in the fields of business , philanthropy , health , finance , media and professional development . Attendees learn new communication skills , leadership strategies and work/life balance tools designed to enhance their professional and personal growth .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Texas_Conference_for_Women", "rank": 22, "score": 138643 }, { "content": "Title: Eighty-first Texas Legislature Content: The 81st Texas Legislature began meeting in regular session on January 11 , 2009 . The regular session adjourned sine die on June 1 , 2009 . Rick Perry , the Governor of Texas , called a special session of the Legislature on July 1 , 2009 . The Legislature passed two bills , both related to the sunset process , and adjourned sine die on July 10 . All members of the House of Representatives and 13 members of the Senate were elected on 4 November 2008 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Eighty-first_Texas_Legislature", "rank": 23, "score": 138282 }, { "content": "Title: Bill Clements Content: William Perry `` Bill '' Clements , Jr. ( April 13 , 1917 -- May 29 , 2011 ) was an American businessman , university executive , and , was the Republican Party politician from Texas . After making his fortune in crude oil , Clements would go on to serve as Deputy Secretary of Defense and Chairman of the Board of Governors at Southern Methodist University . Clements is most notable for serving as Governor of Texas for two non-consecutive terms . When first sworn in in 1979 , he became the first Republican to have served as governor of the U.S. state of Texas since Reconstruction . When Clements left office for good at the end of his second term in 1991 , his eight total years in office were the most served by any Texas governor prior to governor Rick Perry . Clements was the first governor to be elected to multiple terms since Texas changed its constitution in 1972 to extend their governor 's term of office to four years ; since then , Perry and his predecessor , George Walker Bush , have also won multiple terms .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Bill_Clements", "rank": 24, "score": 137998 }, { "content": "Title: Texas Senate, District 17 Content: District 17 of the Texas Senate is a senatorial district that currently serves portions of Brazoria , Chambers , Fort Bend , Galveston , Harris and Jefferson counties in the U.S. state of Texas . Senator Kyle Janek announced his resignation on May 29 , 2008 . Governor Rick Perry called for a special election to fill the vacancy on November 4 , 2008 . A runoff was held on December 16 , 2008 which was won by Republican Joan Huffman .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Texas_Senate,_District_17", "rank": 25, "score": 136306 }, { "content": "Title: Charles Perry (Texas politician) Content: Charles Lee Perry ( born March 9 , 1962 ) is a Republican member of the Texas State Senate from West Texas District 28 which contains two cities , Lubbock and San Angelo , and 46 mostly rural counties . He won an outright majority in a special election for the seat held on September 9 , 2014 . The slot became open when Robert L. Duncan , another Republican , resigned to become the new chancellor of the Texas Tech University System . From 2011 to 2014 , Perry was a member of the Texas House of Representatives from District 83 , a rural district south of Lubbock . A certified public accountant , Perry unseated incumbent Representative Delwin L. Jones , then the oldest member of the Texas House , in the runoff election held on April 13 , 2010 . He faced no Democratic opponents in the November 2 general election . Perry took his seat in the 150-member House in January 2011 . Charles Perry is not related to former Governor Rick Perry .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Charles_Perry_(Texas_politician)", "rank": 26, "score": 135250 }, { "content": "Title: University of Texas at Austin admissions controversy Content: The University of Texas admissions controversy grew out of the investigations and public statements of a member of the University of Texas System Board of Regents . Wallace Hall , Jr. was appointed to a six-year term in February 2011 by then Governor Rick Perry . Following his appointment , Hall began broadly investigating the administrative dealings of President Bill Powers at the University of Texas at Austin . Hall was the first to publicly raise concerns about legislative influence on admissions at UT-Austin under President Powers ' tenure . Following up on these concerns , the UT system launched a limited probe to determine whether legislators ' application recommendations made directly to Powers were given special treatment . On February 12 , 2015 this investigation found that Powers had helped certain applicants gain admission , including those with questionable academic credentials , if he felt that doing so was in the University 's best interests . This was described by some as vindication of UT Regent Wallace Hall , Jr. . . Others have pointed out that such admissions procedures are widespread , even desirable , in American higher education . According to the report , from 2009 to 2014 , students flagged by university officials were admitted 74 % of the time compared to an overall admission rate of 40 % . President Powers and his Chief of Staff `` each failed to speak with candor and forthrightness expected of people in their positions of trust and leadership , '' the report stated . Powers agreed to step down in June 2013 , partly in response to the probe . He told the Wall Street Journal that he had `` intervened on behalf of a relatively small number of students '' but denied that it was `` undue influence '' . This report was widely described as vindication of UT Regent Wallace Hall , Jr. , and a validation of the concerns raised by Hall if not his methodology .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "University_of_Texas_at_Austin_admissions_controversy", "rank": 27, "score": 134546 }, { "content": "Title: Bill Ratliff Content: William Roark Ratliff , known as Bill Ratliff ( born August 16 , 1936 ) , is a Texas politician who served as a member of the Texas State Senate from 1988 to 2004 . Between 2000 and 2003 he served as the 40th Lieutenant Governor of Texas , after previous Lieutenant Governor Rick Perry succeeded to the governorship to replace George W. Bush who resigned to become President of the United States .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Bill_Ratliff", "rank": 28, "score": 134213 }, { "content": "Title: Geoff Connor Content: Geoffrey Scott Connor ( born July 24 , 1963 ) is an American public servant , attorney , historian , and businessman from the state of Texas . Connor has been an aide or appointee of several Republican Governors of Texas , including William P. Clements , Jr. , George W. Bush , and Rick Perry . Most notably , Connor served as the 104th Secretary of State of Texas under Governor Perry . Connor 's tenure in this position was especially noteworthy for his efforts to build strong diplomatic and trade relationships between Texas and foreign countries . Since leaving the Texas Secretary of State 's Office , Connor has been active as a consultant , lobbyist , academician , and attorney . His current public service includes positions with the The William P. Clements Jr. . Center for National Security , Alamo Board of the Texas General Land Office , and Texas State Guard . He remains active internationally and with the diplomatic community in the state of Texas .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Geoff_Connor", "rank": 29, "score": 133890 }, { "content": "Title: Anthony Holm Content: Anthony Holm is an American communications strategist , lawyer and author . Holm co-founded a political consulting firm , The Patriot Group , in 2006 . He has served as special project director for Rick Perry , the former Governor of Texas . In October 2008 , Holm founded The First Amendment Alliance . The First Amendment Alliance Education Fund was founded in order to expose corruption and inconsistencies both in the government and the public sector . He has also worked as a spokesman and consultant for Republican mega-donor Bob Perry and his company Perry Homes , as well as Texas Attorney General Ken Paxton and Texans for Education Reform . In 2010 , it was alleged that Holm , a Republican consultant , led a GOP backed signature gathering effort through an out of state non-profit corporation to promote Green Party candidates in an effort to elect more Republicans in Texas . Holm denied that account . Holm served on Ken Paxton 's campaign for attorney general in 2014 . He has also worked for Houston billionaires Laura and John Arnold .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Anthony_Holm", "rank": 30, "score": 133575 }, { "content": "Title: Tony Buzbee Content: Tony Buzbee is an American trial lawyer who has been involved in multiple high-profile cases . In 2014 it was announced that Buzbee would be lead counsel for Governor Rick Perry of Texas after he was indicted on two felony counts which were later dismissed in 2016 . In 2009 , Buzbee won the largest jury verdict against British Petroleum ( BP ) in history . Buzbee is the managing partner of the Buzbee Law Firm in Houston , Texas . Buzbee has obtained more than $ 1 billion in judgments and verdicts . On November 2 , 2015 , Buzbee was awarded Attorney Of The Year by Texas Lawyer Magazine . Buzbee has represented multiple , noted Americans , including respected horse trainer Bob Baffert and recording artist and business man Jimmy Buffett . Buzbee has represented multiple governmental entities , including the State of Louisiana , and the Basque Government in the Kingdom of Spain .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Tony_Buzbee", "rank": 31, "score": 133370 }, { "content": "Title: Texans for Public Justice Content: Texans for Public Justice ( TPJ ) is an Austin-based non-profit group founded in 1997 to take on political corruption and corporate abuses in Texas , United States . Their early focus was on tracking campaign contributions in Texas and elsewhere , including contributions to George W. Bush 's campaign in the 2000 and 2004 US presidential elections . The group lodged the original complainant that led to the now overturned conviction of former US Representative Tom Delay , as well as current Texas Governor Rick Perry 's widely criticized August 2014 felony indictment . It has been accused of being `` funded by out-of-state foundations and rich individuals to specialize in `` lawfare '' against state officials of whose policies they disapprove '' . Craig McDonald , a Michigan native , founded the organization and is its current Director . He began his career on the political left via the public interest movement in the late-1970s working as a community organizer . Working for Ralph Nader 's Public Citizen activist group in 1984 , he went on to create the Texas office of Public Citizen in that same year . According to TPJ , its board of directors includes , in addition to McDonald , two other veterans of Nader 's Public Citizen ; a former aide to the late Texas Democratic Gov. Ann Richards who was also a Clinton-Gore organizer ; and a journalist who `` has written for numerous progressive publications . '' McDonald claims that TPJ only reveals its institutional funders and does n't reveal its individual supporters for fear of political retaliation . He said he does n't consider that policy in conflict with the group 's work in highlighting the impact of money in politics . The group receives monies from George Soros , Open Society Foundations , the Piper Foundation , the Sunlight Foundation , the Winkler Family Foundation , and Good Jobs First . Its 2005 tax return showed `` Texas trial lawyers as major contributors . ''", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Texans_for_Public_Justice", "rank": 32, "score": 133267 }, { "content": "Title: Mike Schofield Content: Michael Joseph Schofield , known as Mike Schofield ( born 1969 ) , is a former policy advisor to former Governor Rick Perry who is a Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives for District 132 in northwestern Harris County , Texas .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Mike_Schofield", "rank": 33, "score": 132792 }, { "content": "Title: John Steen (Texas politician) Content: John Thomas Steen , Jr. ( born c. 1949 ) , is a lawyer from San Antonio , Texas , who served as the Texas Secretary of State from 2012 to 2014 . Steen was appointed by Governor Rick Perry on November 27 , 2012 after Esperanza Andrade resigned four days earlier from the position that she had held for more than four years . Steen is Texas ' 108th Secretary of State and one of six officials to have formed the Executive Department of state government . After just over a year in the position , Steen resigned and was succeeded on January 7 , 2014 , by another Perry appointee , Nandita Berry , an Indian native and naturalized American citizen from Houston .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "John_Steen_(Texas_politician)", "rank": 34, "score": 131233 }, { "content": "Title: Larry Kilgore Content: Larry Scott Kilgore ( born 1965 ; middle name formerly Scott , then SECEDE which he had legally changed in 2012 and changed back to Scott in 2015 ) is an American who has been a perennial Republican candidate for various elected offices in Texas . He was considered one of the most prominent supporters of Texas secession . Interest in Kilgore and his ideas increased following the 2012 United States presidential election in which Democratic president President Barack Obama was re-elected ; President Obama 's re-election sparked a wave of petitions for secession on the White House 's official website . Kilgore , whose motto was `` Secession ! All other issues can be dealt with later '' has never won a Republican primary . He ran for governor in 2006 and came second in the Republican primary behind Governor Rick Perry with 50,119 votes ( 7.64 % ) . He then ran for the U.S. Senate in 2008 and came second in the Republican primary behind Senator John Cornyn with 225,897 votes ( 18.51 % ) . He ran again for governor in 2014 but was not a factor in the March 4 nomination of fellow Republican Greg Abbott , the outgoing state attorney general , who succeeded Perry as Governor in January 2015 . There have been a number of different positions held by advocates of Texas 's secession . Kilgore believed that Texas could leave the U.S. without permission from the federal government . Kilgore has advanced a number of other policies in his political bids , mainly based on what he considers biblical law . Running for the U.S. Senate in 2008 , he advocated the death penalty for abortion , adultery and homosexuality and flogging for vulgar language and transvestitism . He also believes that Abraham Lincoln was the American equivalent of Adolf Hitler . He discussed this view and his support for secessionism in general when he appeared in a segment of The Daily Show on 21 February 2013 . Kilgore lives in Arlington , Texas , and works as a telecommunications contractor .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Larry_Kilgore", "rank": 35, "score": 131095 }, { "content": "Title: Texas Senate Bill 5 Content: Texas Senate Bill 5 ( or Texas SB 5 ) is a bill that was created on June 11 , 2013 , and was discussed during the First Special Session of the Eighty-third Texas Legislature and was signed into law by Governor Rick Perry on July 18 , 2013 . On June 27 , 2016 the United States Supreme Court held that some parts of the law are unconstitutional in Whole Woman 's Health v. Hellerstedt .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Texas_Senate_Bill_5", "rank": 36, "score": 130012 }, { "content": "Title: Kelsey Patterson Content: Kelsey Patterson ( September 3 , 1954 -- May 18 , 2004 ) was executed by the State of Texas . He was convicted of the murder of Louis Oates , 63 , and Dorothy Harris , 41 . On August 25 , 1992 , Oates was standing on the loading dock of his Oates Oil Co. in Palestine , Texas . Patterson walked up behind Oates and shot him in the back of the head with a .38 - caliber pistol . He left , but returned shortly later and shot Harris who had come outside screaming upon hearing the shots and finding Oates . Patterson then went to a friend 's house where he took off his clothing and was arrested standing naked in the street . No clear motive was established for the murders , but a friend of Oates told police that Patterson and the victim had once argued over who was the better football player , Patterson or Oates ' son . Patterson received a rare recommendation from the Texas Board of Pardon and Paroles that his death sentence be commuted to life on May 17 , 2004 because of mental illness . Nonetheless , Governor Rick Perry refused to grant the commutation . Governor Perry explained why he refused to commute Patterson 's sentence to life , `` This defendant is a very violent individual . Texas has no life without parole sentencing option , and no one can guarantee this defendant would never be freed to commit other crimes were his sentence commuted . In the interests of justice and public safety , I am denying the defendant 's request for clemency and a stay . '' Prior to Patterson 's execution , Texas had only two sentencing options for capital crimes : life with parole ( with a minimum prison time of 40 years ) or death by lethal injection ; it did not have a life without parole option . Partially in response to the execution , in 2005 , the Texas Legislature changed the capital murder sentencing law , which Governor Perry signed into law . Under the new law , the life with parole option was replaced with life without parole . ( However , for any unsolved cases prior to the change in law , in the event of a conviction the life with parole option still applies . ) Patterson was pronounced dead at 6:20 p.m. .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Kelsey_Patterson", "rank": 37, "score": 129594 }, { "content": "Title: Brooke Rollins Content: Brooke Leslie Rollins is the president and CEO of the Texas Public Policy Foundation , an Austin-based free-market think tank . Under Texas Governor Rick Perry , Rollins served as deputy general counsel , ethics advisor , and policy director . She then assumed the presidency of the Texas Public Policy Foundation . She is on the board of advisors for Hispanic CREO and is a member of the Texas Lyceum and the Texas Woman 's Alliance . She was raised in Glen Rose , Texas and attended Texas A&M University , where she graduated cum laude with a B.S. in agricultural development in 1994 . She was named the top graduate of her class based on a combination criteria of academics , leadership , and service . While at Texas A&M , Rollins was the first female to be elected student body president . She also served as the speaker pro tempore of the Student Senate , the chair of the Texas A&M Judicial Court , as a Fish Camp counselor , and was Cotton Bowl Classic Queen . After graduating from A&M , Rollins attended the University of Texas School of Law , from which she graduated with honors . She then worked for several years at Hughes & Luce , LLP in Dallas and clerked under U.S. Federal District Court judge Barbara M.G. Lynn . In 2007 , she became the first female speaker at the College Station Aggie Muster , which honors deceased Texas A&M former students . In 2011 , Texas Monthly named Rollins one of the 25 most powerful Texans .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Brooke_Rollins", "rank": 38, "score": 129329 }, { "content": "Title: George Seay Content: George Seay is a Dallas , Texas-based businessman , co-founder and Chairman of Annandale Capital , and conservative political leader . Seay previously served as Texas finance chairman for Texas Governor Rick Perry 's 2012 Presidential campaign , and is a current senior adviser to Marco Rubio 's 2016 Presidential campaign . Seay is a 7th generation Texan and the grandson of Bill Clements , who served as the first Republican governor of Texas since Reconstruction . He serves on numerous boards and philanthropic groups , including The University of Texas McCombs School of Business Advisory Board , The Clements Center for National Security , 7th Generation Foundation , New Covenant Foundation , Hope Through Healing Hands and the Southwestern Medical Foundation .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "George_Seay", "rank": 39, "score": 129328 }, { "content": "Title: Chet Upham Content: Chester Robert Upham , Jr. , known as Chet Upham ( May 19 , 1925 -- January 24 , 2008 ) , was an oil and natural gas businessman from Mineral Wells , Texas , who served as the chairman of the Texas Republican Party from 1979 -- 1983 , corresponding with the first gubernatorial administration of his friend , William P. `` Bill '' Clements , Jr. . Upham was a delegate to every Texas state Republican convention from 1960 -- 1994 and to the national conventions of 1972 , 1980 , 1984 , and 1992 . He was a member of the Business Council organized by Governor Rick Perry .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Chet_Upham", "rank": 40, "score": 127236 }, { "content": "Title: Rick Green (Texas politician) Content: Richard Arlin Green , known as Rick Green ( born March 23 , 1971 ) , is an attorney and politician from Dripping Springs in Hays County , Texas , who is a Republican former member of the Texas House of Representatives . He was defeated in the April 13 , 2010 , Republican runoff election for the Place 3 seat on the Texas Supreme Court by Judge Debra Lehrmann of Colleyville near Fort Worth , Texas . She was originally appointed to the court by Governor Rick Perry . Green graduated from high school in 1989 in Wylie in Collin County , north of Dallas , Texas , and entered Angelo State University in San Angelo , Texas . Having carried a double-course load , Green received a Bachelor of Business Administration in 1991 and then entered the University of Texas Law School where at the age of twenty he was the youngest student in law school . He subsequently focused his law practice on contract law and assisting entrepreneurs in the establishing their own businesses . Green and his wife , Kara R. Green ( born October 30 , 1974 ) , have four children , Trey , Reagan , Kamryn , and Rhett .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Rick_Green_(Texas_politician)", "rank": 41, "score": 126971 }, { "content": "Title: Barry Smitherman Content: Barry Thomas Smitherman ( born September 13 , 1957 ) is a lawyer who served as a member and chairman of the Texas Railroad Commission from 2011 to 2015 . A Republican , he was appointed to the commission on July 8 , 2011 by then Governor Rick Perry to fill a vacant post ; on February 28 , 2012 he was elected chairman of the commission , which regulates not railroads but the Texas oil and gas industry . In 2013 , Smitherman announced his candidacy to succeed Greg Abbott as state attorney general in the Republican primary election held on March 4 , 2014 , when Abbott polled 91.5 percent of the ballots cast to win the party 's nomination for governor to succeed the retiring Rick Perry , who declined to seek a fourth full term . Smitherman 's opponents were State Senator Ken Paxton of McKinney in Collin County and State Representative Dan Branch of Dallas County . Smitherman finished in third place with 281,064 votes ( 22.1 percent ) in the primary race for attorney general .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Barry_Smitherman", "rank": 42, "score": 126080 }, { "content": "Title: Michael L. Williams Content: '' For other persons of the same name , see Michael Williams ( disambiguation ) Michael Lawrence Williams ( born May 31 , 1953 ) is the former education commissioner of the U.S. state of Texas , in which capacity he was leader of the Texas Education Agency . He was appointed to the position on August 27 , 2012 , by then Governor Rick Perry . On October 15 , 2015 , Williams announced that he would step down as education commissioner at the end of the year to return to the private sector . The 200-mile one-way commute from his home in Arlington to the state capital in Austin had become too taxing to remain in the position , Williams said . Perry 's successor , Governor Greg Abbott , named Mike Morath as Williams ' successor in the position . Williams is also a former member of the elected Texas Railroad Commission , a regulatory body over , not railroads , but the oil and natural gas industries . He is the first African American to hold a statewide elected executive office in Texas history . He was appointed to the commission by Perry 's predecessor , then Governor George W. Bush in 1999 , and won elections in 2000 , 2002 , and 2008 to retain the office before eventually resigning in 2011 . He is also the fourth African American to be elected to statewide office overall following Morris Overstreet , Wallace B. Jefferson , and Dale Wainwright . On May 29 , 2012 , Williams ran unsuccessfully in the Republican primary for the redrawn 25th congressional district seat that stretches southward from Tarrant to Hays counties .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Michael_L._Williams", "rank": 43, "score": 126001 }, { "content": "Title: Wallace L. Hall, Jr. Content: Wallace L. Hall is a former member of The University of Texas System Board of Regents whose six-year tenure was marked by controversy . Hall was appointed in February 2011 by Governor Rick Perry , and was replaced in February 2017 . Following his appointment as a regent to the 14-institution University of Texas System , Hall began a series of investigations specifically into the administration of the University of Texas at Austin . He was the first regent to publicly raise concerns about external influence on the admissions process at the school . A state legislative committee subsequently initiated controversial impeachment proceedings against him . The proceedings were eventually dropped but led to a censure by the committee for `` misconduct , incompetency in the performance of official duties , or behavior unbefitting a nominee for and holder of a state office . '' On December 14 , 2015 , State District Judge Scott Jenkins of Austin-based Third Court of Appeals threw out a lawsuit filed by Hall against Chancellor William H. McRaven , who had denied Hall 's request for confidential student records relating to his ongoing investigations . Hall 's attempt to gain access to confidential student records proved unsuccessful when his term as Regent expired in February of 2017 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Wallace_L._Hall,_Jr.", "rank": 44, "score": 125996 }, { "content": "Title: Tony Fabelo Content: Tony Fabelo was the executive director of the Texas Criminal Justice Policy Council from 1991 to 2003 , when the agency 's budget was vetoed by Governor Rick Perry . This was the research and evaluation agency created by Texas in 1983 . Dr. Fabelo was appointed by Governor Ann Richards as Executive Director in 1991 and served in this capacity until August 2003 . Prior to 1991 , Dr. Fabelo served in different capacities at the agency , including Director of Research and Deputy Director . During his tenure , he assisted five governors and ten regular biennial Texas legislatures in developing criminal and juvenile justice policies . Under Dr. Fabelo 's leadership the agency provided the knowledge for policy makers to design the Texas Criminal Justice Information System in 1989 , new correctional rehabilitation programs in 1991 and rewrite the sentencing code in 1993 . Between 1995 and 2000 , Dr. Fabelo served as part of the policy team of Governor George W. Bush . He assisted the team in the development of the juvenile justice reform of 1995 , the early intervention and prevention services initiative of 1997 , and assisted in monitoring the effectiveness of criminal and juvenile justice policies . As Executive Director he supervised and contributed to the production of over 200 research reports . Dr. Fabelo received in 1992 the G. Paul Sylvestre Award from the U.S. Department of Justice , Bureau of Justice Statistics for `` outstanding achievement in advancing criminal justice statistics in the states . He was a member of the National Research Council panel of the National Academy of Sciences that issued two national reports in 2000 and 2001 on juvenile crime and juvenile justice , a member of the National Institute of Justice Executive Sessions on Sentencing and Corrections in 1999 , and the Executive Sessions on Public Defense at Harvard University in 2000 . Dr. Fabelo issued a report to the Connecticut legislature in 2006 claiming its program of reducing incarceration rates was a `` success '' . This policy was abandoned by Governor M. Jodi Rell after a series of heinous crimes committed in the summer of 2007 by paroled criminals , most notably the July 2007 home invasion in Cheshire . Dr. Fabelo received a Bachelor of Arts in Political Science from Loyola University in New Orleans in 1977 , a Master of Arts in Latin American Studies from the University of Texas at Austin in 1979 and a Ph.D. in Government from the University of Texas at Austin in 1984 . Dr. Fabelo is fluent in Spanish .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Tony_Fabelo", "rank": 45, "score": 125797 }, { "content": "Title: Steven Wayne Smith Content: Steven Wayne Smith ( born October 26 , 1961 ) , is a Republican former Texas Supreme Court associate justice , who was defeated for renomination in 2004 through the active opposition of then Governor Rick Perry . He was unseated by Paul W. Green . Smith again lost -- very narrowly -- a bid for nomination to the court in the March 7 , 2006 , GOP primary , when Perry again opposed his candidacy . Smith served on the high Texas court from November 2002 through January 2005 . He is known for his conservative judicial philosophy and opposition to racial quotas . A fifth-generation Texan , Smith was reared in Everman south of Fort Worth . He attended the University of Texas at Arlington , where he received a B.B.A. in finance , the first member of his extended family to have graduated from college . Smith attended the University of Texas Law School , where he concentrated on federal law . He graduated with honors in 1986 . After graduation , Smith worked as a bill analyst for the Texas Senate and as a staff attorney , first for the Office of the Texas Secretary of State and then for the Texas Legislative Council . He spent three years at the legislative council and worked on redistricting issues and judicial selection . There he met his wife , the former Susan Hunter , who was also on the legal staff . `` My judicial philosophy probably comes as much from working at the legislature as from anything . ... I developed a real appreciation for what goes into making public policy . The legislature is the policy-making branch . Courts should defer to the legislature , unless there 's a clear constitutional reason '' otherwise , said Smith . While he was on the Supreme Court , Smith authored sixteen published opinions , including the court 's landmark decision in Texas Department of Protective and Regulatory Services v. Mega Child Care . His work was lauded by current Chief Justice Wallace Jefferson .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Steven_Wayne_Smith", "rank": 46, "score": 125560 }, { "content": "Title: Man of the House (2005 film) Content: Man of the House is a 2005 American crime comedy film directed by Stephen Herek and starring Tommy Lee Jones . The main plot revolves around Lt. Roland Sharp ( portrayed by Jones ) , a lonesome Texas Ranger who goes undercover as an assistant cheerleading coach to protect a group of college cheerleaders who have witnessed a murder . Much of the film was shot in Austin , Texas on the University of Texas campus . Texas Governor Rick Perry has a cameo appearance in the film as himself . The house used in the film was The Star of Texas Inn .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Man_of_the_House_(2005_film)", "rank": 47, "score": 125349 }, { "content": "Title: Mike Jackson (Texas politician) Content: James Michael Jackson , known as Mike Jackson ( born 20 August 1953 ) is a Republican former member of the Texas Senate representing the 11th District . He was also the President pro tempore of the Texas Senate , before running for national office in 2012 . In this capacity , he served as Acting governor of Texas while Governor Rick Perry campaigned for U.S. President and Lieutenant Governor David Dewhurst was on holiday or campaigned for Perry .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Mike_Jackson_(Texas_politician)", "rank": 48, "score": 123885 }, { "content": "Title: James Perry Content: James Perry may refer to : James Perry ( journalist ) ( 1756 -- 1821 ) , journalist James Franklin Perry ( 1790 -- 1853 ) , early Texas settler ( with wife Emily Austin Perry ) Jimmy Perry ( 1923 -- 2016 ) , English actor and scriptwriter James E. C. Perry ( born 1944 ) , jurist James Stewart Perry ( born 1947 ) , sculptor James L. Perry ( born 1948 ) , academic James Perry , strongman , see 1992 World 's Strongest Man James Lewis Perry ( born 1979 ) , cyclist Jim Perry ( television personality ) ( 1933 -- 2015 ) , television personality and game show host Jim Perry ( baseball ) ( born 1935 ) , baseball player Rick Perry ( James Richard Perry , born 1950 ) , American politician who served as the 47th Governor of Texas James Perry , actor in Studio C", "qid": "2868", "docid": "James_Perry", "rank": 49, "score": 123638 }, { "content": "Title: Nandita Berry Content: Nandita Venkateswaran Berry ( born April 14 , 1968 ) is an Indian American attorney from Houston , who served as the 109th Secretary of State of Texas . An Indian native and naturalized American citizen , she assumed the position on January 7 , 2014 , upon appointment from then Governor Rick Perry . She succeeded John Thomas Steen , Jr. , a lawyer from San Antonio , who had served as secretary of state for thirteen months . Berry was one of the six officials who make up the executive department of the State of Texas . Of those officials , five are elected ; only the secretary of state is appointed . The secretary of state is the chief elections officer , the protocol officer for state and international matters , and the liaison for the governor on Mexican and border matters .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Nandita_Berry", "rank": 50, "score": 123565 }, { "content": "Title: Buddy Garcia Content: Hector Steven Garcia , known as H. S. `` Buddy '' Garcia ( born June 16 , 1967 ) , is a former interim member of the Texas Railroad Commission , the elected body which regulates the oil and natural gas industries in Texas . Garcia was appointed to the commission by Governor Rick Perry on April 12 , 2012 , to replace Elizabeth Ames Jones , who resigned to run unsuccessfully for the Texas State Senate . Garcia 's appointment expired a few days after the November 6 general election , and he was succeeded by fellow Republican Christi Craddick , who defeated a Democrat , Dale Henry , to claim the position for six years . Craddick is the daughter of the former Speaker of the Texas House of Representatives Tom Craddick of Midland . A resident of Austin , Garcia served from January 2007 until his April 2012 appointment to the railroad position as a commissioner at the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality . He is a past deputy Texas Secretary of State and a former state border commerce coordinator . He is a member of the Texas Coastal Land Advisory Board and the Gulf of Mexico Alliance . Garcia is a former deputy legislative director for Perry and special assistant to the governor for Texas/Mexico border issues . Garcia graduated from Saint Josephs Academy in Brownsville , Texas . He first attended Texas A&M University - Kingsville on an academic scholarship and played football there , but he transferred after a year to Texas State University in San Marcos , from which he received a degree in political science in 1990 . He is a former staff member for State Senator Eddie Lucio , Jr. , a pro-life Democrat from Brownsville . He served on Perry 's staff when Perry was lieutenant governor from 1999 to 2000 . Garcia is a former deputy legislative director for Perry and special assistant to the governor for Texas/Mexico border issues .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Buddy_Garcia", "rank": 51, "score": 123505 }, { "content": "Title: Don Willett Content: Don R. Willett ( born July 16 , 1966 ) is a Justice on the Supreme Court of Texas . He was appointed by Governor Rick Perry on August 24 , 2005 , to fill the vacancy created when former Justice Priscilla Owen joined the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit . Willett was elected on November 7 , 2006 , and re-elected on November 6 , 2012 , to a six-year term that ends December 31 , 2018 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Don_Willett", "rank": 52, "score": 123475 }, { "content": "Title: Texas Virtual Border Watch Content: The Texas Virtual Border Watch is a pilot program created by the State of Texas that allows individuals with internet access to observe and report on the Texas-Mexico border via their computers . On June 1 , 2006 Texas Governor Rick Perry announced 5 million dollars to be used with the voluntary participation of private land owners to install the cameras . The trial version of the Texas Virtual Border Watch received 2,780 reports of suspicious activity before November 2008 . The site has attracted participation from individuals around the world , including Australian pub patrons . Users range from those who want to help stop illegal drug traffic and illegal immigration across the border to those simply looking for `` something to do '' . From November 2008 to February 2009 , the program has been credited for four busts yielding 1,500 pounds of marijuana , and 30 incidents where illegal immigrants were repelled . It is funded by the Texas governor 's criminal justice office , at a cost of $ 2 million in its first year . The Texas Border Sheriff 's Coalition ( TBSC ) instituted the program with BlueServo Inc. to provide the free service .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Texas_Virtual_Border_Watch", "rank": 53, "score": 123002 }, { "content": "Title: David M. Medina Content: David Michael Medina ( born July 23 , 1958 ) is a former Justice of the nine-member Texas Supreme Court . He served in the Place 4 position . He was appointed by Governor Rick Perry in 2004 and subsequently elected to a full-term in 2006 . Medina was defeated in the Republican runoff election in 2012 by John P. Devine . His tenure ended in December 2012 . All members of the court are Republican .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "David_M._Medina", "rank": 54, "score": 121514 }, { "content": "Title: Tony Sanchez (politician) Content: Antonio Rodolfo `` Tony '' Sanchez , Jr. , ( born February 3 , 1943 ) is an American businessman and former politician . He is a member of the Democratic Party . In 2002 , Sanchez ran an unsuccessful campaign as the Democratic nominee for Governor of Texas against Republican incumbent Rick Perry . Sanchez is also known for his successful oil , natural gas , and banking operations , which are based in Laredo , Webb County , Texas .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Tony_Sanchez_(politician)", "rank": 55, "score": 121386 }, { "content": "Title: Galileo Galilei Content: Galileo Galilei ( -LSB- ɡaliˈlɛːo ɡaliˈlɛi -RSB- ; 15 February 1564 -- 8 January 1642 ) was an Italian polymath : astronomer , physicist , engineer , philosopher , and mathematician . He played a major role in the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century . His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus , the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter ( named the Galilean moons in his honour ) , and the observation and analysis of sunspots . Galileo also worked in applied science and technology , inventing an improved military compass and other instruments . Galileo 's championing of heliocentrism and Copernicanism was controversial during his lifetime , when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system . He met with opposition from astronomers , who doubted heliocentrism because of the absence of an observed stellar parallax . The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615 , which concluded that heliocentrism was `` foolish and absurd in philosophy , and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture . '' Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems , which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him and the Jesuits , who had both supported Galileo up until this point . He was tried by the Inquisition , found `` vehemently suspect of heresy '' , and forced to recant . He spent the rest of his life under house arrest . While under house arrest , he wrote one of his best-known works , Two New Sciences , in which he summarized work he had done some forty years earlier on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials . He has been called the `` father of observational astronomy '' , the `` father of modern physics '' , the `` father of scientific method '' , and the `` father of science '' .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Galileo_Galilei", "rank": 56, "score": 121273 }, { "content": "Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "I'm_not_a_scientist", "rank": 57, "score": 120881 }, { "content": "Title: Kyle Janek Content: Kyle Janek , M.D. ( born January 10 , 1958 ) , is a former Republican member of the Texas Senate , having represented District 17 from 2003 until June 2 , 2008 . The district includes portions of Harris , Brazoria , Fort Bend , Galveston , and Jefferson counties . Janek was not a candidate for renomination to the state Senate in the Republican primary held on March 4 . Janek resigned the seat , and Governor Rick Perry called a special election to coincide with the regular November 4 general election to fill the two years remaining in the term . Republican Joan Huffman , a former felony court judge from Houston and Democrat Chris Bell , a former U.S. representative who was Perry 's 2006 election opponent , led the field and went into a December 16 runoff . Huffman ultimatedly prevailed , 56-44 percent . She becomes the sixth woman serving in the state Senate .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Kyle_Janek", "rank": 58, "score": 120850 }, { "content": "Title: Scott Brister Content: Scott Andrew Brister ( born January 8 , 1955 ) is a former Justice of the Supreme Court of Texas , who served from November 2003 until September 2009 . He was appointed by Governor Rick Perry to serve the remainder of the term of Justice Craig T. Enoch . He was then elected to a regular six-year term in November 2004 . Brister resigned from the court effective September 7 , 2009 , before the scheduled end of his term on December 31 , 2010 . He was succeeded on the court by Eva Guzman , the first female Hispanic to serve on the body . He is now employed in the Austin office of the law firm Andrews & Kurth .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Scott_Brister", "rank": 59, "score": 120351 }, { "content": "Title: Gwyn Shea Content: Gwyn Clarkston Shea ( born August 3 , 1937 ) is a Republican former member of the Texas House of Representatives for suburban Irving in Dallas County , Texas , who served from 1983 to 1993 . She is also the second of thus far six secretaries of state under Governor Rick Perry , having served from January 7 , 2002 , to August 4 , 2003 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Gwyn_Shea", "rank": 60, "score": 119306 }, { "content": "Title: Margaret Spellings Content: Margaret M. LaMontagne Spellings ( née Dudar ; born November 30 , 1957 ) is an education administrator and American politician . Spellings is currently the President of the University of North Carolina , overseeing the seventeen campus system since March 1 , 2016 . Spellings worked in several positions under George W. Bush during his tenure as Governor of Texas and President of the United States . She was one of the principal proponents of the 2001 No Child Left Behind Act that aimed at reforming primary and secondary education . She served as Secretary of Education in Bush 's administration from 2005 to 2009 , during which time she convened the Commission on the Future of Higher Education to recommend reform at the post-secondary level . After leaving her role as Secretary of Education , she founded Margaret Spellings & Company , an education consulting firm in Washington , D.C. , and is a senior advisor to the Boston Consulting Group and the U.S. Chamber of Commerce .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Margaret_Spellings", "rank": 61, "score": 119278 }, { "content": "Title: Chris Bell (politician) Content: Robert Christopher `` Chris '' Bell ( born November 23 , 1959 ) is an American politician , attorney , and former journalist . He is a graduate of the University of Texas at Austin and South Texas College of Law . Bell served five years on the Houston City Council from 1997 to 2001 , followed by one term in the United States House of Representatives from Texas ' 25th Congressional District in Houston from 2003 to 2005 . He was then the Democratic nominee in the 2006 election for the office of Governor of Texas , losing to Republican incumbent Gov. Rick Perry by 406,450 votes ( Perry 39 % versus Bell 30 % ) in a fractured general election campaign that also drew in two significant independent challengers . Bell , a member of the Democratic Party , is currently an attorney specializing in many forms of litigation , including commercial disputes , copyright infringement , and securities disputes . Prior to practicing law , Bell had been a prominent radio journalist in Texas . On January 25 , 2015 , he announced his candidacy for the non-partisan position of mayor of Houston , telling supporters : `` I know my competitors will do their best to try and define me . They might even talk about some of the political races that I have run and lost . And that 's fair game -- because if it 's necessary , I 'll talk about the races they 've run and lost . ''", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Chris_Bell_(politician)", "rank": 62, "score": 119000 }, { "content": "Title: Darryn Deen Andrews Content: Darryn Deen Andrews ( July 3 , 1975 - September 4 , 2009 ) was posthumously awarded the Silver Star and the Texas Legislative Medal of Honor for his actions during battle in Operation Enduring Freedom . Texas House Concurrent Resolution No 198 conferring the honor was adopted by both the House and Senate in May 2013 and approved by Governor Rick Perry in June 2013 . Darryn is also honored on the Middle East Conflicts Wall Memorial in Marseilles , Illinois , Panel 5-C , Row 9 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Darryn_Deen_Andrews", "rank": 63, "score": 118723 }, { "content": "Title: Elsa Alcala Content: Elsa R. Alcala , also known as Elsa Spjut ( born 1964 ) , has been since May 2011 one of the nine judges of the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals , the court of last resort for state criminal appeals . A Republican , she was appointed to the Place 8 on the bench by then Governor Rick Perry , when Charles Holcomb stepped down to run unsuccessfully in 2012 for the United States Senate .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Elsa_Alcala", "rank": 64, "score": 118502 }, { "content": "Title: M. B. Etheredge Content: M B Etheredge ( June 7 , 1915 -- May 15 , 2014 ) was awarded the Texas Legislative Medal of Honor by the Texas Legislature for his actions during battle in World War II . House Concurrent Resolution No. 27 conferring the honor was adopted by both the House and Senate in May 2003 and approved by Governor Rick Perry in June 2003 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "M._B._Etheredge", "rank": 65, "score": 117806 }, { "content": "Title: And yet it moves Content: `` And yet it moves '' or `` Albeit it does move '' ( E pur si muove or Eppur si muove -LSB- epˈpur si ˈmwɔːve -RSB- ) is a phrase attributed to the Italian mathematician , physicist and philosopher Galileo Galilei ( 1564 -- 1642 ) in 1633 after being forced to recant his claims that the Earth moves around the immovable Sun rather than the converse during the Galileo affair . In this context , the implication of the phrase is : despite his recantation , the Church 's proclamations to the contrary , or any other conviction or doctrine of men , the Earth does , in fact , move ( around the Sun , and not vice versa ) . As such , the phrase is used today as a sort of pithy retort implying that `` it does n't matter what you believe ; these are the facts . ''", "qid": "2868", "docid": "And_yet_it_moves", "rank": 66, "score": 117436 }, { "content": "Title: Houston County Public Library System Content: The Houston County Public Library is a single county public library system that serves the county of Houston , Georgia . The headquarters of the library is the Perry Public Library located in Perry , Georgia . The library system is a member of PINES , a program of the Georgia Public Library Service that covers 53 library systems in 143 counties of Georgia . Any resident in a PINES supported library system has access to the system 's collection of 10.6 million books . The library is also serviced by GALILEO , a program of the University System of Georgia which stands for `` GeorgiA LIbrary LEarning Online '' . This program offers residents in supported libraries access to over 100 databases indexing thousands of periodicals and scholarly journals . It also boasts over 10,000 journal titles in full text .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Houston_County_Public_Library_System", "rank": 67, "score": 117212 }, { "content": "Title: Bill White (Texas politician) Content: William Howard `` Bill '' White ( born June 16 , 1954 ) is an American politician who was Mayor of Houston from 2004 to 2010 . He was an unsuccessful candidate in the 2010 Texas gubernatorial election , losing to incumbent Republican Rick Perry . Before serving as Mayor , White was a lawyer and businessman , and served as U.S. Deputy Secretary of Energy under President Bill Clinton from 1993 to 1995 . White is on the membership roster of the Council on Foreign Relations . He is a member of the Democratic Party .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Bill_White_(Texas_politician)", "rank": 68, "score": 116977 }, { "content": "Title: Joseph D. Sayers Content: Joseph Draper Sayers ( September 23 , 1841 -- May 15 , 1929 ) was the 22nd Governor of Texas from 1899 to 1903 . During Sayers 's term , the Galveston Hurricane of 1900 demolished that city .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Joseph_D._Sayers", "rank": 69, "score": 116699 }, { "content": "Title: Texas Emerging Technology Fund Content: The Texas Emerging Technology Fund ( often abbreviated as TETF or ETF ) is a technology investment fund created by legislation in 2005 at the urging of Governor Rick Perry to provide Texas with an unparalleled advantage in the research , development , and commercialization of emerging technologies . The enabling legislation ( Texas HB 1765 of the 79th Legislature ) launched the ETF with $ 200 million to help create jobs and develop the economy of Texas . Legislative revisions during the 2007 and 2009 sessions have expanded the total funds under management to approximately $ 500 million . As of October 2010 , the program has given a total of $ 173 million to 120 companies as well as $ 161 million to educational institutions . Governor Greg Abbott signed a law ending the Texas Emerging Technology Fund on June 4 , 2015 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Texas_Emerging_Technology_Fund", "rank": 70, "score": 116546 }, { "content": "Title: Susan Weddington Content: Susan Baker Weddington ( born April 6 , 1951 ) is a retired businesswoman from Fredericksburg in Gillespie County in the Texas Hill Country , who from 1997 to 2003 was the state chairwoman of the Republican Party of Texas during the administrations of Governors George W. Bush and Rick Perry . She is a former long-term resident of San Antonio , Texas .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Susan_Weddington", "rank": 71, "score": 115994 }, { "content": "Title: Jeffrey S. Boyd Content: Jeffrey Scott Boyd ( born December 2 , 1961 ) is a member of the Texas Supreme Court , the body of final appeal in civil and juvenile law in Texas . He was appointed to Place 7 on the court by Governor Rick Perry in the fall of 2012 to fill the seat vacated by Justice Dale Wainwright , and he won a full six-year term on the Court in the 2014 election .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Jeffrey_S._Boyd", "rank": 72, "score": 115860 }, { "content": "Title: Eva Guzman Content: Eva Martinez Guzman ( born January 12 , 1961 , in Chicago , Illinois ) is a member of the Texas Supreme Court , the body of final appeal in civil and juvenile law in Texas . She was appointed to Place 9 on the court by Governor Rick Perry in the fall of 2009 to fill the seat vacated by Justice Scott Brister , who resigned with more than a year left in his term .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Eva_Guzman", "rank": 73, "score": 115428 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Williams (U.S. politician) Content: John Roger Williams ( born September 13 , 1949 ) is an American politician who has been the U.S. Representative for Texas 's 25th congressional district since 2013 . Previously , he served under Governor Rick Perry as Secretary of State of Texas from November 2004 to July 1 , 2007 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Roger_Williams_(U.S._politician)", "rank": 74, "score": 114248 }, { "content": "Title: Cathy Cochran Content: Cathleen Cochran Herasimchuk , known as Cathy Cochran ( born November 11 , 1944 ) , is a former judge of the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals . A resident of Austin , Texas , she was initially appointed to the court in 2001 by Governor Rick Perry and elected by Texas voters in 2002 and 2008 . She did not seek reelection to the bench in 2014 and was succeeded in her Place 9 seat by her fellow Republican , David Newell of Houston .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Cathy_Cochran", "rank": 75, "score": 114118 }, { "content": "Title: Lana Myers Content: Lana Myers is a Justice on the Fifth Court of Appeals of Texas Place 4 . She was appointed to this position in December 2009 by Governor Rick Perry . Prior to her appointment , Myers had served as an elected Judge presiding over the Dallas County 203rd criminal court . Prior to that position , she was the Dallas County Assistant District Attorney , a position which she held for 12 years before resigning to run for election to the criminal court .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Lana_Myers", "rank": 76, "score": 114082 }, { "content": "Title: Galileo (song) Content: `` Galileo '' is a song written by Emily Saliers and recorded and performed by folk rock group the Indigo Girls . It was released in 1992 on their platinum-selling fourth studio album Rites of Passage . It reached # 10 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart , the first song by the Indigo Girls to break the top ten on any chart . The song is about reincarnation , partially through the lens of the story of Galileo Galilei , the 17th century physicist , mathematician , astronomer , and philosopher who played a major role in the scientific revolution . The song 's chorus invokes both existential angst and Galileo 's genius with `` How long till my soul gets it right/Can any human being ever reach the highest light/I call on the resting soul of Galileo/King of night vision , king of insight '' , referencing both the clarity of physical vision made possible through his modernizations of the telescope and his support of Copernicanism , which stated that the Sun , rather than the Earth , was the center of the universe .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Galileo_(song)", "rank": 77, "score": 113152 }, { "content": "Title: Robert Thomas Edlin Content: Robert Thomas Edlin ( May 6 , 1922 -- April 1 , 2005 ) was a highly decorated United States Army Ranger officer during World War II . In 2005 , he was awarded the Texas Legislative Medal of Honor posthumously by the Texas Legislature . Texas House Concurrent Resolution No 112 conferring the honor was adopted by both the House and Senate and approved by Governor Rick Perry in March 2005 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Robert_Thomas_Edlin", "rank": 78, "score": 113107 }, { "content": "Title: Texas House of Representatives, District 137 Content: District 137 of the Texas House of Representatives , is located in southwestern Houston , Texas . The population of this district is 170,652 , of which 57.5 % are considered Hispanic . In the 2010 general election , 15,057 Total Ballots were cast , out of a registered voter base of 48,859 Registered Voters , 9,715 of which were Spanish-Surnamed Registered Voters . At the top of the ballot , Democratic candidate for Governor , Bill White , obtained over 60 % of the vote . In the 2002 general election , Democratic candidate for Governor , Tony Sanchez , obtained only 49.2 % of the vote , losing in the district to Rick Perry . District 137 is represented by Gene Wu . The seat was previously held by Scott Hochberg Scott Hochberg , known as the `` man who knows more about public school finance than anyone in the Texas House '' . In announcing his decision to retire , Hochberg pointed to a $ 5 billion cut in public school funding , which he found very discouraging . Four candidates were listed on the May 2012 Democratic primary ballot . The candidates are : Gene Wu , Prosecutor with Harris County District Attorney 's Office Sarah Winkler , Alief ISD School Board Trustee Jamaal R. Smith , Former Executive Director for Harris County Democratic Party Joseph Carlos Madden , Legislative Staffer for Garnet Coleman In the nomination election for the Texas Democratic Party , Gene Wu and Jamaal Smith wenr to a runoff election on July 31 , 2012 . In the runoff , Gene Wu won with 61.6 % of the vote . In November 2012 , Wu was to face Republican nominee , M.J. Khan who was unopposed in the Republican Primary . May 29 Democratic Primary July 31 Democratic Primary Runoff", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Texas_House_of_Representatives,_District_137", "rank": 79, "score": 112770 }, { "content": "Title: Roy Cisneros Content: Roy Cisneros ( February 6 , 1949 - September 11 , 1968 ) was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross and the Texas Legislative Medal of Honor for his actions during battle in the Vietnam War . Texas House Concurrent Resolution No. 71 conferring the honor was adopted by both the House and Senate in May 2011 and approved by Governor Rick Perry in June 2011 . Corporal Cisneros is honored on Panel 44W , Row 22 of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Roy_Cisneros", "rank": 80, "score": 111870 }, { "content": "Title: Debra Medina Content: Debra Medina ( born June 1 , 1962 ) is a Republican politician in the U.S. state of Texas . She is allied with the Ron Paul and Tea Party movements . Medina ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination for Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts in the primary election held on March 4 , 2014 . The position is being vacated by the two-term incumbent , Susan Combs . In 2010 , Medina ran in the Texas gubernatorial election . She participated in and won the January 14 , 2010 televised debate with incumbent Governor Rick Perry and challenger U.S. Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison . After subsequently tripling her support in public opinion polls , she was invited to participate alongside her two opponents in a second debate held on January 29 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Debra_Medina", "rank": 81, "score": 111860 }, { "content": "Title: Galileo (1975 film) Content: Galileo is a 1975 biographical film about the 17th century scientist Galileo Galilei , whose astronomical observations with the newly invented telescope led to a profound conflict with the Roman Catholic Church . The film is an adaptation of Bertolt Brecht 's play of the same name . The film was produced and released as part of the American Film Theatre , which adapted several plays for a subscription-driven series of films from 1973 to 1975 . Brecht 's play was recently called a `` masterpiece '' by veteran theater critic Michael Billington , as Martin Esslin had in 1960 . The film 's director , Joseph Losey , had also directed the first performances of the play in 1947 in the US -- with Brecht 's active participation . The film is fairly true to those first performances , and is thus of historical significance as well .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Galileo_(1975_film)", "rank": 82, "score": 111616 }, { "content": "Title: Robert Alan Shields, Jr. Content: Robert Alan Shields , Jr. ( January 23 , 1975 -- August 23 , 2005 ) was a convicted murderer who was executed in the state of Texas for the murder of Paula Stiner on September 21 , 1994 . Shields broke into the house of Paula and Tracy Steiner and ransacked it . When Paula Steiner returned home , Shields fatally stabbed her and robbed the house . Shields used one of the victim 's credit cards and was later caught driving her car . DNA evidence was instrumental in his conviction . Shields argued at his appeal that he had ineffective counsel , and that , although he was in the victim 's home , he was not the actual killer . The arguments were rejected by the court . Shields wrote a letter to Texas Governor Rick Perry inviting him to witness his execution . He was executed on August 23 , 2005 , by lethal injection .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Robert_Alan_Shields,_Jr.", "rank": 83, "score": 111486 }, { "content": "Title: Jeff Brown (judge) Content: Jeffrey V. Brown , known as Jeff Brown ( born 1970 ) , is a justice of the Texas Supreme Court . He has held the Place 6 seat on the court since October 3 , 2013 , under appointment from Governor Rick Perry . He succeeded Justice Nathan Hecht after Hecht 's appointment to chief justice to replace Wallace B. Jefferson , who resigned .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Jeff_Brown_(judge)", "rank": 84, "score": 111479 }, { "content": "Title: Texas Department of Motor Vehicles Content: The Texas Department of Motor Vehicles ( TxDMV ) is a state agency of Texas , headquartered in Austin . The agency handles vehicle registration and titling , authorizes operating authorities of motor carriers , and gives grants to law enforcement agencies to increase public awareness about automobile theft and to reduce automobile theft . During the 81st session of the Texas Legislature , Governor of Texas Rick Perry signed House Bill 3097 into law in June 2009 , authorizing the creation of the agency . The agency began operations in November of that year , taking some functions previously held by the Texas Department of Transportation .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Texas_Department_of_Motor_Vehicles", "rank": 85, "score": 110976 }, { "content": "Title: Cameron Todd Willingham Content: Cameron Todd Willingham ( January 9 , 1968 -- February 17 , 2004 ) was an American man who was convicted and executed for the murder of his three young children by arson at the family home in Corsicana , Texas , on December 23 , 1991 . Since Willingham 's 2004 execution , significant controversy has arisen over the interpretation of the evidence that was used to convict him of arson and murder . Willingham 's case and the investigative techniques were criticized by a 2004 Chicago Tribune article . The case was discussed again in a 2009 investigative report in The New Yorker . This coverage suggested that the arson evidence was misinterpreted . According to an August 2009 investigative report by an expert hired by the Texas Forensic Science Commission , the original claims of arson were doubtful . The Corsicana Fire Department disputes the findings , stating that the report overlooked several key points in the record . The 2011 documentary , Incendiary : The Willingham Case , also explored the case . The case was complicated by allegations that Texas Governor Rick Perry impeded the investigation by replacing three of the nine Forensic Commission members in an attempt to change the commission 's findings ; Perry denies the allegations .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Cameron_Todd_Willingham", "rank": 86, "score": 110884 }, { "content": "Title: Texas Monthly Talks Content: Texas Monthly Talks was a thirty-minute interview show on public television networks across the state of Texas hosted by Evan Smith , then Editor Emeritus of Texas Monthly magazine . Produced by Dateline NBC veteran Lynn Boswell , the show addressed contemporary issues in Texas politics , business and culture . Premiering in February 2003 , the show was an original production of KLRU-TV , the PBS station serving Austin and Central Texas . In 2010 the series was succeeded by Overheard , with the same format , host and producer ; the renaming was necessary because Smith had resigned his position at the magazine and had become Editor in Chief of the Texas Tribune . On Texas Monthly Talks Smith regularly interviewed public figures from Austin and around Texas , such as Bill Powers , the president of the University of Texas at Austin , mayors Bill White of Houston , Tom Leppert of Dallas , and Texas Governor Rick Perry . His guests also included notables in national politics , such as presidential candidates Howard Dean , John Kerry , Bill Bradley , John McCain , Joe Biden , Mike Huckabee , Bill Richardson , Hillary Clinton , and John Edwards ; in business , such as Southwest Airlines co-founder Herb Kelleher and Whole Foods Market CEO John Mackey ; in the media , such as New York Times columnists Maureen Dowd and Frank Rich and newscasters Jim Lehrer , Walter Cronkite , Dan Rather , Bob Schieffer , and Tom Brokaw ; and in entertainment , such as directors Francis Ford Coppola , John Sayles , and David Lynch , singers Ted Nugent and Billy Gibbons , novelist Salman Rushdie , and actresses Lauren Bacall , Lily Tomlin , and Debra Winger . In 2006 the show won a Lone Star Emmy Award for interview program . In 2009 an episode with Billy Bob Thornton won a Lone Star Emmy for arts or entertainment program .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Texas_Monthly_Talks", "rank": 87, "score": 110659 }, { "content": "Title: Harriet O'Neill Content: Harriet Smith O'Neill ( born April 20 , 1957 ) is a retired associate justice of the Supreme Court of Texas . A Republican , O'Neill represented Place 3 of the nine positions on the court . O'Neill 's term was to expire on December 31 , 2010 , and she declined to seek re-election to a third full six-year term . In the April 13 Republican runoff election , Judge Debra Lehrmann , a family court jurist from Fort Worth , defeated Rick Green , a former state legislator and Constitutional speaker from Dripping Springs . O'Neill subsequently decided to leave the court early and vacated the seat on June 20 , 2010 . Lehrmann was appointed by Governor Rick Perry to fill out O'Neill 's term .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Harriet_O'Neill", "rank": 88, "score": 110358 }, { "content": "Title: Nathan Hecht Content: Nathan Lincoln Hecht ( born August 15 , 1949 ) is the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Texas . A Republican from Dallas , Hecht was first elected to the Supreme Court in 1988 and was reelected to six-year terms in 1994 , 2000 and 2006 . He secured his fifth six-year term on November 6 , 2012 . He was appointed chief justice by Governor Rick Perry on September 10 , 2013 , and was sworn into that position by retiring Chief Justice Wallace B. Jefferson on October 1 , 2013 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Nathan_Hecht", "rank": 89, "score": 109605 }, { "content": "Title: Carole Keeton Strayhorn Content: Carole Keeton ( born September 13 , 1939 ) , formerly known as Carole Keeton Rylander and Carole Keeton Strayhorn , is an American politician and the former Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts . Elected to the comptroller 's post in 1998 as a Republican , Keeton ran as an independent candidate for Texas governor against Republican incumbent James Richard `` Rick '' Perry in 2006 . She lost the November general election to Perry and placed third in a six-way race , with 18 percent . Keeton is notable for several `` firsts '' in Austin and Texas politics . She is the first and so far only woman elected as mayor of Austin and the first Austin mayor elected to three consecutive terms . She was the first woman elected to the Texas Railroad Commission and the first woman elected as comptroller . She also was the first woman to serve as president of the Austin school board and as president of the Austin Community College board . In May 2009 , Keeton lost her campaign for Mayor of Austin .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Carole_Keeton_Strayhorn", "rank": 90, "score": 109507 }, { "content": "Title: Lucio Galileo Lastra Marín Content: Lucio Galileo Lastra-Marín was born on June 20 , 1951 . He is a Doctor of Medicine and political , member of the PAN ( Partido Acción Nacional , National Action Party ( Mexico ) ) . He has been Federal Representative ( Diputado Federal ) and Candidate to Governor for Tabasco . He studied medicine at the Medical School ( Facultad de Medicina ) of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México , UNAM ) and has a master 's degree in Public Health from the Public Health School of the Health Secretary ( Mexico ) . He has worked in different positions in the UNAM and he was Hospital Director for the Health Secretary for Ocosingo and Yajalón , Chiapas . He became involved in politics as member of the State Committee of Tabasco , Candidate to Mayor ( Presidente Municipal ) in 2000 and Candidate to be Governor of Tabasco in the extraordinary elecctions of 2001 . From 2003 to 2006 he was Federal Representative ( Diputado Federal ) at the LIX Legislative Assembly . In 2006 he joined the Health Secretary as head of the Office for Social Liaisons , under the command of María de los Ángeles Fromow .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Lucio_Galileo_Lastra_Marín", "rank": 91, "score": 108936 }, { "content": "Title: Phil Johnson (judge) Content: Philip Wayne Johnson , known as Phil Johnson ( born October 24 , 1944 ) , is a Justice of the Supreme Court of Texas . He has held the Place 8 seat since 2005 . On March 15 , 2005 , Johnson was appointed to his state 's Supreme Court by Governor Rick Perry to fill a vacancy created by the appointment of Michael H. Schneider to the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas by U.S. President George W. Bush . Johnson was elected in 2006 to serve the remainder of Schneider 's term and reelected in 2008 to a full six-year term . Johnson 's current term ends on December 31 , 2014 . He won renomination in the Republican primary election held on March 4 , 2014 , by defeating an intraparty challenger , Sharon Sue McCally ( born 1960 ) of Houston , the Place 2 judge of the Texas Fourteenth District Court of Appeals and the wife of Lance Henry Lubel.Johnson polled 731,275 votes ( 64 percent ) to McCally 's 410,870 votes ( 36 percent ) . Johnson was previously Chief Justice of the Texas Seventh District Court of Appeals , which sits in Amarillo . Johnson was elected to the Seventh Court of Appeals in 1998 and became its chief justice in 2002 . Johnson received his law degree from the Texas Tech University School of Law in Lubbock . He is a `` distinguished alumnus '' of Texas Tech Law School and a member of the Order of the Coif . He practiced law from 1975 until 1998 with the Lubbock firm of Crenshaw , Dupree & Milam , L.L.P. His specialization was civil trial and personal injury law . Previously , he was a pilot in the United States Air Force from 1965 to 1972 and a veteran of the Vietnam War . He received the Silver Star , the Distinguished Flying Cross twice , the Vietnamese Cross of Gallantry , and multiple Air Medals . He and his wife , Carla , reside in Amarillo ; they have five children . A lifelong Republican , Johnson carries the support of Texas Right to Life , Governor Perry , twelve former state Supreme Court justices , including former Chief Justices Tom Phillips and Wallace B. Jefferson , and both U.S. senators from Texas , John Cornyn and Ted Cruz .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Phil_Johnson_(judge)", "rank": 92, "score": 108907 }, { "content": "Title: George Strake Jr. Content: George William Strake Jr. ( born June 10 , 1935 ) , is a Houston , Texas , businessman and philanthropist who served as Texas secretary of state from January 16 , 1979 -- October 6 , 1981 , during the administration of Republican Governor William Perry Clements Jr. . He left the secretary of state 's position to begin fund raising for his 1982 race as the Republican nominee for lieutenant governor . Strake was defeated by the then 10-year incumbent , Democrat Bill Hobby , also a Houston businessman . From 1983-1988 , Strake was the Texas Republican state chairman .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "George_Strake_Jr.", "rank": 93, "score": 108766 }, { "content": "Title: Prelude to the Republican Party presidential primaries, 2012 Content: The start of the 2012 Republican race for president was shaped by the 13 presidential debates of 2011 beginning on May 5 . Gary Johnson and Buddy Roemer , both former Governors , were left out of most of the debates , leading to complaints of bias . On December 28 , 2011 Johnson withdrew to seek the Libertarian Party nomination and on February 23 , 2012 Roemer withdrew to seek the Reform Party and the Americans Elect nomination . Two candidates from the 2008 presidential primaries , Mitt Romney and Ron Paul , ran again in the 2012 primary campaign . Mitt Romney was an early frontrunner , and he maintained a careful , strategic campaign that centered on being an establishment candidate . In the summer of 2011 he had a lead in polls with the support of much of the Republican electorate . However , his lead over the Republican field was precarious , owing to the entry of new candidates who drew considerable media attention . First congresswoman Michele Bachmann of Minnesota started her campaign in June and surged in the polls after winning the Ames Straw Poll in August , but she lost some of the momentum to Texas Governor Rick Perry shortly after he was drafted by strong national Republican support . He performed strongly in polls , immediately becoming a serious contender . But he lost the momentum following a poor performances in the September debates . As the third opponent to Romney 's lead Herman Cain surged after the sixth debate on September 22 . In November Cain 's viability as a candidate was seriously jeopardized after several allegations of sexual harassment surfaced in the media , and he suspended his campaign on December 3 , 2011 , despite his unyielding denials of any misconduct . In November as Herman Cain 's campaign was stumbling former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich asserted himself as the fourth leading opponent to Romney . It was a comeback for Gingrich after his campaign had suffered under serious staff problems just weeks after he had entered the race in May . But in the few weeks before the Iowa caucus , Gingrich 's lead quickly began to evaporate . Iowans were bombarded with over $ 4.4 million in negative advertising on Gingrich from super PACs sympathetic to Mitt Romney and others . So on the eve of the Iowa Caucus , the first contest , there was no clear and strong frontrunner .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Prelude_to_the_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries,_2012", "rank": 94, "score": 108684 }, { "content": "Title: John Spellman Content: John Dennis Spellman ( born December 29 , 1926 ) was the 18th Governor of Washington between 1981 and 1985 and the first King County Executive from 1969 to 1981 . He was elected governor in 1980 amid large gains for Republicans across the country . During his tenure , the Washington State economy suffered due to the early 1980s recession . Spellman was defeated in his reelection campaign in 1984 . He is to date the last Republican to hold the office of Governor of Washington .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "John_Spellman", "rank": 95, "score": 108296 }, { "content": "Title: Lucas Baiano Content: Lucas R. Baiano ( born July 20 , 1988 ) is an American political filmmaker . Baiano has been employed as a director by the Republican Governors Association and presidential campaigns of Hillary Clinton , John McCain , Tim Pawlenty , and Rick Perry . Baiano received attention following a brief 2007 film pitch to former U.S. president Bill Clinton and his production of a campaign film promoting the 2008 presidential campaign of U.S. senator Hillary Clinton . Baiano 's film was then picked up by Hillblazers , Hillary Clinton 's official youth program . Once Clinton conceded , Baiano went to work with the John McCain presidential campaign . He is currently working with Republican Texas Governor Rick Perry 's 2012 presidential campaign after previously working for former Minnesota Governor Tim Pawlenty .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Lucas_Baiano", "rank": 96, "score": 108138 }, { "content": "Title: Esperanza Andrade Content: Esperanza `` Hope '' Andrade ( born July 1 , 1949 ) is a businesswoman from San Antonio , Texas . She is the former commissioner representing employers on the Texas Workforce Commission , an appointed position which she held from 2013 to 2015 . She is a former Secretary of State of Texas , an appointed position which she held from 2008 to 2012 under Governor Rick Perry .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Esperanza_Andrade", "rank": 97, "score": 107999 }, { "content": "Title: Don McLeroy Content: John Donald `` Don '' McLeroy ( born June 3 , 1946 ) is a dentist in Bryan , Texas , and a Republican former member of the Texas State Board of Education ( SBOE ) . The SBOE establishes policy for the state public school system . Dr. McLeroy , who represented SBOE District 9 ( Bryan and College Station ) , served on the board from 1998 until 2011 . McLeroy was appointed in 2007 as SBOE chairman by Governor Rick Perry . The term ended in February 2009 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Don_McLeroy", "rank": 98, "score": 107121 }, { "content": "Title: George Lavender Content: George Edward Lavender ( born September 7 , 1955 ) is an American state politician and a Republican former two-term member of the Texas House of Representatives , having been first elected on November 2 , 2010 . Though he was reared in Texarkana , Arkansas , Lavender is a businessman in Texarkana in Bowie County , Texas , where he resides with his wife , the former Jan Timberlake . He graduated in 1973 from Arkansas High School in Miller County , Arkansas . He holds an undergraduate degree in management from the University of Arkansas at Fayetteville . Lavender was defeated , 45-55 percent in the 2008 general election by the Democratic incumbent , Representative Stephen James Frost of New Boston , also in Bowie County . However , in 2010 , with 51.5 percent of the vote , Lavender unseated Frost . Earlier , in both 1994 and 1996 , Lavender ran unsuccessfully for the District 1 seat in the Texas State Senate , first as a Democrat , then as a Republican . In the 2011 House session , Lavender served on the Transportation and the Land and Resource Management committees . He worked for passage of legislation signed by Governor Rick Perry , which permits the manufacture of incandescent light bulbs in Texas . Lavender contends that fluorescent light bulbs contain mercury and are manufactured mostly in China . Lavender said consumers should have the choice of light bulbs and jobs in the industry should be kept in the United States . In the 2012 general election Lavender faced no Democratic opponent . To secure his second term , he received 42,049 votes ( 82.6 percent ) to the Libertarian Tim Eason 's 8,830 ballots ( 17.4 percent ) . In the Republican primary election held on March 4 , 2014 , Lavender was unseated in his bid for a third legislative term by Gary VanDeaver , the former school superintendent of the New Boston Independent School District in New Boston , Texas , who received 9,400 votes ( 54.3 percent ) to Lavender 's 7,898 ( 45.7 percent ) . On March 1 , 2016 , VanDeaver defeated Lavender in a rematch in the Republican primary . VanDeaver polled 18,263 votes ( 61.9 percent ) to Lavender 's 11,242 ( 38.1 percent ) .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "George_Lavender", "rank": 99, "score": 106799 }, { "content": "Title: Tyrone Brown Content: Tyrone Brown ( born 1973 ) is an African-American man from Texas who , in 1990 , was sentenced to a life term in a Texas maximum security prison and was kept incarcerated for 17 years after testing positive once for smoking marijuana while on probation for robbing a man of two dollars at the age of 17 . No one was hurt in the robbery , and Brown had voluntarily returned the wallet to the victim . Brown 's case attracted some attention in the press in 2006 , and he was later granted a conditional pardon by Texas Governor Rick Perry . He was released on March 16 , 2007 .", "qid": "2868", "docid": "Tyrone_Brown", "rank": 100, "score": 106772 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 1, "score": 125113 }, { "content": "Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 2, "score": 123348 }, { "content": "Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 3, "score": 116884 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 4, "score": 116594 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''", "qid": "2869", "docid": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 5, "score": 112474 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report", "rank": 6, "score": 111068 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992", "rank": 7, "score": 107205 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 8, "score": 107197 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Second Assessment Report Content: The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report", "rank": 9, "score": 106425 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 10, "score": 105656 }, { "content": "Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy", "rank": 11, "score": 102380 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Summary for Policymakers Content: The Summary for policymakers ( SPM ) is a summary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports intended to aid policymakers . The form is approved line by line by governments : `` Negotiations occur over wording to ensure accuracy , balance , clarity of message , and relevance to understanding and policy . ''", "qid": "2869", "docid": "IPCC_Summary_for_Policymakers", "rank": 12, "score": 99011 }, { "content": "Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "John_T._Houghton", "rank": 13, "score": 96675 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow", "rank": 14, "score": 96289 }, { "content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "North_Report", "rank": 15, "score": 95786 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Roger_Pulwarty", "rank": 16, "score": 94998 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 17, "score": 94424 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 18, "score": 93842 }, { "content": "Title: Independent Police Complaints Commission Content: The Independent Police Complaints Commission ( IPCC ) is a non-departmental public body in England and Wales responsible for overseeing the system for handling complaints made against police forces in England and Wales .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Independent_Police_Complaints_Commission", "rank": 19, "score": 92219 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program", "rank": 20, "score": 91877 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC (disambiguation) Content: IPCC may refer to : Independent Police Complaints Commission of England and Wales Independent Police Complaints Council of Hong Kong Integrated Professional Competency Course , a course of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations . Interworld Police Coordinating Company , a fictional organization in Jack Vance 's novels Irish Peatland Conservation Council", "qid": "2869", "docid": "IPCC_(disambiguation)", "rank": 21, "score": 91856 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 22, "score": 91686 }, { "content": "Title: Arturo Villavicencio Content: Arturo Villavicencio is an Ecuadorian environmental researcher . He was nominated by Denmark in 1995 for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributed to its fourth assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Arturo_Villavicencio", "rank": 23, "score": 91053 }, { "content": "Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Vicky_Pope", "rank": 24, "score": 90656 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 25, "score": 90648 }, { "content": "Title: Vincent R. Gray Content: __ NOTOC __ Vincent Richard Gray ( born 24 March 1922 ) is a New Zealand-based chemist , and a founder of the New Zealand Climate Science Coalition . Born in London on 24 March 1922 , Gray was awarded a PhD in physical chemistry by the University of Cambridge after studies on incendiary bomb fluids made from aluminium soaps . In New Zealand , he was the first Director of Building Research and later , Chief Chemist of the Coal Research Association . He has also published many articles and reports , seven in peer-reviewed journals . After retirement , he had four and a half years in China and when he returned became a critic of the claim that climate was harmed by human emissions of greenhouse gases . He has commented on every publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , with 1,898 comments on the 2007 Report . He has published critical studies on all of the reports including a book `` The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of ` Climate Change 2001 ' '' . He has published `` Confessions of a Climate Sceptic '' He is sceptical of the anthropogenic global warming : `` The two main `` scientific '' claims of the IPCC are the claim that `` the globe is warming '' and `` Increases in carbon dioxide emissions are responsible '' . Evidence for both of these claims is fatally flawed . '' Gray has called for the IPCC to be abolished , claiming it is `` fundamentally corrupt '' due to his conclusion that for significant parts of the work of the IPCC , the data collection and scientific methods employed are unsound and that the IPCC resists all efforts to try to discuss or rectify these problems . Gray was featured on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation program Counterpoint in a debate entitled `` Nine Lies about Global Warming '' , and was interviewed in a featured story in the New Zealand Herald as a `` prominent '' global warming skeptic . In 2002 , Gray also published a book , The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of `` Climate Change 2001 '' . In it , Gray argues `` that the quality and reliability of the IPCC 's measurements are poor , the system of determining how much weight should be attributed to different influences on the earth 's temperature is faulty , and the validity of evidence derived from computer modeling is questionable . ''", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Vincent_R._Gray", "rank": 26, "score": 90617 }, { "content": "Title: List of environmental reports Content: This is a list of notable environmental reports . In this context they relate to the impacts of human activity on the environment . City-level Decoupling : Urban Resource Flows and the Governance of Infrastructure Transitions - by the International Resource Panel Clean Energy Trends - a series of reports by Clean Edge - beginning in 2002 Copeland Report - for the U.S. government , completed in 1933 Copenhagen Diagnosis - written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries Dioxin Reassessment Report - by the United States Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport ( `` Leopold Report '' ) - United States Department of the Interior ( 1969 ) Environmental Risks and Challenges of Anthropogenic Metals Flows and Cycles - by the International Resource Panel Forest Principles - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) The Global 2000 Report to the President - Council on Environmental Quality ( 1981 ) Global Environment Outlook - United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Hirsch report ( Peaking of World Oil Production : Impacts , Mitigation , and Risk Management ) - United States Department of Energy Index of Leading Environmental Indicators - Pacific Research Institute IPCC First Assessment Report - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) IPCC supplementary report , 1992 - IPCC IPCC Second Assessment Report - IPCC IPCC Third Assessment Report Climate Change 2001 - IPCC ( 2001 ) IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 - IPCC ( 2007 ) IPCC Fifth Assessment Report ( 2014 ) Leopold Report ( `` Wildlife Management in the National Parks '' ) - Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management ( 1963 ) Livestock 's Long Shadow - Environmental Issues and Options - United Nations ( 2006 ) Living Planet Report - WWF , every two years Making Sweden an Oil-Free Society - Government of Sweden ( 2006 ) Meat Atlas - published by the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe Nuclear Power and the Environment - UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution - 1976 Our Common Future - World Commission on Environment and Development ( 1987 ) Outlook On Renewable Energy In America ( 2 volumes ) - American Council on Renewable Energy - 2007 Phase I Environmental Site Assessment - generic Planning Policy Statement 10 : Planning for Sustainable Waste Management ( PPS 10 ) - British Government Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation - United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) - planned for 2010 Report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification - Royal Commission on Genetic Modification ( 2001 ) State of the Climate - NOAA/NCDC ( published annually ) The State of the World - Worldwatch Institute ( published yearly since 1984 ) Wegman Report - to validate criticisms of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years Windscale : Britain 's Biggest Nuclear Disaster ( 2007 ) World Climate Report - Greening Earth Society The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates - selected and published by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group ( IUCN/SSC PSG ) , the International Primatological Society ( IPS ) , and Conservation International ( CI )", "qid": "2869", "docid": "List_of_environmental_reports", "rank": 27, "score": 89091 }, { "content": "Title: Independent Police Complaints Council Content: The Independent Police Complaints Council ( IPCC , ) is a civilian body of the Government of Hong Kong , part of the two-tier system in which the Hong Kong Police Force investigates complaints made by the public against its members and the IPCC monitors those investigations . The IPCC was created as an independent body to monitor the review by the Complaints Against Police Office ( CAPO ) of complaints against members of the Police Force . Unlike CAPO , which is a unit of the police force , the IPCC is a civilian body not linked with the police that reports directly to the office of the Chief Executive of Hong Kong . The IPCC was created in 1994 and succeeded an earlier independent review body , the Police Complaints Committee or PCC , to investigate police . The PCC was created in 1986 and reported to the then Governor of Hong Kong . The IPCC is headed by a Secretariat and is governed by The Independent Police Complaints Council ( IPCC ) Ordinance , which enacted in July 2008 . On 1 June 2009 , after the ordinance came into operation , the Chinese official name of IPCC was changed from '' 投訴警方獨立監察委員會 '' to '' 獨立監察警方處理投訴委員會 '' and the English name remain . There have been criticisms in LegCo that the IPCC has limited monitoring power .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Independent_Police_Complaints_Council", "rank": 28, "score": 88978 }, { "content": "Title: C. Vernon Cole Content: Dr. C. Vernon Cole ( 1922 -- August 30 , 2013 ) was a soil scientist known primarily for his work on nutrient cycling in agroecosystems . He was a member of Working Group II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Second Assessment report , and the lead author of Chapter 23 `` Agricultural Options for Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions '' . The IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "C._Vernon_Cole", "rank": 29, "score": 88270 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 30, "score": 87411 }, { "content": "Title: Indur M. Goklany Content: Indur M. Goklany is a science and technology policy analyst for the United States Department of the Interior , where he holds the position of Assistant Director of Programs , Science and Technology Policy . He has represented the United States at the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and during the negotiations that led to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . He was a rapporteur for the Resource Use and Management Subgroup of Working Group III of the IPCC First Assessment Report in 1990 , and is the author of Clearing the Air ( 1999 ) , The Precautionary Principle ( 2001 ) , and The Improving State of the World ( 2007 ) .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Indur_M._Goklany", "rank": 31, "score": 86405 }, { "content": "Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Michael_E._Mann", "rank": 32, "score": 85996 }, { "content": "Title: The Deniers Content: The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "The_Deniers", "rank": 33, "score": 85442 }, { "content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment", "rank": 34, "score": 85175 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 35, "score": 84965 }, { "content": "Title: Irish Peatland Conservation Council Content: The Irish Peatland Conservation Council ( IPCC ; ) is a national organisation established in 1982 to conserve and protect a representative sample of Irish bogs . Having been for many years in Dublin city centre , the Council 's headquarters are currently located at the Bog of Allen Nature Centre , Lullymore , Rathangan , Co. . Kildare . The Bog of Allen Nature Centre was acquired by IPCC in 2003 and since then work has been ongoing to develop an internationally recognised centre for peatland conservation , education and research . IPCC 's conservation aims and objectives are set out in a series of Action Plans , the most recent being Bogs and Fens of Ireland Conservation Plan 2005 . An account of the first fifteen years of the Save the Bogs Campaign is contained in Save the Bogs Story , with all IPCC publications orderable through the charity 's website . IPCC also produces a twice-yearly campaign newsletter Peatland News which goes out to Friends of the Bog . The Friend of the Bog scheme is one means by which members of the public can become involved in and help the Save the Bogs Campaign . Other fundraising methods include special appeals , sale of symbolic share certificates in Irish bogs , a Save the Bogs card and gift catalogue , raffles , open days and sales of work , visits to the Bog of Allen Nature Centre . The IPCC is a registered charity , It is not state-funded and so relies on public support to ensure its independence and influence .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Irish_Peatland_Conservation_Council", "rank": 36, "score": 84301 }, { "content": "Title: Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change Content: The Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change ( or CSCCC ) is an entity that maintains a website and describes itself as a global group of non-profit organizations with a mission of `` seek -LSB- ing -RSB- to educate the public about the science and economics of climate change in an impartial manner . '' The Coalition identifies its membership as including 60 independent nonprofit organisations from 40 countries `` who share a commitment to improving public understanding about a range of public policy issues . '' It calls itself `` a free-market alternative to mainstream environmentalism . '' An Indian news media report states that it was founded by the International Policy Network , a London-based organization that receives support from Exxon Mobil . The group publishes background papers and opinion editorials on the science and economics of climate change and maintains a blog . Its Civil Society Report on Climate Change was published in 2007 , shortly before the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change conference in Bali . CSCCC experts make media appearances , such as Julian Morris 's 2007 feature on Larry King Live and his televised debate in 2008 with IPCC head Rajendra Pachauri . This IPN in the UK has Julian Morris as Executive Director . It is actually a part of the Atlas Group/Network ( aka Atlas Economic Research Institute ) which was founded by UK factory-chicken king , Sir Antony Fisher ( one of PM Margaret Thatcher 's economic gurus ) and American Loctite millionaire Richard Krieble . They had funding support from Krieble , Richard Mellon Scaife , and Philip Morris . Fisher is reputed to have had a primary hand in establishing up to 150 libertarian think-tanks around the world . Fisher 's daughter , Linda Whetstone , now works for the ( Fisher-founded ) Adam Smith Institute . She is also the chairperson of the International Policy Network , and is on the Boards of Directors of the Mont Pelerin Society , the Institute of Economic Affairs and the Atlas Group in the USA . Coalitions and networks of this kind a common with Atlas Group think-tanks , and many of their key staff and directors serve on many different organisations . This faux-multiplicity amplifies the apparent strength of the public attacks on climate-change science . See also the Stockholm Network . and", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Civil_Society_Coalition_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 37, "score": 84119 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 38, "score": 83123 }, { "content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory", "rank": 39, "score": 82997 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation Content: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) published a special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) on May 9 , 2011 . The report developed under the leadership of Ottmar Edenhofer evaluates the global potential for using renewable energy to mitigate climate change . This IPCC special report provides broader coverage of renewable energy than was included in the IPCC 's 2007 climate change assessment report , as well as stronger renewable energy policy coverage . Renewable energy can contribute to `` social and economic development , energy access , secure energy supply , climate change mitigation , and the reduction of negative environmental and health impacts '' . Under favourable circumstances , cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Renewable_Energy_Sources_and_Climate_Change_Mitigation", "rank": 40, "score": 82923 }, { "content": "Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera", "rank": 41, "score": 82891 }, { "content": "Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :", "qid": "2869", "docid": "List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis", "rank": 42, "score": 82044 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios", "rank": 43, "score": 81933 }, { "content": "Title: David Vaughan (glaciologist) Content: David Glyn Vaughan OBE is a climate scientist at the British Antarctic Survey . His research focus is the role of ice sheets in the Earth system and the societal threat of climate change and rising sea levels . He is a co-ordinating Lead Author of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . His research work includes the mapping of the bed under Pine Island Glacier and the discovery of a subglacial volcano . Vaughan was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to glaciology .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "David_Vaughan_(glaciologist)", "rank": 44, "score": 81888 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC report Content: IPCC report may refer to : IPCC First Assessment Report , 1990 IPCC Second Assessment Report , 1995 IPCC Third Assessment Report , 2001 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report , 2007 IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , 2014 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report , expected in 2022", "qid": "2869", "docid": "IPCC_report", "rank": 45, "score": 81335 }, { "content": "Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Kevin_E._Trenberth", "rank": 46, "score": 81319 }, { "content": "Title: Yuri Izrael Content: Yuri Antonovich Izrael ( Юрий Антониевич Израэль 15 May 1930 , Tashkent -- 23 January 2014 , Moscow ) was a vice-chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) until September 2008 , when the new bureau was elected . He was the `` most influential scientific adviser '' for Vladimir Putin , the former president of Russia , according to CNN . Izrael was former chairman of the Committee for Hydrometeorology . He also served as director of the Institute of Global Climate and Ecology , which is a part of the Russian Academy of Sciences . He was a first vice-president of the World Meteorological Organization and helped develop the World Weather Watch . In 1992 , Izrael won the International Meteorological Organization Prize and the UNEP Sasakawa Environment Prize for , among other accomplishments , contributing to the `` success of Working Group I I '' of the IPCC .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Yuri_Izrael", "rank": 47, "score": 80837 }, { "content": "Title: Addison Bain Content: Addison Bain is a retired NASA scientist and founding member of the National Hydrogen Association who is credited with postulating the Incendiary Paint Theory ( IPT ) , which posits that the Hindenburg disaster was caused by the electrical ignition of lacquer - and metal-based paints used on the outer hull of the airship . Thus Bain believes that the hydrogen in the airship had no part to play in the initiation of the disaster . This theory , which was proposed in 1997 and recently updated in his 2004 book , The Freedom Element : Living with Hydrogen , has been generally accepted by people interested in promoting hydrogen as a transportation fuel , and generally rejected by people involved with airships and their history . Bain attended Flathead High School , received his Bachelor of Science in Space Technology from Florida Institute of Technology ( FIT ) , his Master of Science in Systems Management from FIT , and his Ph.D. in Engineering Management from CCU . The primary refutation is based on the work of A. J. Dessler , D. E. Overs , and W. H. Appleby . Their work , both theoretical and experimental , has concluded that even if the airship were covered with solid rocket fuel , as the Incendiary Paint Theory claims , it would still have taken 12 hours for the airship to burn had hydrogen not been present . It is worth noting that this refutation misses the point of the theory , which relates only to what started the fire , not how it continued . The case for the Incendiary Paint Theory is explained in Bain 's televised demonstration of the extreme flammability of a piece of the actual skin of the Hindenburg preserved from the disaster . Bain demonstrates the incendiary properties of the Hindenburg skin and then asks why the bits of skin ejected from the inferno continued to burn brightly on their way down instead of self-extinguishing once removed from the zone of densest hydrogen . This question of `` self-extinguishing '' is important , since his critics point out that the components of the doping compound used on the skin should put themselves out if removed from any fuel for fire , and should not have burned so quickly if the fire actually started with the skin instead of the hydrogen . Critics also counter that Bain did not actually ignite the skin with a quick electrical charge but instead uses a Jacob 's Ladder with continuous electrical charge , which required several strikes to ignite . Additionally , Bain was required to correctly position the fabric to allow it to ignite . Another part of the IPT hypothesizes that the mooring cables , which were designed to ground any static electricity on the surface of the airship , worked only partly in this instance ; since some of the skin panels still carried an electric charge , at least one of them must have sparked , causing the initial outbreak of fire . Thus it has yet to be proven that an electrical charge could ignite the Hindenburg skin . The design of the ship would likely exclude the skin being an ignition point due to the properties of the doping process , the insulation from the frame and skin of the grounding drop-lines , and the inability of any experiment to ignite the skin via electric spark consistent with the conditions of the 1937 disaster . The television show MythBusters also dedicated the opening episode for their 2007 season to Bain 's theory . Scale models of the Hindenburg were built and tested with skin reproductions . One model had no hydrogen while the other did . The only burn that replicated the Hindenburg burn used hydrogen .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Addison_Bain", "rank": 48, "score": 80668 }, { "content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Reasons_for_concern", "rank": 49, "score": 80266 }, { "content": "Title: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Content: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Venkatachalam_Ramaswamy", "rank": 50, "score": 80247 }, { "content": "Title: International Pentecostal Church of Christ Content: The International Pentecostal Church of Christ ( or IPCC ) is a Pentecostal denomination formed in 1976 by the merger of two Pentecostal organizations . In 1907 , Gaston B. Cashwell , called the Apostle of Pentecost in the South , founded a periodical called The Bridegroom 's Messenger , in Atlanta , Georgia . About the same time , Paul and Hattie Barth started a church . The Barths became editors of The Bridegroom 's Messenger . In 1918 , they began Beulah Heights Bible School in Atlanta , and in 1921 they organized an association that became the International Pentecostal Assemblies . John Stroup , a member of the Methodist Protestant Church , professed receiving the baptism of the Holy Ghost in 1908 . Stroup was one of the first individuals to take the Pentecostal message into southern Ohio and parts of Kentucky . He organized the Pentecostal Church of Christ in Flatwoods , Kentucky in 1917 . The body originally headquartered in Ashland , Kentucky , and later in London , Ohio . In 1976 , the International Pentecostal Assemblies and the Pentecostal Church of Christ merged to become the International Pentecostal Church of Christ . Headquarters are located in London , Ohio . The church operates two youth camps , and six departments - Education , Global Missions , Home Missions and Evangelism , Christian Education , National Youth , and Women 's Ministries . Publications of the church are The Bridegroom 's Messenger ( considered the oldest Pentecostal periodical in the world ) and The Pentecostal Leader , a training magazine . Doctrines are detailed in a 19-article Statement of Faith ranging from the inspiration of the Scriptures to tithes and offerings . The IPCC is one of the only Pentecostal and Evangelical denominations to elevate the issue of racism to their statement of faith . The church holds two ordinances - water baptism by immersion , and holy communion . The denomination has two practices that are encouraged within the local church - foot washing , and child dedication . The body is Trinitarian , and , like many related bodies , holds that speaking in tongues is the initial evidence of the baptism of the Holy Ghost . Its affiliations are with the Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches of North America , Pentecostal World Conference , a charter member of the National Association of Evangelicals , and the World Evangelical Fellowship . In 2003 , the denomination had 4,961 members in 67 churches . Nearly half of its congregations are located in Ohio . The rest are concentrated primarily in Kentucky , Virginia , West Virginia , and North Carolina .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "International_Pentecostal_Church_of_Christ", "rank": 51, "score": 79474 }, { "content": "Title: Science Media Centre of Canada Content: The Science Media Centre of Canada ( SMCC ) was formally opened on September 27 2010 . It is located in Ottawa . The purpose of the centre is to serve journalists with accurate information on scientific matters . The centre has a Research Advisory Panel of 20 Canadian scientists who will make their expertise available in a simple and understandable manner . In order to secure objectivity , the centre has an Editorial Advisory Committee of eight journalists . The centre is bilingual .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Science_Media_Centre_of_Canada", "rank": 52, "score": 79187 }, { "content": "Title: Canadian Assemblies of God Content: The Canadian Assemblies of God ( CAOG ) ( formerly the Italian Pentecostal Church of Canada or IPCC ) is a Pentecostal denomination in Canada with origins in Pentecostal ministry among Italian Canadians extending back to 1912 . It is one of three Canadian branches of the Assemblies of God , the world 's largest Pentecostal denomination . The other two branches are the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada and the Pentecostal Assemblies of Newfoundland and Labrador . The group shares identical beliefs and close cooperation with the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada . It is also associated with the Assemblies of God in Italy and the Christian Church of North America .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Canadian_Assemblies_of_God", "rank": 53, "score": 78948 }, { "content": "Title: Police Complaints Authority (United Kingdom) Content: The Police Complaints Authority ( PCA ) , was an independent body in the United Kingdom with the power to investigate public complaints against the Police in England and Wales as well as related matters of public concern . It was formed in 1985 , replacing the Police Complaints Board and was then itself replaced by the Independent Police Complaints Commission ( IPCC ) in April 2004 . The IPCC was itself pre-dated by the Office of the Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland . This agency was set up in 2000 to investigate complaints against the Royal Ulster Constabulary and its successor the Police Service of Northern Ireland ( PSNI ) . It had its own teams of civilian investigators and was completely independent of the Police . In addition to the PSNI it also covered the Belfast Harbour Police and the Larne Harbour Police , the Belfast International Airport Constabulary , and the MoD Police ( not the same as the Royal Military Police ) . Unlike the IPCC the Ombudsman 's office could investigate an incident without waiting for a referral or complaint .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Police_Complaints_Authority_(United_Kingdom)", "rank": 54, "score": 78278 }, { "content": "Title: Bert Bolin Content: Bert Rickard Johannes Bolin ( -LSB- bæʈː bʊliːn -RSB- ; 15 May 1925 -- 30 December 2007 ) was a Swedish meteorologist who served as the first chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , from 1988 to 1997 . He was professor of meteorology at Stockholm University from 1961 until his retirement in 1990 .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Bert_Bolin", "rank": 55, "score": 77884 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Bullock (scientist) Content: Peter Bullock ( 6 July 1937 -- 5 April 2008 ) was a soil scientist whose initial work in the field of soil micromorphology preceded an interest in land degradation . His advocacy of the need to treat soil as a sustainable resource led to his appointment to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Bullock contributed to the reports of the IPCC , which was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Peter_Bullock_(scientist)", "rank": 56, "score": 77424 }, { "content": "Title: International Primatological Society Content: The International Primatological Society ( IPS ) is a scientific , educational , and charitable organization focused on non-human primates . It encourages scientific research in all areas of study , facilitates international cooperation among researchers , and promote primate conservation . Together with the IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group ( IUCN/SSC PSG ) and Conservation International ( CI ) , it jointly publishes a biannual report entitled Primates in Peril : The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "International_Primatological_Society", "rank": 57, "score": 77397 }, { "content": "Title: IPS Supported Employment Content: IPS Supported Employment is an evidence-based approach to supported employment for people who have a severe mental illness . IPS stands for Individual Placement and Support . IPS supports people in their efforts to achieve steady employment in mainstream competitive jobs , either part-time or full-time . This stands in contrast to other vocational rehabilitation approaches that employ people in sheltered workshops and other set-aside jobs . IPS has been extensively researched and proven to be effective .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "IPS_Supported_Employment", "rank": 58, "score": 77250 }, { "content": "Title: Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Content: The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports", "rank": 59, "score": 77246 }, { "content": "Title: Association of Polar Early Career Scientists Content: The Association of Polar Early Career Scientists ( APECS ) is a worldwide association of early career scientists ( undergraduate and graduate students , postdocs , and early career faculty ) interested in the polar regions and the cryosphere generally . Its mission is to raise the profile of polar scientists by providing a continuum of leadership that is both internationally and interdisciplinarily focused , and to stimulate collaborative projects . Several countries ( Australia , Brazil , Bulgaria , Canada , Chile , Denmark , France , Germany , India , Italy , Norway , Poland , Portugal , Russia , South Africa , Sweden , the United Kingdom and the United States ) have their own APECS chapters that focus on the needs and ideas of scholars country-wise . The APECS website serves as the main contact point for APECS members and provides forums sharing news , connecting with other polar researchers , finding jobs , and announcing events relevant to polar research . APECS is an endorsed International Polar Year ( IPY ) project and is considered one of the major legacies of IPY .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Association_of_Polar_Early_Career_Scientists", "rank": 60, "score": 76766 }, { "content": "Title: Federation Against Copyright Theft Content: The Federation Against Copyright Theft ( informally FACT ) is the UK 's leading trade organisation established to protect and represent the interests of its members ' Intellectual Property ( IP ) . Established in 1983 , FACT works closely with statutory law enforcement agencies to combat all forms of copyright infringement and members include global and UK film distributors , TV broadcasters and sport rights owners . Its sister-organisation the Australian Screen Association has a similar focus in the Oceania Region , taking over the responsibilities of the Australian Film and Video Security Office in the early 2000s .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Federation_Against_Copyright_Theft", "rank": 61, "score": 76728 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy", "rank": 62, "score": 76324 }, { "content": "Title: Harry F. Lins Content: Harry F. Lins ( born 1948 ) is a hydrologist with the U.S. Geological Survey . Since joining USGS in 1971 , his work has spanned several Earth science disciplines , including coastal processes , surface water hydrology , and hydroclimatology . Although most of his career has been spent conducting research , he managed the USGS Global Change Hydrology Program from 1989 to 1997 , and served as Co-Chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Hydrology and Water Resources Working Group for the First Assessment Report . In 1999 , he and USGS colleague David Wolock developed `` WaterWatch '' , the Nation 's first website depicting maps and graphs of water resources conditions in near real-time . Lins currently serves as President of the World Meteorological Organization 's ( WMO ) Commission for Hydrology . Since the early 1980s , Lins ' research has focused principally on characterizing the surface water response to climate , with an emphasis on regional streamflow variability , long-term trends , and the statistical techniques appropriate for such analyses . Lins ' most controversial research , which has not been fully embraced by the climate science community , suggests that the significance of climate trends may be greatly overstated because it does not consider the possibility that long-term persistence is a component of climatic variations . Lins holds a B.S. in Geography from the University of Maryland ( 1971 ) , an M.S. in Geography from the University of Delaware , ( 1978 ) , and a Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences from the University of Virginia ( 1993 ) .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Harry_F._Lins", "rank": 63, "score": 76164 }, { "content": "Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Seita_Emori", "rank": 64, "score": 76050 }, { "content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason", "rank": 65, "score": 75761 }, { "content": "Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists", "rank": 66, "score": 75688 }, { "content": "Title: Joel B. Smith Content: Joel B. Smith is an expert on climate change policy . He was a coordinating lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2001 assessment report and a lead author of the 2007 assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) . He is currently a Principal at Stratus Consulting Inc. , in Boulder , CO. .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Joel_B._Smith", "rank": 67, "score": 75674 }, { "content": "Title: Valerie Masson-Delmotte Content: Valerie Masson-Delmotte is a French climate scientist and Research Director at the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission , where she works in the Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ( LSCE ) . She uses data from past climates to test models of climate change , and has contributed to several IPCC reports .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Valerie_Masson-Delmotte", "rank": 68, "score": 75397 }, { "content": "Title: Institute of Pharmacology and Structural Biology Content: The Institute of Pharmacology and Structural Biology ( Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale , IPBS ) is a research institute in Toulouse , France , aiming at characterizing new druggable targets in the fields of cancer research and infectious diseases ( tuberculosis ) . IPBS is part of CNRS and Paul Sabatier University as UMR5089 . IPBS is headed by Jean-Philippe Girard , a cancer and immunity scientist who has received awards such as the Silver Medal from CNRS and the Gallet et Breton Prize of Cancerology from the French Academy of Medicine . IPBS is located on 205 Route de Narbonne in Toulouse and shares a campus with the `` Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination '' ( LCC , an institute of chemistry ) . IPBS is part of the `` Fédération de Recherche en Biologie de Toulouse '' ( FRBT ) , a scientific network of Toulouse 's main life science labs .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Institute_of_Pharmacology_and_Structural_Biology", "rank": 69, "score": 75062 }, { "content": "Title: Inverse photoemission spectroscopy Content: Inverse photoemission spectroscopy ( IPES ) is a surface science technique used to study the unoccupied electronic structure of surfaces , thin films , and adsorbates . A well-collimated beam of electrons of a well defined energy ( < 20 eV ) is directed at the sample . These electrons couple to high-lying unoccupied electronic states and decay to low-lying unoccupied states , with a subset of these transitions being radiative . The photons emitted in the decay process are detected and an energy spectrum , photon counts vs. incident electron energy , is generated . Due to the low energy of the incident electrons , their penetration depth is only a few atomic layers , making inverse photoemission a particularly surface sensitive technique . As inverse photoemission probes the electronic states above the Fermi level of the system , it is a complementary technique to photoemission spectroscopy .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Inverse_photoemission_spectroscopy", "rank": 70, "score": 75007 }, { "content": "Title: Eduardo Zorita Content: Eduardo Zorita ( born 1961 in Madrid ) is a Spanish paleoclimatologist . , he is a Senior Scientist at the Institute for Coastal Research , GKSS Research Centre in Geesthacht , Germany , where he has worked since 1996 . Zorita was a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC , and is review editor of the journal Climate Research . Zorita received his Ph.D in solid state physics at the University of Zaragoza in 1988 , and then held a postdoctoral appointment at the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology , Hamburg . He was an Associate Researcher at the Laboratoire de Océanographie Dynamique et de Climatologie ( LOCEAN ) , Pierre-and-Marie-Curie University , Paris , 1994 -- 95 . Zorita is a regular contributor to Die Klimazwiebel , a climate science blog operated by Hans von Storch , Zorita and other climate scientists .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Eduardo_Zorita", "rank": 71, "score": 75001 }, { "content": "Title: Ischemic preconditioning Content: Ischemic preconditioning ( IPC ) is an experimental technique for producing resistance to the loss of blood supply , and thus oxygen , to tissues of many types . In the heart , IPC is an intrinsic process whereby repeated short episodes of ischaemia protect the myocardium against a subsequent ischaemic insult . It was first identified in 1986 by Murry et al. . This group exposed anesthetised open-chest dogs to four periods of 5 minute coronary artery occlusions followed by a 5-minute period of reperfusion before the onset of a 40-minute sustained occlusion of the coronary artery . The control animals had no such period of `` ischaemic preconditioning '' and had much larger infarct sizes compared with the dogs that did . The exact molecular pathways behind this phenomenon have yet to be fully understood .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Ischemic_preconditioning", "rank": 72, "score": 74731 }, { "content": "Title: Institute of Philippine Culture Content: Institute of Philippine Culture ( IPC ) , a center of the School of Social Sciences of the Jesuit Ateneo de Manila University , has since 1960 conducted research into socio-economic development , with a view to assist the most disadvantaged groups in Asia to an improved quality of life .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Institute_of_Philippine_Culture", "rank": 73, "score": 74682 }, { "content": "Title: Thomas Knutson Content: Thomas Knutson is a climate modeller at the US Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory , a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research covers hurricane activity , the link between climate change and hurricane incidence and intensity , and climate change detection and attribution . He served as a contributing author on working group 1 of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He is an Associate Editor of the American Meteorological Society 's Journal of Climate . He has published in Science , Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , Journal of Geophysical Research , Journal of Climate , Tropical Cyclone Research and Review , Tellus A and the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . In 2004 , Knutson published a paper suggesting that increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide would lead to more intense hurricanes . This finding was subsequently supported by independent research . Knutson was invited to discuss his thesis on Ron Reagan 's MSNBC talk show , but the invitation was withdrawn after the White House intervened . Source : New Scientist Magazine 2007-02-03 , p. 5", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Thomas_Knutson", "rank": 74, "score": 74200 }, { "content": "Title: Anders Levermann Content: Anders Levermann is a climate scientist at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Columbia University . He is a Professor of the Dynamics of the Climate System at Institute for Physics and Astrophysics of the Potsdam University , Germany . He was a lead author of the chapter on sea-level changes of the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC AR5 ) , and contributed to the paleoclimate chapter in the previous report ( IPCC-AR4 ) . Levermann advises political and economic stakeholders on the issue of climate change .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Anders_Levermann", "rank": 75, "score": 74069 }, { "content": "Title: List of Sudanese scientists Content: The following people are notable Sudanese scientists ' : Ali M. El-Agraa ( 1941 - ) economist . Mohamed Osman Baloola ( 1981 - ) biomedical engineer who works on diabetes monitoring Mamoun Beheiry ( 1925 -- 2002 ) economist , president of the African Development Bank and twice finance minister . Nashwa Eassa ( 19 ?? - ) nano-particle physicist Ismail El Gizouli acting president of the IPCC Mohamed H.A. Hassan ( 1947 - ) mathematician and physicist Category : Lists of African scientists Category : Lists of scientists by nationality", "qid": "2869", "docid": "List_of_Sudanese_scientists", "rank": 76, "score": 73989 }, { "content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Climate_risk", "rank": 77, "score": 73665 }, { "content": "Title: Image Permanence Institute Content: The Image Permanence Institute ( IPI ) is a university-based , non-profit research laboratory devoted to scientific research in the preservation of visual and other forms of recorded information . It is the world 's largest independent laboratory with this specific scope . IPI was founded in 1985 through the combined efforts and sponsorship of the Rochester Institute of Technology and the Society for Imaging Science and Technology . Funding for IPI 's preservation research and outreach efforts has come mainly from the National Endowment for the Humanities , the Institute of Museum and Library Services , and the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation . Additional funding comes from generous donations made by corporate supporters . IPI provides information , consulting services , practical tools and preservation technology to libraries , archives , and museums worldwide . The imaging and consumer preservation industries also use IPI 's consulting , testing and educational services . Areas of Research and Expertise : The nature of photographic images and other forms of print media Information and technical support for the archival and photographic conservation profession Sustainable practices in environmental management and preservation The stability of imaging and information media and digital print preservation Development of ISO Standards for imaging media and preservation Mission : The Image Permanence Institute ( IPI ) is a recognized world leader in the development and deployment of sustainable practices for the preservation of images and cultural property . IPI accomplishes this through a balanced program of research , education , products and services that meet the needs of individuals , companies , and institutions . Awards : IPI and its staff have been recognized for their work through various industry and civic awards , including : Technical Achievement Award from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ( 1997 ) Fuji Gold Medal from the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers ( 1998 ) Preservation Publication Award from the Society of American Archivist ( 1999 ) Silver Light Award for Career Achievement in the Preservation of Moving Images from Association of Moving Image Archivists to James Reilly ( 2002 ) Certificate of recognition awarded to Dr. Peter Adelstein by the International Imaging Industry Association for his contributions to international standards ( 2003 ) HP Image Award awarded to James M. Reilly for outstanding contributions and devotion to the field of image preservation and permanence ( 2007 ) Education and Outreach Activities : Seminars , workshops , and talks in IPI areas of expertise Advice and consultations on preservation and sustainable practice Internships Print Publications Informational Websites and E-newsletters", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Image_Permanence_Institute", "rank": 78, "score": 73442 }, { "content": "Title: International Association for Vegetation Science Content: The International Association for Vegetation Science ( IAVS ) promotes contact between scientists and others interested in the study of vegetation ecology , promotes research and publication of research results . In 1939 the International Phytosociological Society ( IPS ) was founded , with its headquarters in Montpellier , France . After the Second World War it was reconstituted as the Internationale Vereinigung für Vegetationskunde ( IVV ) , which adopted a constitution at the International Botanical Congress of 1954 . The current name was adopted in 1981 -- 82 .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "International_Association_for_Vegetation_Science", "rank": 79, "score": 73133 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change acronyms Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Climate_change_acronyms", "rank": 80, "score": 72945 }, { "content": "Title: Rajendra K. Pachauri Content: Rajendra Kumar Pachauri ( born 20 August 1940 ) was the chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He held the post from 2002 until his resignation in 2015 , during which time the organization was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . He resigned from IPCC in February 2015 . Following a media trial , The Energy and Resources Institute ( TERI ) Governing Council asked him to step down from the post of Director-General of the institute . The Governing Council of TERI in a meeting in February 2016 appointed Ashok Chawla , a Gujarat cadre Indian Administrative Service Office who was former Union Finance Secretary and former Chairman of the Competition Commission , as its new chairman . Ajay Mathur , a technocrat in the Bureau of Energy Efficiency , was appointed as the Director General of TERI by the Governing Council in July 2015 .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Rajendra_K._Pachauri", "rank": 81, "score": 72854 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment", "rank": 82, "score": 72784 }, { "content": "Title: International Polar Foundation Content: Based in Brussels , Belgium , the International Polar Foundation ( IPF ) communicates and educates on polar science and polar research as a way to understand key environmental and climate mechanisms . The foundation also promotes innovative and multifaceted responses to the complex challenges raised by the need for action on sustainable development , and designed , built and operates the first zero emission Antarctic scientific research station Princess Elisabeth Antarctica . The IPF was founded in 2002 by polar explorer Alain Hubert , Hugo Decleir and André Berger .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "International_Polar_Foundation", "rank": 83, "score": 72669 }, { "content": "Title: Alan Robock Content: Alan Robock ( born 1949 ) is an American climatologist . He is currently Distinguished Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences at Rutgers University , New Jersey . He advocates nuclear disarmament and has met with Fidel Castro during a lecture trip to Cuba discuss the dangers of nuclear weapons . Alan Robock was a 2007 IPCC author , a member of the organisation when it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize , `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Alan_Robock", "rank": 84, "score": 72625 }, { "content": "Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "David_Karoly", "rank": 85, "score": 72353 }, { "content": "Title: Invalid science Content: Invalid science consists of scientific claims based on experiments that can not be reproduced or that are contradicted by experiments that can be reproduced . Recent analyses indicate that the proportion of invalid claims in the scientific literature is steadily increasing . The number of retractions has grown tenfold over the past decade . But they still make up no more than 0.2 % of the 1.4 m papers published annually in scholarly journals . The U.S. Office of Research Integrity ( ORI ) , investigates scientific misconduct .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Invalid_science", "rank": 86, "score": 72302 }, { "content": "Title: John A. Church Content: John A. Church ( born 1951 ) is an expert on sea level and its changes . He was co-convening lead author ( with Jonathan M. Gregory ) for the chapter on Sea Level in the IPCC Third Assessment Report . He was also a co-convening lead author for the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is a member of the Joint Scientific Committee of the WCRP . He is currently a project leader at CSIRO .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "John_A._Church", "rank": 87, "score": 72283 }, { "content": "Title: Initiative for Policy Dialogue Content: The Initiative for Policy Dialogue ( IPD ) is a non-profit organization based at Columbia University in the United States . IPD was founded in July 2000 by Joseph E. Stiglitz , with support of the Ford , Rockefeller , McArthur , and Mott Foundations and the Canadian and Swedish government , to enhance democratic processes for decision making in developing countries , to ensure that a broader range of alternative are on the table and more stakeholders are at the table . The organization is a global network of more than 250 leading economists , political scientists , civil society representatives , and practitioners from all over the world with diverse backgrounds and views . IPD intends to help countries find solutions to pressing problems , and strengthen their institutions and civil societies .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Initiative_for_Policy_Dialogue", "rank": 88, "score": 71866 }, { "content": "Title: Representative Concentration Pathways Content: Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) are four greenhouse gas concentration ( not emissions ) trajectories adopted by the IPCC for its fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) in 2014 . It supersedes Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) projections published in 2000 . The pathways are used for climate modeling and research . They describe four possible climate futures , all of which are considered possible depending on how much greenhouse gases are emitted in the years to come . The four RCPs , RCP2 .6 , RCP4 .5 , RCP6 , and RCP8 .5 , are named after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values ( +2.6 , +4.5 , +6.0 , and +8.5 W/m2 , respectively ) .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Representative_Concentration_Pathways", "rank": 89, "score": 71837 }, { "content": "Title: Eric Guilyardi Content: Eric Guilyardi is a climate scientist , professor in the department of meteorology at the University of Reading and directeur de recherche CNRS at LOCEAN at Institute Pierre Simon Laplace ( IPSL ) in Paris , France . He is an expert of the El Niño phenomenon . He has been a Lead Author for the IPCC AR5 report .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Eric_Guilyardi", "rank": 90, "score": 71732 }, { "content": "Title: Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen Content: The Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen ( IPSC ) , located in Ispra , Italy , is one of the seven institutes of the Joint Research Centre ( JRC ) , a Directorate-General of the European Commission ( EC ) . The mission of the IPSC is to provide research results and to support EU policy-makers in their effort towards global security and towards protection of European citizens from accidents , deliberate attacks , fraud and illegal actions against EU policies .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Institute_for_the_Protection_and_Security_of_the_Citizen", "rank": 91, "score": 71633 }, { "content": "Title: Jean Palutikof Content: Jean Palutikof is founding Director of the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility ( NCCARF ) at Griffith University , Australia . She has held this position since 2008 . Prior to this , Professor Palutikof was based at the UK Met Office during which time she managed the production of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report for Working Group II ( Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability ) . Professor Palutikof is among the foremost scholars of climate change adaptation and was lead author and review editor for several assessments of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and was present in Oslo at the ceremony at which the IPCC received the Nobel Peace Prize .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Jean_Palutikof", "rank": 92, "score": 71262 }, { "content": "Title: Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Content: The Intergovernmental science-policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services ( IPBES ) is an independent intergovernmental body established to strengthen the science-policy interface for biodiversity and ecosystem services for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity , long-term human well-being and sustainable development . It was established in Panama City , on 21 April 2012 by 94 governments . IPBES is placed under the auspices of four United Nations entities : UNEP , UNESCO , FAO and UNDP and administered by UNEP . All the member countries of the United Nations can join the platform and its Members are committed to building IPBES as the leading intergovernmental body for assessing the state of the planet 's biodiversity , its ecosystems and the essential services they provide to society . One thousand scientists from all over the world currently contribute to the work of IPBES on a voluntary basis . They are nominated by their government or an organization , and selected by the MEP . Peer review forms a key component of the work of IPBES to ensure that a range of views is reflected in its work , and that the work is complete to the highest scientific standards . The IPBES provides a mechanism recognized by both the scientific and policy communities to synthesize , review , assess and critically evaluate relevant information and knowledge generated worldwide by governments , academia , scientific organizations , non-governmental organizations as well as indigenous peoples and local communities . This involves a credible group of experts in conducting assessments of such information and knowledge in a transparent way . IPBES is unique in that it will aim to strengthen capacity for the effective use of science in decision-making at all levels . The IPBES will also aim to address the needs of Multilateral Environmental Agreements ( MEAs ) that are related to biodiversity and ecosystem services : the Convention on Biological Diversity ( CBD ) , the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) , the Convention on Migratory Species ( CMS ) , the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands , UNESCO 's World Heritage Convention ( WHC ) , the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture ( ITPGR ) and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification ( UNCCD ) . IPBES will build on existing processes ensuring synergy and complementarities in each other 's work . The IPBES secretariat is based in Bonn , Germany .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Intergovernmental_Science-Policy_Platform_on_Biodiversity_and_Ecosystem_Services", "rank": 93, "score": 71122 }, { "content": "Title: Nitya Anand Content: Nitya Anand ( born 1 January 1925 in Layallpur , British India ) is a scientist who was the director of Central Drug Research Institute in Lucknow for several years . In 2005 , Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission ( IPC ) appointed him chairman of its scientific committee . In 2012 , he was awarded the Padma Shri by the Indian government . Anand is currently the chairman of Ranbaxy Science Foundation ( RSF ) .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Nitya_Anand", "rank": 94, "score": 71070 }, { "content": "Title: Raymond Pierrehumbert Content: Raymond T. Pierrehumbert is the Halley Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford . Previously , he was Louis Block Professor in Geophysical Sciences at the University of Chicago . He was a lead author on the Third Assessment Report of the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) and a co-author of the National Research Council report on abrupt climate change . He was awarded a John Simon Guggenheim Fellowship in 1996 , which was used to launch collaborative work on the climate of early Mars with collaborators in Paris . He is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union ( AGU ) and has been named Chevalier de l'Ordre des Palmes Académiques by the Republic of France . He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2015 and sits on the Science and Security Board of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists . Pierrehumbert 's central research interest is how climate works as a system and developing idealized mathematical models to be used to address questions of climate science such as how the earth kept from freezing over : the faint young sun paradox . Current interests include climate of extrasolar planets . Pierrehumbert contributes to RealClimate . Pierrehumbert is married to Janet Pierrehumbert , professor of Language Modeling at the University of Oxford .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Raymond_Pierrehumbert", "rank": 95, "score": 71068 }, { "content": "Title: Punit Boolchand Content: Punit Boolchand is a materials scientist , a professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computing Systems ( EECS ) in the College of Engineering and Applied Science ( CEAS ) at the University of Cincinnati ( UC ) , where he is director of the Solid State Physics and Electronic Materials Laboratory He discovered the Intermediate Phase : an elastically percolative network glass distinguished from traditional ( clustered ) liquid -- gas spinodals by strong non-local long-range interactions . The IP characterizes space-filling , nearly stress-free and non-aging , critically self-organized non-equilibrium glassy networks ( such as window glass , ineluctably complex high-temperature superconductors , microelectronic Si/SiO2 high-k dielectric interfaces , and protein folding ) . His experimental data over a 25-year period ( 1982 -- 2007 ) formed the basis for the theory of network glasses developed by James Charles Phillips and Michael Thorpe . The theory was adopted by Corning Inc. and was a substantial factor contributing to the development of Gorilla glass by Corning scientists including John . C. Mauro . These networks , although disordered , exhibit many nearly ideal properties that have revolutionized glass science and technology , as part of HD TV and glass covers for devices such as cell phones .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Punit_Boolchand", "rank": 96, "score": 70963 }, { "content": "Title: IPP-SHR Content: International Program of Psycho-Social Health Research ( IPP-SHR ) is an Australian research program based in Queensland which explores the psycho-social dimension of health through examining and reporting on the human experience of serious physical and mental illnesses .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "IPP-SHR", "rank": 97, "score": 70890 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 98, "score": 70815 }, { "content": "Title: Angelo Falcón Content: Angelo Falcón ( born June 23 , 1951 ) is a political scientist best known for starting the Institute for Puerto Rican Policy ( IPR ) in New York City in the early 1980s , a nonprofit and nonpartisan policy center that focuses on Latino issues in the United States . It is now known as the National Institute for Latino Policy and Falcón serves as its current President . He was also recently an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the Columbia University School of Public and International Affairs ( S.I.P.A. ) . Falcón has been able to combine academic and policy research with an aggressive advocacy style based on broad coalition-building and community organizing . Noted for his caustic sense of humor and his progressive politics , he has become one of the longest-serving chief executives of a Latino nonprofit in the country .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Angelo_Falcón", "rank": 99, "score": 70478 }, { "content": "Title: Carl Mears Content: Carl Mears is a Senior Scientist , at Remote Sensing Systems , since 1998 . He has worked on validation of SSM/I derived winds , and rain-flagging algorithm for the QuikScat scatterometer . He is best known for his work with Frank Wentz in developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the UAH one . Mears was a major contributor to Temperature Trends in the Lower Atmosphere : Steps for Understanding and Reconciling Differences , the first released report from the US Climate Change Science Program . He also contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Working Group one report , Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis .", "qid": "2869", "docid": "Carl_Mears", "rank": 100, "score": 70443 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Misleading graph Content: In statistics , a misleading graph , also known as a distorted graph , is a graph that misrepresents data , constituting a misuse of statistics and with the result that an incorrect conclusion may be derived from it . Graphs may be misleading through being excessively complex or poorly constructed . Even when constructed to accurately display the characteristics of their data , graphs can be subject to different interpretation . Misleading graphs may be created intentionally to hinder the proper interpretation of data or accidentally due to unfamiliarity with graphing software , misinterpretation of data , or because data can not be accurately conveyed . Misleading graphs are often used in false advertising . One of the first authors to write about misleading graphs was Darrell Huff , publisher of the 1954 book How to Lie with Statistics . The field of data visualization describes ways to present information that avoids creating misleading graphs .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Misleading_graph", "rank": 1, "score": 112990 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme End Content:", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_End", "rank": 2, "score": 99827 }, { "content": "Title: A Lecture on Modern Poetry Content: `` A Lecture on Modern Poetry '' was a paper by T. E. Hulme which was read to the Poets ' Club around the end of 1908 . It is a concise statement of Hulme 's influential advocacy of free verse . The lecture was not published during Hulme 's lifetime . The lecture commences with an apparent attack on the attitudes of some members of the Club , including its president Henry Simpson . Hulme writes : `` I want to speak of verse in a plain way as I would of pigs : that is the only honest way . The President told us last week that poetry was akin to religion . It is nothing of the sort . '' Hulme discusses how forms rise and fall , and proceeds to the topic of French vers libre , referring to Gustave Kahn 's explanation of the technique : `` It consisted in a denial of a regular number of syllables as the basis of versification . The length of the line is long and short , oscillating with the images used by the poet ; it follows the contours of his thought and is free rather than regular . '' Hulme concludes with a call to arms : `` a shell is a very suitable covering for the egg at a certain period of its career , but very unsuitable at a later age . This seems to me to represent fairly well the state of verse at the present time . ... -LSB- it -RSB- has become alive , it has changed from the ancient art of chanting to the modern impressionist , but the mechanism of verse has remained the same . It ca n't go on doing so . I will conclude , ladies and gentlemen , by saying , the shell must be broken . ''", "qid": "2870", "docid": "A_Lecture_on_Modern_Poetry", "rank": 3, "score": 99152 }, { "content": "Title: Misrepresentation of the People Act Content: The Misrepresentation of the People Act is a proposed Act of Parliament in the UK . The Bill had its First Reading on 17 October 2007 ; its Second Reading and first vote was on 19 October 2007 , so far 37 of 646 MPs support the bill . The Bill resulted from The Ministry of Truth , an 11 October 2007 BBC television documentary by Richard Symons in the Why democracy ? season . Various experts in the field of politics were asked about the possibility of legally prosecuting politicians for lying ( in their function ) , so they could be barred from ever representing the people as politicians again . Various members of parliament were asked if they would put this act before parliament , and one , Adam Price , agreed . Many others agreed to the principle , but not the method . The original ` cheeky ' title had to be adapted and the full title became A Bill to create offences in relation to the publication of false or misleading statements by elected representatives ; and for connected purposes . The content was , however , left largely intact .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Misrepresentation_of_the_People_Act", "rank": 4, "score": 97379 }, { "content": "Title: T. E. Hulme Content: Thomas Ernest Hulme ( -LSB- hjuːm -RSB- 16 September 1883 -- 28 September 1917 ) was an English critic and poet who , through his writings on art , literature and politics , had a notable influence upon modernism . He was an aesthetic philosopher and the ` father of imagism ' .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "T._E._Hulme", "rank": 5, "score": 95680 }, { "content": "Title: Misleading of parliament Content: The misleading of parliament is the knowing presentation of false information to parliament , a very serious charge in Westminster-style parliamentary assemblies . Government ministers that are found to have misled parliament will generally lose their ministerial portfolio . By convention , a minister found to have misled parliament is expected to resign or face being sacked . The Scottish Government ministerial code requires ministers to resign if they mislead Parliament . For witnesses giving testimony to an Australian parliamentary committee , giving misleading evidence can be considered a contempt of parliament .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Misleading_of_parliament", "rank": 6, "score": 94240 }, { "content": "Title: Redgrave v Hurd Content: Redgrave v Hurd ( 1881 ) 20 Ch D 1 is an English contract law case , concerning misrepresentation . It holds that a contract can be rescinded for innocent misrepresentation , even where the representee also had the chance to verify the false statement .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Redgrave_v_Hurd", "rank": 7, "score": 93968 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme (disambiguation) Content: Hulme is an inner city area and electoral ward of Manchester , England Hulme may also refer to :", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_(disambiguation)", "rank": 8, "score": 89944 }, { "content": "Title: Helen Darville Content: Helen Dale ( born Helen Darville ; 24 January 1972 ) , known for a time by her pen name Helen Demidenko , is an Australian writer and lawyer . She served as a senior adviser to David Leyonhjelm , a Liberal Democrat member of the Australian Senate , from 2014 through to the election in 2016 . A daughter of British immigrants , Darville was educated at Redeemer Lutheran College in Rochedale , a suburb of Brisbane . While studying English literature at the University of Queensland , she wrote The Hand that Signed the Paper , a novel about a Ukrainian family who participate with Nazis in the Holocaust . In 1993 , the novel won The Australian/Vogel Literary Award for an unpublished manuscript . Dale published her book in 1994 under the pseudonym Helen Demidenko and won the Miles Franklin Award , becoming the award 's youngest winner . The following year , she was the subject of a major Australian literary controversy because she had falsely claimed Ukrainian ancestry as part of the basis of the book ( and her pseudonym ) . The misrepresentation has been described as a `` literary hoax '' in The Sydney Morning Herald . The novel was subsequently reissued under her legal name , then Helen Darville . It won the 1995 Australian Literary Society Gold Medal . After teaching , Dale returned to college , gaining her law degree in 2002 . She later did post-graduate law study at Oxford and completed an LLB degree in 2012 at the University of Edinburgh . She returned to Australia and became a senior adviser to David Leyonhjelm , a Liberal Democrat member of the Australian Senate , but at the end of May 2016 Leyonhjelm revealed that Dale had left his employ .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Helen_Darville", "rank": 9, "score": 87878 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme (surname) Content: Hulme is a surname . Notable people with the surname include : Alan Hulme ( 1907 -- 1989 ) , Australian politician Alfred Hulme ( 1911 -- 1982 ) , New Zealand recipient of the Victoria Cross Arthur Hulme , English footballer Darren Hulme ( born 1977 ) , former Australian rules footballer David Hulme ( rugby league ) , British rugby league footballer David Russell Hulme ( born 1951 ) , Welsh conductor and musicologist Denny Hulme ( 1936 -- 1992 ) , New Zealand car racer , F1 world champion Etta Hulme ( born 1923 ) , syndicated editorial cartoonist F. Edward Hulme ( 1841 -- 1909 ) , English artist and botanist Joe Hulme ( 1904 -- 1991 ) , English footballer and cricketer John Hulme ( cricketer , born 1862 ) , ( 1862 -- 1940 ) John Hulme ( cricketer , born 1950 ) ( 1950 -- ) John Hulme ( author ) ( c. 1970 -- ) Anne Perry ( born 1938 as Juliet Hulme ) , English author of historical detective fiction Kathryn Hulme ( 1900 -- 1981 ) , American novelist Keri Hulme ( born 1947 ) , New Zealand writer Lachy Hulme ( born 1971 ) , Australian film actor Mark Hulme ( born 1958 ) , American movie producer and entrepreneur T. E. Hulme ( 1883 -- 1917 ) , English writer W. Wilson Hulme II ( 1946 -- 2007 ) , Curator of the National Postal Museum William Hulme ( circa 1631 -- 1691 ) , English lawyer William Hulme ( British Army officer ) ( died 1855 ) , Manchester Regiment officer", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_(surname)", "rank": 10, "score": 87798 }, { "content": "Title: Henry Rainsford Hulme Content: Henry Rainsford Hulme ( 9 August 1908 -- 8 January 1991 ) was a British scientist who had a helping hand in the creation of the British H-Bomb and is considered one of the four major minds behind the project , but is also known as the father of author and murderer Anne Perry .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Henry_Rainsford_Hulme", "rank": 11, "score": 87769 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme Content: Hulme ( -LSB- hjuːm -RSB- ) is an inner city area and electoral ward of Manchester , England , immediately south of Manchester city centre . It has a significant industrial heritage . Historically in Lancashire , the name Hulme is derived from the Old Norse word for a small island , or land surrounded by water or marsh , indicating that it may have been first settled by Norse invaders in the period of the Danelaw .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme", "rank": 12, "score": 87736 }, { "content": "Title: John Hulme (author) Content: John Hulme ( born 1969 ) is an American children 's writer and film director , co-author of The Seems fantasy book series with Michael Wexler . Books in this series are held in over 800 libraries , according to WorldCat . He and Wexler edited an anthology of short stories , Voices of the Xiled , and created a National Public Radio radio series , `` Vanishing Point '' , and Baked Potatoes : a Pot Smoker 's Guide to Film and Video . He also directed a documentary film , Unknown Soldier : Searching For A Father , about his father , who was killed in the Vietnam War and never met his son .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "John_Hulme_(author)", "rank": 13, "score": 87285 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme, Staffordshire Content: Hulme is a hamlet on the outskirts of the city of Stoke-on-Trent , in the English county of Staffordshire . Unlike Hulme End and Upper Hulme , Hulme village is situated on the city council owned boundary of Park Hall Country Park . Category : Hamlets in Staffordshire", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme,_Staffordshire", "rank": 14, "score": 86672 }, { "content": "Title: Harriet Said... Content: Harriet Said ... was the first novel written by Beryl Bainbridge , based on newspaper reports the Parker -- Hulme murder case in New Zealand which involved two young girls . Although completed in 1958 it was rejected by several publishers in the late fifties , one of whom wrote on the flyleaf of a first edition : what repulsive little creatures you have made the two central characters , repulsive almost beyond belief ! And I think the scene in which the two men and the two girls meet in the Tsar 's house is too indecent and unpleasant even for these lax days . What is more , I fear that even now a respectable printer would not print it ! . The manuscript was thought lost but was found by one publisher , returned to the author and finally published by Duckworth in 1972 , and by George Braziller in the US the following year .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Harriet_Said...", "rank": 15, "score": 86278 }, { "content": "Title: The Hartwell Paper Content: The Hartwell Paper calls for a reorientation of climate policy after the perceived failure in 2009 of the UNFCCC climate conference in Copenhagen . The paper was published in May 2010 by the London School of Economics in cooperation with the University of Oxford . The authors are 14 natural and social scientists from Asia , Europe and North America , including Mike Hulme , Roger A. Pielke ( Jr ) , Nico Stehr and Steve Rayner , who met under the Chatham House Rule . The paper argues that `` decarbonisation will only be achieved successfully as a benefit contingent upon other goals which are politically attractive and relentlessly pragmatic . '' It emphasizes human dignity as a necessary guiding principle for climate policy : `` To reframe the climate issue around matters of human dignity is not just noble or necessary . It is also likely to be more effective than the approach of framing around human sinfulness -- which has failed and will continue to fail . '' It has three main objectives : 1 . Energy access for all The paper advocates taking investments in the innovations of renewable energy to decrease energy costs and to make them more affordable to society . Only this diversification of energy could extend the access to energy , especially in undeveloped countries . 2 . Clean energy 3 . Dealing with climate change The ultimate goal is `` to develop non-carbon energy supplies at unsubsidised costs less than those using fossil fuels . '' The Hartwell Paper recommends achieving this goal by introducing low carbon taxes . Moreover this money should be used to develop a CO2 free energy supply .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "The_Hartwell_Paper", "rank": 16, "score": 85971 }, { "content": "Title: William Hulme Content: William Hulme ( c. 1631 -- 1691 ) was a 17th-century lawyer and landowner from Lancashire , and the founder of Hulme 's Charity .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "William_Hulme", "rank": 17, "score": 85871 }, { "content": "Title: Kathryn Hulme Content: Kathryn Hulme ( July 6 , 1900 -- August 25 , 1981 ) was an American author and memoirist most noted for her novel The Nun 's Story . The book is often misunderstood to be semi-biographical .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Kathryn_Hulme", "rank": 18, "score": 84510 }, { "content": "Title: The Nun's Story Content: The Nun 's Story is a 1956 novel by Kathryn Hulme . The book was a Book of the Month selection and reached # 1 on the New York Times best-seller list . Hulme wrote the book based partly upon the experiences of her friend , Marie Louise Habets of the Sisters of Charity of Jesus and Mary , a Belgian nurse and an ex-nun whom she met while working with refugees in post-war Europe . The author sponsored the former nun 's immigration to the United States , and later converted to Catholicism . It is often erroneously stated that the book was based upon Hulme 's own experiences . The lead character of the book , Sister Luke ( pre-convent name Gabrielle Van Der Mal ) , finds her faith tested in Africa where she finds herself at odds with headstrong Dr. Fortunati , operator of a remote Congo hospital , with whom she gradually builds respect , and again during World War II , when she is ordered not to take sides . Ultimately , Sister Luke is forced to decide whether to remain in the convent or return to the outside world . Gabrielle/Sister Luke is stretched between her desire to be faithful to the rule of her congregation and her desire to be a nurse . As a nun she must remove all vestiges of `` Gabrielle Van Der Mal '' and sublimate herself into the devoted bride of Christ . As a nun there is no room for her personal desires and aspirations . Ultimately , the conflict between her devotion to the Church and the nursing profession , juxtaposed with her passionate Belgian patriotism and her love of her father ( killed by Nazi fighter planes while treating wounded ) bring her to an impasse , which serves as the dénouement of the novel .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "The_Nun's_Story", "rank": 19, "score": 84451 }, { "content": "Title: Frederick William Hulme Content: Frederick William Hulme ( 22 October 1816 -- 14 November 1884 ) was an English landscape painter and illustrator . Hulme was born in Swinton in Yorkshire , the son of Jesse Hulme and Elizabeth Trewolla . His mother was a porcelain painter and it was from her that he received his first lessons . He first exhibited in 1841 in Birmingham . Hulme married Caroline Jackson . Their only son , Frederick Edward Hulme , born in March 1841 in Hanley , Staffordshire , became a notable teacher , writer and amateur botanist known for his drawings of flowers . In 1844 Hulme moved to London where he provided designs for engravers for publications such as `` The Art Journal . The 1851 census showed him living at 4 Hereford Square . He practiced as a teacher of drawing and painting and , in 1850 , published a text book in 4 parts called `` A Graduated Series of Drawing Copies on Landscape Subjects for Use of Schools '' . He illustrated a number of books including Edgar Allan Poe 's Poetical Works of E. A. Poe in 1853 , and Samuel Carter Hall 's Book of South Wales in 1861 . He occasionally worked on pictures in conjunction with other artists , including Henry Brittan Willis . Hulme is known for his landscape paintings of Surrey and Wales - he was a frequent visitor to Bettws-y-Coed in the Conway valley - but he also painted in other areas of the country . A part work publication entitled `` The land we live in '' included several views of the Potteries in Staffordshire . Hulme notably exhibited work at the Royal Academy from 1852 to 1884 , the British Institution from 1845 to 1862 , the Royal Manchester Institution and other smaller galleries . The brightness and precision of his landscapes have been compared to those of William Shayer and to Thomas Creswick - another Birmingham artist who had first exhibited fourteen years before . Hulme died in Kensington , London in 1884 . In 2002 , an 1865 Hulme landscape , `` Sheep resting in a woodland glade '' sold for # 33,000 at Christie 's auction house , London .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Frederick_William_Hulme", "rank": 20, "score": 84233 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme Hall, Hulme Content: Hulme Hall was a manor house adjacent to the River Irwell in Hulme , Manchester , England . A structure of this name existed from at least the time of Henry II ( 1133 -- 1189 ) until its demolition around 1840 during development related to the Bridgewater Canal . Owners included the Prestwich and the Mosley baronets prior to the property being bought from George Lloyd in 1764 by Francis Egerton , 3rd Duke of Bridgewater .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_Hall,_Hulme", "rank": 21, "score": 84093 }, { "content": "Title: Bishop of Hulme Content: The Bishop of Hulme was an episcopal title used by a suffragan bishop of the Church of England Diocese of Manchester , in the Province of York , England . The See was created by Order in Council on 11 October 1923 ( under the Suffragans Nomination Act 1888 ) and took its name after Hulme , an area of the city of Manchester . Following the retirement of Stephen Lowe , the last Bishop suffragan of Hulme , in July 2009 , the post was axed and its duties were divided between the remaining bishops suffragan of Bolton and of Middleton , who assist the diocesan Bishop of Manchester in overseeing the diocese .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Bishop_of_Hulme", "rank": 22, "score": 83508 }, { "content": "Title: Frederick Edward Hulme Content: Frederick Edward Hulme ( March 1841 -- 10 April 1909 ) was known as a teacher and an amateur botanist . He was the Professor of Freehand and Geometrical Drawing at King 's College London from 1886 . His most famous work was Familiar Wild Flowers which was issued in nine volumes .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Frederick_Edward_Hulme", "rank": 23, "score": 81859 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme F1 Content: The Hulme F1 is a proposed sports car to be manufactured by New Zealand boutique company Hulme Supercars Ltd. . Its name is taken after the 1967 Formula One World Champion , New Zealander Denny Hulme . It is powered by the 7.0 L LS7 V8 sourced from the Chevrolet Corvette C6 and produces 600 hp However , mated to a 2182.7 lb weight gives it a power-to-weight ratio of 3.6 lb per hp .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_F1", "rank": 24, "score": 81774 }, { "content": "Title: Manchester Hulme (UK Parliament constituency) Content: Manchester Hulme was a parliamentary constituency in Manchester which returned one Member of Parliament to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1918 until it was abolished for the 1950 general election .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Manchester_Hulme_(UK_Parliament_constituency)", "rank": 25, "score": 81653 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme Crescents Content: Hulme Crescents ( known locally as just The Crescents ) was a large housing development situated in the Hulme district of Manchester , England . The scheme was the largest public housing development in Europe , encompassing 3,284 deck-access homes and capacity for over 13,000 people . It gained notoriety as one of the worst public housing schemes in British history and was marred by serious construction and design errors . The problems were so bad the large housing scheme was short-lived and demolition on The Crescents began in 1993 - just 21 years after it was constructed in 1972 . Opening in 1972 , the housing scheme was deemed to be unsuitable for families within two years due to design flaws.The Crescents soon became a creative yet dystopian enclave of the city attracting crime as well as bohemian subcultures . Flaws in the construction process , inadequate heating and unsafe design were among some of the problems occupants faced . The Crescents were described by the Architects Journal as `` Europe 's worst housing stock ... hideous system-built deck-access block which gave Hulme its unsavoury reputation . '' The Hulme Crescents had implications for new housing in Manchester and were believed to have signalled the death knell for the ` Streets in the sky ' idea that had been proposed throughout the 1960s and 1970s in the United Kingdom . The Crescents were demolished around 1994 .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_Crescents", "rank": 26, "score": 81228 }, { "content": "Title: Why We Disagree About Climate Change Content: Why We Disagree About Climate Change : Understanding Controversy , Inaction and Opportunity was written by Mike Hulme and was published by the Cambridge University Press in 2009 . As of November 2012 it has sold over 15,000 copies . In 2009 it was selected by The Economist magazine as one of its science and technology ` Books of the Year ' and in 2010 was jointly awarded the Gerald L Young Prize for the best book in human ecology .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Why_We_Disagree_About_Climate_Change", "rank": 27, "score": 81018 }, { "content": "Title: Poets' Club Content: The Poets ' Club was a group devoted to the discussion of poetry . It met in London in the early years of the twentieth century . It was founded by Henry Simpson , a banker . T. E. Hulme helped set up the group in 1908 , and was its first secretary . Hulme wrote a charter document : `` Rules 1908 '' . The group comprised mainly amateurs and met once a month , excluding the summer months of July , August , and September , for dinner , the reading of poems , and the presentation of short ( 20 minute ) papers on various topics relating to poetry . Around the end of 1908 Hulme read the Club his A Lecture on Modern Poetry . The Club produced several anthologies ; the first two being -- For Christmas MDCCCCVIII ( January 1909 ) and The Book of the Poets ' Club ( December 1909 ) . Two of Hulme 's poems were included in the first , `` Autumn '' and `` A City Sunset , '' and another two in the second . These are regarded as the first examples of Imagism . In 1909 , Hulme began a side-project with F.S. Flint , both a critic and friend of the Poets ' Club , called `` The School of Images , '' introducing Ezra Pound to the group in April 1909 . This group lasted less than a year but anticipated and motivated the Imagist movement . The fourth and final anthology of the Poets ' Club -- Christmas 1913 -- contained work by writers including : John Todhunter , E. Nesbit , Victor Plarr , Henry Simpson , Alexander von Herder , A. St. John Adcock , Selwyn Image , and Margaret Scott Thomson .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Poets'_Club", "rank": 28, "score": 80707 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme Hall Grammar School Content: Hulme Hall Grammar School is a private primary and secondary private school in Cheadle Hulme , which is located in the Metropolitan Borough of Stockport , Greater Manchester , England . It was founded in 1928 . It has an average of around 50 new pupils each year . The current headmistress is Miss Rachael Allen , The Deputy Heads are , Mr Philip Bradford and Mrs Jackie Smith . The school 's motto is ` Seek Truth ' .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_Hall_Grammar_School", "rank": 29, "score": 80687 }, { "content": "Title: Alan Hulme Content: Sir Alan Shallcross Hulme KBE ( 14 February 19079 October 1989 ) was an Australian politician , accountant and cattle breeder . He was born in the Sydney suburb of Mosman and moved to Queensland before World War II , where he practised as an accountant . He was a founding member of the Queensland People 's Party and was its president in 1949 , when it merged with the Liberal Party . Hulme won the House of Representatives seat of Petrie at its creation at the 1949 election for the Liberal Party . He was Minister for Supply from 1958 to his defeat in the 1961 election by Reginald O'Brien . He won Petrie back at the 1963 election and became Postmaster-General until his retirement at the 1972 election . He was also Vice-President of the Executive Council from 1966 to 1972 . As Postmaster-General , he was responsible for the introduction of an Australian-owned satellite system in 1970 , Aussat , which was later privatised as Optus . In 1972 he was involved in the decision to impose health warnings on cigarette advertising . He was also responsible for the controversial decision to build Black Mountain Tower in Canberra . In 1972 he announced that colour television would be introduced in Australia from 1 March 1975 , by which time he had retired from politics and his party was out of office . Hulme was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in January 1971 . He died in 1989 , survived by two sons and a daughter .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Alan_Hulme", "rank": 30, "score": 80324 }, { "content": "Title: William Hulme (British Army officer) Content: Lieutenant Colonel William Hulme ( 1788 -- 21 August 1855 ) was an officer in the British Army , and commanded the 96th Regiment of Foot , raised at Manchester .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "William_Hulme_(British_Army_officer)", "rank": 31, "score": 80153 }, { "content": "Title: Keri Hulme Content: Keri Hulme ( born 9 March 1947 ) is a New Zealand writer . Her only novel , The Bone People , won the Booker Prize in 1985 .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Keri_Hulme", "rank": 32, "score": 80149 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme Hall, Port Sunlight Content: Hulme Hall in Port Sunlight , on the Wirral Peninsula in Merseyside , England , is a Grade II listed building , first registered as such in 1965 .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_Hall,_Port_Sunlight", "rank": 33, "score": 79915 }, { "content": "Title: Titia Brongersma Content: Titia Brongersma ( Dokkum , Friesland , 1650 -- Groningen , 1700 ) was a Frisian poet of the late 17th century . Her book , De bron-swaan , was published in 1686 and is virtually the only trace of her literary activity . She also gained prominence for excavating a dolmen at Borger , Netherlands in 1685 . Brongersma became widely known for her excavation of the dolmen in Borger in Drenthe . She heard about the dolmen ( these are called hunebed in Dutch , plural hunebedden ) when she visited Jan Laurens Lenting ( h ) , the schout of Borger , around Pentecost 1685 . In July she had one of the hunebedden excavated ; to everyone 's surprise the dolmen was a grave site , rather than just a heap of rocks created by giants . She wrote a poem on the topic , `` Ode on the hunebed '' .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Titia_Brongersma", "rank": 34, "score": 79554 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme Barracks Content: Hulme Barracks was a military installation in Hulme , Manchester , England .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_Barracks", "rank": 35, "score": 79436 }, { "content": "Title: Arthur Hulme Content: Joseph Arthur Hulme ( 18 December 1877 -- 3 October 1916 ) was an English footballer who scored 12 goals from 29 appearances in the Football League playing for Lincoln City . He also played in the Southern League for Gravesend United , Bristol Rovers and Brighton & Hove Albion , and in the Midland League for Wellingborough . He began his career as an inside right , and in later years played at right back . Hulme was killed in action in the First World War .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Arthur_Hulme", "rank": 36, "score": 79172 }, { "content": "Title: Holy Trinity, Hulme Content: Holy Trinity was an Anglican parish church built in Hulme , Manchester in 1841 to a design by George Gilbert Scott and S. Moffat . Construction cost around # 18,000 and was funded by Eleanor Atherton , the last surviving child of Edward Byrom , who had himself founded St John 's Church , Manchester . Partially damaged by bombing in World War II , it was demolished in 1953 .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Holy_Trinity,_Hulme", "rank": 37, "score": 79172 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme Hall, Manchester Content: Hulme Hall is a university hall of residence in Victoria Park ( Manchester , England ) , housing approximately 300 students from the University of Manchester . The facilities are located in Rusholme roughly 1.5 miles south of Manchester city centre , and include a purpose-built lecture theatre with 300 seats ( John Hartshorne Centre ) , the Old Dining Hall , the Library , the Chapel , the Senior Common Room and the Seminar Room . It is a Grade II listed building . ( It should not be confused with the historic Hulme Hall in Hulme , Manchester ; it was sited on the right bank of the River Irwell but has been demolished . ) The hall is one of the oldest in Manchester : it was founded in association with Owens College . Houldsworth Hall , part of the Hulme Hall complex of buildings , was constructed in 1907 ( Edwardian ) , whereas most of the local buildings are Victorian , for example the Anglican parish church ( St John Chrysostom ) which was built in 1874 - 1877 . Local student attractions include the Whitworth Art Gallery and the Curry Mile on Wilmslow Road . Houldsworth Hall was also the venue for the World Snooker Championships in both 1952 and 1954 .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_Hall,_Manchester", "rank": 38, "score": 78858 }, { "content": "Title: George Hulme Content: George Hulme was a footballer who played at full-back for Burslem Port Vale in the late 1890s .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "George_Hulme", "rank": 39, "score": 78763 }, { "content": "Title: Hüseyin Hilmi Işık Content: Huseyin Hilmi Işık ( March 8 , 1911 - October 26 , 2001 ) was a Turkish , Sunni Islamic scholar . A cemaat named `` Işıkçılar Cemaati '' in Turkey is composed of his followers .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hüseyin_Hilmi_Işık", "rank": 40, "score": 78631 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme Hall, Allostock Content: Hulme Hall is a house on a moated site in the parish of Allostock , Cheshire , England . It originated in the 15th century , with additions and alterations in the 17th and 19th centuries . It is now a farmhouse . The house is constructed in brown brick , and has a roof of stone-slate and Welsh slate . It is in two storeys with an attic , and has an asymmetrical plan . The northeast front is the entrance front , and has three gabled bays . The garden front is on the northwest ; it has five bays , two of which are stepped back in two stages . Most of the windows are two or three-light casements . The house is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II * listed building . The bridge over the moat leading to the house is also listed at Grade II * . The moated site on which the house stands is a scheduled monument . It had been the home of the Grosvenor and Shakerley families , both of whom were prominent in Cheshire . The building was in a state of considerable disrepair for over a decade and had been on the official `` Heritage at Risk '' register before a # 1 million restoration was completed in 2014 .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_Hall,_Allostock", "rank": 41, "score": 78549 }, { "content": "Title: John Hulme (footballer) Content: John J. Hulme ( 6 February 1945 -- 26 May 2008 ) was an English professional football player and manager .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "John_Hulme_(footballer)", "rank": 42, "score": 78432 }, { "content": "Title: W. Wilson Hulme II Content: Woodrow Wilson Hulme II ( June 14 , 1946 -- January 10 , 2007 ) was a philatelist noted for his work in advancing the appreciation of stamp collecting , especially by his work at the National Postal Museum in Washington , D.C.", "qid": "2870", "docid": "W._Wilson_Hulme_II", "rank": 43, "score": 78212 }, { "content": "Title: Edward Hulme Content: Edward Hulme ( 18 May 1812 -- 27 December 1876 ) was a New Zealand doctor and health administrator . He was born in Hythe , Kent , England on 18 May 1812 .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Edward_Hulme", "rank": 44, "score": 78188 }, { "content": "Title: Parker–Hulme murder case Content: The Parker -- Hulme murder case began in the city of Christchurch , New Zealand , on 22 June 1954 , when Honora Rieper ( also known as Honora Parker , her legal name ) was killed by her teenaged daughter , Pauline Parker , and Pauline 's close friend Juliet Hulme ( later known as Anne Perry ) . Parker was 16 at the time , while Hulme was 15 . The murder has inspired plays , novels , non-fiction books , and films including Peter Jackson 's 1994 movie Heavenly Creatures .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Parker–Hulme_murder_case", "rank": 45, "score": 78173 }, { "content": "Title: Philip Hulme Content: Sir Philip William Hulme ( born 1948 ) is the co-founder of Computacenter , one of the United Kingdom 's largest computer businesses .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Philip_Hulme", "rank": 46, "score": 78132 }, { "content": "Title: Anne Perry Content: Anne Perry ( born 28 October 1938 as Juliet Marion Hulme ) is an English author of historical detective fiction , best known for her Thomas Pitt and William Monk series . At the age of fifteen she was convicted of participating in the murder of her friend 's mother , in 1954 . She changed her name after serving her five-year sentence .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Anne_Perry", "rank": 47, "score": 78022 }, { "content": "Title: John Walter Hulme Content: John Walter Hulme was a British lawyer and Judge . He was the first Chief Justice of Hong Kong taking office in 1844 .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "John_Walter_Hulme", "rank": 48, "score": 77923 }, { "content": "Title: John Hulme (Derbyshire cricketer) Content: John Joseph Hulme ( 30 June 1862 -- 11 July 1940 ) was an English cricketer who played for Derbyshire between 1887 and 1903 . Hulme was born in Church Gresley , Swadlincote , Derbyshire . He debuted for Derbyshire in the 1887 season against Marylebone Cricket Club in May , and took two wickets in the second innings . He played six more county matches in the season , but Derbyshire lost first class status that year . In 1888 with several Derbyshire players he played for an England XI against the Australians and took 7-14 . He also took the most wickets for Derbyshire in the 1888 season including 15 wickets in one game against Yorkshire . In 1889 he played several matches for Marylebone Cricket Club . He played consistently and regularly for Derbyshire until it rejoined the championship in the 1895 season . In the 1894 season there was a series of first-class friendly matches and during this time Hulme took 9 wickets for 27 against Yorkshire and achieved 3 other 5 wicket innings . He twice took 10 wickets in a match and hit his first half-century against Nottinghamshire . He played regularly in the County Championship in 1896 and from 1899 until 1903 , but lost the best part of three seasons to illness . In the 1896 season he took 7 for 44 against Warwickshire with five other 5 wicket innings and four 10 wicket matches . Derbyshire were seventh that year . He did not play for the club in the 1897 season due to illness and after two excellent matches in early 1898 his illness recurred . However in the 1899 season , he had eight 5 wicket innings with one ten wicket match , and reached his top score of 59 against Warwickshire , but the team went down to 15th place . In the 1900 and 1901 seasons he had three 5 wicket inning each year but the club stayed low in the table . In the 1902 season he took 7 for 48 against Hampshire and another three five wicket innings and the club was up to 10th . In the 1903 season he took 8 for 52 against Lancashire and another three five wicket innings and the club ended 12th . He did not play for the side after that . Hulme was a left-arm medium-fast bowler and took 557 first class wickets at an average of 23.99 and a best performance of 9-27 . He took 5 or more wickets in an innings on 34 occasions , and there were 9 matches when he took 10 or more wickets . He was a left-handed batsman and played 229 innings in 142 games with a top score of 59 and an average of 12.35 . Hulme died in Nelson , Lancashire at the age of 78 .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "John_Hulme_(Derbyshire_cricketer)", "rank": 49, "score": 77891 }, { "content": "Title: John Hulme (Shropshire cricketer) Content: John Hulme ( born 13 November 1950 ) was a Welsh cricketer . He was a left-handed batsman who played for Shropshire . He was born in Chirk , Denbighshire . Hulme , who represented Gloucestershire Second XI in the 1970 season , and who represented Shropshire in the Minor Counties Championship between 1979 and 1983 , made his only List A appearance in his final year at the club , against Somerset . From the opening order , he scored ten runs .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "John_Hulme_(Shropshire_cricketer)", "rank": 50, "score": 77637 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme Hall Content: Hulme Hall is the name of a number of buildings . It may refer to : Hulme Hall , Allostock Hulme Hall , Hulme Hulme Hall , Manchester Hulme Hall , Port Sunlight Hulme Hall , Reddish It may also refer to the grammar school : Hulme Hall Grammar School Category : Architectural disambiguation pages", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_Hall", "rank": 51, "score": 77332 }, { "content": "Title: Charles Hulme Content: Charles Hulme ( born 12 October 1953 ) is a British psychologist . He holds the Chair of Psychology at University College London . He is a Senior Editor of Psychological Science , the flagship journal of the Association for Psychological Science . He was awarded the British Psychological Society 's Spearman Medal in 1985 . A graduate of Oriel College , Oxford , where he was awarded a DPhil in 1979 under the supervision of Peter Bryant and Donald Broadbent , he spent the rest of his early career at the University of York where he was professor from 1992 -- 2011 . Since 2011 , he has been a Professor of psychology at University College London . In 1995 he married fellow academic Margaret Snowling .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Charles_Hulme", "rank": 52, "score": 77119 }, { "content": "Title: Nathaniel Hulme Content: Nathaniel Hulme , FRS ( 17 December 1732 -- 28 March 1807 ) was a British physician . He was born in Hulme Thorpe , near Halifax , Yorkshire and served an apprenticeship with his brother , a medical practitioner in the district . He then joined Guy 's Hospital before joining the Royal Navy in 1755 as surgeon 's mate . During a peacetime posting to Leith he attended medical classes at Edinburgh , graduating M.D. there in 1765 . He moved to London , and when the General Dispensary for the Relief of the Poor was first opened , became its first physician . In 1768 he was appointed physician to the City of London Lying-in Hospital , a post he held until 1793 , and wrote Treatise on the Puerperal Fever based on his experience there . On 17 March 1774 he was appointed physician to the London Charterhouse hospital and moved to live in Charterhouse Square , where he lived until his death . He was elected President of the London Medical Society in 1776 and elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1794 . He was also a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries . He died on 28 March 1807 from the effects of falling from the roof of his house when checking the chimneys and was buried in the pensioners ' burial-ground of the Charterhouse .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Nathaniel_Hulme", "rank": 53, "score": 77029 }, { "content": "Title: John Hulme Content: John Hulme may refer to : John Hulme ( footballer ) ( 1945 -- 2008 ) , English professional footballer John Hulme ( Derbyshire cricketer ) ( 1862 -- 1940 ) , English cricketer who played for Derbyshire 1887 -- 1903 John Hulme ( Shropshire cricketer ) ( born 1950 ) , Welsh cricketer who played for Shropshire John Hulme ( author )", "qid": "2870", "docid": "John_Hulme", "rank": 54, "score": 77022 }, { "content": "Title: Misuse of statistics Content: Statistics are supposed to make something easier to understand but when used in a misleading fashion can trick the casual observer into believing something other than what the data shows . That is , a misuse of statistics occurs when a statistical argument asserts a falsehood . In some cases , the misuse may be accidental . In others , it is purposeful and for the gain of the perpetrator . When the statistical reason involved is false or misapplied , this constitutes a statistical fallacy . The FALSE STATISTICS trap can be quiet damaging for the QUEST OF KNOWLEDGE . For example , in medical science , correcting a falsehood may take decades and cost lives . Misuses can be easy to fall into . Professional scientists , even mathematicians and professional statisticians , can be fooled by even some simple methods , even if they are careful to check everything . Scientists have been known to fool themselves with statistics due to lack of knowledge of probability theory and lack of standardization of their tests .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Misuse_of_statistics", "rank": 55, "score": 76827 }, { "content": "Title: Denny Hulme Content: Denis Clive `` Denny '' Hulme , ( 18 June 1936 -- 4 October 1992 ) was a New Zealand racing driver who won the Formula One World Drivers ' Championship for the Brabham team . Between his debut at Monaco in 1965 and his final race in the 1974 US Grand Prix , he started 112 Grand Prix , resulting eight victories and 33 trips to the podium . He also finished third in the overall standing in 1968 and 1972 . Hulme showed versatility by dominating the Canadian-American Challenge Cup ( Can-Am ) for Group 7 sports cars . As a member of the McLaren team that won five straight titles between 1967 and 1971 , he won the individual Drivers ' Championship twice and runner-up on four other occasions . Following his Formula One tenure with Brabham , Hulme raced for McLaren in multiple formats -- Formula One , Can-Am , and at the Indianapolis 500 . Hulme retired from Formula One at the end of the 1974 season but continued to race Australian Touring Cars . Hulme was nicknamed ` The Bear ' , because of his `` gruff nature '' and `` rugged features '' ; however , he was also `` sensitive unable to express his feelings , except in a racing car . '' During his career , Hulme drove the most powerful cars of his era . He raced in F1 , F2 , Indycars , Saloon/Touring Cars , CanAm and endurance races , all during the same season . After retiring from F1 , he even drove in truck races . Hulme 's death by heart attack , whilst driving a BMW M3 during the Bathurst 1000 in Australia , made him the seventh former Formula One champion to die , and the first to die of natural causes ( versus three racing incidents , two incidents on the public road and one incident involving an aircraft . )", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Denny_Hulme", "rank": 56, "score": 76753 }, { "content": "Title: Hüseyin Hilmi Content: Hüseyin Hilmi Bey or İştirakçi ( Socialist ) Hilmi ( 1885 ? İzmir -- 16 November 1922 İstanbul ) was one of the early Turkish socialists , old Liberal . He was founder and first General Chairman of Ottoman Socialist Party and Socialist Party of Turkey .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hüseyin_Hilmi", "rank": 57, "score": 76520 }, { "content": "Title: Lachy Hulme Content: Lachy Hulme ( born 1 April 1971 ) is an Australian-born actor and screenwriter . He has written several films and has appeared in a number of successful Australian and US film and television productions .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Lachy_Hulme", "rank": 58, "score": 76520 }, { "content": "Title: Darren Hulme Content: Darren Hulme ( born 19 July 1977 ) is a former Australian rules footballer who played with Carlton . Hulme played junior football for the Frankston Bombers , and the Dandenong Stingrays in the TAC Cup . He was recruited to the AFL with the 8th selection in the 1997 AFL Preseason Draft . Very small in stature , but tough and hard at the ball , Hulme played primarily as a midfielder and/or tagger with stints in the forward-line . His kicking was the biggest deficiency in his game , but this improved as his career progressed . When he arrived at the club , both his playing style and his hairstyle were similar to that of ten-year veteran Fraser Brown ; Brown 's nickname had been `` Dog '' , and Hulme accordingly received the nickname `` Pup '' , which stayed with him throughout his time at Carlton . Hulme played eight games in his debut season . He went on to be a solid contributor for Carlton over a career spanning eight years , including a fifth-placing in the 2003 Best and Fairest , and tying with Craig Bradley and Adrian Hickmott for the Peter Sullivan Memorial Trophy ( most votes in the Brownlow Medal by a Carlton player ) in 2001 . His career was plagued by injury : a quadriceps injury ruled him out of the 1999 finals series , a knee injury meant he could only play the first 3 games of 2002 and he missed the second half of the 2004 season with a groin injury . He was delisted at the end of 2004 . Since being delisted , Hulme has continued to play state and local football for a wide range of teams : Mansfield ( GVFL ) in 2005 ; Karingal ( MPNFL Peninsula Division ) in 2006 and 2007 ; Clayton ( SFL ) as playing coach in 2008 ; Bendigo ( VFL ) , as playing assistant coach in 2009 ; a return to Karingal in 2010 , and then back to his junior team , Frankston Bombers ( MPNFL Nepean Division ) in 2011 and 2012 .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Darren_Hulme", "rank": 59, "score": 76506 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme Arch Bridge Content: The Hulme Arch Bridge in Hulme , Manchester , England , supports Stretford Road as it passes over Princess Road , and is located at grid reference . The construction of the bridge formed part of the regeneration of the Hulme district of Manchester , both by re-establishing the former route of Stretford Road , which had been cut into two halves by the construction of Princess Road in 1969 , and by providing a local landmark . The location was previously occupied by a footbridge . The bridge consists of a deck supported by cables from a single arch that spans the bridge diagonally . The design was selected in June 1995 , with construction running between May 1996 and April 1997 . It was opened on 10 May 1997 by Alex Ferguson .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_Arch_Bridge", "rank": 60, "score": 76419 }, { "content": "Title: Misrepresentation Content: Misrepresentation is a concept in the contract law of England and some other Commonwealth countries , referring to a false statement of fact made by one party to another party , which has the effect of inducing that party into the contract . For example , under certain circumstances , false statements or promises made by a seller of goods regarding the quality or nature of the product that the seller has may constitute misrepresentation . A finding of misrepresentation allows for a remedy of rescission and sometimes damages depending on the type of misrepresentation . Misrepresentation is also capable of giving rin action in tort as well as contract law , for the tort of deceit . According to the judgment in the English case Gordon & Teixeira v Selico Ltd & Select Managements Ltd ( 1986 ) 18 HLR 219 it is possible to make a misrepresentation either by words or by conduct , although not everything said or done is capable of constituting a misrepresentation . Generally , statements of opinion or intention are not statements of fact in the context of misrepresentation . If one party claims specialist knowledge on the topic discussed , then it is more likely for the courts to hold a statement of opinion by that party as a statement of fact .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Misrepresentation", "rank": 61, "score": 76349 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme Hippodrome Content: The Hulme Hippodrome , originally known as the Grand Junction Theatre and Floral Hall , opened in Preston Street , Hulme , Manchester , on 7 October 1901 . It and the nearby Playhouse Theatre in Warwick Street , built at the same time , were part of the theatrical empire of . The two venues were connected by an arcade , at the centre of which was Broadhead 's company headquarters . The architect was J.J. Alley . Initially the theatre staged mainly dramatic productions , while the Playhouse presented variety performances , but in 1905 the names and functions of the theatres were interchanged : the Hippodrome became the Grand Junction , and the variety performances were transferred to the new Hippodrome . The Hippodrome was last used as a theatre in the 1960s ; from the mid-1970s until its closure in 1988 it was used as a bingo hall . Since then most of the building has remained empty , and it has been placed on Manchester City Council 's Buildings at Risk Register . The building was bought by Gilbert Deya Ministries in 1999 , and services were held in part of the ground floor . The church spent # 200,000 on the building and in 2013 leased it a charity , Youth Village , they then decided to sell the building . The Friends of Hulme Hippodrome had hoped to get the building listed as an asset of community value which would have given the community group six months to raise the money needed to buy the building from the owner before it went out to general market . The application , however , was turned down by Manchester City Council , a council spokesman said : `` There would also be a significant cost to bring the building back into use - into the millions - and without a -LSB- business -RSB- plan in place it would be unfair for us to assume they could turn the building around . '' The building is now due to be auctioned 18 May 2017 at the Macron Stadium , Bolton , with a guide price of # 300,000 .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_Hippodrome", "rank": 62, "score": 76333 }, { "content": "Title: Daniel Hulme Content: Daniel Christopher Hulme ( born 7 October 1979 , Melbourne ) is a former member of the Tasmanian House of Assembly in the electorate of Franklin representing the Australian Labor Party . He entered parliament on a recount in February 2009 after Paula Wriedt resigned due to ill health . He received 620 primary votes at the 2006 State Election , finishing 11th in a field of 18. , but received 8,097 out of 10,660 or 78.0 % of votes in the recount . He was defeated in 2010 . Prior to entering Parliament , Hulme worked as an electorate officer for Premier Paul Lennon , then for Labor Senator Catryna Bilyk . He has also worked for the Australian Taxation Office and the Australian Computer Society . Hulme graduated from the University of Tasmania with a Bachelor of Computing in 2000 , a Bachelor of Computing with Honours in 2001 and a Master of Business Administration in 2008 . He was president of the University of Tasmania Student Association ( Launceston campus ) in 2002 and 2003 . Hulme spoke strongly in support of the Tasmanian forest industry and the Regional Forest Agreement at the Timber Communities Australia ( TCA ) state conference , 4 July 2009 . In his speech , he strongly criticised Bob Brown , The Wilderness Society and the Greens . He said he recently became a TCA member .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Daniel_Hulme", "rank": 63, "score": 76221 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme Walfield Content: Hulme Walfield is a small village and civil parish , just north of Congleton , in the unitary authority of Cheshire East and the ceremonial county of Cheshire . It is home to most of Westlow Mere . According to the 2001 census , the population of the civil parish was 140 , increasing slightly to 148 at the 2011 Census", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_Walfield", "rank": 64, "score": 76165 }, { "content": "Title: John Hill (bishop) Content: John Charles Hill ( 22 May 1862 -- 29 March 1943 ) was the inaugural Suffragan Bishop of Hulme from 1924 until 1930 . Hill was educated at Harrow and Trinity College , Cambridge . After curacies in Kensington and Rotherham he was Rector of Halesowen then Rural Dean of Bury before his appointment to the episcopate .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "John_Hill_(bishop)", "rank": 65, "score": 76108 }, { "content": "Title: Eric Hulme Content: Eric Martin Hulme ( born 14 January 1949 ) is an English former footballer who made 28 appearances in the Football League playing for Nottingham Forest and Lincoln City as a goalkeeper . Hulme joined Nottingham Forest from non-league club Spennymoor United in March 1970 . He made his Forest debut 18 months later , after an injury to regular goalkeeper Jim Barron in a League Cup tie against Chelsea , making several good saves before Chelsea finally scored after 63 minutes . The Daily Express Steve Curry wrote that `` Hulme tried , often with brilliance , sometimes with luck , to preserve Forest 's lead . He made saves from Peter Osgood and Tommy Baldwin of a quality one hardly expects from a reserve . '' He played five times more for the first team before joining Lincoln City of the Fourth Division , initially on loan , in late 1972 . He stayed at Lincoln for two seasons , including a loan spell in non-league football with Gainsborough Trinity , and then joined Worksop Town . He later became a cook .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Eric_Hulme", "rank": 66, "score": 75997 }, { "content": "Title: Church of St Mary, Hulme Content: The Church of St Mary , Upper Moss Lane , Hulme , Manchester , is a Gothic Revival former church by J. S. Crowther built in 1853 -- 58 . It was designated a Grade II * listed building on 3 October 1974 . The church is of `` coursed sandstone rubble with ashlar dressings ( and a ) slate roof '' . It is in early 14th century geometrical style , following `` Lincolnshire exemplars '' . The soaring spire , 241 ft high , making it the 18th tallest church in the United Kingdom and tenth-tallest structure in Manchester , is one of south Manchester 's major landmarks . Part of a group of Victorian buildings , including a listed rectory , the Pevsner Buildings of England volume for Manchester describes the church as having `` stood through two complete cycles of urban decay , dereliction , destruction and renewal , standing alone amid utter desolation in the 1960s and again in the 1990s '' . At the time of listing it was used by an African Methodist Evangelical congregation , but it has since been converted into flats , its interior `` horribly divided '' .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Church_of_St_Mary,_Hulme", "rank": 67, "score": 75910 }, { "content": "Title: Clive Hulme Content: Alfred Clive Hulme VC ( 24 January 1911 -- 2 September 1982 ) was a New Zealand recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces . He received the decoration for his actions during the Battle of Crete in 1941 . He was also the father of champion Formula One racing driver Denny Hulme .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Clive_Hulme", "rank": 68, "score": 75831 }, { "content": "Title: Ardern George Hulme Beaman Content: Ardern George Hulme Beaman ( 1857-1929 ) was a British adventurer , author , diplomat and war correspondent .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Ardern_George_Hulme_Beaman", "rank": 69, "score": 75432 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme End railway station Content: Hulme End railway station is a disused railway station in Staffordshire , England . The station was the terminus of the Leek and Manifold Valley Light Railway which ran 8 +1 / 4 mi from where it made a connection with the standard gauge Waterhouses branch line of the North Staffordshire Railway . Opened in 1904 , the station had a single platform and a small goods yard with two sidings laid out for the use of transporter wagons , with a section of standard gauge track at the end of each siding . The station was also the servicing and storage point for the line 's locomotives and coaching stock with both a locomotive shed and a carriage shed being provided . The line became part of the London , Midland and Scottish Railway in 1923 but the finances of the line were poor and the line closed in 1934 . After closure , the route 's right of way was acquired by Staffordshire County Council and the station site at Hulme End became a car park . The station building was retained and , now restored , is used as a visitor information centre .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_End_railway_station", "rank": 70, "score": 75177 }, { "content": "Title: The Bone People Content: The Bone People ( styled by the writer and in some editions as the bone people ) is a Booker Prize-winning 1984 novel by New Zealand writer Keri Hulme .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "The_Bone_People", "rank": 71, "score": 75096 }, { "content": "Title: Stephen Lowe (bishop of Hulme) Content: Stephen Richard Lowe ( born 3 March 1944 ) was , until his retirement in July 2009 , the suffragan Bishop of Hulme in the Anglican Diocese of Manchester , Link Bishop for Namibia and Chair of the Urban Bishops Panel . From 1988 to 1999 he had served as Archdeacon of Sheffield . In 2006 , he was released from all pastoral oversight in the diocese in order to concentrate on his 2006 appointment as the Church of England 's first `` Bishop for Urban Life and Faith '' , charged with the promotion and dissemination of conclusions of the Faithful Cities report .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Stephen_Lowe_(bishop_of_Hulme)", "rank": 72, "score": 75023 }, { "content": "Title: Joe Hulme Content: Joseph Harold Anthony `` Joe '' Hulme ( 26 August 1904 -- 27 September 1991 ) was an English footballer and cricketer .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Joe_Hulme", "rank": 73, "score": 74695 }, { "content": "Title: Misleading or deceptive conduct Content: Misleading or deceptive conduct ( often referred to as just misleading conduct ) is a doctrine of Australian law . Section 18 of the Australian Consumer Law , which is found in schedule 2 of the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 , prohibits conduct by corporations in trade or commerce which is misleading or deceptive or is likely to mislead or deceive . The states and territories of Australia each have Fair Trading Legislation either containing similar provisions in relation to misleading or deceptive conduct by individuals , or simply applies the federal law to the state or territory . Section 12DA of the Australian Securities and Investment Commission Act 2001 prohibits misleading or deceptive conduct in financial services . The doctrine aims primarily to provide consumer protection by preventing businesses from misleading their customers . However , it extends to all situations in the course of trade or commerce . A range of remedies are available in the event of misleading or deceptive conduct .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Misleading_or_deceptive_conduct", "rank": 74, "score": 74692 }, { "content": "Title: Oldham Hulme Grammar School Content: Oldham Hulme Grammar School , formerly Hulme Grammar School , is an independent grammar school in Oldham , Greater Manchester , England .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Oldham_Hulme_Grammar_School", "rank": 75, "score": 74641 }, { "content": "Title: Anthony Hulme Content: Anthony Hulme ( 1910 -- 2007 ) was a British film actor .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Anthony_Hulme", "rank": 76, "score": 74603 }, { "content": "Title: Seafood mislabelling Content: Seafood species can be mislabelled in misleading ways . This article examines the history and types of mislabeling , and looks at the current state of the law in different locations .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Seafood_mislabelling", "rank": 77, "score": 74518 }, { "content": "Title: Listed buildings in Hulme Walfield Content: Hulme Walfield is a civil parish in Cheshire East , England . It contains three buildings that are recorded in the National Heritage List for England as designated listed buildings , all of which are at Grade II . This grade is the lowest of the three gradings given to listed buildings and is applied to `` buildings of national importance and special interest '' . The parish is almost entirely rural , and the listed buildings consist of two farmhouses and a church .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Listed_buildings_in_Hulme_Walfield", "rank": 78, "score": 74373 }, { "content": "Title: David Hulme Content: David Hulme may refer to : David Hulme ( rugby league ) ( born 1964 ) , rugby league footballer of the 1980s and 1990s David Russell Hulme ( born 1951 ) , Welsh conductor David Hulme ( academic ) ( born 1952 ) , development studies professor David Hulme ( evangelist ) , host of the TV series The World Tomorrow David Hulme Australian fine art consultant", "qid": "2870", "docid": "David_Hulme", "rank": 79, "score": 74178 }, { "content": "Title: David Russell Hulme Content: David Russell Hulme ( born 19 June 1951 ) is a Welsh conductor and musicologist . He is a reader and the Director of Music at Aberystwyth University and is known for his research and publications on the music of Arthur Sullivan , the composer of the Gilbert and Sullivan comic operas . He is also an authority on the music of Edward German .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "David_Russell_Hulme", "rank": 80, "score": 74131 }, { "content": "Title: Etta Hulme Content: Etta Hulme ( December 22 , 1923 -- June 25 , 2014 ) was an American editorial cartoonist . Her syndicated cartoons have appeared in the Fort Worth Star-Telegram since 1972 . She won the National Cartoonist Society Editorial Cartoon Award for 1981 and 1998 . She was born in Somerville , Texas .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Etta_Hulme", "rank": 81, "score": 74091 }, { "content": "Title: New Zealand Republic Content: New Zealand Republic Inc. is an organisation formed in 1994 whose object is to support the creation of a New Zealand republic . The campaign chair is Savage , a west Auckland writer and painter . The patron of the New Zealand Republic is Keri Hulme , a New Zealand writer who won the 1985 Booker Prize for her novel The Bone People . The organisation is not aligned to any political party in New Zealand including the Republic of New Zealand Party .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "New_Zealand_Republic", "rank": 82, "score": 74044 }, { "content": "Title: William Hulme (disambiguation) Content: William Hulme may refer to : William Hulme ( soldier ) William Hulme , landowner William Hulme 's Grammar School , Manchester , England", "qid": "2870", "docid": "William_Hulme_(disambiguation)", "rank": 83, "score": 74007 }, { "content": "Title: Declan Hulme Content: Declan Hulme is a rugby league winger who plays for Workington Town . Born in St. Helens , Hulme started his career at Widnes and made his début against Salford at the end of the 2013 Super League season . He scored his first Vikings try during the 2014 season against Wakefield Trinity Wildcats .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Declan_Hulme", "rank": 84, "score": 73907 }, { "content": "Title: Upper Hulme Content: Upper Hulme is a hamlet situated on the border of North Staffordshire and Derbyshire , between the historical market town of Leek and the spa town of Buxton . It is clustered around a redundant mill and is located within the upper reaches of the River Churnet . The Mill was recently restored , complete with a working water wheel , but no further information on its future is known . It can be accessed by one of the many footpaths through the hamlet . The hamlet is at the edge of the Peak District and is home to The Roaches and is therefore very popular with ramblers , climbers and hikers alike . The A54 Road offers access to Tittesworth reservoir in the south and Ramshaw Rocks in the North , making the hamlet a popular base for walking holidays . There is a camp site , bunkhouse accommodation and holiday cottages available . The hamlet is popular with wildlife enthusiasts due to Wallaby having been sighted on the Roaches , and the successful annual breeding of peregrine falcons . In Peregrine breeding season , a ` bird watching post ' is set up at the foot of Hen Cloud and park rangers are on hand to offer advice and information on the bird . At this time of year , some access is restricted . The hamlet has two local pubs ; Ye Olde Rock Inn and The Winking Man . It is also home to a popular Tea Rooms . The main industry of the hamlet is agricultural . Upon entrance to the hamlet there is an old Dye Works , which has now been transformed into offices and workshops . Until 2005 the area was used by the British Army as a training area . That space has now been vacated by the Ministry of Defence and is currently for sale .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Upper_Hulme", "rank": 85, "score": 73898 }, { "content": "Title: Hulme Locks Branch Canal Content: The Hulme Locks Branch Canal is a canal in the city of Manchester . It is 200m ( one furlong ) in length and was built to provide a direct waterway between the Mersey and Irwell Navigation and the Bridgewater Canal . The canal opened in 1838 and was superseded in 1995 by a new lock at Pomona Dock 3 . As both of its locks remain closed , the canal is now overgrown .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulme_Locks_Branch_Canal", "rank": 86, "score": 73874 }, { "content": "Title: Hudajužna Content: Hudajužna ( -LSB- xudaˈjuːʒna -RSB- ; Villa Iùsina ) is a village in the valley of the Bača River in the Municipality of Tolmin in the Littoral region of Slovenia . The Bohinj Railway line runs through the settlement .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hudajužna", "rank": 87, "score": 73733 }, { "content": "Title: Colin Scott (bishop) Content: Colin John Fraser Scott ( 14 May 1933 -- 1 April 2014 ) was the Bishop of Hulme from 1984 until 1998 . Scott was educated at Berkhamsted School and Queens ' College , Cambridge ( becoming a Cambridge Master of Arts -LCB- MA ( Cantab ) -RCB- ) . After curacies at St Barnabas , Clapham Common and St James , Hatcham he was Vicar of St Mark , Kennington . Following this he was Vice-Chairman of the Southwark Diocesan Pastoral Committee and then ( his final appointment before elevation to the Episcopate ) Team Rector of Sanderstead . In retirement he served the Church as an Assistant Bishop within the Diocese of Leicester . He was a prominent member of the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Colin_Scott_(bishop)", "rank": 88, "score": 73544 }, { "content": "Title: Hulmerist Content: Hulmerist is a VHS and DVD release that includes seven promotional films for songs by Morrissey , released initially on VHS , in 1990 , and then on DVD in 2004 . It was certified Gold by the RIAA on 18 January 1991 . The title refers to Morrissey 's childhood home in Hulme , Manchester . The L is silent , so it sounds like `` humourist '' .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulmerist", "rank": 89, "score": 73257 }, { "content": "Title: William Hulme's Grammar School Content: William Hulme 's Grammar School is a mixed all-through school located in Whalley Range , Manchester , England .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "William_Hulme's_Grammar_School", "rank": 90, "score": 72683 }, { "content": "Title: Church of St George, Chester Road, Hulme Content: The Church of St George , Chester Road , Hulme , Manchester , is an early Gothic Revival church by Francis Goodwin , built in 1826-8 . It was restored in 1884 by J. S. Crowther . It was designated a Grade II * listed building on 3 October 1974 . The church was a Commissioners ' church , ( built to celebrate the victory at the Battle of Waterloo ) who allotted the sum of # 15,000 for construction . Goodwin was an obvious choice for architect having already undertaken a number of churches in the Midlands and the North West , as well as the original Manchester Town Hall . Sir Nikolaus Pevsner considers that Goodwin 's inspiration was Nicholas Hawksmoor 's St Michael , Cornhill and that `` the whole makes a lively and memorable picture '' . A six-bay nave with `` high three-light Perpendicular windows '' concludes with a tall tower at the west end , and two high pinnacles at the east . Porches are set at the northwest and southwest corners . Drawing from Pevsner , the English Heritage inspectors who listed the building in 1974 , without an internal inspection , stated that the interior was `` reported as having : galleries ; Perpendicular arcades ; -LSB- and a -RSB- wall monument to The Hon. George Berkeley Molyneux ( d. 1841 ) , by Edward Physick , in form of soldier mourning beside urn . '' A declining inner-city population in the post-war period , combined with the increasing isolation of the church caused by major road construction in its vicinity , led to St George 's closure in 1984 . A `` twenty-year search for a use which would preserve the interior ... proved fruitless and the building was converted to flats ( in ) 2000 -- 2 . The interior can no longer be read as a whole . '' In 2015 , the flat occupying the church tower was on the market for # 1 million .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Church_of_St_George,_Chester_Road,_Hulme", "rank": 91, "score": 72671 }, { "content": "Title: Sydney George Hulme Beaman Content: Sydney George Hulme Beaman , born in 1887 and who died 4 February 1932 , was an author & illustrator best known as the creator of the Toytown stories and their characters including Larry the Lamb . He also illustrated the 1930s John Lane , edition of a Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Sydney_George_Hulme_Beaman", "rank": 92, "score": 72627 }, { "content": "Title: Extrinsic fraud Content: Extrinsic fraud is fraud that `` induces one not to present a case in court or deprives one of the opportunity to be heard -LSB- or -RSB- is not involved in the actual issues ... '' It can involve fraud on the court , but is not necessarily the same . More broadly , it is defined as : Extrinsic fraud does not mean merely lying or perjury , nor misrepresentations , nor intrinsic fraud , nor `` to matters that could have been raised during the divorce proceeding . '' It must involve `` collateral ... circumstances '' such as : `` bribery of a judge or juror , '' `` fabrication of evidence by an attorney , '' `` preventing another party 's witness from appearing , '' `` intentionally failing to join a necessary party , '' or `` misleading another party into thinking a continuance had been granted ... ''", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Extrinsic_fraud", "rank": 93, "score": 72438 }, { "content": "Title: Aaron Hulme Content: Aaron Hulme ( April 1886 -- November 1933 ) was an English footballer . His regular position was at full back . He was born in Manchester . He played for Manchester United , Newton Heath Athletic , Colne , Oldham Athletic , and Nelson .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Aaron_Hulme", "rank": 94, "score": 72402 }, { "content": "Title: Prestwich baronets Content: The Prestwich Baronetcy , of Hulme in the County of Lancaster , was a title in the Baronetage of England . I t was created on 25 April 1644 for Thomas Prestwich . His support for the Royalist cause in the English Civil War left him impoverished and he was forced to sell the family seat of Hulme Hall in 1660 . The title became extinct on the death of the second Baronet in 1676 .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Prestwich_baronets", "rank": 95, "score": 72069 }, { "content": "Title: Mazengarb Report Content: The Mazengarb Report of 1954 , formally titled the Report of the Special Committee on Moral Delinquency in Children and Adolescents , resulted from a ministerial inquiry ( the Special Committee on Moral Delinquency in Children and Adolescents ) sparked primarily by two infamous and well-publicised events in New Zealand 's history : the 22 June 1954 Parker -- Hulme murder case ( subject of the 1994 Peter Jackson film Heavenly Creatures ) and the 20 June 1954 `` Petone incident '' . The report gained its name from the inquiry chairman , Queen 's Counsel Ossie Mazengarb . The committee , appointed on 23 July 1954 , convened and operated rapidly -- it reported on 20 September , barely 10 days after it completed hearing evidence , 59 days after its appointment , and 55 days after hearings began . Sociologically speaking , it exemplified a case of moral panic in New Zealand .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Mazengarb_Report", "rank": 96, "score": 72059 }, { "content": "Title: Hulmeville Historic District Content: Hulmeville Historic District is a national historic district located in Hulmeville , Bucks County , Pennsylvania . The district includes 103 contributing buildings , 3 contributing structures , and 1 contributing object in the borough of Hulmeville . They include a variety of residential , commercial , and institutional buildings , some of which are representative of the vernacular Greek Revival , Federal , and Late Victorian styles . Notable buildings include the John Pryor / John Hulme House ( c. 1794 ) , Edward Hicks House ( c. 1808 ) , Johnson 's Hall ( 1871 ) , Hulmeville Borough Hall ( 1894 ) , Silas Barkley Mill ( 1880 ) , and the Episcopal church ( 1851 ) . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Hulmeville_Historic_District", "rank": 97, "score": 71637 }, { "content": "Title: The Seems Content: The Seems is a children 's novel series by John Hulme and Michael Wexler , published by Bloomsbury USA Children 's Books . The series follows the character of Becker Drane , age 12 , a `` Fixer '' in a fictional world called `` The Seems '' ; in the series , The Seems world is responsible for the protection of the reader 's `` reality '' ( that is , planet Earth ) . The series currently includes The Glitch in Sleep , published in 2007 , The Split Second , published in 2008 , and The Lost Train of Thought , published in 2009 . A fourth book , called A Better Place '' , has been confirmed , but no release date has been announced yet .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "The_Seems", "rank": 98, "score": 71530 }, { "content": "Title: Frank Hulme-Moir Content: Francis Oag Hulme-Moir ( 30 January 1910 -- 10 March 1979 ) was the 7th Anglican Bishop of Nelson whose Episcopate spanned an 11 year period in the mid-20th century . He was born on 30 January 1910 , educated at Sydney Technical High School and ordained in 1937 . He was a Chaplain to the Australian Armed Forces from then until 1947 when he became Archdeacon of Ryde . In 1954 he was ordained to the episcopate . Later he served as coadjutor bishop and Dean of Sydney . He died on 10 March 1979 .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "Frank_Hulme-Moir", "rank": 99, "score": 71397 }, { "content": "Title: David Hulme (academic) Content: David Hulme is Professor of Development Studies at The University of Manchester where he is Executive Director of the Global Development Institute and CEO of the Effective States and Inclusive Development Research Centre . Currently , he is the president of the Development Studies Association . He has worked on rural development , poverty and poverty reduction , microfinance , the role of non-government organisations in development , environmental management , social protection and the political economy of global poverty for more than 30 years . His main focus has been on Bangladesh but he has worked extensively across South Asia , East Africa and the Pacific . Recently , he has been a leading international expert in the discussion of the Millennium Development Goals and the Post-2015 Development Agenda .", "qid": "2870", "docid": "David_Hulme_(academic)", "rank": 100, "score": 71277 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 1, "score": 313437 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 2, "score": 278119 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow", "rank": 3, "score": 269480 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 4, "score": 267759 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''", "qid": "2871", "docid": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 5, "score": 266595 }, { "content": "Title: Yuri Izrael Content: Yuri Antonovich Izrael ( Юрий Антониевич Израэль 15 May 1930 , Tashkent -- 23 January 2014 , Moscow ) was a vice-chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) until September 2008 , when the new bureau was elected . He was the `` most influential scientific adviser '' for Vladimir Putin , the former president of Russia , according to CNN . Izrael was former chairman of the Committee for Hydrometeorology . He also served as director of the Institute of Global Climate and Ecology , which is a part of the Russian Academy of Sciences . He was a first vice-president of the World Meteorological Organization and helped develop the World Weather Watch . In 1992 , Izrael won the International Meteorological Organization Prize and the UNEP Sasakawa Environment Prize for , among other accomplishments , contributing to the `` success of Working Group I I '' of the IPCC .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Yuri_Izrael", "rank": 6, "score": 265858 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992", "rank": 7, "score": 262299 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 8, "score": 261101 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 9, "score": 260079 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 10, "score": 258146 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 11, "score": 257851 }, { "content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Climate_risk", "rank": 12, "score": 257149 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Roger_Pulwarty", "rank": 13, "score": 255751 }, { "content": "Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "John_T._Houghton", "rank": 14, "score": 243825 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change acronyms Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Climate_change_acronyms", "rank": 15, "score": 243360 }, { "content": "Title: Indur M. Goklany Content: Indur M. Goklany is a science and technology policy analyst for the United States Department of the Interior , where he holds the position of Assistant Director of Programs , Science and Technology Policy . He has represented the United States at the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and during the negotiations that led to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . He was a rapporteur for the Resource Use and Management Subgroup of Working Group III of the IPCC First Assessment Report in 1990 , and is the author of Clearing the Air ( 1999 ) , The Precautionary Principle ( 2001 ) , and The Improving State of the World ( 2007 ) .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Indur_M._Goklany", "rank": 16, "score": 241736 }, { "content": "Title: Arturo Villavicencio Content: Arturo Villavicencio is an Ecuadorian environmental researcher . He was nominated by Denmark in 1995 for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributed to its fourth assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Arturo_Villavicencio", "rank": 17, "score": 241708 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 18, "score": 240862 }, { "content": "Title: Bert Bolin Content: Bert Rickard Johannes Bolin ( -LSB- bæʈː bʊliːn -RSB- ; 15 May 1925 -- 30 December 2007 ) was a Swedish meteorologist who served as the first chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , from 1988 to 1997 . He was professor of meteorology at Stockholm University from 1961 until his retirement in 1990 .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Bert_Bolin", "rank": 19, "score": 240584 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation Content: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) published a special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) on May 9 , 2011 . The report developed under the leadership of Ottmar Edenhofer evaluates the global potential for using renewable energy to mitigate climate change . This IPCC special report provides broader coverage of renewable energy than was included in the IPCC 's 2007 climate change assessment report , as well as stronger renewable energy policy coverage . Renewable energy can contribute to `` social and economic development , energy access , secure energy supply , climate change mitigation , and the reduction of negative environmental and health impacts '' . Under favourable circumstances , cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Renewable_Energy_Sources_and_Climate_Change_Mitigation", "rank": 20, "score": 240389 }, { "content": "Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy", "rank": 21, "score": 240378 }, { "content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Reasons_for_concern", "rank": 22, "score": 238810 }, { "content": "Title: Jim Salinger Content: Michael Jim Salinger is an Auckland-based climate change scientist who formerly worked for the Crown Research Institute National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research ( NIWA ) . He was a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . From 2006 to 2010 , Salinger was President of the Commission for Agricultural Meteorology at the World Meteorological Organization . On 23 April 2009 , Salinger was dismissed by NIWA , ostensibly for breaching NIWA 's media policy . Salinger had represented NIWA to the public and media for many years and the dismissal caused a ` wide public outcry ' according to Television New Zealand . The Institute of Agricultural and Horticultural Science described the incident as a ` national embarrassment ' . In late May 2009 , Salinger stated that mediation with NIWA over the dismissal had failed and that he would be lodging a claim with the Employment Relations Authority . On 19 October 2009 , the Employment Relations Authority in Auckland began a hearing into Salinger 's dismissal ; during the hearing it emerged the Salinger has suffered from depression . In December 2009 , the Employment Relations Authority upheld Salinger 's dismissal . In 2012 , Salinger was Lorry Lokey Visiting Professor at Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Jim_Salinger", "rank": 23, "score": 238578 }, { "content": "Title: 2007 Nobel Peace Prize Content: The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in two equal parts , between the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and Al Gore `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "2007_Nobel_Peace_Prize", "rank": 24, "score": 238395 }, { "content": "Title: Rajendra K. Pachauri Content: Rajendra Kumar Pachauri ( born 20 August 1940 ) was the chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He held the post from 2002 until his resignation in 2015 , during which time the organization was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . He resigned from IPCC in February 2015 . Following a media trial , The Energy and Resources Institute ( TERI ) Governing Council asked him to step down from the post of Director-General of the institute . The Governing Council of TERI in a meeting in February 2016 appointed Ashok Chawla , a Gujarat cadre Indian Administrative Service Office who was former Union Finance Secretary and former Chairman of the Competition Commission , as its new chairman . Ajay Mathur , a technocrat in the Bureau of Energy Efficiency , was appointed as the Director General of TERI by the Governing Council in July 2015 .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Rajendra_K._Pachauri", "rank": 25, "score": 238165 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program", "rank": 26, "score": 237485 }, { "content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment", "rank": 27, "score": 236884 }, { "content": "Title: The Deniers Content: The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "The_Deniers", "rank": 28, "score": 229022 }, { "content": "Title: Joel B. Smith Content: Joel B. Smith is an expert on climate change policy . He was a coordinating lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2001 assessment report and a lead author of the 2007 assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) . He is currently a Principal at Stratus Consulting Inc. , in Boulder , CO. .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Joel_B._Smith", "rank": 29, "score": 228226 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Second Assessment Report Content: The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report", "rank": 30, "score": 227620 }, { "content": "Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Michael_E._Mann", "rank": 31, "score": 227192 }, { "content": "Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Seita_Emori", "rank": 32, "score": 225032 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC (disambiguation) Content: IPCC may refer to : Independent Police Complaints Commission of England and Wales Independent Police Complaints Council of Hong Kong Integrated Professional Competency Course , a course of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations . Interworld Police Coordinating Company , a fictional organization in Jack Vance 's novels Irish Peatland Conservation Council", "qid": "2871", "docid": "IPCC_(disambiguation)", "rank": 33, "score": 222034 }, { "content": "Title: List of environmental reports Content: This is a list of notable environmental reports . In this context they relate to the impacts of human activity on the environment . City-level Decoupling : Urban Resource Flows and the Governance of Infrastructure Transitions - by the International Resource Panel Clean Energy Trends - a series of reports by Clean Edge - beginning in 2002 Copeland Report - for the U.S. government , completed in 1933 Copenhagen Diagnosis - written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries Dioxin Reassessment Report - by the United States Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport ( `` Leopold Report '' ) - United States Department of the Interior ( 1969 ) Environmental Risks and Challenges of Anthropogenic Metals Flows and Cycles - by the International Resource Panel Forest Principles - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) The Global 2000 Report to the President - Council on Environmental Quality ( 1981 ) Global Environment Outlook - United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Hirsch report ( Peaking of World Oil Production : Impacts , Mitigation , and Risk Management ) - United States Department of Energy Index of Leading Environmental Indicators - Pacific Research Institute IPCC First Assessment Report - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) IPCC supplementary report , 1992 - IPCC IPCC Second Assessment Report - IPCC IPCC Third Assessment Report Climate Change 2001 - IPCC ( 2001 ) IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 - IPCC ( 2007 ) IPCC Fifth Assessment Report ( 2014 ) Leopold Report ( `` Wildlife Management in the National Parks '' ) - Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management ( 1963 ) Livestock 's Long Shadow - Environmental Issues and Options - United Nations ( 2006 ) Living Planet Report - WWF , every two years Making Sweden an Oil-Free Society - Government of Sweden ( 2006 ) Meat Atlas - published by the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe Nuclear Power and the Environment - UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution - 1976 Our Common Future - World Commission on Environment and Development ( 1987 ) Outlook On Renewable Energy In America ( 2 volumes ) - American Council on Renewable Energy - 2007 Phase I Environmental Site Assessment - generic Planning Policy Statement 10 : Planning for Sustainable Waste Management ( PPS 10 ) - British Government Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation - United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) - planned for 2010 Report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification - Royal Commission on Genetic Modification ( 2001 ) State of the Climate - NOAA/NCDC ( published annually ) The State of the World - Worldwatch Institute ( published yearly since 1984 ) Wegman Report - to validate criticisms of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years Windscale : Britain 's Biggest Nuclear Disaster ( 2007 ) World Climate Report - Greening Earth Society The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates - selected and published by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group ( IUCN/SSC PSG ) , the International Primatological Society ( IPS ) , and Conservation International ( CI )", "qid": "2871", "docid": "List_of_environmental_reports", "rank": 34, "score": 220669 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 35, "score": 219529 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Summary for Policymakers Content: The Summary for policymakers ( SPM ) is a summary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports intended to aid policymakers . The form is approved line by line by governments : `` Negotiations occur over wording to ensure accuracy , balance , clarity of message , and relevance to understanding and policy . ''", "qid": "2871", "docid": "IPCC_Summary_for_Policymakers", "rank": 36, "score": 219006 }, { "content": "Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "David_Karoly", "rank": 37, "score": 218361 }, { "content": "Title: Bert Metz Content: Bert Metz ( born 15 August 1945 , The Hague ) is a Dutch climate policy expert . He was Co-chair of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group III on mitigation on climate change for the third and fourth assessment report of the IPCC . Currently he is a fellow at the european climate foundation . Metz obtained an Engineer 's degree in Chemical Engineering at Delft University of Technology and subsequently his Ph.D. degree at the same university . From 1976 to 1987 he worked for Dutch Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment in the fields of air pollution , external safety , noise pollution , chemical waste and the enforcement of environmental laws . From 1987 until 1992 he was Counsellor for Health and Environment at the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Washington DC . In 1992 he became Deputy Director for Air and Energy of the Netherlands Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment , with responsibility for climate policy . He led the Netherlands delegation to the negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the Climate Convention . In 1997 he moved to the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency at RIVM to head the group on climate change and global sustainability and was elected as co-chairman of the Working Group on Climate Change Mitigation of the IPCC for the preparation of the Third Assessment Report . In 2002 he was re-elected in that position for the 4th Assessment Report cycle . Although formally retired , Bert Metz is still very active in the climate policy arena , among others as advisor for the European Climate Foundation and as steering group member of UNEP 's annual Emissions Gap Report . In 2008 he was named Officer in the Order of Orange-Nassau . .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Bert_Metz", "rank": 38, "score": 217885 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 39, "score": 217545 }, { "content": "Title: Ismail El Gizouli Content: Ismail Abdel Rahim El Gizouli is a Sudanese civil servant specializing in energy and environment and a member of the bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He has acted as interim chairman of the IPCC since 24 February 2015 , following the resignation of Rajendra Kumar Pachauri . This appointment will last until the next election for a chairman , which is due to take place at the 42nd session in October 2015 .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Ismail_El_Gizouli", "rank": 40, "score": 217281 }, { "content": "Title: Hoesung Lee Content: Hoesung Lee ( born December 31 , 1945 ) is a South Korean economist and current chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . He is professor in the economics of climate change , energy and sustainable development in the Graduate School of Energy , Environment , Policy & Technology at Korea University in the Republic of Korea . Lee received his B.A. in economics from Seoul National University and a Ph.D. in economics from Rutgers University . Lee was elected as the chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) on October 6 , 2015 . One of his elder brothers is Lee Hoi-chang , former Prime Minister of South Korea and three-time presidential candidate .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Hoesung_Lee", "rank": 41, "score": 216921 }, { "content": "Title: Mohan Munasinghe Content: Mohan Munasinghe is a Sri Lankan physicist , academic and economist with a focus on energy , water resources , sustainable development and climate change . He was a Vice-Chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former Vice-President of the United States Al Gore . Munasinghe is the Chairman of the Munasinghe Institute for Development . Currently he is a Professor of Sustainable Development at the Sustainable Consumption Institute , University of Manchester , and Institute Professor at the Vale Sustainable Development Institute , Federal University of Para , Brazil . He also serves on the board of directors of Green Cross International and is a member of the Club of Rome .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Mohan_Munasinghe", "rank": 42, "score": 215940 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios", "rank": 43, "score": 215528 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 44, "score": 213726 }, { "content": "Title: Harry F. Lins Content: Harry F. Lins ( born 1948 ) is a hydrologist with the U.S. Geological Survey . Since joining USGS in 1971 , his work has spanned several Earth science disciplines , including coastal processes , surface water hydrology , and hydroclimatology . Although most of his career has been spent conducting research , he managed the USGS Global Change Hydrology Program from 1989 to 1997 , and served as Co-Chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Hydrology and Water Resources Working Group for the First Assessment Report . In 1999 , he and USGS colleague David Wolock developed `` WaterWatch '' , the Nation 's first website depicting maps and graphs of water resources conditions in near real-time . Lins currently serves as President of the World Meteorological Organization 's ( WMO ) Commission for Hydrology . Since the early 1980s , Lins ' research has focused principally on characterizing the surface water response to climate , with an emphasis on regional streamflow variability , long-term trends , and the statistical techniques appropriate for such analyses . Lins ' most controversial research , which has not been fully embraced by the climate science community , suggests that the significance of climate trends may be greatly overstated because it does not consider the possibility that long-term persistence is a component of climatic variations . Lins holds a B.S. in Geography from the University of Maryland ( 1971 ) , an M.S. in Geography from the University of Delaware , ( 1978 ) , and a Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences from the University of Virginia ( 1993 ) .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Harry_F._Lins", "rank": 45, "score": 213217 }, { "content": "Title: Stephen Schneider Content: Stephen Henry Schneider ( February 11 , 1945 -- July 19 , 2010 ) was Professor of Environmental Biology and Global Change at Stanford University , a Co-Director at the Center for Environment Science and Policy of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and a Senior Fellow in the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment . Schneider served as a consultant to federal agencies and White House staff in the Richard Nixon , Jimmy Carter , Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , George W. Bush and Barack Obama administrations . Schneider 's research included modeling of the atmosphere , climate change , and the effect of global climate change on biological systems . Schneider was the founder and editor of the journal Climatic Change and authored or co-authored over 450 scientific papers and other publications . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in Working Group II Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report and was engaged as a co-anchor of the Key Vulnerabilities Cross-Cutting Theme for the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) at the time of his death . During the 1980s , Schneider emerged as a leading public advocate of sharp reductions of greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming . In 2006 Professor Schneider was an Adelaide Thinker in Residence advising the South Australian Government of Premier Mike Rann on climate change and renewable energy policies . In ten years South Australia went from zero to 31 % of its electricity generation coming from renewables . An annual award for outstanding climate science communication was created in Schneider 's honor after his death , by the Commonwealth Club of California .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Stephen_Schneider", "rank": 46, "score": 212926 }, { "content": "Title: Anders Levermann Content: Anders Levermann is a climate scientist at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Columbia University . He is a Professor of the Dynamics of the Climate System at Institute for Physics and Astrophysics of the Potsdam University , Germany . He was a lead author of the chapter on sea-level changes of the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC AR5 ) , and contributed to the paleoclimate chapter in the previous report ( IPCC-AR4 ) . Levermann advises political and economic stakeholders on the issue of climate change .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Anders_Levermann", "rank": 47, "score": 212299 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 48, "score": 211382 }, { "content": "Title: Kirk R. Smith Content: Kirk R. Smith is an expert on the health and climate effects of household energy use in developing nations . He is currently a professor of Global Environmental Health at the University of California , Berkeley , where his research focuses on the relationships among environmental quality , health , resource use , climate , development , and policy in developing countries . Smith contributed a great deal to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and the work of the IPCC ( including the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize . Smith is a recipient of the 2012 Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement for his work with cookstoves , health , and climate . He is also credited with designing and implementing the first randomized controlled trial of the health effects of indoor air pollution ( IAP ) from cookstoves .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Kirk_R._Smith", "rank": 49, "score": 210846 }, { "content": "Title: Giulio Boccaletti Content: Giulio Boccaletti , Ph.D. , ( born in Modena , Italy ) is the British-Italian Chief Strategy Officer and Global Managing Director for Water at The Nature Conservancy . Trained as a physicist and atmospheric scientist , Boccaletti currently sits on the World Economic Forum 's Global Agenda Council , and has served on the OECD-WWC High Level Panel on Infrastructure Financing for a Water-Secure World . An alumnus of MIT , Princeton and Bologna universities , Boccaletti was briefly a lead author of the fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributes to the ideas platform published by the Edge Foundation , Inc. .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Giulio_Boccaletti", "rank": 50, "score": 210064 }, { "content": "Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists", "rank": 51, "score": 209217 }, { "content": "Title: Steve Rayner Content: Steve Rayner is James Martin Professor of Science and Civilization at Oxford University and Director of the Institute for Science , Innovation and Society , a member of the Oxford Martin School . He describes himself as an `` undisciplined social scientist '' having been trained in philosophy , comparative religion ( BA University of Kent ) and political anthropology ( PhD University College London ) . A key research interest is climate policy , in particular adaptation and geoengineering as ways to mitigate climate change 's effects . He has been an outspoken critic of the architecture of the Kyoto Protocol , and his paper The Wrong Trousers : Radically Rethinking Climate Policy , co-written with Gwyn Prins of the London School of Economics has been widely cited on this topic . He is also interested in wicked problems , uncomfortable knowledge and clumsy solutions . He is currently principal investigator of the Oxford Programme for the Future of Cities and co-director of the Oxford Geoengineering Programme . In 2008 , he was listed by Wired Magazine as one of the 15 people the next President should listen to and was recognized for his contribution to the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Steve_Rayner", "rank": 52, "score": 208927 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Bullock (scientist) Content: Peter Bullock ( 6 July 1937 -- 5 April 2008 ) was a soil scientist whose initial work in the field of soil micromorphology preceded an interest in land degradation . His advocacy of the need to treat soil as a sustainable resource led to his appointment to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Bullock contributed to the reports of the IPCC , which was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Peter_Bullock_(scientist)", "rank": 53, "score": 208445 }, { "content": "Title: C. Vernon Cole Content: Dr. C. Vernon Cole ( 1922 -- August 30 , 2013 ) was a soil scientist known primarily for his work on nutrient cycling in agroecosystems . He was a member of Working Group II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Second Assessment report , and the lead author of Chapter 23 `` Agricultural Options for Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions '' . The IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "C._Vernon_Cole", "rank": 54, "score": 207363 }, { "content": "Title: John Zillman Content: John W. Zillman AO ( born 28 July 1939 ) is an Australian meteorologist , and former President of the World Meteorological Organization and the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering ( ATSE ) . He was born and was educated in Brisbane , Queensland . Through his leadership in professional organizations and advisory groups , Zillman has contributed to shaping science and innovation policy in Australia . More widely , he has contributed to raising awareness to the consequences of global climate change through involvement in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "John_Zillman", "rank": 55, "score": 207106 }, { "content": "Title: Paul Raskin Content: Paul Raskin is the founding President of the Tellus Institute , which has conducted over 3,500 research and policy projects throughout the world on environmental issues , resource planning , scenario analysis , and sustainable development . His research and writing has centered on formulating and analyzing alternative global and regional scenarios , and the requirements for a transition to a sustainable , just , and livable future , called the Great Transition . Dr. Raskin has served as a lead author on a number of high profile international reports , including the U.S. National Academy of Science 's Board on Sustainability , the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment , the United Nations Environment Programme 's Global Environment Outlook , the Earth Charter , and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Paul_Raskin", "rank": 56, "score": 206813 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy", "rank": 57, "score": 206753 }, { "content": "Title: David Wratt Content: David Stuart Wratt QSO is the Chief Scientist ( Climate ) at the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research ( NIWA ) and is responsible for NIWA 's National Climate Centre . He has a PhD in atmospheric physics from the University of Canterbury . He has worked in the USA and Australia as well as New Zealand . His expertise includes climate and meteorology , climate change science and impacts , mountain meteorology , and air quality . He is a Companion of the Royal Society of New Zealand . He chairs the Climate Committee of the Royal Society of New Zealand . He is a member of the Bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and he is a Vice-Chair of IPCC Working Group 1 , which assesses the physical science of climate change . He was a Coordinating Lead Author of the `` Australia and New Zealand '' chapter of the IPCC Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . After gaining a PhD in atmospheric physics from the University of Canterbury and a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Illinois , he worked for the New Zealand Meteorological Service . In 1992 he and other climate researchers transferred to NIWA . Wratt has stated : `` There 's a strong scientific case for significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions . We need a combination of reducing our emissions in New Zealand and being part of international negotiations to reduce emissions globally in order to forestall the worst effects . '' Wratt was made a Companion of the Queen 's Service Order in the 2012 New Year Honours , for services to science .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "David_Wratt", "rank": 58, "score": 206625 }, { "content": "Title: Gary Yohe Content: Gary Wynn Yohe is the Huffington Foundation Professor of Economics and Environmental Studies at Wesleyan University , Middletown , Connecticut . He holds a PhD from Yale University . Yohe specializes in Microeconomic theory , Natural Resources , and Environmental Economics . He is a researcher on the economics of climate change and integrated assessment modelling . Among other works , he is an editor of the book `` Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change '' and co-author ( with Edwin Mansfield ) of `` Microeconomics | Microeconomics : Theory and Applications '' . He is a senior member of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was awarded a share of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore . He has been involved with the IPCC since the mid-1990s , has served , among other capacities , as a Lead Author for four different chapters in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , and as Convening Lead Author for the last chapter of the contribution of Working Group II to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Yohe also worked with the Core Writing Team to prepare the overall Synthesis Report for the entire Assessment . Yohe is also a member of the New York City Panel on Climate Change and the standing Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change of the National Academy of Sciences . He is also a standing member of the National Academy of Sciences ' Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change . He was a vice-chair of the Third National Climate Assessment . He is one of the four co-signers of an open letter , dated March 12 , 2010 , regarding possible errors in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and regularly advises the US government .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Gary_Yohe", "rank": 59, "score": 205732 }, { "content": "Title: Gabriele C. Hegerl Content: Gabriele C. Hegerl FRS ( born 1962 ) is Professor of Climate System Science at the University of Edinburgh School of GeoSciences . Prior to 2007 she held research positions at Texas A&M University and at Duke University 's Nicholas School of the Environment , during which time she was a coordinating lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth and Fifth Assessment Report .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Gabriele_C._Hegerl", "rank": 60, "score": 205359 }, { "content": "Title: Dork Sahagian Content: Dork Sahagian is an Armenian American climate scientist . He is the Director of the Environmental Initiative at Lehigh University in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania . He invented a technique for calculating the Earth 's air pressure in the past , based on the difference in the size of the bubbles in cooled volcanic lava . Sahagian contributed to three of four assessment reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , which on October 12 , 2007 was jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize with former vice president Al Gore .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Dork_Sahagian", "rank": 61, "score": 205274 }, { "content": "Title: Jean Palutikof Content: Jean Palutikof is founding Director of the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility ( NCCARF ) at Griffith University , Australia . She has held this position since 2008 . Prior to this , Professor Palutikof was based at the UK Met Office during which time she managed the production of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report for Working Group II ( Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability ) . Professor Palutikof is among the foremost scholars of climate change adaptation and was lead author and review editor for several assessments of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and was present in Oslo at the ceremony at which the IPCC received the Nobel Peace Prize .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Jean_Palutikof", "rank": 62, "score": 204091 }, { "content": "Title: Dennis Tirpak Content: Dennis Tirpak is an expert on Climate Change . He is a Senior Fellow at the World Resources Institute . He was the director of Global Climate Change Policy at the United States Environmental Protection Agency for ten years . He was the Coordinator of Science and Technology at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for nine years . He was the head of the climate change unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) for three years . He has also worked on the Montreal Protocol and held positions in industry with Texaco and Alcoa . He is one of the coordinating lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice President Al Gore . He advises national governments and industry as an associate with the International Institute for Sustainable Development in Canada and a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute in Washington , D.C. He was the Chairman of The International Scientific Steering Committee for Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations which took place at the invitation of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2005 . In 1989 he co-authored the first report to Congress , The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change on the United States , and has written a scientific and policy history on climate change and contributed to many publications including the New York Times in an op-ed titled `` How Green is My Taxi '' .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Dennis_Tirpak", "rank": 63, "score": 203449 }, { "content": "Title: Daniel Kammen Content: Daniel Kammen is the Class of 1935 Distinguished Professor of Energy at the University of California , Berkeley and a climate Science Envoy for the State Department . He holds a dual appointment at the Energy and Resources Group ( part of the College of Natural Resources ) and the Goldman School of Public Policy . He is also a coordinating lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which won the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , for their report , Climate Change 2007 , assessing man-made global warming . Kammen was elected a permanent fellow of the African Academy of Sciences in 1998 and , in 2007 , received the Distinguished Citizen Award from the Commonwealth Club of California . On September 9 , 2010 , Kammen was appointed chief technical specialist for renewable energy and energy efficiency at the World Bank . In 2016 , he was selected as a U.S. Science Envoy by the United States State Department .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Daniel_Kammen", "rank": 64, "score": 202415 }, { "content": "Title: Steve Running Content: Steven W. Running , ( born 1950 ) Regents Professor , Forest Ecology , College of Forestry & Conservation at the University of Montana , and Director of the Numerical Terradynamics Simulation Group , is responsible for developing the earth observing-oriented algorithms used by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) on board NASA 's satellites , Terra and Aqua . He continues to be the lead investigator on this project . Running 's MOD17 algorithms are used to provide accurate and continuous global monitoring of the terrestrial biosphere , specifically , generating near-real-time data sets for repeated monitoring of vegetation primary production on vegetated land at 1-km resolution at 8-day intervals . These datasets are unique in that they provide global data on primary productivity and span a decade . A recognized expert in global ecosystem monitoring , Running was invited to serve on the board of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . In 2007 , the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . Running made the following statement about winning the prize : `` We 've got to get past all the petty bickering and get to work . This is about a big transition for society over the next 50 years . The path we are on is unsustainable . What the Nobel committee is saying is that we 've got to wake up . We 've got to change the course of the whole world . '' Steve Running is co-author of the 2007 book , Forest Ecosystems , and has published over 240 scientific papers . In 2012 , Running suggested a tenth planetary boundary , the annual net global primary production of all terrestrial plants , as an easily determinable measure integrating many variables that will give `` a clear signal about the health of ecosystems '' .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Steve_Running", "rank": 65, "score": 202401 }, { "content": "Title: Ottmar Edenhofer Content: Ottmar Georg Edenhofer ( born in 8 July 1961 in Gangkofen , Lower Bavaria , Germany ) is one of the world 's leading experts on climate change policy , environmental and energy policy , and energy economics . Edenhofer currently holds the professorship of the Economics of Climate Change at the Technical University of Berlin . He is deputy director and chief economist of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research ( PIK ) as well as director of the Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change ( MCC ) . From 2008 to 2015 he served as one of the co-chairs of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group III `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . Among other functions , he is a member of the OECD Advisory Council `` Growth , Investment and the Low-Carbon Transition '' , a member of the High-Level Commission on Carbon Prices , a member of the Advisory Committee of the Green Growth Knowledge Platform ( GGKP ) , and a member of the German Academy of Science and Engineering ( acatech ) .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Ottmar_Edenhofer", "rank": 66, "score": 201333 }, { "content": "Title: Vincent R. Gray Content: __ NOTOC __ Vincent Richard Gray ( born 24 March 1922 ) is a New Zealand-based chemist , and a founder of the New Zealand Climate Science Coalition . Born in London on 24 March 1922 , Gray was awarded a PhD in physical chemistry by the University of Cambridge after studies on incendiary bomb fluids made from aluminium soaps . In New Zealand , he was the first Director of Building Research and later , Chief Chemist of the Coal Research Association . He has also published many articles and reports , seven in peer-reviewed journals . After retirement , he had four and a half years in China and when he returned became a critic of the claim that climate was harmed by human emissions of greenhouse gases . He has commented on every publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , with 1,898 comments on the 2007 Report . He has published critical studies on all of the reports including a book `` The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of ` Climate Change 2001 ' '' . He has published `` Confessions of a Climate Sceptic '' He is sceptical of the anthropogenic global warming : `` The two main `` scientific '' claims of the IPCC are the claim that `` the globe is warming '' and `` Increases in carbon dioxide emissions are responsible '' . Evidence for both of these claims is fatally flawed . '' Gray has called for the IPCC to be abolished , claiming it is `` fundamentally corrupt '' due to his conclusion that for significant parts of the work of the IPCC , the data collection and scientific methods employed are unsound and that the IPCC resists all efforts to try to discuss or rectify these problems . Gray was featured on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation program Counterpoint in a debate entitled `` Nine Lies about Global Warming '' , and was interviewed in a featured story in the New Zealand Herald as a `` prominent '' global warming skeptic . In 2002 , Gray also published a book , The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of `` Climate Change 2001 '' . In it , Gray argues `` that the quality and reliability of the IPCC 's measurements are poor , the system of determining how much weight should be attributed to different influences on the earth 's temperature is faulty , and the validity of evidence derived from computer modeling is questionable . ''", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Vincent_R._Gray", "rank": 67, "score": 199876 }, { "content": "Title: Burtoni Award Content: The Burtoni Award was created in 2003 by a group of leading experts and policy makers in the field of climate change . Its purpose is to recognize outstanding contributions to the science of adaptation to climate change . The award is named after the first recipient of the award , Ian Burton , an Emeritus Professor at the University of Toronto and a pioneer in the field of adaptation to climate change and extreme events and disasters . Ian has contributed to three Assessment Reports of the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) and the recent Special Report on Extremes ( SREX ) . Subsequent recipients of the Burtoni Award are : Roger Jones ( Australia ) 2005 . Saleemul Huq ( Bangladesh ) 2007 . Coleen Vogel ( South Africa ) 2010 . Karen O'Brien ( Norway/USA ) 2012 . Mark Pelling ( United Kingdom ) 2015 . Richard J.T. Klein ( the Netherlands ) 2016 . Short biographies of the awardees follow : Roger Jones is Professorial Research Fellow at the Centre for Strategic Economic Research , Victoria University Australia . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and has the same role in the Fifth Assessment Report . The Burtoni was awarded in recognition of his innovations in research methods for assessing adaptation to climate change , particularly in the application of risk management to adaptation . Saleemul Huq is a Senior Fellow with the International Institute for Environment and Development in London and Director of ICCCD ( International Centre for Climate Change and Development in Dhaka , Bangladesh . He received the award for his work linking adaptation and development , his research on decision making and his efforts to build capacity . It was awarded during a three-day workshop on Community-based Adaptation to Climate Change in Dhaka . Coleen Vogel is an Independent Consultant and previously Professor of Sustainability at the University of Witwatersrand , Johannesburg . She was Lead Author for the IPCC 4th assessment Report Working Group 2 Chapter on Africa , and she chaired the International Scientific Committee of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Climate Change . Karen O'Brien is Professor in the Department of Sociology and Human Geography at the University of Oslo , Norway . She was Lead Author of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report for Working Group II ( Chapter 20 : Climate-resilient pathways : adaptation , mitigation , and sustainable development ) . She was a Coordinating Lead Author of the IPCC Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation ( SREX ) in Chapter 8 ` Towards a Resilient and Sustainable Future ' . She was Chair of the Global Environmental Change and Human Security ( GECHS ) project of the IHDP from 2005-2010 . Mark Pelling is Professor of Geography at King 's College London . His research interests are in the institutions and social relationships that shape vulnerability and adaptation to natural disasters , including those associated with climate change , and in the ways in which conflicting values and practices of development inform resilience and transformation in the face of environmental change . He served as a coordinating author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation ( SREX ) and its Fifth Assessment Report . He also sits on the Scientific Steering Committees for the IGBP-IHDP core project Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone ( LOICZ ) and the ICSU core project Integrated Research on Disaster Risk ( IRDR ) . Richard J.T. Klein is a Senior Research Fellow at the Stockholm Environment Institute and Editor-in-Chief of the journal Climate and Development . He was awarded the Burtoni in recognition of his work to advance knowledge through international research , capacity-building and educational collaborations , including as co-director and chief scientist of the Nordic Centre of Excellence for Strategic Adaptation Research ( NORD-STAR ) and as a member , until 2015 , of the Scientific Steering Committee of the Global Programme of Research on Climate Change Vulnerability , Impacts and Adaptation ( PROVIA ) . He was only 24 when he became lead author of a chapter in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Second Assessment Report , published in 1994 . He has been a lead author or coordinating lead author of every IPCC Assessment Report since , as well as two Special Reports .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Burtoni_Award", "rank": 68, "score": 199770 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 69, "score": 199354 }, { "content": "Title: Mike Hulme Content: Michael ` Mike ' Hulme ( born 23 July 1960 ) is Professor of Climate and Culture in the Department of Geography at King 's College London . He was formerly professor of Climate Change in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Mike_Hulme", "rank": 70, "score": 199101 }, { "content": "Title: Fatima Denton Content: Fatima Denton is the Co-ordinator for the African Climate Policy Centre ( ACPC ) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa ( UNECA ) , based in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia . She directs a special initiatives division focused on innovation , science , technology and natural resource management . She partners with countries such as Benin and Liberia to develop and implement country needs assessment missions . Fatima Denton writes about topics including renewable energy , sustainable development , climate change , gender and climate change , climate change adaptation , vulnerability , food security and water and energy poverty . She is a lead author for Working Group II 's Fifth Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and for the IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) . She has served on a number of scientific committees including the Independent Science Panel ( ISP ) of the CGIAR Climate Change and Food Security Programme ( CCAFS ) . Denton was the 2015 Barbara Ward Lecturer , challenging policy-makers , researchers , and academics in London to reexamine Africa and its relationship to climate change . She is a speaker at the 2016 Borlaug Dialogue International Symposium , one of several `` Women Leaders Driving Agricultural Transformation in Africa '' .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Fatima_Denton", "rank": 71, "score": 199063 }, { "content": "Title: Richard G. Richels Content: Richard `` Rich '' Gayle Richels directs global climate change research at the Electric Power Research Institute . Richels received a BS degree in physics from the College of William & Mary . He was awarded MS and PhD degrees in decision science from Harvard University 's Division of Applied Sciences . Richels has served on a number of national and international advisory panels , including committees of the Department of Energy , the Environmental Protection Agency , and the National Research Council . He served as an expert witness at the Department of Energy 's hearings on the National Energy Strategy and testified at Congressional hearings on priorities in global climate change research . He was a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Second , Third and Fourth Assessment Reports ( the IPCC shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore ) and served on the Synthesis Team for the US National Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on the United States . He currently serves on the Scientific Steering Committee for the US Carbon Cycle Program and the Advisory Committee for Princeton University Carbon Mitigation Initiative . He has served as Editor of the Energy , Environment and National Resources area of the Operations Research Journal . He has also served on the Board of Editors of The Energy Journal and the Journal of Applied Stochastic Models and Data Analysis , and contributed to the Energy Modeling Forum . Richels is a co-author of Buying Greenhouse Insurance - the Economic Costs of Emission Limits ( with Alan S. Manne ) , and of Economic and environmental choices in the stabilization of atmospheric concentrations ( with Tom Wigley and Jae Edmonds ) . Both studies outline an economic approach to climate policy . Richels is a researcher on integrated assessment modelling for climate change , and regularly appears in the media .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Richard_G._Richels", "rank": 72, "score": 198792 }, { "content": "Title: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Content: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Venkatachalam_Ramaswamy", "rank": 73, "score": 198399 }, { "content": "Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases", "rank": 74, "score": 196223 }, { "content": "Title: Raymond Pierrehumbert Content: Raymond T. Pierrehumbert is the Halley Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford . Previously , he was Louis Block Professor in Geophysical Sciences at the University of Chicago . He was a lead author on the Third Assessment Report of the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) and a co-author of the National Research Council report on abrupt climate change . He was awarded a John Simon Guggenheim Fellowship in 1996 , which was used to launch collaborative work on the climate of early Mars with collaborators in Paris . He is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union ( AGU ) and has been named Chevalier de l'Ordre des Palmes Académiques by the Republic of France . He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2015 and sits on the Science and Security Board of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists . Pierrehumbert 's central research interest is how climate works as a system and developing idealized mathematical models to be used to address questions of climate science such as how the earth kept from freezing over : the faint young sun paradox . Current interests include climate of extrasolar planets . Pierrehumbert contributes to RealClimate . Pierrehumbert is married to Janet Pierrehumbert , professor of Language Modeling at the University of Oxford .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Raymond_Pierrehumbert", "rank": 75, "score": 195784 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 76, "score": 193719 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act", "rank": 77, "score": 193159 }, { "content": "Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Michael_Raupach", "rank": 78, "score": 192509 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report", "rank": 79, "score": 191872 }, { "content": "Title: David Titley Content: David W. Titley is a professor of meteorology at Pennsylvania State University and the founding director of their Center for Solutions to Weather and Climate Risk . He was also NOAA 's chief operating officer from 2012 -- 2013 . Before assuming these positions , he was a rear admiral in , and the chief oceanographer of , the U.S. Navy , in which he served for 32 years . Titley initiated the Navy 's Task Force on Climate Change , and serves on the CNA Corporation 's Military Advisory Board . He was formerly a climate change skeptic , but later changed his mind after looking at the evidence of what factors influence climate -- which are , according to Titley , `` what are the larger things doing -- what is the ocean doing ? What is the sun doing ? And what 's our atmosphere doing ? '' Since then , he has described climate change as `` one of the driving forces in the 21st century '' and said that it contributed to the 2011 Arab Spring . The Department of Defense requested that Titley present on their behalf at both Congressional Hearings and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) meetings from 2009 to 2011 . Titley is a member of the Hoover Institution 's Arctic Security Initiative , and serves on the Advisory Boards of the Applied Research Laboratory at Penn State , the Center for Climate and Security , Columbia University 's Center for Research on Environmental Decisions , and the Association of Climate Change Officers . He is a member of the National Academies of Science committee on Geoengineering and the Center for Naval Analysis ' Military Advisory Board and co-chairs the National Research Council 's `` A Decadal Survey of Ocean Sciences '' committee . Titley sits on the Science and Security Board at the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , which , among other things , enables him to participate in the discussions that determine the position of the Bulletin 's famed Doomsday Clock . Titley is also on the Advisory Board of Citizens Climate Lobby .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "David_Titley", "rank": 80, "score": 191551 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Stilbs Content: Peter Stilbs ( born 1 June 1945 ) is an emeritus professor in physical chemistry at the Royal Institute of Technology ( KTH ) in Stockholm , Sweden . Stilbs earned a master 's degree in chemical engineering from the Lund Institute of Technology at Lund University in 1969 , and a Ph.D. in physical chemistry in 1974 . He served as a research assistant in physical chemistry at Uppsala University from 1976 to 1982 , and as an assistant professor from 1982 to 1986 . In 1986 he became a professor in physical chemistry at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm . His main fields of research are the techniques and applications of nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) . Stilbs has also been active in the debate on global warming . He has criticised the view that there is a scientific consensus on the attribution of recent climate change , and described the climate projections conducted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) as inadequate and misleading . In September 2006 he was chairman of an international seminar at the Royal Institute of Technology labelled Global Warming -- Scientific Controversies in Climate Variability , where both critics and supporters of the theory of man-made global warming were invited .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Peter_Stilbs", "rank": 81, "score": 191497 }, { "content": "Title: John Woods (oceanographer) Content: Professor John Woods , CBE ( born 1939 ) is a British oceanographer . He studied physics at Imperial College , London ( 1958-66 ) , after which he was appointed principal research fellow at the Meteorological Office ( 1966-72 ) , while leading the RN Operation Thermocline in which he pioneered underwater flow visualisation . Later he joined NERC as Director of Marine and Atmospheric Science ( 1986-1994 ) , where he created the National Oceanography Centre at Southampton . He held professorships at Southampton University ( 1972-77 ) , Kiel University ( 1977-86 ) and Imperial College London ( 1994 - ) , carrying out research into the seasonal boundary layer of the ocean and plankton ecosystem models , and modelling global container freight . Woods has served on a number of international project committees , including GARP ( Global Atmospheric Research Programme ) , WCRP ( World Climate Research Programme0 , IGBP ( International GeoSphere-Biosphere Programme ) , EuroGOOS ( European Global Ocean Observing System ) . He was co-chairman of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment . He was a lead author of the first report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , an organisation which was later awarded the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize jointly with Al Gore . He is now ( 2015 ) Emeritus Professor of Oceanography & Complex Systems in the Faculty of Engineering , Department of Earth Science & Engineering , Imperial College London . He is Adjunct Fellow of Linacre College , University of Oxford ( 1994 - ) , and Emeritus Researcher of the CNR ( Italian National Research Council ) .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "John_Woods_(oceanographer)", "rank": 82, "score": 191248 }, { "content": "Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 83, "score": 190933 }, { "content": "Title: Piers Forster Content: Piers Forster is Professor of Physical Climate Change and Director of the Priestley International Centre for Climate at the University of Leeds . A physicist by training , his research focuses on quantifying the different human causes of climate change and the way the Earth responds . He is best known for his work on radiative forcing , climate sensitivity , contrails and geoengineering . He has contributed heavily to the writing of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports , including acting as a Lead Author for both the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Piers_Forster", "rank": 84, "score": 190884 }, { "content": "Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 85, "score": 190670 }, { "content": "Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Long-term_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 86, "score": 190211 }, { "content": "Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Peter_A._Stott", "rank": 87, "score": 187821 }, { "content": "Title: Werner Kurz Content: Werner Kurz is a Canadian research scientist at Canada 's Pacific Forestry Centre in Victoria , British Columbia . He is leading the development of an accounting system to assess potential climate change known as the National Forest Carbon Accounting System for Canada . Currently , his research focuses on using forest land to its maximum carbon efficiency , reducing the impact of natural disasters , and managing forests . Kurz holds a PhD in forest ecology from the University of British Columbia . He has made significant contributions to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and the work of the IPCC ( including the contributions of many scientists ) was recognized by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Werner_Kurz", "rank": 88, "score": 186262 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "World_Climate_Research_Programme", "rank": 89, "score": 186152 }, { "content": "Title: Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement Content: The Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement ( LSCE , Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ) is a laboratory for the study of climate and in particular climate change . It plays a very important role within the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which involves many of its researchers . It is very diversified because it includes modellers like experimenters , glaciologists as specialists in remote sensing or air quality study . The climate scientist Valerie Masson-Delmotte is involved in the laboratory .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Laboratoire_des_sciences_du_climat_et_de_l'environnement", "rank": 90, "score": 185991 }, { "content": "Title: Kathleen Miller Content: Kathleen A. Miller is a climate scientist who specializes in the economics of climate change and its effects on institutions , management of risk and investment decisions . She has worked as the lead author on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change chapter on North America in the report Climate Change 2001 : Impacts , Adaptations and Vulnerability . She is based at the United States National Center for Atmospheric Research in Colorado . Miller undertook her doctorate in Economics at the University of Washington in 1985 . Her dissertation was entitled The Right to Use vs. the Right to Sell : Water Rights in the Western United States . It explored the evolution of property institutions governing access to water in the arid western states and modelled the operation and effects of these institutions in the presence of both scarcity and inter-temporal variability in water supplies .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Kathleen_Miller", "rank": 91, "score": 185805 }, { "content": "Title: Why We Disagree About Climate Change Content: Why We Disagree About Climate Change : Understanding Controversy , Inaction and Opportunity was written by Mike Hulme and was published by the Cambridge University Press in 2009 . As of November 2012 it has sold over 15,000 copies . In 2009 it was selected by The Economist magazine as one of its science and technology ` Books of the Year ' and in 2010 was jointly awarded the Gerald L Young Prize for the best book in human ecology .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Why_We_Disagree_About_Climate_Change", "rank": 92, "score": 184218 }, { "content": "Title: The Hartwell Paper Content: The Hartwell Paper calls for a reorientation of climate policy after the perceived failure in 2009 of the UNFCCC climate conference in Copenhagen . The paper was published in May 2010 by the London School of Economics in cooperation with the University of Oxford . The authors are 14 natural and social scientists from Asia , Europe and North America , including Mike Hulme , Roger A. Pielke ( Jr ) , Nico Stehr and Steve Rayner , who met under the Chatham House Rule . The paper argues that `` decarbonisation will only be achieved successfully as a benefit contingent upon other goals which are politically attractive and relentlessly pragmatic . '' It emphasizes human dignity as a necessary guiding principle for climate policy : `` To reframe the climate issue around matters of human dignity is not just noble or necessary . It is also likely to be more effective than the approach of framing around human sinfulness -- which has failed and will continue to fail . '' It has three main objectives : 1 . Energy access for all The paper advocates taking investments in the innovations of renewable energy to decrease energy costs and to make them more affordable to society . Only this diversification of energy could extend the access to energy , especially in undeveloped countries . 2 . Clean energy 3 . Dealing with climate change The ultimate goal is `` to develop non-carbon energy supplies at unsubsidised costs less than those using fossil fuels . '' The Hartwell Paper recommends achieving this goal by introducing low carbon taxes . Moreover this money should be used to develop a CO2 free energy supply .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "The_Hartwell_Paper", "rank": 93, "score": 184072 }, { "content": "Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change", "rank": 94, "score": 182160 }, { "content": "Title: Pedro Moura Costa Content: Pedro Moura Costa ( born 1963 , Brazil ) is an entrepreneur involved in environmental finance with a focus on the international efforts for greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emission reductions . Of particular relevance , he was the founder and President of EcoSecurities Group Plc. , one of the leading project developers for the international carbon markets , and has written widely about the policy and science of climate change mitigation , including contributions to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Pedro_Moura_Costa", "rank": 95, "score": 182066 }, { "content": "Title: Ogunlade Davidson Content: Ogunlade Davidson ( nationality : Sierra Leone ) is Co-chair of the Working Group III , Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change since 1997 . From 1996 until 2000 , he held the post of Dean of the Faculty of Engineering , Fourah Bay College , University of Sierra Leone . He is the current Minister of Energy and Water Resources of Sierra Leone in the Ernest Bai Koroma Administration .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Ogunlade_Davidson", "rank": 96, "score": 181706 }, { "content": "Title: Myles Allen Content: Myles R. Allen is head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford 's Atmospheric , Oceanic and Planetary Physics Department . He is the Principal Investigator of the distributed computing project Climateprediction.net ( which makes use of computing resources provided voluntarily by the general public ) , and was principally responsible for starting this project . He is Professor of Geosystem Science in the School of Geography and the Environment , and a Fellow of Linacre College , Oxford . He has worked at the Energy Unit of the United Nations Environment Programme , the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in Oxfordshire , and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He contributed to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as a Lead Author of the Chapter on detection of change and attribution of causes , and was a Review Editor for the chapter on predictions of global climate change for the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . His research focuses on the attribution of recent climate change and assessing what these changes mean for global climate simulations of the future . In 2010 , Allen was awarded the Appleton Medal and Prize by the Institute of Physics for `` his important contributions to the detection and attribution of human influence on climate and quantifying uncertainty in climate predictions '' . Allen also provided the technical expertise for the game Fate of the World , which is `` a PC strategy game that simulates the real social and environmental impact of global climate change over the next 200 years . ''", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Myles_Allen", "rank": 97, "score": 180568 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 98, "score": 180030 }, { "content": "Title: Carlo Carraro Content: Carlo Carraro ( born May 17 , 1957 , in Italy ) is the Chancellor of the University of Venice for the three-year period 2009-2012 , with a two-year extension of his mandate in accordance to the Gelmini University Law bringing it up to summer 2014 . He is also professor of Environmental Economics at the same University . He is Director of the Sustainable Development Programme of the Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei and Director of the Climate Impacts and Policy Division of the Euro-Mediterranean Center for Climate Change ( CMCC ) . In 2008 , Carlo Carraro was elected Vice-Chair of the Working Group III and Member of the Bureau of the Nobel Laureate Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Carlo_Carraro", "rank": 99, "score": 179995 }, { "content": "Title: Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Content: The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO ( IOC/UNESCO ) was established by resolution 2.31 adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO . It first met in Paris at Unesco Headquarters from 19 to 27 October 1961 . Initially , 40 States became members of the Commission . The IOC assists governments to address their individual and collective ocean and coastal management needs , through the sharing of knowledge , information and technology as well as through the co-ordination of programs and building capacity in ocean and coastal research , observations and services . The IOC is the only UN body specialized in ocean science and services . It provides a focus for other UN organizations and agencies with regard to ocean science , observations and data exchange , and services such as global tsunami warning systems . Established in 1960 , the Commission celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2010 and currently has 147 Member States . Since the IOC often has its own accreditation within meetings such as those of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , the Convention on Biological Diversity ( CBD ) and the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development ( Rio +20 ) , this gives UNESCO two seats and two voices at the table . The IOC has been a key player in the recent international debate on sustainable development as it relates to the ocean . The Rio +20 outcome document affirmed the importance of `` the ocean and coasts '' to the sustainability debate , and is the basis for IOC 's ongoing support to the creation of a Sustainable Development Goal dedicated to the ocean . The IOC is closely involved in several international partnerships for ocean sustainability such as with the CBD , UN-Oceans and the World Ocean Assessment . The IOC/UNESCO is composed of its Member States ( 147 in 2014 ) , an Assembly , an Executive Council and a Secretariat . The Secretariat is based in Paris , France . Additionally the IOC has a number of Subsidiary Bodies : three regional sub-commissions ( IOCARIBE , IOCAFRICA , and WESTPAC ) , and programme and project offices in Apia ( Samoa ) , Bangkok ( Thailand ) , Cartagena ( Colombia ) , Copenhagen ( Denmark ) , Jakarta ( Indonesia ) , Kingston ( Jamaica ) , Nairobi ( Kenya ) , Muscat ( Oman ) , Perth ( Australia ) , and Port-au-Prince ( Haiti ) . The JCOMM in situ Observations Programme Support Centre , currently hosted in Toulouse ( France ) , is in the process of moving to Brest ( France ) . Additionally , IOC has a strong presence in Oostende ( Belgium ) , where the International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange ( IODE ) and the Secretariat for the Ocean Biogeographic Information System ( OBIS ) are based . Under IOC mandate , the IODE coordinates since 1961 the exchange of information and data between the IOC Member States and its national oceanographic data centers . As for OBIS , it was established by the Census of Marine Life program ( www.coml.org ) , and developed between 2000 and 2010 as an evolving strategic alliance of people and organizations sharing a vision to make marine biogeographic data , from all over the world , freely available over the World Wide Web . Any organization , consortium , project or individual may contribute data to OBIS .", "qid": "2871", "docid": "Intergovernmental_Oceanographic_Commission", "rank": 100, "score": 179647 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change", "rank": 1, "score": 183880 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture", "rank": 2, "score": 172401 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand Content: Climate Change Denial : Heads in the Sand is a non-fiction book about climate change denial , coauthored by Haydn Washington and John Cook , with a foreword by Naomi Oreskes . Washington had a background in environmental science prior to authoring the work , and Cook was educated in physics and founded the website Skeptical Science which compiles peer-reviewed evidence of global warming . The book was first published in hardcover and paperback formats in 2011 by Earthscan , a division of Routledge . The book presents an in-depth analysis and refutation of climate change denial , going over several arguments point-by-point and disproving them with peer-reviewed evidence from the scientific consensus for climate change . The authors assert that those denying climate change engage in tactics including cherry picking data purported to support their specific viewpoints , and attacking the integrity of climate scientists . They use social science theory to examine the phenomenon of climate change denial in the wider public , and call this phenomenon a form of pathology . The book traces financial support for climate change denial to the fossil fuel industry , asserting these companies have attempted to influence public opinion on the matter . Washington and Cook write that politicians have a tendency to use weasel words as part of a propaganda tactic through use of spin , as a way to deflect public interest away from climate change and remain passive on the issue . The authors conclude that if the public ceased engaging in denial , the problem of climate change could be realistically addressed . For his research on the book , and efforts in communicating the essence of climate change science to the general public , John Cook won the 2011 Australian Museum Eureka Prize for Advancement of Climate Change Knowledge . Climate Change Denial received a positive reception in reviews from publications including : The Ecologist , ECOS magazine , academic journal Natures Sciences Sociétés , the journal Education published by the New South Wales Teachers Federation , . An article in The New American was critical , describing the labels of `` deniers '' and `` denialists '' as cruel and forms of character assassination .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Climate_Change_Denial:_Heads_in_the_Sand", "rank": 3, "score": 161692 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 4, "score": 157461 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 5, "score": 151264 }, { "content": "Title: Naomi Oreskes Content: Naomi Oreskes ( born November 25 , 1958 ) is an American historian of science . She became Professor of the History of Science and Affiliated Professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Harvard University in 2013 , after 15 years as Professor of History and Science Studies at the University of California , San Diego . She has worked on studies of geophysics , environmental issues such as global warming , and the history of science . In 2010 , Oreskes co-authored Merchants of Doubt which identified some parallels between the climate change debate and earlier public controversies .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Naomi_Oreskes", "rank": 6, "score": 148968 }, { "content": "Title: Merchants of Doubt Content: Merchants of Doubt : How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming is a 2010 non-fiction book by American historians of science Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway . It identifies parallels between the global warming controversy and earlier controversies over tobacco smoking , acid rain , DDT , and the hole in the ozone layer . Oreskes and Conway write that in each case `` keeping the controversy alive '' by spreading doubt and confusion after a scientific consensus had been reached , was the basic strategy of those opposing action . In particular , they say that Fred Seitz , Fred Singer , and a few other contrarian scientists joined forces with conservative think tanks and private corporations to challenge the scientific consensus on many contemporary issues . The George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer , two of the subjects , have been critical of the book . Other reviewers have been more favorable . One reviewer said that Merchants of Doubt is exhaustively researched and documented , and may be one of the most important books of 2010 . Another reviewer saw the book as his choice for best science book of the year . It was made into a film , Merchants of Doubt , directed by Robert Kenner , released in 2014 .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Merchants_of_Doubt", "rank": 7, "score": 148553 }, { "content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Leipzig_Declaration", "rank": 8, "score": 147110 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 9, "score": 142997 }, { "content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)", "rank": 10, "score": 137932 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents", "rank": 11, "score": 136726 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 12, "score": 136238 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow", "rank": 13, "score": 131832 }, { "content": "Title: Global Roundtable on Climate Change Content: The Global Roundtable on Climate Change , convened by the Earth Institute at Columbia University brought together representatives from corporations , research institutions , and government organizations to discuss the scientific consensus , economics , technology , and public policy issues associated with climate change . Following preliminary research and discussions , the group first met in 2005 and held a series of public and private meetings over the next five year . The Roundtable had five objectives : Improve global consensus on the science , technology , economics , and policy issues of anthropogenic climate change . Review technology and policy proposals for mitigating climate change while meeting global energy demand . Support research and prototypes of technologies and policies that address climate change . Provide a forum for discussion , analysis , and exchange of ideas from the represented groups . Support proposals and initiatives generated by the Roundtable 's discussions . Participants in the Roundtable meetings : ABB , Air France , Alcan , Alcoa , Alliant Energy , Allianz , American Electric Power , BASF , Bayer , Calvert Group , China Renewable Energy Industry Association , Citigroup , Coalition of Rainforest Nations , Columbia University , Deutsche Telekom , DuPont , Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand , Endesa , Environmental Defense , Eskom , Eni , Exelon , Fairfield University , FPL Group , General Electric , Iberdrola , ING Group , Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , International Gas Union , Munich Re , National Grid , NRG Energy , Rainforest Alliance , Republic of Iceland , Ricoh , Suntech Power , Swiss Re , Vattenfall , Volvo , World Council on Churches , World Petroleum Council , and many others . The Roundtable was funded by a grant from the Lenfest Foundation . Jeffrey Sachs , Director of the Earth Institute served as Chair . David L. Downie served as Director of the Global Roundtable on Climate Change before leaving the Earth Institute to join Fairfield University . On February 20 , 2007 , the Roundtable released `` The Path to Climate Sustainability : A Joint Statement by the Global Roundtable on Climate Change '' . The Joint Statement outlines a post-Kyoto framework and has been endorsed by over 100 of the Roundtable participating corporations and organizations . The Statement outlines ways to effect change at the levels of policy and industry , particularly in regards to creating sustainable energy systems necessary for achieving economic growth . In addition to its internal discussions , which were aimed at information exchange , education and consensus building , and development of the parthbreaking Joint Statement , Roundtable participants also participated in public forums . For example , David L. Downie organized two side-event panels during sessions of the global climate negotiations that featured presentations by Roundtable Participants , including himself , regarding how businesses and scientists were working together to lower greenhouse gas emissions . David L. Downie also discussed the Roundtable and related issues at other events during the climate negotiations and in other forums", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Global_Roundtable_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 14, "score": 123361 }, { "content": "Title: Willie Soon Content: Wei-Hock `` Willie '' Soon ( born 1966 ) is an externally-funded part-time researcher of the Smithsonian at the Solar and Stellar Physics ( SSP ) Division of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics . Soon co-authored The Maunder Minimum and the Variable Sun -- Earth Connection with Steven H. Yaskell . The book treats historical and proxy records of climate change coinciding with the Maunder Minimum , a period from 1645 to about 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare . Soon disputes the current scientific understanding of climate change , and contends that most global warming is caused by solar variation rather than by human activity . He gained visibility in part due to strong scientific criticism of the methodology of a paper which he co-wrote . Climate scientists such as Gavin Schmidt of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies have strongly refuted Soon 's arguments , and the Smithsonian does not support his conclusions . He is nonetheless frequently cited by politicians opposed to climate-change legislation .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Willie_Soon", "rank": 15, "score": 122458 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program", "rank": 16, "score": 121736 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Global_warming_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 17, "score": 121600 }, { "content": "Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Vicky_Pope", "rank": 18, "score": 118827 }, { "content": "Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle", "rank": 19, "score": 118668 }, { "content": "Title: Robert Balling Content: Robert C. Balling , Jr. is a professor of geography at Arizona State University , and the former director of its Office of Climatology . His research interests include climatology , global climate change , and geographic information systems . Balling has declared himself one of the scientists who oppose the consensus on global warming , arguing in a 2009 book that anthropogenic global warming `` is indeed real , but relatively modest '' , and maintaining that there is a publication bias in the scientific literature .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Robert_Balling", "rank": 20, "score": 116893 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 21, "score": 116759 }, { "content": "Title: David Legates Content: David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university , and a former Delaware State Climatologist . Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale . Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "David_Legates", "rank": 22, "score": 116733 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report", "rank": 23, "score": 116354 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)", "rank": 24, "score": 116235 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Research (journal) Content: Climate Research is a small peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Inter-Research Science Center that was established in 1990 . Its founder and long time publisher was marine biologist Otto Kinne . Outside the climate research community , the journal is mostly known for its 2003 publication of a controversial and now discredited climate change article . Three volumes , each typically containing half a dozen articles , are published each year . Each of its 12 editors therefore handles an average of less than 2 articles a year . Climate Research covers all aspects of the interactions of climate with organisms , ecosystems , and human societies . In 2006 , a special issue of the journal , titled `` Advances in Applying Climate Prediction to Agriculture '' , was published under open access .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Climate_Research_(journal)", "rank": 25, "score": 115696 }, { "content": "Title: Murry Salby Content: Murry Lewis Salby is an atmospheric scientist who focused on upper atmospheric wave propagation for most of his early career , and who more recently has argued against aspects of the scientific consensus that human activity contributes to climate change . From the mid 1980s , Salby conducted research out of University of Colorado Boulder . In 2005 , the National Science Foundation opened an investigation into Salby 's federal funding arrangements and found that he had displayed `` a pattern of deception -LSB- and -RSB- a lack of integrity '' in his handling of federal grant money . He resigned his position in Colorado in 2008 and became professor of climate risk at Macquarie University in Macquarie Park , New South Wales . In 2013 he was dismissed by the university on grounds of refusal to teach and misuse of university resources . He has written two textbooks , Fundamentals of Atmospheric Physics ( 1996 ) , and Physics of the Atmosphere and Climate ( 2011 ) . The latter textbook , building on his first book , offers an overview of the processes controlling the atmosphere of Earth , weather , energetics , and climate physics .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Murry_Salby", "rank": 26, "score": 114969 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Change (journal) Content: Climatic Change is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media covering cross-disciplinary work on all aspects of climate change and variability . It was established in 1978 and the editors-in-chief are Michael Oppenheimer ( Princeton University ) and Gary Yohe ( Wesleyan University ) .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Climatic_Change_(journal)", "rank": 27, "score": 112858 }, { "content": "Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Nature_Climate_Change", "rank": 28, "score": 111356 }, { "content": "Title: Thin Ice (2013 film) Content: Thin Ice is a 2013 documentary film following geologist Simon Lamb on a search to understand the science behind climate change . This is achieved by traveling the world and meeting a range of scientists , from biologists to physicists , who are investigating the climate . The film 's conclusion emphasises the scientific consensus on human-induced climate change . The film was a joint initiative between Oxford University and Victoria University of Wellington , and premiered around the world on Earth Day 2012 , and in New Zealand in 2015 .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Thin_Ice_(2013_film)", "rank": 29, "score": 111049 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 30, "score": 109375 }, { "content": "Title: James Croll Content: James Croll , FRS , ( 2 January 1821 -- 15 December 1890 ) was a 19th-century Scottish scientist who developed a theory of climate change based on changes in the Earth 's orbit .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "James_Croll", "rank": 31, "score": 108496 }, { "content": "Title: Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration Content: The Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration was created as part of the Clear Skies Initiative in February 2002 by George W. Bush , as a Cabinet-level effort to coordinate climate change science and technology research . The White House says : `` The Secretary of Commerce and Secretary of Energy will lead the effort , in close coordination with the President 's Science Advisor . The research effort will continue to be coordinated through the National Science and Technology Council in accordance with the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . ''", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Committee_on_Climate_Change_Science_and_Technology_Integration", "rank": 32, "score": 108358 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 33, "score": 107715 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change", "rank": 34, "score": 107551 }, { "content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason", "rank": 35, "score": 106980 }, { "content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming", "rank": 36, "score": 106197 }, { "content": "Title: Watts Up With That? Content: Watts Up With That ? ( or WUWT ) is a blog promoting climate change denial that was created by Anthony Watts in 2006 . The blog predominantly discusses climate issues with a focus on anthropogenic climate change , generally accommodating beliefs that are in opposition to the scientific consensus on climate change . Contributors include Christopher Monckton and Fred Singer as guest authors . In November 2009 , the blog was one of the first websites to publish emails and documents from the Climatic Research Unit controversy , and a driving force behind its coverage . In the early months of 2010 , it was reported the site might be `` the most read climate blog in the world , '' and in 2013 Michael E. Mann referred to it as the leading climate change denial blog .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Watts_Up_With_That?", "rank": 37, "score": 105978 }, { "content": "Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Bjørn_Lomborg", "rank": 38, "score": 105849 }, { "content": "Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 39, "score": 105681 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992", "rank": 40, "score": 105277 }, { "content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment", "rank": 41, "score": 104118 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptical Science Content: Skeptical Science ( occasionally abbreviated SkS ) is a climate science blog and information resource created in 2007 by Australian cognitive scientist John Cook . In addition to publishing articles on current events relating to climate science and climate policy , the site maintains a large database of articles analyzing the merit of arguments commonly put forth by those who oppose the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Skeptical_Science", "rank": 42, "score": 102968 }, { "content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "North_Report", "rank": 43, "score": 102694 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Research Centre Content: The Climate Change Research Centre ( abbreviated CCRC ) is a research initiative established in 2007 at the University of New South Wales . The foundation Directors of the CCRC were the Australian Research Council ( ARC ) Federation Fellow Professor Matthew England , who established the Climate and Environmental Dynamics Laboratory in 2005 , and Professor Andrew Pitman , the Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science . The current Director is Professor Steven Sherwood ( an ARC Laureate Fellow ) . The Centre 's research falls into ten broad categories : Climate Oceanography Atmospheric Science Ecosystems Carbon Cycle Terrestrial Processes Climate Impacts Energy Policy Climate Model Evaluation Palaeoclimatology The CCRC is the University of New South Wales lead of the Australian Research Council 's Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science ( 2011 -- 2018 ) .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Climate_Change_Research_Centre", "rank": 44, "score": 102564 }, { "content": "Title: Richard Lindzen Content: Richard Siegmund Lindzen ( born February 8 , 1940 ) is an American atmospheric physicist known for his work in the dynamics of the middle atmosphere , atmospheric tides , and ozone photochemistry . He has published more than 200 scientific papers and books . From 1983 until his retirement in 2013 , he was Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Meteorology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He was a lead author of Chapter 7 , `` Physical Climate Processes and Feedbacks , '' of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Third Assessment Report on climate change . He has criticized the scientific consensus about climate change and what he has called `` climate alarmism . ''", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Richard_Lindzen", "rank": 45, "score": 102214 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus Content: Scientific consensus is the collective judgment , position , and opinion of the community of scientists in a particular field of study . Consensus implies general agreement , though not necessarily unanimity . Consensus is normally achieved through communication at conferences , the publication process , replication ( reproducible results by others ) , and peer review . These lead to a situation in which those within the discipline can often recognize such a consensus where it exists , but communicating to outsiders that consensus has been reached can be difficult , because the ` normal ' debates through which science progresses may seem to outsiders as contestation . On occasion , scientific institutes issue position statements intended to communicate a summary of the science from the `` inside '' to the `` outside '' of the scientific community . In cases where there is little controversy regarding the subject under study , establishing what the consensus is can be quite straightforward . Scientific consensus may be invoked in popular or political debate on subjects that are controversial within the public sphere but which may not be controversial within the scientific community , such as evolution or the claimed linkage of MMR vaccinations and autism .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Scientific_consensus", "rank": 46, "score": 102040 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 47, "score": 101849 }, { "content": "Title: Pattern Recognition in Physics Content: Pattern Recognition in Physics was an open-access journal originally published by Copernicus Publications which was established in March 2013 and terminated in January 2014 . The editors-in-chief were Sid-Ali Ouadfeul ( Algerian Petroleum Institute ) and Nils-Axel Mörner , the latter of whom is a well-known global warming skeptic . Copernicus ceased its publication due to concerns over the publications views towards the scientific consensus of global climate change and the method of peer review . In March 2014 Ouadfeul reopened the journal , `` run on private founding '' -LSB- sic -RSB-", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Pattern_Recognition_in_Physics", "rank": 48, "score": 101568 }, { "content": "Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "List_of_climate_research_satellites", "rank": 49, "score": 101404 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Dynamics Content: Climate Dynamics is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media . It covers all aspects of the dynamics of global climate systems , including analytical and numerical modeling research on the structure and behavior of the atmosphere , oceans , cryosphere , biomass , and land surface as interacting components of the dynamics of global climate . The journal also publishes reviews and papers emphasizing an integrated view of the physical and biogeochemical processes governing climate and climate change .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Climate_Dynamics", "rank": 50, "score": 100386 }, { "content": "Title: Merchants of Doubt (film) Content: Merchants of Doubt is a 2014 American documentary film directed by Robert Kenner and inspired by the 2010 book of the same name by Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway . The film traces the use of public relations tactics that were originally developed by the tobacco industry to protect their business from research indicating health risks from smoking . The most prominent of these tactics is the cultivation of scientists and others who successfully cast doubt on the scientific results . Using a professional magician , the film explores the analogy between these tactics and the methods used by magicians to distract their audiences from observing how illusions are performed . For the tobacco industry , the tactics successfully delayed government regulation until long after the establishment of scientific consensus about the health risks from smoking . As its second example , the film describes how manufacturers of flame retardants worked to protect their sales after toxic effects of the retardants were reported in the scientific literature . The central concern of the film is the ongoing use of these tactics to forestall governmental action to regulate greenhouse gas emissions in response to the risk of global climate change .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Merchants_of_Doubt_(film)", "rank": 51, "score": 100293 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 52, "score": 99930 }, { "content": "Title: ExxonMobil climate change controversy Content: The ExxonMobil climate change controversy is the controversy around ExxonMobil 's activities related to climate change , especially their promotion of climate change denial . Since the 1970s , ExxonMobil engaged in research , lobbying , advertising , and grant making , some of which were conducted with the purpose of delaying widespread acceptance and action on global warming . From the late 1970s and through the 1980s , Exxon funded internal and university collaborations , broadly in line with the developing public scientific approach . After the 1980s , the company was a leader in climate change denial , opposing regulations to curtail global warming . ExxonMobil funded organizations critical of the Kyoto Protocol and seeking to undermine public opinion about the scientific consensus that global warming is caused by the burning of fossil fuels . Exxon helped to found and lead the Global Climate Coalition of businesses opposed to the regulation of greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "ExxonMobil_climate_change_controversy", "rank": 53, "score": 99813 }, { "content": "Title: National Climate Assessment Content: The National Climate Assessment ( NCA ) is a United States government interagency ongoing effort on climate change science conducted under the auspices of the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The NCA is a major product of the U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which coordinates a team of experts and receives input from a Federal Advisory Committee . The Fourth National Climate Assessment is being developed . For the Third National Climate Assessment , released in 2014 , USGCRP coordinated hundreds of experts and received advice from a sixty-member Federal Advisory Committee . NCA research is integrated and summarized in the mandatory ongoing National Climate Assessment Reports . The reports are `` extensively reviewed by the public and experts , including federal agencies and a panel of the National Academy of Sciences . The First National Climate Assessment was published in 2000 . The First National Climate Assessment Report was `` prepared by the National Assessment Synthesis Team ( NAST ) , an advisory committee chartered under the Federal Advisory Committee Act to help the US Global Change Research Program fulfill its mandate under the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . The National Science and Technology Council forwarded the report to the President and Congress for their consideration as required by the Global Change Research Act . Administrative support for the US Global Change Research Program is provided by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research , which is sponsored by the National Science Foundation ( NCA 2000 ) . '' Between 2002 and 2009 , USGCRP previously known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) , produced twenty-one Synthesis and Assessment Products ( SAPs ) . The second NCA was published in 2009 and the third was released in 2014 . NCA 's overarching goal according to their May 20 , 2011 engagement strategy summary , `` is to enhance the ability of the U.S. to anticipate , mitigate , and adapt to changes in the global environment ( NCA 2011:2 ) . '' According to the USGCRP official website the NCA , In 2013 , the President 's Climate Action Plan released by the Executive Office of the President specifically noted the importance of the National Climate Assessments in achieving the goal of `` Using Sound Science to Manage Climate Impacts '' .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "National_Climate_Assessment", "rank": 54, "score": 99516 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 55, "score": 99496 }, { "content": "Title: Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow Content: The Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow ( CFACT ) is a Washington , D.C.-based 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization founded in 1985 that advocates for free-market solutions to environmental issues , but has increasingly turned to climate denial . For example , CFACT co-founder Craig Rucker stated that mankind faces a threat `` not from man-made global warming , but from man-made hysteria . '' At the 29 April 2017 Climate March , leaflets distributed by CFACT claimed the scientific consensus that mankind is now driving global changes in the planet 's climate are `` bogus '' , that reports of record-setting temperatures are `` the hottest lie '' being told , and `` CO2 is not the ` control knob ' of the climate '' .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Committee_for_a_Constructive_Tomorrow", "rank": 56, "score": 99453 }, { "content": "Title: 2004 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2004 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place between December 6 and December 17 , 2004 in Buenos Aires , Argentina . The conference included the 10th Conference of the Parties ( COP10 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The parties discussed the progress made since the first United Nations Climate Change Conference ten years ago and its future challenges , with special emphasis on climate change mitigation and adaptation . To promote developing countries better adapt to climate change , the Buenos Aires Plan of Action was adopted . The parties also began discussing the post-Kyoto mechanism , on how to allocate emission reduction obligation following 2012 , when the first commitment period ends .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "2004_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 57, "score": 99425 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 58, "score": 99191 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Stilbs Content: Peter Stilbs ( born 1 June 1945 ) is an emeritus professor in physical chemistry at the Royal Institute of Technology ( KTH ) in Stockholm , Sweden . Stilbs earned a master 's degree in chemical engineering from the Lund Institute of Technology at Lund University in 1969 , and a Ph.D. in physical chemistry in 1974 . He served as a research assistant in physical chemistry at Uppsala University from 1976 to 1982 , and as an assistant professor from 1982 to 1986 . In 1986 he became a professor in physical chemistry at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm . His main fields of research are the techniques and applications of nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) . Stilbs has also been active in the debate on global warming . He has criticised the view that there is a scientific consensus on the attribution of recent climate change , and described the climate projections conducted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) as inadequate and misleading . In September 2006 he was chairman of an international seminar at the Royal Institute of Technology labelled Global Warming -- Scientific Controversies in Climate Variability , where both critics and supporters of the theory of man-made global warming were invited .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Peter_Stilbs", "rank": 59, "score": 98120 }, { "content": "Title: Friends of Science Content: Friends of Science ( FoS ) is a Canadian non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary , Alberta . The organization takes a position that humans are largely not responsible for the currently observed global warming , contrary to the established scientific position on the subject . Rather , they propose that `` the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change , '' not human activity . They argued against the Kyoto Protocol . The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year . They are considered by many to promote climate change denial . They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry . Madhav Khandekar , Chris de Freitas , Tim Patterson and Sallie Baliunas act as advisers to the Friends of Science with their work cited in Friends ' publications . Douglas Leahey has been president since December , 2009 .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Friends_of_Science", "rank": 60, "score": 98000 }, { "content": "Title: Christopher Field Content: Chris Field , Ph.D is an American scientist and researcher , who has contributed to the field of climate change . The author of more than 200 scientific publications , Field 's research emphasizes impacts of climate change , from the molecular to the global scale . His work includes major field experiments on responses of California grassland to multi-factor global change , integrative studies on the global carbon cycle , and assessments of impacts of climate change on agriculture . Field 's work with models includes studies on the global distribution of carbon sources and sinks , and studies on environmental consequences of expanding biomass energy .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Christopher_Field", "rank": 61, "score": 97681 }, { "content": "Title: Ian Plimer Content: Ian Rutherford Plimer ( born 12 February 1946 ) is an Australian geologist , professor emeritus of earth sciences at the University of Melbourne , professor of mining geology at the University of Adelaide , and the director of multiple mineral exploration and mining companies . He has published many scientific papers , six books and is one of the co-editors of Encyclopedia of Geology . He has been an outspoken critic of both creationism and the scientific consensus on anthropogenic climate change .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Ian_Plimer", "rank": 62, "score": 97430 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment", "rank": 63, "score": 97032 }, { "content": "Title: U.S. Global Change Research Program Content: The United States Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) coordinates and integrates federal research on changes in the global environment and their implications for society . The program began as a presidential initiative in 1989 and was codified by Congress through the Global Change Research Act of 1990 ( P.L. 101-606 ) , which called for `` a comprehensive and integrated United States research program which will assist the Nation and the world to understand , assess , predict , and respond to human-induced and natural processes of global change . '' Thirteen departments and agencies participate in the USGCRP , which was known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program from 2002 through 2008 . The program is steered by the Subcommittee on Global Change Research under the Committee on Environment , Natural Resources and Sustainability , overseen by the Executive Office of the President , and facilitated by a National Coordination Office . During the past two decades , the United States , through the USGCRP , has made the world 's largest scientific investment in the areas of climate change and global change research . Since its inception , the USGCRP has supported research and observational activities in collaboration with several other national and international science programs . These activities led to major advances in several key areas including : Observing and understanding short - and long-term changes in climate , the ozone layer , and land cover ; Identifying the impacts of these changes on ecosystems and society ; Estimating future changes in the physical environment , and vulnerabilities and risks associated with those changes ; and Providing scientific information to enable effective decision making to address the threats and opportunities posed by climate and global change . These advances have been documented in numerous assessments commissioned by the program and have played prominent roles in international assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Program results and plans are documented in the program 's annual report , Our Changing Planet .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "U.S._Global_Change_Research_Program", "rank": 64, "score": 96769 }, { "content": "Title: International Conference on Climate Change Content: The International Conference on Climate Change is a conference series organized and sponsored by The Heartland Institute which aims to bring together global warming skeptics who `` dispute that the science is settled on the causes , consequences , and policy implications of climate change . '' The first conference took place in 2008 . As at 2017 there have been twelve conferences . Most of the events have been held in the United States , but there has been one in Australia and two in Germany .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "International_Conference_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 65, "score": 96764 }, { "content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Iris_hypothesis", "rank": 66, "score": 96632 }, { "content": "Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Peter_A._Stott", "rank": 67, "score": 96559 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy Content: The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy", "rank": 68, "score": 96319 }, { "content": "Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :", "qid": "2876", "docid": "List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis", "rank": 69, "score": 95791 }, { "content": "Title: Michael MacCracken Content: Michael Calvin MacCracken ( born 1942 ) , has been Chief Scientist for Climate Change Programs with the Climate Institute in Washington DC since 2002 ; he was also elected to its Board of Directors in 2006 .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Michael_MacCracken", "rank": 70, "score": 95719 }, { "content": "Title: Paris Agreement Content: The Paris Agreement ( Accord de Paris ) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation , adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020 . The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015 . It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony in New York . As of May 2017 , 195 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty , 147 of which have ratified it . After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016 , there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world 's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force . The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016 . The head of the Paris Conference , France 's foreign minister Laurent Fabius , said this `` ambitious and balanced '' plan is a `` historic turning point '' in the goal of reducing global warming . One year on , the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe , Paris ' most iconic monuments , in green .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Paris_Agreement", "rank": 71, "score": 95651 }, { "content": "Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "John_F._B._Mitchell", "rank": 72, "score": 95528 }, { "content": "Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy", "rank": 73, "score": 95508 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 74, "score": 95207 }, { "content": "Title: Anthony Watts (blogger) Content: Willard Anthony Watts ( born 1958 ) is an American blogger who runs Watts Up With That ? , a popular climate change denial blog that opposes the scientific consensus on climate change . A former television meteorologist and current radio meteorologist , he is also founder of the Surface Stations project , a volunteer initiative to document the condition of U.S. weather stations . The Heartland Institute helped fund some of Watts ' projects , including publishing a report on the Surface Stations project , and has invited him to be a paid speaker at the International Conference on Climate Change from 2008 to 2014 .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Anthony_Watts_(blogger)", "rank": 75, "score": 95148 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions Content: Climate Change : Global Risks , Challenges and Decisions was a conference on Climate Change held at the Bella Center by the University of Copenhagen . The event was organised with the assistance of other universities in the International Alliance of Research Universities . The stated aim of the conference was to provide `` a summary of existing scientific knowledge two years after the last IPCC report . '' The conference took place on 10 -- 12 March 2009 .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Climate_Change:_Global_Risks,_Challenges_and_Decisions", "rank": 76, "score": 95120 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 77, "score": 95113 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "World_Climate_Research_Programme", "rank": 78, "score": 95021 }, { "content": "Title: Jerry Taylor Content: Jerome Cogburn `` Jerry '' Taylor ( born August 2 , 1962 ) is an American environmental activist and policy analyst . Taylor is the president of the Niskanen Center , a Washington , D.C. based think tank that advocates for market environmentalism and the adoption of a carbon tax system to combat global warming . Before founding the Niskanen Center in 2015 , Taylor was a senior fellow at the Cato Institute , where he previously espoused a skeptical position on environmental issues . Taylor 's case is notable as an example of a former climate-change skeptic who came to embrace policies to address climate change after researching the scientific consensus behind man-made global warming . During the 1990s and 2000s Taylor made regular media appearances as a global warming skeptic , including on Penn and Teller 's show Bullshit as well as a special edition of the John Stossel show devoted to attacking climate science . Taylor changed his prior beliefs because `` the scientific evidence became stronger and stronger over time . '' In 2015 , Taylor published a recantation entitled the `` Conservative Case for a Carbon Tax '' in which he espoused a global carbon taxation system , enforced by tariffs and implemented as a revenue neutral tax swap . Taylor attended the University of Iowa as a political science major . He is also a board game designer who has released three wargames , Hammer of the Scots , Crusader Rex , and Richard III . He resides in Arlington , Virginia with his wife and their children .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Jerry_Taylor", "rank": 79, "score": 94940 }, { "content": "Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists", "rank": 80, "score": 94832 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of Climate Content: The Journal of Climate is a scientific journal published by the American Meteorological Society . The journal publishes articles on climate research , in particular those concerned with large-scale atmospheric and oceanic variability , changes in the climate system ( including those caused by human activities ) , and climate simulation and prediction .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Journal_of_Climate", "rank": 81, "score": 94749 }, { "content": "Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "The_Chilling_Stars", "rank": 82, "score": 94712 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 83, "score": 94709 }, { "content": "Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Ecological_forecasting", "rank": 84, "score": 94625 }, { "content": "Title: Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement Content: The Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement ( LSCE , Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ) is a laboratory for the study of climate and in particular climate change . It plays a very important role within the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which involves many of its researchers . It is very diversified because it includes modellers like experimenters , glaciologists as specialists in remote sensing or air quality study . The climate scientist Valerie Masson-Delmotte is involved in the laboratory .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Laboratoire_des_sciences_du_climat_et_de_l'environnement", "rank": 85, "score": 94382 }, { "content": "Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Michael_E._Mann", "rank": 86, "score": 94360 }, { "content": "Title: Petar Gburčik Content: Prof. Petar Gburčik ( Cyrillic : Петар Гбурчик ) ( 30 October 1931 - 29 October 2006 ) was a Serbian scientist and a Professor of Meteorology at the University of Belgrade . He was the author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction , which were used operationally in the Weather Service of Yugoslavia from 1970 to 1977 . In the same period he began modeling of the atmospheric diffusion of air-pollution and created the first model of the spatial distribution of air-pollution . The output of this model was used for the elaboration of the urban plan of Pančevo . For the actual research of the three-dimensional distribution of wind energy ( on the territories of Belgrade and Serbia ) he applied the integration of classic models with GIS technology . Special area of his engagements were the intentionally and inadvertently modified climates , as well as their impact on the sustainable development . These modifications destabilize the climate system and lead to big material and social damage , due to the lack of possibility of weather control . Petar Gburčik proved this with his scientific papers on weather modifications and climate change .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Petar_Gburčik", "rank": 87, "score": 93918 }, { "content": "Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Ian_Clark_(geologist)", "rank": 88, "score": 93749 }, { "content": "Title: Jeffrey Kiehl Content: Jeffrey Theodore Kiehl ( born June 10 , 1952 ) is an American climate scientist . He is head of the Climate Change Research Section in the National Center for Atmospheric Research located in Boulder , Colorado . He completed his atmospheric science doctoral studies at the State University of New York , Albany . He was awarded the 2012 Climate Communication Prize from the American Geophysical Union .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Jeffrey_Kiehl", "rank": 89, "score": 93654 }, { "content": "Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "I'm_not_a_scientist", "rank": 90, "score": 93644 }, { "content": "Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Kevin_E._Trenberth", "rank": 91, "score": 93493 }, { "content": "Title: Tyndall Centre Content: The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that brings together scientists , economists , engineers and social scientists to ` research , assess and communicate from a distinct trans-disciplinary perspective , the options to mitigate , and the necessities to adapt to current climate change and continuing global Warming , and to integrate these into the global , UK and local contexts of sustainable development ' . The centre , named after the 19th-century UK scientist John Tyndall ( born in Ireland ) and founded in 2000 , has eight core partners : the University of East Anglia , University of Cambridge , Cardiff University , University of Manchester , Newcastle University , University of Oxford , University of Southampton , and the University of Sussex . Fudan University joined the Tyndall Centre partnership in May 2011 . From 2000 until 2010 , core funding was provided by the UK 's Natural Environment Research Council , the Economic and Social Research Council , and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council . The Tyndall Centre in the UK is now primarily funded by the host universities and by research grants . Fudan Tyndall Centre is funded with a 15-year commitment by the Chinese central government and the Shanghai City government . The Tyndall Centre 's director is currently Professor Corinne Le Quéré . The deputy director is Professor Kevin Anderson , and the director of strategic development is Professor Robert Watson . The deputy director for international activities is Professor Trevor Davies . The founding director is Professor Mike Hulme .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Tyndall_Centre", "rank": 92, "score": 93447 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference was held in Cancún , Mexico , from 29 November to 10 December 2010 . The conference is officially referred to as the 16th session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 6th session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol . In addition , the two permanent subsidiary bodies of the UNFCCC -- the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice ( SBSTA ) and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation ( SBI ) -- held their 33rd sessions . The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference extended the mandates of the two temporary subsidiary bodies , the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA ) , and they met as well .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "2010_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 93, "score": 93286 }, { "content": "Title: Hard Choices (Coward book) Content: Hard Choices : Climate Change in Canada is a non-fiction compilation book about climate change in Canada , edited by Harold Coward and Andrew J. Weaver . It was published in paperback format by Wilfrid Laurier University Press in 2004 . Hard Choices received favorable reviews in academic journals including Great Plains Research : A Journal of Natural and Social Sciences , Environmental Reviews , Annals of the Association of American Geographers , and Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Hard_Choices_(Coward_book)", "rank": 94, "score": 93256 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 95, "score": 93150 }, { "content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory", "rank": 96, "score": 92807 }, { "content": "Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Climate_ethics", "rank": 97, "score": 92800 }, { "content": "Title: Global Change Research Act of 1990 Content: The Global Change Research Act 1990 is a United States law requiring research into global warming and related issues . It requires a report to Congress every four years on the environmental , economic , health and safety consequences of climate change . According to a summary by the Congressional Research Service , the Act : `` Directs the President , through the Federal Coordinating Council on Science , Engineering , and Technology ( Council ) , to establish the Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences to carry out Council functions under specified provisions of the National Science and Technology Policy , Organization , and Priorities Act of 1976 relating to global change research , to increase the effectiveness and productivity of Federal global change research efforts . Directs the President to establish an interagency United States Global Change Research Program to improve understanding of global change . Requires the Chairman of the Council , through the Committee , to develop a National Global Change Research Plan for implementation of the Program . Sets forth required Plan contents and research elements , including that the Plan provide recommendations for collaboration within the Federal Government and among nations . Requires the Chairman to enter into an agreement with the National Research Council to : ( 1 ) evaluate the scientific content of the Plan ; and ( 2 ) provide information and advice and recommended priorities for future global change research . Requires the Committee to provide general guidance each year to each Federal agency or department participating in the Program with respect to preparation of requests for appropriations related to the Program . Requires the Council , at least every four years , through the Committee , to submit to the President and the Congress an assessment regarding the findings of the Program and associated uncertainties , the effects of global change , and current and major long-term trends in global change . Requires that the research findings of the Committee and of Federal agencies and departments be made available to the Environmental Protection Agency and all Federal agencies and departments . Title II : International Cooperation in Global Change Research - International Cooperation in Global Change Research Act of 1990 - Declares that the President should direct the Secretary of State to initiate discussions with other nations on : ( 1 ) international agreements to coordinate global change research ; and ( 2 ) an international research protocol for cooperation on the development of energy technologies which have minimally adverse effects on the environment . Directs the President to establish an Office of Global Change Research Information to disseminate to foreign governments and their citizens , businesses , and institutions scientific research useful in preventing , mitigating , or adapting to the effects of global change . Title III : Growth Decision Aid - Directs the Secretary of Commerce to : ( 1 ) conduct a study on the implications of growth and development on urban , suburban , and rural communities ; and ( 2 ) based on the study , produce a decision aid to assist State and local authorities in planning and managing growth and development while preserving community character . '' Following the publication of the first National Climate Assessment Report there were accusations that information was being suppressed , leading to complacency around public works , such as New Orleans flood defences . Greenpeace , the Center for Biological Diversity and Friends of the Earth challenged the delay in federal district court on August 21 , 2007 . A judge ruled that an updated national assessment must be produced by May 31 , 2008 .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Global_Change_Research_Act_of_1990", "rank": 98, "score": 92672 }, { "content": "Title: Xiuhtezcatl Martinez Content: Xiuhtezcatl Martinez , or Xiuhtezcatl Roske-Martinez , is a climate change activist , hip-hop artist and youth director of Earth Guardians , a worldwide conservation organization . As a teenager , Martinez has given TED talks and spoken before the United Nations on environmental policy . Martinez 's first name is an Aztec word pronounced `` Shu-TEZ-caht '' . Martinez was raised in Boulder , Colorado .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "Xiuhtezcatl_Martinez", "rank": 99, "score": 92625 }, { "content": "Title: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP17 ) was held in Durban , South Africa , from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . A treaty was not established , but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015 , which was to take effect in 2020 . There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted . The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts . While the president of the conference , Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success , scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 ° C as more urgent action is needed .", "qid": "2876", "docid": "2011_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 100, "score": 92537 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Benny Peiser Content: Benny Josef Peiser ( born 1957 ) is a social anthropologist specialising in the environmental and socio-economic impact of physical activity on health . He was a senior lecturer in the School of Sport and Exercise Sciences at Liverpool John Moores University ( LJMU ) and is a visiting fellow at the University of Buckingham . Peiser established the Cambridge Conference Network in 1997 . Peiser acknowledges that he is `` not a climate scientist '' and has `` never claimed to be one . '' His interest as a social anthropologist , is in `` how climate change is portrayed as a potential disaster and how we respond to that . '' As an outspoken climate change sceptic , Peiser became director of the newly established UK lobbying group Global Warming Policy Foundation in 2009 . He serves as co-editor of the journal , Energy & Environment and is a regular contributor to Canada 's National Post.The National Post , former media magnate Conrad Black 's national flagship title was established to provide a voice for Canadian conservatives and to compete with Canada 's The Globe and Mail , the establishment newspaper with a liberal bias in Canadian newspapers . Outside Toronto , the National Post was built on the printing and distribution infrastructure of Black 's national newspaper chain , formerly called Southam Newspapers , that included papers such as the Ottawa Citizen , Montreal Gazette , Edmonton Journal , Calgary Herald , and Vancouver Sun and Benny Peiser continues to participate in stories with these newspapers as well .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Benny_Peiser", "rank": 1, "score": 169492 }, { "content": "Title: Web of Science Content: Web of Science ( previously known as Web of Knowledge ) is an online subscription-based scientific citation indexing service originally produced by the Institute for Scientific Information ( ISI ) , now maintained by Clarivate Analytics ( previously the Intellectual Property and Science business of Thomson Reuters ) , that provides a comprehensive citation search . It gives access to multiple databases that reference cross-disciplinary research , which allows for in-depth exploration of specialized sub-fields within an academic or scientific discipline .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Web_of_Science", "rank": 2, "score": 141753 }, { "content": "Title: Materials Science Citation Index Content: The Materials Science Citation Index is a citation index , established in 1992 , by Thomson ISI ( Thomson Reuters ) . Its overall focus is cited reference searching of the notable and significant journal literature in materials science . The database makes accessible the various properties , behaviors , and materials in the materials science discipline . This then encompasses applied physics , ceramics , composite materials , metals and metallurgy , polymer engineering , semiconductors , thin films , biomaterials , dental technology , as well as optics . The database indexes relevant materials science information from over 6,000 scientific journals that are part of the ISI database which is multidisciplinary . Author abstracts are searchable , which links articles sharing one or more bibliographic references . The database also allows a researcher to use an appropriate ( or related to research ) article as a base to search forward in time to discover more recently published articles that cite it . Materials Science Citation Index lists 625 high impact journals , and is accessible via the Science Citation Index Expanded collection of databases .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Materials_Science_Citation_Index", "rank": 3, "score": 139322 }, { "content": "Title: Institute for Scientific Information Content: The Institute for Scientific Information ( ISI ) was founded by Eugene Garfield in 1960 . It was acquired by Thomson Scientific & Healthcare in 1992 , and became known as Thomson ISI . It was a part of the Intellectual Property & Science business of Thomson Reuters until 2016 , when the IP & Science business was sold , becoming Clarivate Analytics . ISI offered bibliographic database services . Its specialty : citation indexing and analysis , a field pioneered by Garfield . It maintains citation databases covering thousands of academic journals , including a continuation of its longtime print-based indexing service the Science Citation Index ( SCI ) , as well as the Social Sciences Citation Index ( SSCI ) , and the Arts and Humanities Citation Index ( AHCI ) . All of these are available via ISI 's Web of Knowledge database service . This database allows a researcher to identify which articles have been cited most frequently , and who has cited them . The database provides some measure of the academic impact of the papers indexed in it , and may increase their impact by making them more visible and providing them with a quality label . Some anecdotal evidence suggests that appearing in this database can double the number of citations received by a given paper . The ISI also publishes the annual Journal Citation Reports which list an impact factor for each of the journals that it tracks . Within the scientific community , journal impact factors play a large but controversial role in determining the kudos attached to a scientist 's published research record . A list of over 14,000 journals is maintained by the ISI . The list includes some 1100 arts and humanities journals as well as scientific journals . Listing is based on published selection criteria and is an indicator of journal quality and impact . ISI publishes Science Watch , a newsletter which identifies every two months one paper published in the previous two years as a `` fast breaking paper '' in each of 22 broad fields of science , such as Mathematics ( including Statistics ) , Engineering , Biology , Chemistry , and Physics . The designations are based on the number of citations and the largest increase from one bimonthly update to the next . Articles about the papers often include comments by the authors . The ISI also publishes a list of `` ISI highly cited researchers '' , one of the factors included in the Academic Ranking of World Universities published by Shanghai Jiao Tong University . Recently , some people have argued about the credibility of ISI assessment . They believe the ISI organization does not act based on the rules and criteria offered on their website .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Institute_for_Scientific_Information", "rank": 4, "score": 134452 }, { "content": "Title: Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics Content: The Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics is an annual peer reviewed scientific journal published by Annual Reviews . The editors-in-chief are Sandra M. Faber ( University of California , Santa Cruz ) and Ewine van Dishoeck ( Sterrewacht Leiden ) . The journal reviews scientific literature pertaining to local and distant celestial entities throughout the observable universe , as well as cosmology , instrumentation , techniques , and the history of developments . It was established in 1963 . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2016 impact factor of 37.8 , ranking it 1st out of 61 journals in the category `` Astronomy and Astrophysics '' .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Annual_Review_of_Astronomy_and_Astrophysics", "rank": 5, "score": 127816 }, { "content": "Title: Portugaliae Mathematica Content: Portugaliae Mathematica is a peer-reviewed journal of the Portuguese Mathematical Society , publishing research papers in all branches of mathematics . The journal was established in 1937 , by the Portuguese Mathematician António Aniceto Monteiro , its first editor-in-chief . Portugaliae Mathematica is reviewed cover-to-cover in Zentralblatt für Mathematik and Mathematical Reviews , and it is indexed in Thomson Reuters Web of Knowledge ( ISI ) . Currently , Portugaliae Mathematica is published by the European Mathematical Society with the support of the Portuguese Science Foundation ( Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Portugaliae_Mathematica", "rank": 6, "score": 127309 }, { "content": "Title: Google Scholar Content: Google Scholar is a freely accessible web search engine that indexes the full text or metadata of scholarly literature across an array of publishing formats and disciplines . Released in beta in November 2004 , the Google Scholar index includes most peer-reviewed online academic journals and books , conference papers , theses and dissertations , preprints , abstracts , technical reports , and other scholarly literature , including court opinions and patents . While Google does not publish the size of Google Scholar 's database , third-party researchers estimated it to contain roughly 160 million documents as of May 2014 and an earlier statistical estimate published in PLOS ONE using a Mark and recapture method estimated approximately 80-90 % coverage of all articles published in English with an estimate of 100 million . This estimate also determined how many documents were freely available on the web . Google Scholar is similar in function to the freely available CiteSeerX and getCITED . It also resembles the subscription-based tools , Elsevier 's Scopus and Thomson Reuters ' Web of Science .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Google_Scholar", "rank": 7, "score": 123359 }, { "content": "Title: Electronic Book Review Content: Electronic Book Review ( ebr ) is a peer-reviewed scholarly journal with emphasis on the digital . Founded in 1995 by Joseph Tabbi and Mark Amerika , the journal was one of the first to devote a lasting web presence to the discussion of literature , theory , criticism , and the arts .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Electronic_Book_Review", "rank": 8, "score": 122976 }, { "content": "Title: Cell Research Content: Cell Research is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering cell biology . It is published by the Nature Publishing Group on behalf of the Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences ( Chinese Academy of Sciences ) and is affiliated with the Chinese Society for Cell Biology . It was established in 1990 and the editor-in-chief is Gang Pei ( Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Cell_Research", "rank": 9, "score": 122909 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific Study of Literature Content: Scientific Study of Literature is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal published by John Benjamins Publishing Company since 2011 . It covers research in literary study . The editor-in-chief is David Ian Hanauer ( Indiana University of Pennsylvania ) . It is the official journal of the International Society for the Empirical Study of Literature , with membership including a subscription . The concept of the journal is discussed , because of its programmatic title , which suggests to bridge the common antagonism between sciences and literary study .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Scientific_Study_of_Literature", "rank": 10, "score": 121215 }, { "content": "Title: History of the Human Sciences Content: History of the Human Sciences is a peer-reviewed academic journal that covers research on the history of the human sciences . Its editors-in-chief are Felicity Callard ( University of Durham ) , Rhodri Hayward ( Queen Mary University of London ) , Angus Nicholls ( Queen Mary University of London ) and Chris Renwick ( University of York ) . The book reviews editor is Chris Millard ( Sheffield University ) and the web editor is Des Fitzgerald ( Cardiff University ) . The journal was established in 1988 and is published by Sage Publications . The previous editor was James Good ( University of Durham ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "History_of_the_Human_Sciences", "rank": 11, "score": 120379 }, { "content": "Title: Hipertext.net Content: Hipertext.net is an annual open access Peer review academic journal covering all aspects of information , documentation and archives in the digital world . It is published by the Information Science Section of the Communication Department of the Pompeu Fabra University and was established in 2003 by Cristòfol Rovira , Lluís Codina , and Mari-Carmen Marcos ( Pompeu Fabra University ) . The scope of the journal is investigating the different connections among user experience and semantic web , including issues of library and information science : accessibility , management tools , on-line cultural resources , and websites museum , Science 2.0 , cybermedia , Libraries 2.0 , SEO , visibility , CMS , on-line media , the information architecture , taxonomy in Web sites , usability , web design , etc. .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Hipertext.net", "rank": 12, "score": 119019 }, { "content": "Title: PeerJ Content: PeerJ is an open access peer-reviewed scientific mega journal covering research in the biological and medical sciences . It is published by a company of the same name that was co-founded by CEO Jason Hoyt ( formerly at Mendeley ) and publisher Peter Binfield ( formerly at PLOS ONE ) , with financial backing of US$ 950,000 from O'Reilly Media and O'Reilly AlphaTech Ventures . It was officially launched in June 2012 , started accepting submissions on December 3 , 2012 , and published its first articles on February 12 , 2013 . The company is a member of CrossRef , CLOCKSS , ORCID , and the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association . The company 's offices are in Corte Madera ( California ) , and London .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "PeerJ", "rank": 13, "score": 119018 }, { "content": "Title: Materials Research Letters Content: Materials Research Letters is an open-access , peer-reviewed scientific journal , targeted to be a high impact , fast communication letters journal for the materials research community . It was established in 2013 . The journal has been approved for ISI indexing ( Web of Science , Thomson Reuters ) as of early 2016 . The ISI Impact Factor is yet to be published . However , per the citation data from Google Scholar , the 2015 impact factor of the journal is calculated to be 5.89 .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Materials_Research_Letters", "rank": 14, "score": 118980 }, { "content": "Title: Sankhya (journal) Content: Sankhyā : The Indian Journal of Statistics is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal on statistics published by the Indian Statistical Institute ( ISI ) . It was established in 1933 by Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis , founding director of ISI , along the lines of Karl Pearson 's Biometrika . Mahalanobis was the founding editor-in-chief . Each volume of Sankhya consists of four issues , two of them are in Series A , containing articles on theoretical statistics , probability theory , and stochastic processes , whereas the other two issues form Series B , containing articles on applied statistics , i.e. applied probability , applied stochastic processes , econometrics , and statistical computing . Sankhya is considered as `` core journal '' of statistics by the Current Index to Statistics .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Sankhya_(journal)", "rank": 15, "score": 118589 }, { "content": "Title: Physical Review Content: Physical Review is an American peer-reviewed scientific journal established in 1893 by Edward Nichols . It publishes original research as well as scientific and literature reviews on all aspects of physics . It is published by the American Physical Society ( APS ) . The journal is in its third series , and is split in several sub-journals each covering a particular field of physics . It has a sister journal , Physical Review Letters , which publishes shorter articles of broader interest .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Physical_Review", "rank": 16, "score": 117884 }, { "content": "Title: Science Citation Index Content: The Science Citation Index ( SCI ) is a citation index originally produced by the Institute for Scientific Information ( ISI ) and created by Eugene Garfield . It was officially launched in 1964 . It is now owned by Clarivate Analytics ( previously the Intellectual Property and Science business of Thomson Reuters ) . The larger version ( Science Citation Index Expanded ) covers more than 8,500 notable and significant journals , across 150 disciplines , from 1900 to the present . These are alternatively described as the world 's leading journals of science and technology , because of a rigorous selection process . The index is made available online through different platforms , such as the Web of Science and SciSearch . ( There are also CD and printed editions , covering a smaller number of journals ) . This database allows a researcher to identify which later articles have cited any particular earlier article , or have cited the articles of any particular author , or have been cited most frequently . Thomson Reuters also markets several subsets of this database , termed `` Specialty Citation Indexes '' , such as the Neuroscience Citation Index and the Chemistry Citation Index .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Science_Citation_Index", "rank": 17, "score": 117662 }, { "content": "Title: Commentarii Mathematici Helvetici Content: The Commentarii Mathematici Helvetici is a peer-reviewed scientific journal in mathematics . The Swiss Mathematical Society started the journal in 1929 after a meeting in May of the previous year . The Swiss Mathematical Society still owns and operates the journal ; the publishing is currently handled on its behalf by the European Mathematical Society . The scope of the journal includes research articles in all aspects in mathematics . The managing editors have been Rudolf Fueter ( 1929 -- 1949 ) , J.J. Burckhardt ( 1950 -- 1981 ) , P. Gabriel ( 1982 -- 1989 ) , H. Kraft ( 1990 -- 2005 ) , and Eva Bayer-Fluckiger ( 2006 -- present ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Commentarii_Mathematici_Helvetici", "rank": 18, "score": 117084 }, { "content": "Title: Hindawi Publishing Corporation Content: Hindawi Publishing Corporation is a commercial publisher of scientific , technical , and medical ( STM ) literature . Founded in 1997 , Hindawi currently publishes more than 400 peer-reviewed scientific journals as well as a number of scholarly monographs , with an annual output reaching 22,000 articles in 2012 . , 11 % of the journals were indexed in the Science Citation Index Expanded . The company has its headquarters in Cairo and a virtual office address in New York City . Since 2007 , all of Hindawi 's journals have been open access and published under a Creative Commons Attribution License ( CC-BY ) . Hindawi has been criticized for some of its editorial practices -- including that its journals have editorial boards in lieu of editors-in-chief -- and for its use of email spam in soliciting editorial board memberships and manuscripts .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Hindawi_Publishing_Corporation", "rank": 19, "score": 116885 }, { "content": "Title: Philosophy of Science (journal) Content: Philosophy of Science is a peer-reviewed academic journal published by the University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Philosophy of Science Association . The journal contains essays , discussion articles , and book reviews in the field of the philosophy of science . The first issue of Philosophy of Science appeared in January 1934 , in which editor William Malisoff sought papers ranging from studies on `` the analysis of meaning , definition , symbolism , '' in scientific theories to those on `` the nature and formulation of theoretical principles '' and `` in the function and significance of science within various contexts . '' Past editors have included William Malisoff , C. West Churchman , Richard Rudner , Kenneth Shaffner , Robert E. Butts , Merrilee Salmon , Philip Kitcher , Noretta Koertge , Michael Dickson , and Jeffrey A. Barrett .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Philosophy_of_Science_(journal)", "rank": 20, "score": 116718 }, { "content": "Title: Database (journal) Content: Database : The Journal of Biological Databases and Curation is an online peer-reviewed open access scientific journal that covers research on databases and biocuration . The journal was established in 2009 with David Landsman as the editor-in-chief . DATABASE is the official journal of the International Society for Biocuration . The journal has published the proceedings of the International Biocuration Conferences since 2009 .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Database_(journal)", "rank": 21, "score": 115348 }, { "content": "Title: Benny Lautrup Content: Benny Lautrup ( born June 25 , 1939 ) is a professor in theoretical physics at the Niels Bohr Institute at the University of Copenhagen . He has during his career worked at Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics ( Denmark ) , Brookhaven National Laboratory ( USA ) , CERN ( Switzerland ) , og Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques ( France ) . He is known for his part in the Nakanishi-Lautrup formalism , a concept in relativistic quantum field theory . He has published the books Neural Networks -- Computers with Intuition with Søren Brunak ( original in Danish and also translated into German ) , and Physics of Continuous Matter : Exotic and Everyday Phenomena in the macroscopic World in 2005 , and a second edition of this book was published in 2011 . He also writes popular articles about physics and participates in the public debate in Denmark ( list of articles ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Benny_Lautrup", "rank": 22, "score": 115205 }, { "content": "Title: The English Historical Review Content: The English Historical Review is a peer-reviewed , academic journal established in 1886 and published by Oxford University Press . It publishes articles on British , European , and world history since the classical era . It is the oldest surviving English language academic journal in the field of history . Issues include Articles , ` Notes and Documents ' , and Debates on medieval and modern themes , as well as a large range of Reviews of books on history published throughout the world . A summary of international periodical literature published in the previous twelve months is also provided . The journal was established in 1886 by John Dalberg-Acton , 1st Baron Acton , Regius professor of modern history at Cambridge , and a fellow of All Souls College , Oxford . The first editor was Mandell Creighton . The current editors are Professor Martin Conway , Dr Catherine Holmes , and Professor Peter Marshall .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "The_English_Historical_Review", "rank": 23, "score": 114797 }, { "content": "Title: Living Reviews in Relativity Content: Living Reviews in Relativity is a peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal publishing reviews on relativity in the areas of physics and astrophysics . It was founded by Bernard Schutz and published at the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics from 1998-2015 . After it was sold by Max Planck Society in June 2015 , it is now published by the academic publisher Springer Science + Business Media . The articles in Living Reviews provide critical reviews of the current state of research in the fields they cover . Articles also offer annotated insights into the key literature and describe other available resources . Living Reviews is unique in maintaining a suite of high-quality reviews , which are kept up-to-date by the authors through regularly adding the latest developments and research findings . This is the meaning of the word `` living '' in the journal 's title .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Living_Reviews_in_Relativity", "rank": 24, "score": 114772 }, { "content": "Title: Her Benny (novel) Content: Her Benny , an improving story for young people about Liverpool street children , was first published in 1879 . It was the best-known and most popular work of Methodist minister and author Silas Hocking . Published initially as a serial , and then in book form by Frederick Warne & Co. of London as Her Benny . A Story of Street Life , 1879 , with illustrations by Harry Tuck . Hocking , who had published one previous novel ( Alec Green , 1878 ) , sold the copyright of this one for just # 20 , but it was to establish his reputation . It became hugely successful , was translated into many languages , and sold over a million copies in the author 's lifetime .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Her_Benny_(novel)", "rank": 25, "score": 114571 }, { "content": "Title: Physics-Uspekhi Content: Physics-Uspekhi ( Advances in Physical Sciences ) is a peer-reviewed scientific journal . It is an English translation of the Russian journal of physics , Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk which was established in 1918 . The journal publishes long review papers which are intended to generalize and summarize previously published results , making them easier to use and to understand . The journal covers all topics of modern physics . The English version has existed since 1958 , first under the name Soviet Physics Uspekhi and after 1993 as Physics-Uspekhi . The founder of the journal , Eduard Shpolsky , was editor-in-chief from 1918 to his death in 1975 . Vitaly Ginzburg , connected with the journal since before World War II , was appointed editor-in-chief in 1998 . In his 2006 Nobel autobiography , Ginzburg called it `` a good and useful journal '' and credited its `` maintenance of the highest level '' to long-term editorial manager M. S. Aksentyeva .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Physics-Uspekhi", "rank": 26, "score": 114188 }, { "content": "Title: Ishaq bin Ali al-Rohawi Content: Ishāq bin Ali al-Rohawi was a 9th-century Arab physician and the author of the first medical ethics book in Arabic medicine . His Ethics of the Physician contains the first documented description of a peer review process , where the notes of a practising Arab physician were reviewed by peers and the physician could face a lawsuit from a maltreated patient if the reviews were negative . Al-Rohawi was probably from Al-Ruha , modern-day Şanlıurfa in Turkey , close to the border with Syria , which is often simply known as Urfa . He was born a Christian , possibly in the Nestorian offshoot , and may have still been Christian when he composed his works , despite the very strong influence of Islam on them . However , based on an analysis of his writings , a modern historian has challenged this notion , claiming that only a Muslim could have produced such texts .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Ishaq_bin_Ali_al-Rohawi", "rank": 27, "score": 114105 }, { "content": "Title: European Radiology Content: European Radiology is a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal published by Springer Science + Business Media . It was established in 1991 by J. Lissner and is the official journal of the European Society of Radiology . The current editor-in-chief is Maximilian Reiser . The following European societies of sub-disciplines have chosen European Radiology as their official organ : European Society of Breast Imaging ( EUSOBI ) European Society of Cardiac Radiology ( ESCR ) European Society of Gastrointestinal and Abdominal Radiology ( ESGAR ) European Society of Emergency Radiology ( ESER ) European Society of Head and Neck Radiology ( ESHNR ) European Society of Molecular and Functional Imaging in Radiology ( ESMOFIR ) European Society of Oncologic Imaging ( ESOI ) European Society of Thoracic Imaging ( ESTI ) European Society of Urogenital Radiology ( ESUR ) The EuroPACS Association According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 4.014 .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "European_Radiology", "rank": 28, "score": 113995 }, { "content": "Title: Research in African Literatures Content: Research in African Literatures is a triannual peer-reviewed academic journal covering African literary studies . It was established in 1970 and is published by Indiana University Press . The editor-in-chief is Kwaku Larbi Korang ( Ohio State University ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Research_in_African_Literatures", "rank": 29, "score": 113659 }, { "content": "Title: Filosofický časopis Content: Filosofický časopis is a peer-reviewed academic journal on philosophy . The journal was established in 1953 by the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences . Nowadays Filosofický časopis is published by the Institute for philosophy of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic . Filosofický časopis is the oldest philosophical journal among those which are now published in the Czech Republic . It covers all philosophical traditions and all the areas of philosophy . It is indexed in the ERIH and ISI databases . The editor-in-chief is Petr Horák .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Filosofický_časopis", "rank": 30, "score": 113456 }, { "content": "Title: Living Reviews Content: Living Reviews is an open access journal series , which publishes regularly updated peer-reviewed review articles in various fields of science . Its concept of `` living '' articles takes advantage of web-based electronic publishing and allows authors to update their articles with the latest developments and research findings . The concept of Living Reviews was developed by Bernard Schutz and Jennifer Wheary , who started the first journal , Living Reviews in Relativity , in 1998 at the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics . In June 2015 , the three physics Living Reviews journals previously published by institutes of the Max Planck Society were sold to the academic publisher Springer Science + Business Media .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Living_Reviews", "rank": 31, "score": 113428 }, { "content": "Title: Computers and Mathematics with Applications Content: Computers and Mathematics with Applications is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Elsevier , covering scholarly research and communications in the area relating to both mathematics and computer science . It includes the more specific subjects of mathematics for computer systems , computing science in mathematics research , and advanced mathematical and computing applications in contemporary scientific fields , such as ecological sciences , large-scale systems sciences and operations research . The current Editor-in-Chief is Ervin Y. Rodin , who founded the journal in the 1980s . The ISI impact factor for 2007 is 0.720 , ranking it 73rd out of the 165 journals in the field of applied Mathematics in the Journal Citation Reports", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Computers_and_Mathematics_with_Applications", "rank": 32, "score": 113390 }, { "content": "Title: International Economic Review Content: The International Economic Review , ( IER ) is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal in economics published by the Economics Department of the University of Pennsylvania and Osaka University . The journal 's focus is wide and includes many areas of economics , including econometrics , economic theory , macroeconomics , and applied economics . IER was started in 1960 by Michio Morishima , at Osaka University 's Institute of Social Economic Research ( ISER ) , and Lawrence R. Klein , at the University of Pennsylvania 's Wharton School and Department of Economics . The Kansai Economic Federation of Osaka materially and financially supported the IER at its initial stages . In the present , the IER is run as a non-profit joint academic venture between ISER and the Department of Economics at the University of Pennsylvania . The journal is currently edited by Kenneth I. Wolpin of the Pennsylvania Editorial Office and co-edited by Charles Yuji Horioka of the Osaka Editorial Office . The chair of the review panel is currently Dr Bilbo Hesselmeir . It is considered one of the leading journals in economics in the world .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "International_Economic_Review", "rank": 33, "score": 113355 }, { "content": "Title: Chemistry of Materials Content: Chemistry of Materials is a peer-reviewed scientific journal , published since 1989 by the American Chemical Society . Chemistry of Materials is currently indexed in : Chemical Abstracts Service ( CAS ) , SCOPUS , EBSCOhost , British Library , Swetswise , and Web of Science . It was founded by Leonard V. Interrante , who was the Editor-in-Chief until 2013 . Jillian M. Buriak took over as Editor-in-Chief in January 2014 .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Chemistry_of_Materials", "rank": 34, "score": 112894 }, { "content": "Title: Early Science and Medicine Content: Early Science and Medicine is a peer-reviewed academic journal of the history of science and medicine . The editors are Christoph Lüthy of Radboud University , Nijmegen , and Michael J. Edwards of Jesus College , Cambridge . The journal is published by Brill and indexed in Arts and Humanities Citation Index , Academic Search Complete , PubMed , and Scopus .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Early_Science_and_Medicine", "rank": 35, "score": 112574 }, { "content": "Title: Benny G. Setiono Content: Benny Gatot Setiono ( October 31 , 1943 - January 17 , 2017 ) is an Indonesian historian . Setiono was born in Ciracas , Kuningan , West Java , Indonesia . His father , Endang Sunarko ( Khouw Sin Eng ) , was also a writer , including of New China , Friend or Foe and for the magazine ` Pantjawarna ' and ` Sin Po daily ' . Setiono studied at the Faculty of Economics , Res Publica University , ( now known as Trisakti University ) , Jakarta . At level three , Benny was forced to drop out after the campus was burned by WE / KAPPI backed militias in 1965 riots . In 1999 Benny G. Setiono co-founder of the Chinese Indonesian Association , CORE , and in 2002 co-founded ELKASA . He is the author of various articles and the book Tionghoa Dalam Pusaran Politik ( Chinese in the Political Turbulence ) published by ELKASA , Jakarta 2003 and translated into Chinese by Prof. Zhou Nanjing from Beijing University ( 2004 ) . According to Setiono the outbreak of conflict with the Chinese in the 18th century was followed by increased suspicion and resentment in native Indonesians and the Dutch toward the ethnic Chinese , who were growing in number and whose wealth was increasingly visible . Established in Jakarta before Notary James Herman Rahardjo on February 5 , 1999 , INTI ( Perhimpunan Indonesia Tionghoa ) organization was founded by Aswan Sjachril , Benny G. Setiono , Eddie Lembong , Effie Sari , Gilbert Wiryadinata , Hendra Surjana , Henry Boen , Judi W. Leonardi , Kahar Lukman , Karta Winata , Kuncoro Wibowo , Michael Utama Purnama , Nancy Widjaja , Ronald Sjarif , Sudhamek Agoeng Waspodo Soenjoto , Teddy Sugianto , and Tjiandra Widjaja Wong . Spouse : Kumala Dewi Ismail ( Baby ) Children : Widuri ( Uchen ) / Christiandy K , Nilam ( Uching ) / Venny Sufendi , Eddy ( Afen ) / Rindu Wastuti , Mirah ( Maria ) , Intan ( Noreen ) / Willy Cendana , Siblings : Heru Sunarko / Betsy L , Sri Lestari Sunarko / Trianus G , Sari Lestari Sunarko / Slamet Hadi , Buntaran Sunarko , Bambang Sunarko / Ruth Zacharias , Aditya Sunarko / Lisa Atmadja , Grandchildren : Ferdinand Dharmadi / Veronica Pribadi , Julius Dharmadi , Shela Tanado , Ario Tanado , Davin Putera Cendana , Deandra Puteri Cendana , Divara Puteri Cendana , Faith Ruby Susantio , Averian Iskandar , Lakeisha Iskandar , Great grandchildren : Claire Olivia Carsten", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Benny_G._Setiono", "rank": 36, "score": 112486 }, { "content": "Title: Shakespeare Quarterly Content: Shakespeare Quarterly is a peer-reviewed academic journal established in 1950 by the Shakespeare Association of America . It is now under the auspices of the Folger Shakespeare Library . Along with book and performance criticism , Shakespeare Quarterly incorporates scholarly research and essays on Shakespeare and the age in which he worked , particularly those that explore new perspectives . It includes a special section devoted to the latest ideas in Shakespeare scholarship . As a companion , the Folger Library also publishes the reference database World Shakespeare Bibliography Online , which contains more than 125,000 annotated bibliographical references and several hundred thousand reviews . The editor of Shakespeare Quarterly is Gail Kern Paster ( Folger Library ) . The World Shakespeare Bibliography is edited by Dr. Laura Estill ( Texas A&M University ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Shakespeare_Quarterly", "rank": 37, "score": 112452 }, { "content": "Title: Foundation (journal) Content: Foundation : The International Review of Science Fiction is a critical peer-reviewed literary magazine established in 1972 that publishes articles and reviews about science fiction . It is published triannually ( spring , summer , and winter ) by the Science Fiction Foundation . Worlds Without End called it `` the essential critical review of science fiction '' , whilst The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction has called it `` perhaps the liveliest and indeed the most critical of the big three critical journals '' ( the others being Extrapolation ( journal ) and Science Fiction Studies ) . A long-running feature was the series of interviews and autobiographical pieces with leading writers , entitled `` The Profession of Science Fiction '' , a selection of which was edited and published by Macmillan Publishers in 1992 . Several issues have been themed , including # 93 ( A Celebration of British Science Fiction , 2005 ) , published also as part of the Foundation Studies in Science Fiction . The hundredth edition ( Summer 2007 ) was unusual in that it was an all-fiction issue , including stories by such writers as Vandana Singh , Tricia Sullivan , Karen Traviss , Jon Courtenay Grimwood , John Kessel , Nalo Hopkinson , Greg Egan , and Una McCormack . Back issues of the journal are archived at the University of Liverpool 's SF Hub whilst more recent issues can be found electronically via the database providers ProQuest .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Foundation_(journal)", "rank": 38, "score": 112406 }, { "content": "Title: Biblical Interpretation (journal) Content: Biblical Interpretation : A Journal of Contemporary Approaches is a peer-reviewed academic journal of biblical studies published in five issues per year by Brill Publishers . The editor-in-chief is Tat-siong Benny Liew ( Pacific School of Religion ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Biblical_Interpretation_(journal)", "rank": 39, "score": 112211 }, { "content": "Title: Space Science Reviews Content: Space Science Reviews is a peer reviewed , scientific journal of space science . It was established in June 1962 , and is published by Springer in English , Dutch , French , German , or Russian , with summaries in English . The journal is currently edited by Hans Bloemen . It was printed six times per year prior to 1985 . It now publishes eight volumes of four issues per year .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Space_Science_Reviews", "rank": 40, "score": 111852 }, { "content": "Title: Chemical Reviews Content: Chemical Reviews is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the American Chemical Society . It publishes review articles on all aspects of chemistry . It was established in 1924 by William Albert Noyes ( University of Illinois ) . the editor-in-chief is Sharon Hammes-Schiffer ( University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Chemical_Reviews", "rank": 41, "score": 111843 }, { "content": "Title: Studia Leibnitiana Content: Studia Leibnitiana is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal established in 1969 . It publishes scholarly articles on philosophy and the history of science of the early modern period , especially related to the German philosopher and polymath Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz . The journal is published by Franz Steiner Verlag on behalf of the Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz-Gesellschaft . Studia Leibnitiana publishes articles and book reviews in English , French and German .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Studia_Leibnitiana", "rank": 42, "score": 111692 }, { "content": "Title: Annals of Science Content: Annals of Science is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering the history of science and technology . It is published by Taylor & Francis and was established in 1936 . The founding editor-in-chief was the Canadian historian of science Harcourt Brown .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Annals_of_Science", "rank": 43, "score": 111607 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of Economic Literature Content: The Journal of Economic Literature is a peer-reviewed academic journal , published by the American Economic Association , that surveys the academic literature in economics . It was established in 1963 as the Journal of Economic Abstracts , and is currently one of the highest ranked journals in economics . As a review journal , it mainly features essays and reviews of recent economic theories ( as opposed to the latest research ) . The editor-in-chief is Steven Durlauf . The journal originated a widely used classification system for publications in the field of economics .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Journal_of_Economic_Literature", "rank": 44, "score": 111320 }, { "content": "Title: Pei Wenzhong Content: Pei Wenzhong ( , romanized also as W. C. Pei or P'ei Wen-chung ; January 19 , 1904 -- September 18 , 1982 ) was a Chinese paleontologist , archaeologist and anthropologist born in Fengnan . Professor Pei is considered a founding figure of Chinese anthropology . He graduated from Peking University in 1928 and went to work for the Cenozoic Research Laboratory of the Geological Survey of China joining the excavations of the Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian , where he was named the field director of the excavations the following year . The work at Zhoukoudian was carried out under difficult conditions : for example , the scientists had to ride there on mules , some 40 km southwest of the city of Beijing . The first fossil hominin skullcap was recovered by Pei `` working in a 40-meter crevasse in frigid weather with a hammer in one hand and a candle in the other on December 2 , 1929 , at 16.00 hours ( local ) . From 1933 to 1934 , he supervised the excavation of the Upper Cave at Zhoukoudian and was director of the Zhoukoudian Office of the Cenozoic Research Laboratory of the Geological Survey of China . Here he discovered and classified the small , extinct `` Zhoukoudian wolf '' ( Canis lupus variabilis ) . He left the excavation in 1935 to pursue a doctoral degree at the University of Paris and was succeeded by Professor Jia Lanpo ) . He returned to the excavation in 1937 , shortly before they ceased due to the Japanese invasion of north China . After Zhoukoudian , Professor Pei worked at many other archaeological sites , including Djalainor ( Zhalainu'er ) in eastern Inner Mongolia and in Gansu . In 1955 he was elected to membership in the Chinese Academy of Sciences , became the first Chairman of Chinese Association of Natural Science Museums , and the second director of Beijing Museum of Natural History . Until his death in 1982 , he worked at the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology ( IVPP ) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences . He also wrote several books , including the first on Chinese prehistory written in Chinese . His cremated remains are interred behind the museum at the Zhoukoudian site alongside those of his colleagues , Yang Zhongjian and Jia Lanpo .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Pei_Wenzhong", "rank": 45, "score": 111172 }, { "content": "Title: The Quarterly Review of Biology Content: The Quarterly Review of Biology is a peer reviewed scientific journal covering all aspects of biology . It was established in 1926 by Raymond Pearl . In the 1960s it was purchased by the Stony Brook Foundation when the editor H. Bentley Glass became academic vice president of the State University of New York at Stony Brook . The editor-in-chief is Daniel E. Dykhuizen ( Stony Brook University ) . It is currently published by the University of Chicago Press .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "The_Quarterly_Review_of_Biology", "rank": 46, "score": 111084 }, { "content": "Title: Book Citation Index Content: The Book Citation Index ( BCI , BKCI ) is an online subscription-based scientific citation indexing service maintained by Thomson Reuters and is part of the Web of Science Core Collection . It was first launched in 2011 and indexes over 60,000 editorially selected books , starting from 2005 . Books in the index are electronic and print scholarly texts that contain articles based on original research and/or reviews of such literature .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Book_Citation_Index", "rank": 47, "score": 111063 }, { "content": "Title: GeneReviews Content: GeneReviews is an online database containing standardized peer-reviewed articles that describe specific heritable diseases . It was established in 1997 as GeneClinics by Roberta A Pagon ( University of Washington ) with funding from the National Institutes of Health . Its focus is primarily on single-gene disorders , providing current disorder-specific information on diagnosis , management , and genetic counseling . Links to disease-specific and/or general consumer resources are included in each article when available . The database is published on the National Center for Biotechnology Information Bookshelf site . Articles are updated every two or three years or as needed , and revised whenever significant changes in clinically relevant information occur . Articles are searchable by author , title , gene , and name of disease or protein , and are available free of charge .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "GeneReviews", "rank": 48, "score": 110905 }, { "content": "Title: Cahiers Élisabéthains Content: The Cahiers Élisabéthains is an international , peer-reviewed academic journal founded in 1972 , which specializes in publishing research on the English literary Renaissance . The journal is published by the Institut de Recherche sur la Renaissance , l'Âge Classique et les Lumières ( UMR 5186 , a joint research unit of the French National Centre for Scientific Research and Paul Valéry University , Montpellier 3 ) . , the editors-in-chief are Florence March , Jean-Christophe Mayer , Nathalie Vienne-Guerrin and Peter J. Smith . In defining its mission , the journal notes that the term English Renaissance `` is given its broadest connotation : subjects have ranged from Chaucer to Restoration drama and beyond . The literature and drama of the Elizabethan period is , however , the focal point of our interests . '' The journal also publishes articles on Performance in Context and a wide-range of international play reviews , as well as book reviews . The journal is published three times a year ( April , July , November ) . The journal is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics ( COPE ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Cahiers_Élisabéthains", "rank": 49, "score": 110871 }, { "content": "Title: ACS Chemical Biology Content: ACS Chemical Biology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published since 2006 by the American Chemical Society . The journal covers research at the interface between chemistry and biology spanning all aspects of chemical biology . The journal is available in both printed and online versions and is indexed in major databases including Chemical Abstracts Service , the ISI 's Web of Knowledge , and MEDLINE .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "ACS_Chemical_Biology", "rank": 50, "score": 110812 }, { "content": "Title: Science and Christian Belief Content: Science and Christian Belief is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal published by Paternoster Press on behalf of Christians in Science and the Victoria Institute . The editors-in-chief are Denis R. Alexander ( Faraday Institute for Science and Religion ) and Rodney D. Holder . The journal was established in 1989 , with Oliver Barclay and A. Brian Robins as co-editors-in-chief . It is abstracted and indexed in New Testament Abstracts , Religion Index One : Periodicals , and Religious & Theological Abstracts , and is distributed by EBSCO Information Services as part of Academic Search and other collections . The journal is free to members of Christians in Science . The Victoria Institute ( also known as the Philosophical Society of Great Britain ) published the Journal of the Transactions of The Victoria Institute , which was established in 1866 ; it was renamed Faith and Thought in 1958 , and then merged with the ( informal ) CIS Bulletin in 1989 , obtaining its current name , Faith and Thought .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Science_and_Christian_Belief", "rank": 51, "score": 110551 }, { "content": "Title: Review of Metaphysics Content: The Review of Metaphysics is a peer-reviewed academic journal of philosophy . It was established by Paul Weiss and the first issue was published in September 1947 . The journal 's primary sponsor is and has been The Catholic University of America , but other major universities help sustain it . All issues are available online from the Philosophy Documentation Center . The journal publishes articles on metaphysics and on the history of philosophy . It also has a large book review section and lists the abstracts of other English-based philosophy journals . Once a year , it publishes statistics on the philosophy graduate programs in North America . The current editor-in-chief is John C. McCarthy ( School of Philosophy , The Catholic University of America ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Review_of_Metaphysics", "rank": 52, "score": 110340 }, { "content": "Title: Early Modern Literary Studies Content: Early Modern Literary Studies is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering the study of English literature and literary culture in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries . It was established in 1995 and is published with the support of the Humanities Research Centre at Sheffield Hallam University . The editor in chief is Matthew Steggle . Category : British literary magazines Category : English-language journals Category : Publications established in 1995", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Early_Modern_Literary_Studies", "rank": 53, "score": 110257 }, { "content": "Title: Philobiblon Content: Philobiblon is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal published by the Central University Library of Cluj-Napoca , Romania , in collaboration with Cluj University Press ( Presa Universitară Clujeană ) . It was established in 1996 as a continuation of an irregular publication entitled Biblioteca și Învățămîntul ( Library and Education ) . The subtitles and publication frequency of the journal have changed several times : Bulletin of the Lucian Blaga Central University Library ( 1996 − 2008 ) , Journal of the Lucian Blaga Central University Library ( 2009 − 2010 ) , and currently : Transylvanian Journal of Multidisciplinary Research in Humanities . Until 2011 it was published annually ( except for 1996 − 1997 , when it was also published twice a year ) . Philobiblon is available electronically through EBSCO Publishing and ProQuest databases , as well as in print . The journal was ranked in 2011 by the Romanian National Council for Scientific Research in Higher Education in seven Humanities categories as a periodical having serious chances to gain international import : Arts ; Philosophy ; Architecture ; History of Science ; Historiography and Theory of History ; Romanian Language and Literature ; Foreign Languages and Literature .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Philobiblon", "rank": 54, "score": 110127 }, { "content": "Title: SubStance Content: SubStance : A Review of Theory and Literary Criticism is a triannual peer-reviewed academic journal that was established in 1971 and is published by the University of Wisconsin Press . It covers work on literature and culture , with an emphasis on French literature . The editors-in-chief are Sydney Lévy ( University of California , Santa Barbara ) and Michel Pierssens ( Université de Montréal ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "SubStance", "rank": 55, "score": 110105 }, { "content": "Title: Physics of Life Reviews Content: Physics of Life Reviews is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on living systems . It was established in 2004 and is published by Elsevier . The editor-in-chief is Leonid Perlovsky ( Harvard University ) . The scope of the journal includes living systems , complex phenomena in biological systems , and related fields of artificial life , robotics , mathematical bio-semiotics , and artificial intelligent systems . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 9.478 .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Physics_of_Life_Reviews", "rank": 56, "score": 110066 }, { "content": "Title: Quaternary Science Reviews Content: Quaternary Science Reviews is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering quaternary science . It was established in 1982 and is published by Elsevier . The editor-in-chief is C.V. Murray Wallace ( University of Wollongong ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 4.571 .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Quaternary_Science_Reviews", "rank": 57, "score": 109933 }, { "content": "Title: Francesco Mainardi Content: Francesco Mainardi ( born December 29 , 1942 ) is an Italian physicist and mathematician who have many peer-reviewed articles that are published by arXiv , World Scientific , and many other journals with the highest citation of 11136 as of 2014 .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Francesco_Mainardi", "rank": 58, "score": 109904 }, { "content": "Title: BioScience Content: BioScience is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal that is published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Institute of Biological Sciences . It was established in 1964 and was preceded by the AIBS Bulletin ( 1951-1963 ) . The journal publishes literature reviews of current research in biology , as well as essays and discussion sections on education , public policy , history of biology , and theoretical issues .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "BioScience", "rank": 59, "score": 109753 }, { "content": "Title: English Literary Renaissance Content: English Literary Renaissance is a peer-reviewed academic journal dedicated to the study of English literature from 1485 to 1665 . Besides scholarly articles , it publishes rare texts and manuscripts from the period . It was established in 1971 and is edited by Arthur F. Kinney . The journal is published by the University of Chicago Press and covers Shakespeare , Donne , Edmund Spenser , and John Milton , among other Tudor and early Stuart authors .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "English_Literary_Renaissance", "rank": 60, "score": 109718 }, { "content": "Title: General Relativity and Gravitation Content: General Relativity and Gravitation is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal . It was established in 1970 , and is published by Springer Science + Business Media under the auspices of the International Society on General Relativity and Gravitation . The two editors-in-chief are Abhay Ashtekar and Roy Maartens ; former editors include George Francis Rayner Ellis and Hermann Nicolai . The journal 's field of interest is modern gravitational physics , encompassing all theoretical and experimental aspects of general relativity and gravitation .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "General_Relativity_and_Gravitation", "rank": 61, "score": 109555 }, { "content": "Title: PLOS Medicine Content: PLOS Medicine ( formerly styled PLoS Medicine ) is a peer-reviewed weekly medical journal covering the full spectrum of the medical sciences . It began operation on October 19 , 2004 , as the second journal of the Public Library of Science ( PLOS ) , a non-profit open access publisher . All content in PLOS Medicine is published under the Creative Commons `` by-attribution '' license . To fund the journal , the publication 's business model requires in most cases that authors pay publication fees . The journal was published online and in a printed format until 2005 and is now only published online . The journal 's chief editor is Larry Peiperl , who replaced the previous chief editor , Virginia Barbour , in 2013 .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "PLOS_Medicine", "rank": 62, "score": 109397 }, { "content": "Title: ACM Computing Surveys Content: ACM Computing Surveys ( CSUR ) is a peer reviewed scientific journal published by the Association for Computing Machinery . The journal publishes survey articles and tutorials related to computer science and computing . It was founded in 1969 ; the first editor-in-chief was William S. Dorn . In ISI Journal Citation Reports , ACM Computing Surveys has the highest impact factor among all computer science journals . In a 2008 ranking of computer science journals , ACM Computing Surveys received the highest rank `` A * '' .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "ACM_Computing_Surveys", "rank": 63, "score": 109364 }, { "content": "Title: Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery Content: Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery is a triannual peer-reviewed scientific journal focusing on data mining . It is published by Springer Science + Business Media . , the editor-in-chief is Geoffrey I. Webb . It was started in 1996 and launched in 1997 by Usama Fayyad as founding Editor-in-Chief by Kluwer Academic Publishers ( later becoming Springer ) . The first Editorial provides a summary of why it was started .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Data_Mining_and_Knowledge_Discovery", "rank": 64, "score": 109328 }, { "content": "Title: Chemical Research in Toxicology Content: Chemical Research in Toxicology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal , published since 1988 by the American Chemical Society . It is currently abstracted and indexed in Chemical Abstracts Service , Scopus , EBSCOhost , PubMed , CABI , Science Citation Index Expanded , and SwetsWise . As of January 2013 , the editor-in-chief is Stephen S. Hecht ( University of Minnesota ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2014 impact factor of 3.529 , ranking it 18th out of 87 journals in the category `` Toxicology '' , 37th out of 157 journals in the category `` Multidisciplinary Chemistry '' , and 10th out of 59 journals in the category `` Medicinal Chemistry .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Chemical_Research_in_Toxicology", "rank": 65, "score": 109319 }, { "content": "Title: Experimental Brain Research Content: Experimental Brain Research is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research in neuroscience . The journal was established in 1966 and is published by Springer Science + Business Media . The editor-in-chief is John C. Rothwell ( University College London ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2011 impact factor of 2.395 .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Experimental_Brain_Research", "rank": 66, "score": 109310 }, { "content": "Title: Hispanic Review Content: Hispanic Review is a peer-reviewed academic journal which focuses on research in Hispanic and Luso-Brazilian literature and culture . The journal was created in 1933 to replace the French journal that had just stopped publication . Since its creation the journal has been edited by the Department of Romance Languages at the University of Pennsylvania . The journal is published quarterly by the University of Pennsylvania Press . It is available online through Project MUSE and JSTOR . The current general editor is Román de la Campa ( University of Pennsylvania ) . Russell P. Sebold has been the longest-serving editor , having directed the journal for over twenty-nine years . Ignacio Javier López , Barbara Fuchs , and Michael Solomon have served as editors in the past . Current issues of the journal are available electronically through Project MUSE ; earlier issues can be found through JSTOR .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Hispanic_Review", "rank": 67, "score": 109245 }, { "content": "Title: The Slavonic and East European Review Content: The Slavonic and East European Review , the journal of the School of Slavonic and East European Studies ( SSEES ) at University College London , is an international peer-reviewed multidisciplinary academic journal in the fields of social sciences and humanities founded in 1922 by Bernard Pares , Robert William Seton-Watson and Harold Williams ( SSEES ) and dedicated to Slavonic and East European Studies published quarterly ( January , April , July and October ) by Maney Publishing for the Modern Humanities Research Association on behalf of SSEES . Its current general editors are Robin Aizlewood ( SSEES ) and Martyn Rady ( SSEES ) . The journal can be accessed oline via IngentaConnect .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "The_Slavonic_and_East_European_Review", "rank": 68, "score": 109226 }, { "content": "Title: Bioconjugate Chemistry Content: Bioconjugate Chemistry is a peer-reviewed scientific journal , published since 1990 by the American Chemical Society . Bioconjugate Chemistry is currently indexed in the following archives : Chemical Abstracts Service ( CAS ) , SCOPUS , EBSCOhost , ProQuest , British Library , PubMed , and Web of Science . The current Editor-in-Chief is Professor Vincent M. Rotello succeeding Professor Claude F. Meares . Bioconjugate Chemistry is indexed in Biochemical Research Methods , Biochemistry and Molecular Biology , Multidisciplinary Chemistry and Organic Chemistry , and the journal received an impact factor of 4.513 as reported in the 2014 Journal Citation Reports by Thomson Reuters .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Bioconjugate_Chemistry", "rank": 69, "score": 109198 }, { "content": "Title: Educational Studies in Mathematics Content: Educational Studies in Mathematics is a peer-reviewed scientific journal within the field of mathematics education . Founded by Hans Freudenthal , it first appeared in 1968 . Published by Springer , the journal normally appears in 3 annual volumes , each consisting of 3 issues . The journal is paginated by volume . According to the official description of the journal , it `` emphasizes high-level articles that go beyond local or national interest , '' and a typical article deals with `` didactical , methodological and pedagogical subjects , rather than with specific programs for teaching mathematics . '' The journal was listed in ISI and received an impact factor ( of 0.549 ) for the first time in 2012 .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Educational_Studies_in_Mathematics", "rank": 70, "score": 109091 }, { "content": "Title: Behavioral and Brain Sciences Content: Behavioral and Brain Sciences is a peer-reviewed scientific journal of Open Peer Commentary established in 1978 by Stevan Harnad and published by Cambridge University Press . It is modeled on the journal Current Anthropology ( which was established in 1959 by the University of Chicago anthropologist , Sol Tax ) . The journal publishes `` target articles '' followed by 10 to 30 or more peer commentaries and the response of the authors of the target article . The journal covers all areas of the biobehavioral and cognitive sciences ( psychology , neuroscience , behavioral biology , cognitive science , artificial intelligence , linguistics , philosophy ) and articles are judged by four or more referees to be of sufficient importance and interdisciplinary scope to merit Open Peer Commentary . Volume 1 appeared in 1978 and issues appeared quarterly ; as its popularity grew it switched to a bimonthly schedule in 1997 .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Behavioral_and_Brain_Sciences", "rank": 71, "score": 109088 }, { "content": "Title: Early American Literature Content: Early American Literature is a peer-reviewed academic journal published by the University of North Carolina Press , focusing on the study of American literature before 1830 , including Native American and colonial writing . It was established in 1965 and is currently edited by Sandra M. Gustafson . Category : Publications established in 1965 Category : American literary magazines Category : English-language journals", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Early_American_Literature", "rank": 72, "score": 109055 }, { "content": "Title: Pharmacological Research Content: Pharmacological Research is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering pharmacology . It was established in 1969 as Pharmacological Research Communications , obtaining its current name in 1989 . It is published by Elsevier and the editor-in-chief is Emilio Clementi ( University of Milan ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 4.408 .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Pharmacological_Research", "rank": 73, "score": 108958 }, { "content": "Title: International Journal of Cancer Content: The International Journal of Cancer is a peer-reviewed medical journal covering experimental and clinical cancer research . It publishes original research articles , mini reviews , short reports , and letters to the editor . The journal appears 24 times a year and was established in 1966 . It is published by John Wiley & Sons on behalf of the Union for International Cancer Control . Editor-in-Chief is Peter Lichter , Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum , Heidelberg , Germany . Indexed by ISI International Journal of Cancer received an impact factor of 5.531 as reported in the 2015 Journal Citation Reports by Thomson Reuters , ranking it 29th out of 211 journals in the category Oncology .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "International_Journal_of_Cancer", "rank": 74, "score": 108948 }, { "content": "Title: Henry Oldenburg Content: Henry Oldenburg ( also Henry Oldenbourg ) ( c. 1619 as Heinrich Oldenburg -- 5 September 1677 ) was a German theologian known as a diplomat , a natural philosopher and as the creator of scientific peer review . He was one of the foremost intelligencers of Europe of the seventeenth century , with a network of correspondents to rival those of Fabri de Peiresc , Marin Mersenne and Ismaël Boulliau . At the foundation of the Royal Society he took on the task of foreign correspondence , as the first Secretary .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Henry_Oldenburg", "rank": 75, "score": 108818 }, { "content": "Title: Reviews of Modern Physics Content: Reviews of Modern Physics is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the American Physical Society . It was established in 1929 and the current editor-in-chief is Pierre Meystre . The journal publishes review articles , usually by established researchers , on all aspects of physics and related fields . The reviews are usually accessible to non-specialists and serve as introductory material to graduate students , which survey recent work , discuss key problems to be solved and provide perspectives toward the end . RMP is arguably one of the most , if not the most , prestigious , authoritative and highly impacting journals in the field of physics . Its most recent impact factor for 2015 is 33.177 with a 5-year impact factor of 46.681 .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Reviews_of_Modern_Physics", "rank": 76, "score": 108722 }, { "content": "Title: AIP Advances Content: AIP Advances is an open access peer-reviewed scientific mega journal published by the American Institute of Physics . It was established in March 2011 . It covers all aspects of physics , both experimental and theoretical . Submissions are peer-reviewed to assess accuracy and originality , while impact , timeliness , and interest are judged a posteriori through online discussion and ranking tools . All articles are published under a Creative Commons License , with the author retaining the copyright and paying a publication fee . The editors-in-chief are Vincent H. Crespi ( Pennsylvania State University ) , Bernard S. Gerstman ( Florida International University ) , A.T. Charlie Johnson ( University of Pennsylvania ) , Masaaki Tanaka ( University of Tokyo ) , and Enge G. Wang ( Peking University ) . The journal is abstracted and indexed by the Science Citation Index Expanded and Current Contents/Physical , Chemical & Earth Sciences . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2015 impact factor of 1.444 .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "AIP_Advances", "rank": 77, "score": 108698 }, { "content": "Title: Life Sciences (journal) Content: Life Sciences is a weekly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on the molecular , cellular , and physiological mechanisms of pharmacotherapy . Indexed by ISI Life Sciences received an impact factor of 2.702 as reported in the 2014 Journal Citation Reports by Thomson Reuters , ranking it 53rd out of 123 journals in the category Medicine , research & experimental and ranking it 103rd out of 254 journals in the category `` Pharmacology & Pharmacy '' . The current Editor in Chief is Loren E. Wold", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Life_Sciences_(journal)", "rank": 78, "score": 108690 }, { "content": "Title: The Journal of Agricultural Science Content: The Journal of Agricultural Science is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on agriculture and the use of land resources . It was established in 1905 by Rowland Biffen , Alfred Daniel Hall , Thomas Barlow Wood , and Thomas Hudson Middleton and is published by Cambridge University Press .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "The_Journal_of_Agricultural_Science", "rank": 79, "score": 108633 }, { "content": "Title: Planetary and Space Science Content: Planetary and Space Science , published 15 times per year , is a peer-reviewed scientific journal established in 1959 . It publishes original research articles along with short communications ( letters ) . The main topic is solar system processes which encompasses multiple areas of the natural sciences . Numerical simulations of solar system processes are also conducted at ground based facilities or on-board space platforms . The editor-in-chief is Rita Schulz ( European Space Agency/European Space Research and Technology Centre ) . It is published by Elsevier .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Planetary_and_Space_Science", "rank": 80, "score": 108458 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data Content: The Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data is a peer-reviewed scientific journal , published since 1956 by the American Chemical Society . JCED is currently indexed in : Chemical Abstracts Service ( CAS ) , SCOPUS , EBSCOhost , ProQuest , British Library , PubMed , Ovid , Web of Science , and SwetsWise . The current Editor is Joan F. Brennecke .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Journal_of_Chemical_&_Engineering_Data", "rank": 81, "score": 108435 }, { "content": "Title: Genetica Content: Genetica is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research in genetics and evolutionary biology . It was established in January 1919 by Kluwer Academic ( which later merged into Springer ) and originally published articles in English , Dutch , French , and German . Publication was suspended from 1944 to 1946 . The journal allows self-archiving and authors can pay extra for open access . The editors-in-chief are Pierre Capy ( French National Centre for Scientific Research , Gif-sur-Yvette ) and Ronny C. Woodruff ( Bowling Green State University ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Genetica", "rank": 82, "score": 108322 }, { "content": "Title: Scitopia Content: Scitopia.org is a free federated , vertical search portal that enables users to explore the collective content of 21 science and technology societies -- the research most cited in scholarly work and patents -- from a single search box on the open web . It aggregates the entire electronic libraries of its founders -- societies in major science and technology disciplines . More than three million documents , including peer-reviewed journal content , spanning hundreds of years of scientific and technological discovery , and conference proceedings , are searched through this dedicated gateway . In addition to the published works of its partners , scitopia.org also searches a database of approximately 50 million worldwide patents from the United States Patent and Trademark Office , the Japan Patent Office and the European Patent Office . To access the content , visitors to scitopia.org use an interface developed by Deep Web Technologies . Most recently known for its work on science.gov , Deep Web Technologies has experience in the development and refinement of federated searching , particularly in the development of scientific portals . The Beta version of Scitopia.org was released in June 2007 . Scitopia came out of Beta in October 2007 . As of January 5 , 2012 Scitopia has officially closed and the federated search portal is no longer available .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Scitopia", "rank": 83, "score": 108284 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of Intellectual Property Rights Content: The Journal of Intellectual Property Rights is a bimonthly peer-reviewed law journal covering intellectual property law that is published by the Indian National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources . The journal was established in 1996 and publishes contributed and invited articles , case studies , patent reviews , technical notes on current IPR issues , literature reviews , world literature on intellectual property rights , national and international news , book reviews , and conference reports covering topics on trademarks , patents , copyright law , trade secrets , and internet law . The journal is abstracted and indexed in Scopus . The editor-in-chief is Madhu Sahni ( National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Journal_of_Intellectual_Property_Rights", "rank": 84, "score": 108262 }, { "content": "Title: Web Science Trust Content: The Web Science Trust is UK Charitable Trust which helps to support activities related to the field of Web Science . It was originally started in 2006 as a joint effort between MIT and University of Southampton to bridge and formalise the social and technical aspects of the World Wide Web . The Trust now coordinates a set of international `` WSTNet Laboratories '' that include many of the top academic research groups in the emerging area of Web science . It was first announced at MIT on November 2 , 2006 as the Web Science Research Initiative ( WSRI ) , changing its name in 2009 to the Web Science Trust . Tim Berners-Lee originally led this program , now run by a Board of Trustees , which also aims to attract government and private funds , and is involved in creating new undergraduate and graduate curricula . Given the similarities between Web Science and Information Science , Web Science overlaps with the interests of the ISchool movement , particularly in the United States , but focuses more specifically on the Web itself . The annual Web Science conference brings together participants from many fields including those studying both the social and the computational aspects of the World Wide Web . Areas of interest include : Social Network Social machine Collaboration Understanding online community Analyzing the human interactions inherent in social media Web Observatories Developing `` accountability '' and other mechanisms for enhancing privacy and trust on the Web .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Web_Science_Trust", "rank": 85, "score": 108194 }, { "content": "Title: If There Were No Benny Cemoli Content: `` If There Were No Benny Cemoli '' is a science fiction short story by American writer Philip K. Dick , first published in the December , 1963 issue of Galaxy magazine with illustration by Lutjens . `` The Proxmen rebuilding war-torn Earth want to prosecute its leaders for war crimes . Benny Cemoli would be the biggest catch of all , if they could just find him . -- Steven Owen Godersky", "qid": "2877", "docid": "If_There_Were_No_Benny_Cemoli", "rank": 86, "score": 108143 }, { "content": "Title: History of Science (journal) Content: History of Science is a peer-reviewed academic journal that covers the history of science , medicine , and technology . The editor-in-chief is Lissa L. Roberts ( University of Twente ) . It was established in 1962 and is published by Sage Publications .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "History_of_Science_(journal)", "rank": 87, "score": 107915 }, { "content": "Title: Francis Bain Content: Francis Bain ( February 25 , 1842 -- November 20 , 1894 ) was an author , scientist and farmer from North River , Prince Edward Island . In 1865 , in his time away from managing his family farm , he began a career as an amateur naturalist , collecting and cataloging the flora , fauna , and seashells of the island . He was especially interested in geology , and became an expert on the bedrock and fossils of PEI . In an 1882 study , he proposed that it would be possible to dig a tunnel under the Northumberland Strait , which would have enabled the federal government to honour its commitment made when PEI entered Confederation , that constant communication with the mainland be provided . He would later be hired by the federal government to do a more in-depth investigation of the idea , although it was never carried out . Following Sir William Dawson 's geological report of 1871 , Bain continued the quest to explore the Island 's rocks for fossils . Bain added to the record of fossil plants in particular . One of his discoveries was named by Sir William in his honour : Tylodendron Baini . Bain wrote enthusiastically Italic texton natural history in a column in the Daily Examiner , as well as publishing many papers in scholarly journals . He authored two books The natural history of Prince Edward Island ( 1890 ) and Birds of Prince Edward Island ( 1891 ) . A monument in his honour is located in Queens Square in Charlottetown , incorporating a glacial erratic hauled to the site .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Francis_Bain", "rank": 88, "score": 107897 }, { "content": "Title: Living Reviews in Solar Physics Content: Living Reviews in Solar Physics is a peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal publishing reviews on all areas of solar and heliospheric physics . It was founded and published at the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research from 2004-2015 . After it was sold by the Max Planck Society in June 2015 , it is now published by the academic publisher Springer Science + Business Media . The articles in Living Reviews provide critical reviews of the current state of research in the fields they cover . Articles also offer annotated insights into the key literature and describe other available resources . Living Reviews is unique in maintaining a suite of high-quality reviews , which are kept up-to-date by the authors through regularly adding the latest developments and research findings . This is the meaning of the word `` living '' in the journal 's title . It is central to the concept of Living Reviews in Solar Physics that it be a fully electronic journal , this allows to update its articles regularly and with minimum effort . The journal 's reference database provides indexes of useful resources . Thus , in addition to a review journal , Living Reviews can be used by its readers as a database , an encyclopedia , or a resource letter . Living Reviews in Solar Physics has become a valuable tool for the scientific community and one of the first places a researcher looks for information about current work in solar and heliospheric physics .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Living_Reviews_in_Solar_Physics", "rank": 89, "score": 107889 }, { "content": "Title: Langmuir (journal) Content: Langmuir is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that was established in 1985 and is published by the American Chemical Society . It covers research in the areas of surface and colloid chemistry . The title honors Irving Langmuir , winner of the 1932 Nobel Prize for Chemistry . The founding editor-in-chief was Arthur W. Adamson .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Langmuir_(journal)", "rank": 90, "score": 107833 }, { "content": "Title: Marburg Journal of Religion Content: The Marburg Journal of Religion is a peer-reviewed online academic journal that publishes articles on empirical and theoretical studies of religion . The first issue having appeared in April 1996 . The original concept was developed by Michael Pye together with his assistant Richard Böhme , who was the first Web Editor . The editorial team was broadened in 1999 to include Peter Antes ( Hannover ) and Andreas Grünschloß ( Göttingen ) and in 2007 Edith Franke ( Marburg ) . Doreen Christen became Web Editor in 2002 . The first separate Reviews Editor was Monika Schrimpf ( from 2001 ) and this role was taken up by Katja Triplett from 2003 . Papers published in the Marburg Journal of Religion are documented and abstracted in the bibliographical journal Science of Religion , now published by Brill Publishers in Leiden . The abstracts published in the Marburg Journal of Religion itself may be published elsewhere on condition that full documentation of the article is provided .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Marburg_Journal_of_Religion", "rank": 91, "score": 107673 }, { "content": "Title: Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors Content: Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors , established in October 1967 , is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Elsevier . The co-editors are G. Helffrich ( University of Bristol ) , K. Hirose ( Tokyo Institute of Technology ) , M. Jellinek ( University of British Columbia ) , and K. Zhang ( University of Exeter ) . The journal covers the physical and chemical processes of planetary interiors . Topical coverage broadly encompasses planetary physics , geodesy , and geophysics . Publishing formats include original research papers , review articles , short communications and book reviews on a regular basis . Occasional special issues are set aside for proceedings of conferences . The journal has a 2010 impact factor of 2.640 .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Physics_of_the_Earth_and_Planetary_Interiors", "rank": 92, "score": 107649 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of Database Management Content: The Journal of Database Management is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering database management . It was established in 1990 and is published by IGI Global . The editor-in-chief is Keng Siau ( Missouri University of Science and Technology ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Journal_of_Database_Management", "rank": 93, "score": 107592 }, { "content": "Title: Anuario Filosófico Content: Anuario Filosófico is a triannual peer-reviewed academic journal of philosophy . It was established in 1968 and is published by the Philosophy Department of the University of Navarra in Spanish . The editor-in-chief is Montserrat Herrero of the same University .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Anuario_Filosófico", "rank": 94, "score": 107430 }, { "content": "Title: Reviews in American History Content: Reviews in American History is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal established in 1973 and published by the Johns Hopkins University Press . It publishes reviews of new books on the topic of American history , as well as retrospectives on influential titles of the past . All areas of American history , including political , military , economic , gender , religious , social , cultural , legal , intellectual , artistic , and philosophical , are covered . The current editor-in-chief is Thomas P. Slaughter of the University of Rochester .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Reviews_in_American_History", "rank": 95, "score": 107425 }, { "content": "Title: Robert F. Almeder Content: Robert F. Almeder ( born December 11 , 1939 ) is Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at Georgia State University . He is known in particular for his work on the philosophy of science , and has also written on the philosophy of mind , epistemology and ethics . He is the author of 24 books , including The Philosophy of Charles S. Peirce ( 1980 ) , Death and Personal Survival ( 1992 ) , Harmless Naturalism : The Limits of Science and the Nature of Philosophy ( 1998 ) , Human Happiness and Morality ( 2000 ) , and Truth and Skepticism ( 2010 ) . Almeder served as the editor of the American Philosophical Quarterly ( 1998 -- 2003 ) , and co-edited the annual Biomedical Ethics Reviews ( 1983 -- 2004 ) . He was the inaugural McCullough Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at Hamilton College in New York ( 2005 -- 2007 ) , where he taught courses on human rights , biomedical ethics and the law .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Robert_F._Almeder", "rank": 96, "score": 107362 }, { "content": "Title: Peer English Content: Peer English is an academic journal established in 2006 and published annually by the Department of English at the University of Leicester and the English Association . Peer English exists `` to interpret ` literary studies ' as broadly as possible '' with an `` open and inclusive '' approach and publishes `` work that considers any literary period , and deploys the whole range of critical strategies used in the discipline today , from traditional close readings , to historically-grounded scholarship and cutting-edge theoretical or interdisciplinary analyses . '' The current editors are Barbara Cooke and Michael Jolliffe .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Peer_English", "rank": 97, "score": 107312 }, { "content": "Title: Annals of the Faculty of Law in Belgrade Content: The Annals of the Faculty of Law in Belgrade is a peer-reviewed law review published by the University of Belgrade Faculty of Law . The editor-in-chief is Sima Avramović . The journal solicits articles , contributions , case and legislation comments , debates , and book reviews on all aspects of law and social sciences . The journal is accessible on electronic databases such as HeinOnline . The journal was established in 1906 as the Archive of Legal and Social Sciences . In 2006 , a yearly issue in English , subtitled Belgrade Law Review and co-edited by Alan Watson , was launched . The Serbian edition has been published continuously in Serbian with abstracts in foreign languages . Former editors-in-chief include Mihajlo Konstantinović , Milan Bartoš , Vojislav Bakić , Vojislav Simović , Obren Stanković , Dejan Popović , Miodrag Orlić , and Danilo Basta .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Annals_of_the_Faculty_of_Law_in_Belgrade", "rank": 98, "score": 107186 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of American Studies Content: The Journal of American Studies is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering international perspectives on the history , literature , politics and culture of the United States . It includes a book review section . Though academic in nature , the journal is intended also for general readers with an interest in the United States . It was established in 1967 with Dennis Welland ( University of Manchester ) as editor-in-chief . It is currently edited by Scott Lucas ( University of Birmingham ) . The journal is published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the British Association for American Studies .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Journal_of_American_Studies", "rank": 99, "score": 107164 }, { "content": "Title: Bilingual Review Content: The Bilingual Review/La revista bilingüe is a triannual peer-reviewed open access academic and literary journal covering research on Spanish-English bilingualism , bilingual education , and Hispanic American literature . It was previously published by Bilingual Review Press , which is affiliated with the Hispanic Research Center at Arizona State University . The current publisher is the University of Texas at San Antonio . The journal was established in 1974 by Gary D. Keller ( City College of New York ) , who served as editor-in-chief until 2014 . He was succeeded by Howard L. Smith ( University of Texas at San Antonio ) .", "qid": "2877", "docid": "Bilingual_Review", "rank": 100, "score": 107045 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Renewable thermal energy Content: Renewable thermal energy is the technology of gathering thermal energy from a renewable energy source for immediate use or for storage in a thermal battery for later use . An example of Renewable Thermal is a Geothermal Heat Pump ( GHP ) system , where excess thermal energy due to solar heating from the sun is removed from the structure via the heating and cooling system and stored in the ground , and that same energy is then extracted from the ground to later heat the same building in another season . This example system is `` renewable '' because the source of excess heat energy is a reliably recurring process that occurs each summer season ; in this case it is even a natural renewable energy source .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_thermal_energy", "rank": 1, "score": 186846 }, { "content": "Title: List of energy resources Content: These are modes of energy production , energy storage , or energy conservation , listed alphabetically . Note that not all sources are accepted as legitimate or have been proven to be tappable . Atomic energy Banki turbine -- hydro power , like overshot or even like turbine ... Battery ( electricity ) Bioalcohol Biodiesel Biodiesel production Biofuel Biogas Biomass Bio-nano generator Bitumen Breeder reactor Bubble fusion -- a nuclear fusion reaction hypothesized to occur during sonoluminescence , an extreme form of acoustic cavitation . Coal Coal mining Cold fusion Combustion Compound turbine -- two axle , steam Compressed air energy storage Concentrated solar power Deep lake water cooling Diesel Dyson sphere Electrical grid Energy tower External combustion engine Fischer-Tropsch process Flywheel ( storage ) Fossil fuel Fossil-fuel power station Francis turbine Fuel -- a substance used as a source of energy , usually by the heat produced in combustion . Fuel cell Fuel efficiency Fusion power Gas turbine Gasohol Geothermal exchange heat pump Geothermal heating Geothermal power Grid energy storage High-altitude wind power - Energy can be captured from the wind by kites , aerostats , airfoil matrices , balloons , bladed turbines , kytoon , tethered gliders sailplanes Hydroelectricity Hydrogen economy Hydrogen storage , Underground hydrogen storage Hydropower-Energy from moving water Implosion Kaplan turbine Light crude Liquid fuel Liquid nitrogen economy Marine current power Magnetohydrodynamic , generator , MHD generator or dynamo transforms thermal energy or kinetic energy directly into electricity Methane clathrate Methanol Methanol economy Natural gas Natural gas field Natural gas vehicle Nuclear energy -- energy in the nucleus or core of atoms Nuclear fusion Nuclear reactor Nuclear reprocessing Oil drilling Oil platform Oil refinery Oil shale Oil well Osmotic power - or salinity gradient power - is the energy available from the difference in the salt concentration between seawater and river water OTEC -- Ocean thermal energy conversion Oxidation Peat Perpetuum Mobile Petroleum Photovoltaics Piezoelectricity Pneumatics -- compressed air Products based on refined oil Propellant Pumped-storage hydroelectricity Pyrolysis Renewable energy Savonius wind turbine -- wind Small hydro Solar box cooker Solar cell Solar chimney Solar panel Solar energy Solar power satellite Solar thermal energy Solar updraft tower -- large version of the solar chimney concept Solar water heating Solid fuel Sonoluminescence -- the emission of short bursts of light from imploding bubbles in a liquid when excited by sound . SSTAR -- small , sealed , transportable , autonomous reactor Steam turbine Stirling engine Straight vegetable oil Stranded gas reserve Sulfur-iodine cycle Sustainable design Synfuel Syngas Tar sands Tesla turbine Thermal depolymerization Thermal power station Thorium Tidal power Transmutation Turgo turbine -- impulse water turbine designed for medium head applications Tyson turbine -- for river flow harnessing UASB Uranium Vacuum energy Vibration energy scavenging Vortex energy Water turbine Wave power Wind energy Wind farm Wind turbine Wood fuel Wood gas Zero-point energy", "qid": "2880", "docid": "List_of_energy_resources", "rank": 2, "score": 181036 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal energy storage Content: Thermal energy storage ( TES ) is achieved with greatly differing technologies that collectively accommodate a wide range of needs . It allows excess thermal energy to be collected for later use , hours , days or many months later , at individual building , multiuser building , district , town , or even regional scale depending on the specific technology . As examples : energy demand can be balanced between daytime and nighttime ; summer heat from solar collectors can be stored interseasonally for use in winter ; and cold obtained from winter air can be provided for summer air conditioning . Storage media include : water or ice-slush tanks ranging from small to massive , masses of native earth or bedrock accessed with heat exchangers in clusters of small-diameter boreholes ( sometimes quite deep ) ; deep aquifers contained between impermeable strata ; shallow , lined pits filled with gravel and water and top-insulated ; and eutectic , phase-change materials . Other sources of thermal energy for storage include heat or cold produced with heat pumps from off-peak , lower cost electric power , a practice called peak shaving ; heat from combined heat and power ( CHP ) power plants ; heat produced by renewable electrical energy that exceeds grid demand and waste heat from industrial processes . Heat storage , both seasonal and short term , is considered an important means for cheaply balancing high shares of variable renewable electricity production and integration of electricity and heating sectors in energy systems almost or completely fed by renewable energy .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Thermal_energy_storage", "rank": 3, "score": 170770 }, { "content": "Title: Lists of renewable energy topics Content: Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , motor fuels , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services . Based on REN21 's 2014 report , renewables contributed 19 percent to our global energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013 , respectively . These are lists about renewable energy : Index of solar energy articles List of books about renewable energy List of concentrating solar thermal power companies List of countries by electricity production from renewable sources List of energy storage projects Lists of environmental topics List of geothermal power stations List of hydroelectric power stations List of largest hydroelectric power stations List of offshore wind farms Lists of offshore wind farms by country Lists of offshore wind farms by water area List of onshore wind farms List of onshore wind farms in the United Kingdom List of people associated with renewable energy List of photovoltaics companies List of photovoltaic power stations List of pioneering solar buildings List of renewable energy companies by stock exchange List of renewable energy organizations List of renewable energy topics by country List of rooftop photovoltaic installations List of solar car teams List of solar powered products List of solar thermal power stations List of U.S. states by electricity production from renewable sources Lists of wind farms by country List of wind farms in Australia List of wind farms in Canada List of wind farms in Iran List of wind farms in Romania List of wind farms in Sweden List of wind farms in the United States List of wind turbine manufacturers", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Lists_of_renewable_energy_topics", "rank": 4, "score": 161384 }, { "content": "Title: Intermittent energy source Content: An intermittent energy source is any source of energy or electrical power that is not continuously available due to some factor outside direct control . The intermittent source may be quite predictable , for example , tidal power , but can not be dispatched to meet the demand of a power system . Effective use of intermittent sources in an electric power grid usually relies on using the intermittent sources to displace fuel that would otherwise be consumed by non-renewable power stations , or by storing energy in the form of renewable pumped storage , compressed air or ice , or in batteries , for use when needed , or as electrode heating for district heating schemes . The capacity of a reliable renewable power supply , can be fulfilled by the use of backup or extra infrastructure and technology , using mixed renewables to produce electricity above the intermittent average , which may be utilised to meet regular and unanticipated supply demands . Additionally , the storage of energy to fill the shortfall intermittency or for emergencies can be part of a reliable power supply . The penetration of intermittent renewables in most power grids is low , global electricity production in 2014 was supplied by 3.1 % wind , and 1 % solar . Wind generates roughly 16 % of electric energy in Spain and Portugal , 15.3 % in Ireland , and 7 % in Germany . , wind provides 39 % of the electricity generated in Denmark . To operate with this level of penetration , Denmark exports surpluses and imports during shortfalls to and from neighbouring countries , particularly hydroelectric power from Norway , to balance supply with demand . It also uses large numbers of combined heat and power ( CHP ) stations which can rapidly adjust output . The use of small amounts of intermittent power has little effect on grid operations . Using larger amounts of intermittent power may require upgrades or even a redesign of the grid infrastructure .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Intermittent_energy_source", "rank": 5, "score": 158300 }, { "content": "Title: Seasonal thermal energy storage Content: Seasonal thermal energy storage ( or STES ) is the storage of heat or cold for periods of up to several months . The thermal energy can be collected whenever it is available and be used whenever needed , such as in the opposing season . For example , heat from solar collectors or waste heat from air conditioning equipment can be gathered in hot months for space heating use when needed , including during winter months . Waste heat from industrial process can similarly be stored and be used much later . Or the natural cold of winter air can be stored for summertime air conditioning . STES stores can serve district heating systems , as well as single buildings or complexes . Among seasonal storages used for heating , the design peak annual temperatures generally are in the range of 27 to , and the temperature difference occurring in the storage over the course of a year can be several tens of degrees . Some systems use a heat pump to help charge and discharge the storage during part or all of the cycle . For cooling applications , often only circulation pumps are used . A less common term for STES technologies is interseasonal thermal energy storage Examples for district heating include Drake Landing Solar Community where ground storage provides 97 % of yearly consumption without heat pumps , and Danish pond storage with boosting .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Seasonal_thermal_energy_storage", "rank": 6, "score": 157521 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal energy Content: Geothermal energy is heat energy generated and stored in the Earth . Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter . The geothermal energy of the Earth 's crust originates from the original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of materials ( in currently uncertain but possibly roughly equal proportions ) . The geothermal gradient , which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface , drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface . The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots γη ( ge ) , meaning earth , and θερμος ( thermos ) , meaning hot . Earth 's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth 's formation . Temperatures at the core -- mantle boundary may reach over 4000 ° C ( 7,200 ° F ) . The high temperature and pressure in Earth 's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically , resulting in portions of the mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock . Rock and water is heated in the crust , sometimes up to 370 ° C ( 700 ° F ) . From hot springs , geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times , but it is now better known for electricity generation . Worldwide , 11,700 megawatts ( MW ) of geothermal power is online in 2013 . An additional 28 gigawatts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating , space heating , spas , industrial processes , desalination and agricultural applications as of 2010 . Geothermal power is cost-effective , reliable , sustainable , and environmentally friendly , but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries . Recent technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources , especially for applications such as home heating , opening a potential for widespread exploitation . Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth , but these emissions are much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels . The Earth 's geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity 's energy needs , but only a very small fraction may be profitably exploited . Drilling and exploration for deep resources is very expensive . Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions about technology , energy prices , subsidies , plate boundary movement and interest rates . Pilot programs like EWEB 's customer opt in Green Power Program show that customers would be willing to pay a little more for a renewable energy source like geothermal . But as a result of government assisted research and industry experience , the cost of generating geothermal power has decreased by 25 % over the past two decades . In 2001 , geothermal energy costs between two and ten US cents per kWh .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Geothermal_energy", "rank": 7, "score": 155772 }, { "content": "Title: Distributed generation Content: Distributed generation , also distributed energy , on-site generation ( OSG ) or district/decentralized energy is generated or stored by a variety of small , grid-connected devices referred to as distributed energy resources ( DER ) or distributed energy resource systems . Conventional power stations , such as coal-fired , gas and nuclear powered plants , as well as hydroelectric dams and large-scale solar power stations , are centralized and often require electricity to be transmitted over long distances . By contrast , DER systems are decentralized , modular and more flexible technologies , that are located close to the load they serve , albeit having capacities of only 10 megawatts ( MW ) or less . These systems can comprise multiple generation and storage components . In this instance they are referred to as Hybrid power systems . DER systems typically use renewable energy sources , including small hydro , biomass , biogas , solar power , wind power , and geothermal power , and increasingly play an important role for the electric power distribution system . A grid-connected device for electricity storage can also be classified as a DER system , and is often called a distributed energy storage system ( DESS ) . By means of an interface , DER systems can be managed and coordinated within a smart grid . Distributed generation and storage enables collection of energy from many sources and may lower environmental impacts and improve security of supply . Microgrids are modern , localized , small-scale grids , contrary to the traditional , centralized electricity grid ( macrogrid ) . Microgrids can disconnect from the centralized grid and operate autonomously , strengthen grid resilience and help mitigate grid disturbances . They are typically low-voltage AC grids , often use diesel generators , and are installed by the community they serve . Microgrids increasingly employ a mixture of different distributed energy resources , such as solar hybrid power systems , which reduce the amount of emitted carbon significantly .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Distributed_generation", "rank": 8, "score": 153883 }, { "content": "Title: Compressed air energy storage Content: Compressed air energy storage ( CAES ) is a way to store energy generated at one time for use at another time using compressed air . At utility scale , energy generated during periods of low energy demand ( off-peak ) can be released to meet higher demand ( peak load ) periods . Small scale systems have long been used in such applications as propulsion of mine locomotives . Large scale applications must conserve the heat energy associated with compressing air ; dissipating heat lowers the energy efficiency of the storage system .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Compressed_air_energy_storage", "rank": 9, "score": 150897 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy Content: Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources , which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , transportation , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services . Based on REN21 's 2016 report , renewables contributed 19.2 % to humans ' global energy consumption and 23.7 % to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015 , respectively . This energy consumption is divided as 8.9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( modern biomass , geothermal and solar heat ) , 3.9 % hydro electricity and 2.2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$ 286 billion in 2015 , with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind , hydro , solar and biofuels . Globally , there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries , with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer . As of 2015 worldwide , more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable . Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas , in contrast to other energy sources , which are concentrated in a limited number of countries . Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security , climate change mitigation , and economic benefits . The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change , a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies . In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power . At the national level , at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply . National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond . Some places and at least two countries , Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already , and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100 % renewable energy in the future . For example , in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply ( electricity , mobility and heating/cooling ) to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 . While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . United Nations ' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity . As most of renewables provide electricity , renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification , which has several benefits : Electricity can be converted to heat ( where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels ) , can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption . In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements , because most renewables do n't have a steam cycle with high losses ( fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65 % ) . Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper . Their share of total energy consumption is increasing . Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables and natural gas .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_energy", "rank": 10, "score": 149222 }, { "content": "Title: SolarReserve Content: SolarReserve is a developer of utility-scale solar power projects which include Concentrated Solar Power ( CSP ) and Photovoltaic ( PV ) technology . The company has commercialized solar thermal energy storage technology that enables solar power tower CSP plants to deliver electricity day and night . In this technology , a molten salt is used to capture the energy from the sun and store it . When electricity is needed , the stored liquid salt is used to turn water into steam to turn a turbine and generate electricity . As of May 2015 , SolarReserve has developed and secured long-term power contracts for 482 megawatts ( MW ) of solar projects representing $ 2.8 billion of project capital , with a development pipeline of more than 6.6 gigawatts ( GW ) globally . SolarReserve reached its lowest price yet at cents 6.3 / kWh for the 2019 Copiapó Solar Project . In addition to its headquarters in Santa Monica , California , SolarReserve has offices in Spain , Chile , South Africa , Turkey , Australia , and the United Arab Emirates .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "SolarReserve", "rank": 11, "score": 145245 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable heat Content: Renewable heat is an application of renewable energy and it refers to the renewable generation of heat , rather than electrical power ( e.g. replacing a fossil fuel boiler using concentrating solar thermal to feed radiators ) . Renewable heat technologies include renewable biofuels , solar heating , geothermal heating , heat pumps and heat exchangers to recover lost heat . Significant attention is also applied to insulation . Many colder countries consume more energy for heating than electrical power . For example , in 2005 the United Kingdom consumed 354 TWh of electric power , but had a heat requirement of 907 TWh , the majority of which ( 81 % ) was met using gas . The residential sector alone consumed a massive 550 TWh of energy for heating , mainly in the form of gas . Almost half of the final energy consumed in the UK ( 49 % ) was in the form of heat , of which 70 % was used by households and in commercial and public buildings . Households used heat mainly for space heating ( 69 % ) and heating water . The relative competitiveness of renewable electricity and renewable heat depends on a nation 's approach to energy and environment policy . Few renewable technologies ( whether for heat , electricity or transport ) are competitive with fossil fuels without some form of carbon valuation or subsidy . In those countries , such as Sweden , Denmark and Finland , where government intervention has been closest to a technology-neutral form of carbon valuation ( i.e. carbon and energy taxes ) , renewable heat has played the leading role in a very substantial renewable contribution to final energy consumption . In those countries , such as Germany , Spain , the USA , and the UK , where government intervention has been set at different levels for different technologies , uses and scales , the contributions of renewable heat and renewable electricity technologies have depended on the relative levels of support , and have resulted generally in a lower renewable contribution to final energy consumption .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_heat", "rank": 12, "score": 143702 }, { "content": "Title: Concentrated solar power Content: Concentrated solar power ( also called concentrating solar power , concentrated solar thermal , and CSP ) systems generate solar power by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight , or solar thermal energy , onto a small area . Electricity is generated when the concentrated light is converted to heat , which drives a heat engine ( usually a steam turbine ) connected to an electrical power generator or powers a thermochemical reaction ( experimental ) . Heat storage in molten salts allows some solar thermal plants to continue to generate after sunset and adds value to such systems when compared to photovoltaic panels . CSP is being commercialized and the CSP market saw about 740 megawatt ( MW ) of generating capacity added between 2007 and the end of 2010 . More than half of this ( about 478 MW ) was installed during 2010 , bringing the global total to 1095 MW . Spain added 400 MW in 2010 , taking the global lead with a total of 632 MW , while the US ended the year with 509 MW after adding 78 MW , including two fossil -- CSP hybrid plants . The Middle East is also ramping up their plans to install CSP based projects . Shams-I has been installed in Abu Dhabi , by Masdar . The largest CSP projects in the world is Ivanpah Solar Power Facility in the United States ( which uses solar power tower technology ) and Mojave Solar Project ( which uses parabolic troughs ) . As of January 2014 , Spain had a total capacity of 2,300 MW making this country the world leader in CSP . United States follows with 1,740 MW . Interest is also notable in North Africa and the Middle East , as well as India and China . In Italy , a handful of companies are trying to get authorization for 14 plants , totalling 392 MW , despite a strong local and political opposition . The global market has been dominated by parabolic-trough plants , which account for 90 % of CSP plants . In most cases , CSP technologies currently can not compete on price with photovoltaics ( solar panels ) , which have experienced huge growth in recent years due to falling prices of the panels and much smaller operating costs . However , the Chile Copiapó reached cents 6.3 / kWh . In 2015 , CSP represented less than 2 % of worldwide installed capacity of solar electricity plants . CSP is not to be confused with concentrator photovoltaics ( CPV ) . In CPV , the concentrated sunlight is converted directly to electricity via the photovoltaic effect .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Concentrated_solar_power", "rank": 13, "score": 143459 }, { "content": "Title: Bokpoort CSP Content: Bokpoort CSP is a concentrated solar power ( CSP ) thermal energy power plant , located near Groblershoop in the Northern Cape province of South Africa . It has a capacity of 50.0 megawatts ( MW ) . It covers an area of less than 300 ha . The Bokpoort Plant has a full-load molten salt storage capacity of 1 ‚ 300MWh ( t ) equivalent to around 9.3 hours . The plant synchronised for the first time on the South African Grid in November 2015 , after a construction period of 29 months . The consortium led by ACWA Power International ( Saudi Arabia ) describes this system as the largest thermal storage system ever built for a CSP plant of its size and capacity . The South African solar power plant has set a new African record ( 25 March 2016 ) for the continuous , round the clock supply of renewable electricity for 161 hours .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Bokpoort_CSP", "rank": 14, "score": 142040 }, { "content": "Title: Energy recovery Content: Energy recovery includes any technique or method of minimizing the input of energy to an overall system by the exchange of energy from one sub-system of the overall system with another . The energy can be in any form in either subsystem , but most energy recovery systems exchange thermal energy in either sensible or latent form . In some circumstances the use of an enabling technology , either diurnal thermal energy storage or seasonal thermal energy storage ( STES , which allows heat or cold storage between opposing seasons ) , is necessary to make energy recovery practicable . One example is waste heat from air conditioning machinery stored in a buffer tank to aid in night time heating . Another is an STES application at a foundry in Sweden . Waste heat is recovered and stored in a large mass of native bedrock which is penetrated by a cluster of 140 heat exchanger equipped boreholes ( 155mm diameter ) that are 150m deep . This store is used for heating an adjacent factory as needed , even months later . An example of using STES to recover and utilize natural heat that otherwise would be wasted is the Drake Landing Solar Community in Alberta , Canada . The community uses a cluster of boreholes in bedrock for interseasonal heat storage , and this enables obtaining 97 percent of the year-round space heating from solar thermal collectors on the garage roofs . Another STES application is recovering the cold of winter by circulating water through a dry cooling tower , and using that to chill a deep aquifer or borehole cluster . The chill is later recovered from the storage for summer air conditioning . With a coefficient of performance ( COP ) of 20 to 40 , this method of cooling can be ten times more efficient than conventional air conditioning .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Energy_recovery", "rank": 15, "score": 141744 }, { "content": "Title: List of books about renewable energy Content: This is a bibliography of renewable energy . Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , and geothermal heat , which are renewable ( naturally replenished ) . About 16 % of global final energy consumption comes from renewables , with 10 % coming from traditional biomass , which is mainly used for heating , and 3.4 % from hydroelectricity . New renewables ( small hydro , modern biomass , wind , solar , geothermal , and biofuels ) account for another 3 % and are growing very rapidly . Total investment in renewable energy reached $ 244 billion in 2012 . The top countries for investment in recent years were China , Germany , Spain , the United States , Italy , and Brazil . Leading renewable energy companies include BrightSource Energy , Enercon , First Solar , Gamesa , GE Energy , Goldwind , Nordex , Sinovel , Suntech , Trina Solar , Vestas and Yingli .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "List_of_books_about_renewable_energy", "rank": 16, "score": 141224 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical study of energy data Content: Energy statistics refers to collecting , compiling , analyzing and disseminating data on commodities such as coal , crude oil , natural gas , electricity , or renewable energy sources ( biomass , geothermal , wind or solar energy ) , when they are used for the energy they contain . Energy is the capability of some substances , resulting from their physico-chemical properties , to do work or produce heat . Some energy commodities , called fuels , release their energy content as heat when they burn . This heat could be used to run an internal or external combustion engine . The need to have statistics on energy commodities became obvious during the 1973 oil crisis that brought tenfold increase in petroleum prices . Before the crisis , to have accurate data on global energy supply and demand was not deemed critical . Another concern of energy statistics today is a huge gap in energy use between developed and developing countries . As the gap narrows ( see picture ) , the pressure on energy supply increases tremendously . The data on energy and electricity come from three principal sources : Energy industry Other industries ( `` self-producers '' ) Consumers The flows of and trade in energy commodities are measured both in physical units ( e.g. , metric tons ) , and , when energy balances are calculated , in energy units ( e.g. , terajoules or tons of oil equivalent ) . What makes energy statistics specific and different from other fields of economic statistics is the fact that energy commodities undergo greater number of transformations ( flows ) than other commodities . In these transformations energy is conserved , as defined by and within the limitations of the first and second laws of thermodynamics .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Statistical_study_of_energy_data", "rank": 17, "score": 139403 }, { "content": "Title: EnergyNest Content: EnergyNest is a Norwegian company specializing in high-temperature thermal energy storage . The company designs concrete-based storage systems suited for use in concentrated solar power plants , energy intensive industries and combined heat and power applications for electric grids . Category : Companies established in 2011 Category : Privately held companies of Norway", "qid": "2880", "docid": "EnergyNest", "rank": 18, "score": 138978 }, { "content": "Title: Grid energy storage Content: Grid energy storage ( also called large-scale energy storage ) is a collection of methods used to store electrical energy on a large scale within an electrical power grid . Electrical energy is stored during times when production ( especially from intermittent power plants such as renewable electricity sources such as wind power , tidal power , solar power ) exceeds consumption , and returned to the grid when production falls below consumption . , by far the largest form of grid energy storage on grids is dammed hydroelectricity , with both conventional hydroelectric generation as well as pumped storage . An alternative to grid storage is the use of peaking power plants to fill in demand gaps .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Grid_energy_storage", "rank": 19, "score": 136134 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal (disambiguation) Content: Geothermal is related to energy and may refer to : The geothermal gradient and associated heat flows from within the Earth Geothermal energy , the thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth Geothermal exploration , the search for commercially usable geothermal energy", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Geothermal_(disambiguation)", "rank": 20, "score": 135447 }, { "content": "Title: Alternative energy Content: Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel . These alternatives are intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels , such as its high carbon dioxide emissions , an important factor in global warming . Marine energy , hydroelectric , wind , geothermal and solar power are all alternative sources of energy . The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy source has changed considerably over time , as have controversies regarding energy use . Because of the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates , defining some energy types as `` alternative '' is considered very controversial .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Alternative_energy", "rank": 21, "score": 134701 }, { "content": "Title: Hot dry rock geothermal energy Content: Hot dry rock ( HDR ) is by far the most abundant source of geothermal energy available to mankind . A vast store of thermal energy is contained in the hot -- but essentially dry -- impervious crystalline basement rocks found almost everywhere deep beneath the earth 's surface . A concept for the extraction of useful amounts of geothermal energy from HDR originated at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1970 , and was so groundbreaking that Laboratory researchers were awarded a U.S. patent covering it .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Hot_dry_rock_geothermal_energy", "rank": 22, "score": 134229 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in the Netherlands Content: Despite the historic usage of wind power to drain water and grind grain , the Netherlands today lags behind most EU countries in the production of energy from renewable sources . The leading renewable sources in the country are biomass , wind , solar and both geothermal and aerothermal power ( mostly from ground source and air source heat pumps ) . In 2014 , the Netherlands produced only 5.5 % of its total energy from renewables , a small rise from 3.7 % in 2010 and just 1 % in 1990 . Among the EU countries , only Malta and Luxembourg had lower percentages . The low take up of renewable energy may be partially explained by the flat and often sub-sea level landscape and subsequent limits to hydropower resources , although hydro poor resource countries such as Denmark have still managed to make renewables the focus of their energy needs . In 2015 , Dutch wind turbines had a total nameplate capacity of 3,431 MW . Wind and solar power installations had a record breaking year during 2015 and this may move the Netherlands closer to its target of 37 % of electricity production coming from renewables by 2020 . A number of large offshore windfarms have either come online recently ( Gemini wind farm ) or have been granted authorisation ( Borsellee 1 and 2 , and Borsellee 3 and 4 wind farms ) . Most of the tiny contribution made to electricity generation by hydroelectricity came from three power plants . A large part of the renewable electricity sold in the Netherlands comes from Norway , a country which generates almost all its electricity from hydropower plants . In the Netherlands , household consumers can choose to buy renewable electricity . Since 2008 , the amount of renewable energy used by household users has been increasing , rising from 38 % in 2008 to 41 % by 2009 . and up to 44 % by mid 2010 . One area in which the Netherlands is a relative leader is in the adoption of electric plug in vehicles . In 2015 PEV vehicles in the Netherlands represented 9.74 % of car sales , making it the world 's second highest share after Norway . Electric vehicles are able to run on renewable electricity with zero emissions and have the potential to provide grid power storage facilities . An interesting source of heat recovery used in the Netherlands is sourced from freshly milked milk , or warm milk . However at 0.3 % of total renewable energy production ( 2010 figures ) this source is not likely to accelerate energy transition in the country . Warm milk is still not mentioned in the EU Renewable Energy Directive , nor in international energy statistics and so is not included is gross final consumption figures . It does however provide Dutch farmers with plenty of hot water .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_the_Netherlands", "rank": 23, "score": 133761 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal heating Content: Geothermal heating is the direct use of geothermal energy for heating some applications . Humans have taken advantage of geothermal heat this way since the Paleolithic era . Approximately seventy countries made direct use of a total of 270 PJ of geothermal heating in 2004 . As of 2007 , 28 GW of geothermal heating capacity is installed around the world , satisfying 0.07 % of global primary energy consumption . Thermal efficiency is high since no energy conversion is needed , but capacity factors tend to be low ( around 20 % ) since the heat is mostly needed in the winter . Geothermal energy originates from the heat retained within the Earth since the original formation of the planet , from radioactive decay of minerals , and from solar energy absorbed at the surface . Most high temperature geothermal heat is harvested in regions close to tectonic plate boundaries where volcanic activity rises close to the surface of the Earth . In these areas , ground and groundwater can be found with temperatures higher than the target temperature of the application . However , even cold ground contains heat , below 6 m the undisturbed ground temperature is consistently at the Mean Annual Air Temperature and it may be extracted with a heat pump .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Geothermal_heating", "rank": 24, "score": 133119 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy commercialization Content: Renewable energy commercialization involves the deployment of three generations of renewable energy technologies dating back more than 100 years . First-generation technologies , which are already mature and economically competitive , include biomass , hydroelectricity , geothermal power and heat . Second-generation technologies are market-ready and are being deployed at the present time ; they include solar heating , photovoltaics , wind power , solar thermal power stations , and modern forms of bioenergy . Third-generation technologies require continued R&D efforts in order to make large contributions on a global scale and include advanced biomass gasification , hot-dry-rock geothermal power , and ocean energy . As of 2012 , renewable energy accounts for about half of new nameplate electrical capacity installed and costs are continuing to fall . Public policy and political leadership helps to `` level the playing field '' and drive the wider acceptance of renewable energy technologies . Countries such as Germany , Denmark , and Spain have led the way in implementing innovative policies which has driven most of the growth over the past decade . As of 2014 , Germany has a commitment to the `` Energiewende '' transition to a sustainable energy economy , and Denmark has a commitment to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 . There are now 144 countries with renewable energy policy targets . Renewable energy continued its rapid growth in 2015 , providing multiple benefits . There was a new record set for installed wind and photovoltaic capacity ( 64GW and 57GW ) and a new high of US$ 329 Billion for global renewables investment . A key benefit that this investment growth brings is a growth in jobs . The top countries for investment in recent years were China , Germany , Spain , the United States , Italy , and Brazil . Renewable energy companies include BrightSource Energy , First Solar , Gamesa , GE Energy , Goldwind , Sinovel , Trina Solar , Vestas , and Yingli . Climate change concerns are also driving increasing growth in the renewable energy industries . According to a 2011 projection by the ( IEA ) International Energy Agency , solar power generators may produce most of the world 's electricity within 50 years , reducing harmful greenhouse gas emissions . Renewable power has been more effective in creating jobs than coal or oil in the United States .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_energy_commercialization", "rank": 25, "score": 133040 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal power in New Zealand Content: Geothermal power in New Zealand is a small but significant part of the energy generation capacity of the country , providing approximately 13 % of the country 's electricity with installed capacity of 854 MW . New Zealand , like only a small number of other countries worldwide , has numerous geothermal sites that could be developed for exploitation , and also boasts some of the earliest large-scale use of geothermal energy in the world . Geothermal energy has been described as New Zealand 's most reliable renewable energy source , above wind , solar and even hydroelectricity , due to its lack of dependence on the weather . It has also been described as the currently ( 2000s and 2010s ) most attractive new source of energy for New Zealand , as petrochemical fuel prices rise and easy hydro power sites have been tapped - though some warn that the easier geothermal sites now have also been built on , making future large-scale projects more cost-intensive .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Geothermal_power_in_New_Zealand", "rank": 26, "score": 132184 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal power in the United Kingdom Content: The potential for exploiting geothermal energy in the United Kingdom on a commercial basis was initially examined by the Department of Energy in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis . Several regions of the country were identified , but interest in developing them was lost as petroleum prices fell . Although the UK is not actively volcanic , a large heat resource is potentially available via shallow geothermal ground source heat pumps , shallow aquifers and deep saline aquifers in the mesozoic basins of the UK . Geothermal energy is plentiful beneath the UK , although it is not readily accessible currently except in specific locations .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Geothermal_power_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 27, "score": 131750 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Mexico Content: Renewable energy in Mexico contributes to 26 percent of electricity generation in Mexico . As of 2009 , electricity generation from renewable energy comes from hydro power , geothermal , solar power and wind . There is a long term effort established to increase the use of renewable energy sources . The amount of geothermal energy used and harvested , places Mexico as number four in the world . As one of the leading countries in renewable energy , more specifically , geothermal placing Mexico as the 4th ranked country in the world . As the importance of clean sustainable energy becomes more prevalent , the country and government officials continue to invest in research and innovations to continue to allow Mexico to be a leading example of renewable energy . Predictions based on current energy standings lead the country to anticipate by the year 2035 , the 26 percent renewable energy in Mexico will rise to 35 percent . Not only will this prove a more sustainable future it also increases jobs in rural areas . Jobs increased by 14 percent within the last 8 years in the renewable energy sector . With the objection to create more in home jobs for residents of Mexico , an increase in sustainable energy , results in a lower demand for conventional fuels such as fuel oil , petrol gas , coal and natural gas . With a lower demand on these fuels , mainly gasoline and diesel and on the rise jet fuel , this will result in a lower need for imports . With relying on fewer imports , national security is higher .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Mexico", "rank": 28, "score": 131169 }, { "content": "Title: List of renewable energy topics by country Content: This is a list of renewable energy topics by country . These links can be used to compare developments in renewable energy in different countries and to help and encourage new writers to participate in writing about developments in their own countries or countries of interest . The list refers to renewable energy in general , as well as solar power , wind power , geothermal energy , biofuel , and hydro-electricity . As of 2013 , China , Germany , and Japan , three of the world 's four largest economies , as well as India , generate more electricity from renewables than from nuclear power . Based on REN21 's 2014 report , renewables contributed 19 percent to humans ' global energy consumption . This energy consumption is divided as 9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( non-biomass ) , 3.8 % hydro electricity and 2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . China is the world 's largest producer of hydroelectricity , followed by Canada . Wind power capacity is growing at the rate of 26 % annually , and is widely used in Europe , Asia , and the United States . Wind power accounts for approximately 30 % of electricity use in Denmark , 20 % in Portugal , and 18 % in Spain . PV power stations are popular in Japan , China and the United States . The world 's largest geothermal power installation is The Geysers in California , with a rated capacity of 750 MW . Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world , involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane , and ethanol now provides 18 percent of the country 's automotive fuel . Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the USA . Plug-in electric vehicles in Norway reached a market share of 22.4 % in 2015 . the highest in the world . While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . Small solar PV systems provide electricity to a few million households , and micro-hydro configured into mini-grids serves many more .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "List_of_renewable_energy_topics_by_country", "rank": 29, "score": 131037 }, { "content": "Title: Storage capacity Content: storage capacity can refer to Thermal electric capacity mostly referring to solar power plants Energy storage capacity Depression storage capacity , in soil science Computer data storage capacity , in computing Native capacity , the apparent storage capacity may differ due to compression", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Storage_capacity", "rank": 30, "score": 130937 }, { "content": "Title: Energy harvesting Content: Energy harvesting ( also known as power harvesting or energy scavenging or ambient power ) is the process by which energy is derived from external sources ( e.g. , solar power , thermal energy , wind energy , salinity gradients , and kinetic energy , also known as ambient energy ) , captured , and stored for small , wireless autonomous devices , like those used in wearable electronics and wireless sensor networks . Energy harvesters provide a very small amount of power for low-energy electronics . While the input fuel to some large-scale generation costs resources ( oil , coal , etc. ) , the energy source for energy harvesters is present as ambient background . For example , temperature gradients exist from the operation of a combustion engine and in urban areas , there is a large amount of electromagnetic energy in the environment because of radio and television broadcasting . One of the earliest applications of ambient power collected from ambient electromagnetic radiation ( EMR ) is the crystal radio . The principles of energy harvesting from ambient EMR can be demonstrated with basic components .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Energy_harvesting", "rank": 31, "score": 129842 }, { "content": "Title: Variable renewable energy Content: Variable renewable energy ( VRE ) is a renewable energy source that is non-dispatchable due to its fluctuating nature , like wind power and solar power , as opposed to a controllable renewable energy source such as hydroelectricity , or biomass , or a relatively constant source such as geothermal power or run-of-the-river hydroelectricity .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Variable_renewable_energy", "rank": 32, "score": 129340 }, { "content": "Title: Business Energy Investment Tax Credit Content: The Business Energy Investment Tax Credit ( ITC ) is a U.S. federal corporate tax credit that is applicable to commercial , industrial , utility , and agricultural sectors . Eligible technologies for the ITC are solar water heat , solar space heat , solar thermal electric , solar thermal process heat , photovoltaics , wind , biomass , geothermal electric , fuel cells , geothermal heat pumps , CHP/cogeneration , solar hybrid lighting , microturbines , and geothermal direct-use . This program is co-administered by the Internal Revenue Service ( IRS ) and the U.S. Department of Energy ( DOE ) . The tax credits were expanded by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and most components will last until December 31 , 2016 .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Business_Energy_Investment_Tax_Credit", "rank": 33, "score": 128857 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal heat pump Content: A geothermal heat pump or ground source heat pump ( GSHP ) is a central heating and/or cooling system that transfers heat to or from the ground . It uses the earth as a heat source ( in the winter ) or a heat sink ( in the summer ) . This design takes advantage of the moderate temperatures in the ground to boost efficiency and reduce the operational costs of heating and cooling systems , and may be combined with solar heating to form a geosolar system with even greater efficiency . They are also known by other names , including geoexchange , earth-coupled , earth energy systems . The engineering and scientific communities prefer the terms `` geoexchange '' or `` ground source heat pumps '' to avoid confusion with traditional geothermal power , which uses a high temperature heat source to generate electricity . Ground source heat pumps harvest heat absorbed at the Earth 's surface from solar energy . The temperature in the ground below 6 m is roughly equal to the mean annual air temperature at that latitude at the surface . Depending on latitude , the temperature beneath the upper 6 m of Earth 's surface maintains a nearly constant temperature between 10 and 16 ° C ( 50 and 60 ° F ) , if the temperature is undisturbed by the presence of a heat pump . Like a refrigerator or air conditioner , these systems use a heat pump to force the transfer of heat from the ground . Heat pumps can transfer heat from a cool space to a warm space , against the natural direction of flow , or they can enhance the natural flow of heat from a warm area to a cool one . The core of the heat pump is a loop of refrigerant pumped through a vapor-compression refrigeration cycle that moves heat . Air-source heat pumps are typically more efficient at heating than pure electric heaters , even when extracting heat from cold winter air , although efficiencies begin dropping significantly as outside air temperatures drop below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) . A ground source heat pump exchanges heat with the ground . This is much more energy-efficient because underground temperatures are more stable than air temperatures through the year . Seasonal variations drop off with depth and disappear below 7 m to 12 m due to thermal inertia . Like a cave , the shallow ground temperature is warmer than the air above during the winter and cooler than the air in the summer . A ground source heat pump extracts ground heat in the winter ( for heating ) and transfers heat back into the ground in the summer ( for cooling ) . Some systems are designed to operate in one mode only , heating or cooling , depending on climate . Geothermal pump systems reach fairly high coefficient of performance ( CoP ) , 3 to 6 , on the coldest of winter nights , compared to 1.75 -- 2.5 for air-source heat pumps on cool days . Ground source heat pumps ( GSHPs ) are among the most energy efficient technologies for providing HVAC and water heating . Setup costs are higher than for conventional systems , but the difference is usually returned in energy savings in 3 to 10 years , and even shorter lengths of time with federal , state and utility tax credits and incentives . Geothermal heat pump systems are reasonably warranted by manufacturers , and their working life is estimated at 25 years for inside components and 50 + years for the ground loop . As of 2004 , there are over one million units installed worldwide providing 12 GW of thermal capacity , with an annual growth rate of 10 % .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Geothermal_heat_pump", "rank": 34, "score": 127100 }, { "content": "Title: Energy storage Content: Energy storage is the capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time . A device that stores energy is sometimes called an accumulator . Energy comes in multiple forms including radiation , chemical , gravitational potential , electrical potential , electricity , elevated temperature , latent heat and kinetic . Energy storage involves converting energy from forms that are difficult to store to more conveniently or economically storable forms . Bulk energy storage is currently dominated by hydroelectric dams , both conventional as well as pumped . Some technologies provide short-term energy storage , while others can endure for much longer . A wind-up clock stores potential energy ( in this case mechanical , in the spring tension ) , a rechargeable battery stores readily convertible chemical energy to operate a mobile phone , and a hydroelectric dam stores energy in a reservoir as gravitational potential energy . Fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline store ancient energy derived from sunlight by organisms that later died , became buried and over time were then converted into these fuels . Food ( which is made by the same process as fossil fuels ) is a form of energy stored in chemical form . Ice storage tanks store ice frozen by cheaper energy at night to meet peak daytime demand for cooling . The energy is n't stored directly , but the work-product of consuming energy ( pumping away heat ) is stored , having the equivalent effect on daytime consumption .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Energy_storage", "rank": 35, "score": 126853 }, { "content": "Title: Copper in renewable energy Content: Renewable energy sources such as solar , wind , tidal , hydro , biomass , and geothermal have become significant sectors of the energy market . The rapid growth of these sources in the 21st century has been prompted by increasing costs of fossil fuels as well as their negative environmental impacts . While the average capacity of renewable energy sources was only 7 % globally in 2010 , most installation of new capacity has been with renewables . Few new installations were from fossil fuel-based power plants . The trend towards new power capacity by renewables is expected to continue through 2020 . Since renewable energy supplies offset the amount of fossil fuels that need to be combusted in power plants , the use of renewables indirectly helps to reduce CO2 emissions . Hence , renewable energy supplies enable societies to progress towards lower-carbon-based economies . Copper plays an important role in renewable energy systems . Since copper is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor among the engineering metals ( second only to silver ) , power systems that utilize copper generate and transmit energy with high efficiency and with minimum environmental impacts . By using copper instead of other lower electrical energy-efficient metal conductors , less electricity needs to be generated to satisfy a given power demand . This article discusses the role of copper in various renewable energy generation systems .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Copper_in_renewable_energy", "rank": 36, "score": 126772 }, { "content": "Title: SkyFuel Content: SkyFuel is a designer and provider of thermal concentrating solar power ( CSP ) equipment for utility scale power generation and industrial applications of steam . Energy from thermal CSP plants can be stored for later use and deliver electricity matched to the load profile of the utility company .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "SkyFuel", "rank": 37, "score": 126633 }, { "content": "Title: International Renewable Energy Alliance Content: International Renewable Energy Alliance ( REN Alliance ) is a formal partnership entered into on 4 June 2004 by five non-profit international renewable energy organisations : International Hydropower Association ( IHA ) , International Solar Energy Society ( ISES ) , International Geothermal Association ( IGA ) , World Wind Energy Association ( WWEA ) , World Bioenergy Association ( WBA ) . ( Since June 2009 ) They represent the hydro , geothermal , solar , and wind power/energy and bioenergy sector . The alliance provides a unified cross-sectoral voice on renewable energy in international and regional energy fora and media . Climate change concerns , coupled with high oil prices , peak oil , and increasing government support , are driving increasing renewable energy legislation , incentives and commercialization . As of 2011 , 119 countries have some form of national renewable energy policy target or renewable support policy . National targets now exist in at least 98 countries . There is also a wide range of policies at state/provincial and local levels .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "International_Renewable_Energy_Alliance", "rank": 38, "score": 126459 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in developing countries Content: Renewable energy technology has sometimes been seen as a costly luxury item by critics , and affordable only in the affluent developed world . This erroneous view has persisted for many years , but 2015 was the first year when investment in non-hydro renewables , was higher in developing countries , with $ 156 billion invested , mainly in China , India , and Brazil . Most developing countries have abundant renewable energy resources , including solar energy , wind power , geothermal energy , and biomass , as well as the ability to manufacture the relatively labor-intensive systems that harness these . By developing such energy sources developing countries can reduce their dependence on oil and natural gas , creating energy portfolios that are less vulnerable to price rises . In many circumstances , these investments can be less expensive than fossil fuel energy systems . In isolated rural areas , electricity grid extensions are often not economical . Off‐grid renewable technologies provide a sustainable and cost‐effective alternative to the diesel generators that would be otherwise be deployed in such areas . Renewable technologies can also help to displace other unsustainable energy sources such as kerosene lamps and traditional biomass . Kenya is the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita ( but not the number of watts added ) . More than 30,000 small solar panels , each producing 12 to 30 watts , are sold in Kenya annually . Kenya was the first African country to use geothermal power , and still has the largest installed capacity of geothermal power in Africa at 200 MW , with a potential of up to 10 GW .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_developing_countries", "rank": 39, "score": 126010 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Albania Content: Renewable energy in Albania ranges from biomass , geothermal , hydropower , solar , wind energy in Albania . Albania relies mostly on hydroelectric resources , therefore , it has difficulties when water levels are low . Albania has a great potential for solar , wind , and geothermal energy . The climate in Albania is Mediterranean so it possesses considerable potential for solar energy . Similarly , the mountain elevations provide good areas for wind projects . There is also potential for geothermal energy because Albania has natural wells .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Albania", "rank": 40, "score": 125647 }, { "content": "Title: Solar air heat Content: Solar air heating is a solar thermal technology in which the energy from the sun , insolation , is captured by an absorbing medium and used to heat air . Solar air heating is a renewable energy heating technology used to heat or condition air for buildings or process heat applications . It is typically the most cost-effective out of all the solar technologies , especially in commercial and industrial applications , and it addresses the largest usage of building energy in heating climates , which is space heating and industrial process heating . Solar air collectors can be divided into two categories : Unglazed Air Collectors or Transpired Solar Collector ( used primarily to heat ambient air in commercial , industrial , agriculture and process applications ) Glazed Solar Collectors ( recirculating types that are usually used for space heating )", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Solar_air_heat", "rank": 41, "score": 125635 }, { "content": "Title: Stand-alone power system Content: A stand-alone power system ( SAPS or SPS ) , also known as remote area power supply ( RAPS ) , is an off-the-grid electricity system for locations that are not fitted with an electricity distribution system . Typical SAPS include one or more methods of electricity generation , energy storage , and regulation . Electricity is typically generated by one or more of the following methods : Photovoltaic system using solar panels Wind turbine Geothermal source Micro combined heat and power Micro hydro Diesel or biofuel generator Thermoelectric generator ( TEGs ) Storage is typically implemented as a battery bank , but other solutions exist including fuel cells . Power drawn directly from the battery will be direct current extra low voltage ( DC ELV ) , and this is used especially for lighting as well as for DC appliances . An inverter is used to generate AC low voltage , which more typical appliances can be used with . Stand-alone photovoltaic power systems are independent of the utility grid and may use solar panels only or may be used in conjunction with a diesel generator , a wind turbine or batteries .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Stand-alone_power_system", "rank": 42, "score": 125635 }, { "content": "Title: Vapor-compression refrigeration Content: Vapor-Compression Refrigeration or vapor-compression refrigeration system ( VCRS ) , in which the refrigerant undergoes phase changes , is one of the many refrigeration cycles and is the most widely used method for air-conditioning of buildings and automobiles . It is also used in domestic and commercial refrigerators , large-scale warehouses for chilled or frozen storage of foods and meats , refrigerated trucks and railroad cars , and a host of other commercial and industrial services . Oil refineries , petrochemical and chemical processing plants , and natural gas processing plants are among the many types of industrial plants that often utilize large vapor-compression refrigeration systems . Refrigeration may be defined as lowering the temperature of an enclosed space by removing heat from that space and transferring it elsewhere . A device that performs this function may also be called an air conditioner , refrigerator , air source heat pump , geothermal heat pump or chiller ( heat pump ) .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Vapor-compression_refrigeration", "rank": 43, "score": 125316 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable portfolio standard (United States) Content: A Renewable Portfolio Standard ( RPS ) is a regulation that requires the increased production of energy from renewable energy sources , such as wind , solar , biomass , and geothermal . The federal RPS is called the Renewable Electricity Standard ( RES ) . The RPS mechanism generally places an obligation on electricity supply companies to produce a specified fraction of their electricity from renewable energy sources . Certified renewable energy generators earn certificates for every unit of electricity they produce and can sell these along with their electricity to supply companies . Supply companies then pass the certificates to some form of regulatory body to demonstrate their compliance with their regulatory obligations . Because it is a market mandate , the RPS relies almost entirely on the private market for its implementation . Unlike feed-in tariffs which guarantee purchase of all renewable energy regardless of cost , RPS programs tend to allow more price competition between different types of renewable energy , but can be limited in competition through eligibility and multipliers for RPS programs . Those supporting the adoption of RPS mechanisms claim that market implementation will result in competition , efficiency , and innovation that will deliver renewable energy at the lowest possible cost , allowing renewable energy to compete with cheaper fossil fuel energy sources . RPS programs have been adopted in 29 of 50 U.S. states , and the District of Columbia .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_portfolio_standard_(United_States)", "rank": 44, "score": 124499 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in the United States Content: The United States was the 2nd largest energy consumer in 2010 ( after China ) considering total use . The U.S. ranks seventh in energy consumption per-capita after Canada and a number of small nations . Not included is the significant amount of energy used overseas in the production of retail and industrial goods consumed in the U.S. The majority of this energy is derived from fossil fuels : in 2010 , data showed 25 % of the nation 's energy came from petroleum , 22 % from coal , and 22 % from natural gas . Nuclear power supplied 8.4 % and renewable energy supplied 8 % , which was mainly from hydroelectric dams and biomass but also included other renewable sources such as wind power , geothermal and solar energy . Energy consumption has increased at a faster rate than domestic energy production over the last fifty years in the U.S. ( when they were roughly equal ) . This difference is now largely met through imports . According to the Energy Information Administration 's statistics , the per-capita energy consumption in the US has been somewhat consistent from the 1970s to today . The average has been 334 million British thermal units ( BTUs ) per person from 1980 to 2010 . One explanation suggested for this is that the energy required to produce the increase in US consumption of manufactured equipment , cars , and other goods has been shifted to other countries producing and transporting those goods to the US with a corresponding shift of green house gases and pollution . In comparison , the world average has increased from 63.7 in 1980 to 75 million BTU 's per person in 2008 . On the other hand , US `` off-shoring '' of manufacturing is sometimes exaggerated : US domestic manufacturing has grown by 50 % since 1980 .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Energy_in_the_United_States", "rank": 45, "score": 124183 }, { "content": "Title: Electricity generation Content: Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of primary energy . For electric utilities , it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers . The other processes as transmission , distribution , energy storage and recovery using pumped-storage methods are normally carried out by the electric power industry . Electricity is most often generated at a power station by electromechanical generators , primarily driven by heat engines fuelled by combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind . Other energy sources include solar photovoltaics and geothermal power .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Electricity_generation", "rank": 46, "score": 124042 }, { "content": "Title: Energy transition Content: Energy transition is generally defined as a long-term structural change in energy systems . These have occurred in the past , and still occur worldwide . Historic energy transitions are most broadly described by Vaclav Smil . Contemporary energy transitions differ in terms of motivation and objectives , drivers and governance . An example of transition toward sustainable energy , is the shift by Germany ( Energiewende ) , to decentralised renewable energy , and energy efficiency . Although so far these shifts have been replacing nuclear energy , their declared goal is the abolishment of coal , reducing non-renewable energy sources and the creation of an energy system based on 60 % renewable energy by 2050 . Renewable energy encompasses wind , hydropower , solar power , geothermal , and ocean power . These renewable sources are to serve as an alternative to fossil fuels ( oil , coal , natural gas ) and nuclear fuel ( uranium ) . Solving the energy/global warming problem is regarded as the most important challenge facing humankind in the 21st century . Piecemeal measures often have only limited potential , so a timely implementation for the energy transition requires multiple approaches in parallel . Energy conservation and improvements in energy efficiency thus play a major role . An example of an effective energy efficiency measure is improved insulation for buildings . Smart electric meters can schedule energy consumption for times when electricity is available inexpensively . After such a transitional period , with a continuing increase in renewable energy production these are expected to make up most , if not all , of the world 's energy production in 50 years according to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency , dramatically reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Energy_transition", "rank": 47, "score": 124022 }, { "content": "Title: Ground heat exchanger Content: Ground heat exchangers ( GHEs ) , which are also called geothermal heat exchangers , have emerged as a promising and globally accepted way of exploiting shallow geothermal energy , for example ground-coupled heat pumps , ground heat storage . A GHE is essentially a pipe ( e.g. , U - , W - , or helical-shaped ) in a vertical borehole or a foundation pile of a building , in which a circulating heat-carrying fluid absorbs ( or discharges ) heat from ( or to ) the ground . GHEs can have various configurations . This article discusses two kinds of closed loop GHEs , i.e. , borehole and foundation pile GHEs . The borehole type is the most common . It consists of one or two U-shaped pipes that are inserted into a vertical borehole and connected to a heat pump or a heating system to form a closed loop . A U-shaped channel usually comprises two small-diameter high-density polyethylene ( HDPE ) tubes thermally fused to form a U-shaped bend at the bottom . The space between the wall of the borehole and the U-shaped tubes is usually grouted completely with grouting material or , in some cases , partially filled with groundwater . The depth of the hole ( generally from 30 m to 200 m ) depends strongly on local geological conditions and available drilling equipment . In a foundation pile GHE ( or energy pile ) , the heat transfer tubes are inside the steel frame of a foundation pile . There are various possible shapes . Foundation piles are usually much shallower than boreholes and have a greater radius . Since energy piles generally require less land area , this technology is evoking increasing interest in the ground-source heat pumps community .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Ground_heat_exchanger", "rank": 48, "score": 123548 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal power in Iceland Content: Due to the geological location of Iceland ( over a rift in continental plates ) , the high concentration of volcanoes in the area is often an advantage in the generation of geothermal energy , the heating and making of electricity . During winter , pavements near these areas ( such as Reykjavik and Akureyri ) are heated up . Five major geothermal power plants exist in Iceland , which produce approximately 26.2 % ( 2010 ) of the nation 's electricity . In addition , geothermal heating meets the heating and hot water requirements of approximately 87 % of all buildings in Iceland . Apart from geothermal energy , 73.8 % of the nation 's electricity is generated by hydro power , and 0.1 % from fossil fuels . Consumption of primary geothermal energy in 2004 was 79.7 petajoules ( PJ ) , approximately 53.4 % of the total national consumption of primary energy , 149.1 PJ . The corresponding share for hydro power was 17.2 % , petroleum was 26.3 % , and coal was 3 % . Plans are underway to turn Iceland into a 100 % fossil-fuel-free nation in the near future . For example , Iceland 's abundant geothermal energy has enabled renewable energy initiatives , such as Carbon Recycling International 's carbon dioxide to methanol fuel process . The following are the five largest power stations in Iceland . Hellisheiði Power Station ( 303 MW ) Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station ( 120 MW ) Reykjanes Power Station ( 100 MW ) Svartsengi Power Station ( 76.5 MW ) Krafla Power Station ( 60 MW )", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Geothermal_power_in_Iceland", "rank": 49, "score": 123010 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal energy in Lebanon Content: Geothermal energy in Lebanon is a branch of the energy industry , expanding quickly over the last several years . According to a UNDP assessment ( CEDRO project ) , the geothermal energy available in Lebanon is 1,000 million megawatt hours ( 70 000 fold the amount of energy needed in Lebanon per year ) . The study includes a geothermal atlas for the country and estimates the current overall potential of geothermal heat and power generation .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Geothermal_energy_in_Lebanon", "rank": 50, "score": 122953 }, { "content": "Title: Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project Content: The Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project is a 110 megawatt ( MW ) net solar thermal power project with 1.1 gigawatt-hours of energy storage , located near Tonopah , about 190 mi northwest of Las Vegas . It is the first utility-scale concentrating solar power ( CSP ) plant with a central receiver tower and advanced molten salt energy storage technology from SolarReserve . The project , developed by SolarReserve and owned by Tonopah Solar Energy , LLC . was anticipated to cost less than $ 1 billion . EPC Contractor was ACS Cobra , which carried out the engineering design , procured the equipment and materials necessary , and then constructed and delivered the facility to Tonopah Solar Energy . The project includes 10,347 heliostats that collect and focus the sun 's thermal energy to heat molten salt flowing through an approximately 640 ft tall solar power tower . The molten salt circulates from the tower to a storage tank , where it is then used to produce steam and generate electricity . Excess thermal energy is stored in the molten salt and can be used to generate power for up to ten hours , including during the evening hours and when direct sunlight is not available . The storage technology also eliminates the need for any backup fossil fuels , such as natural gas . Each heliostat is made up of 35 6 × 6 ft mirror facets , yielding a heliostat overall usable area of 1245 sqft . Total solar field aperture adds up to 12882015 sqft . Under a power purchase agreement ( PPA ) between SolarReserve and NV Energy , all power generated by the Crescent Dunes project in the next 25 years will be sold to Nevada Power Company for $ 0.135 per kilowatt-hour . In late September , 2011 , Tonopah Solar Energy received a $ 737 million loan guarantee from the U.S. Department of Energy ( DOE ) . The capital stack included $ 170,000,000 in EB-5 investment through SolarReserve/ACS Cobra partner CMB Regional Centers . Ground was broken on the project in September 2011 . Construction terminated at the end of 2013 , followed by several months of testing the plant systems . Melting about 70000000 lb of salt takes two months . Once melted , the salt stays melted for the life of the plant and gets cycled through the receiver for reheating . The project entered commissioning phase in February 2014 following completion of construction . It has been operational since September 2015 .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Crescent_Dunes_Solar_Energy_Project", "rank": 51, "score": 122916 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable fuels Content: Renewable fuels are fuels produced from renewable resources . Examples include : biofuels ( e.g. Vegetable oil used as fuel , ethanol , methanol from clean energy and carbon dioxide or biomass , and biodiesel ) and Hydrogen fuel ( when produced with renewable processes ) . This is in contrast to non-renewable fuels such as natural gas , LPG ( propane ) , petroleum and other fossil fuels and nuclear energy . Renewable fuels can include fuels that are synthesized from renewable energy sources , such as wind and solar . Renewable fuels have gained in popularity due to their sustainability , low contributions to the carbon cycle , and in some cases lower amounts of greenhouse gases . The geo-political ramifications of these fuels are also of interest , particularly to industrialized economies which desire independence from Middle Eastern oil .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_fuels", "rank": 52, "score": 122910 }, { "content": "Title: ACWA Power Content: ACWA Power is a company that provides electricity and desalination . Its energy portfolio includes solar ( Photovoltaic PV ) and Concentrated Solar Power ( CSP ) , geothermal , wind , waste-to-energy ( WtE ) and coal pollution mitigation .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "ACWA_Power", "rank": 53, "score": 122648 }, { "content": "Title: 100% renewable energy Content: The endeavor to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , heating and cooling , and transport is motivated by global warming , pollution and other environmental issues , as well as economic and energy security concerns . Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system . In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . In 2014 , renewable sources such as wind , geothermal , solar , biomass , and burnt waste provided 19 % of the total energy consumed worldwide , with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass . The most important sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8 % , most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6 % , followed by wind with 3.1 % . There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy . At the national level , at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of the energy supply . Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of `` Climate stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and `` renewable energy sources , '' in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their `` wedges . '' Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program , says that producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible , and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be `` primarily social and political , not technological or economic '' . Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind , solar , and water system should be similar to today 's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies . The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will . Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that `` sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . '' The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "100%_renewable_energy", "rank": 54, "score": 122527 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Iceland Content: About 85 % of total primary energy supply in Iceland is derived from domestically produced renewable energy sources . This is the world 's highest share of renewable energy in any national total energy budget . In 2016 , geothermal energy provided about 65 % of primary energy , the share of hydropower was 20 % , and the share of fossil fuels ( mainly oil products for the transport sector ) was 15 % . In 2013 , Iceland also became a producer of wind energy . The main use of geothermal energy is for space heating , with the heat being distributed to buildings through extensive district-heating systems . About 85 % of all houses in Iceland are heated with geothermal energy . In 2015 , the total electricity consumption in Iceland was 18,798 GWh . Renewable energy provided almost 100 % of electricity production , with about 73 % coming from hydropower and 27 % from geothermal power . Most of the hydropower plants are owned by Landsvirkjun ( the National Power Company ) which is the main supplier of electricity in Iceland . Iceland is the world 's largest green energy producer per capita and largest electricity producer per capita , with approximately 55,000 kWh per person per year . In comparison , the EU average is less than 6,000 kWh .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Iceland", "rank": 55, "score": 121921 }, { "content": "Title: Concentrated solar still Content: A concentrated solar still is a system that uses the same quantity of solar heat input ( same solar collection area ) as a simple solar still but can produce a volume of freshwater that is many times greater . While a simple solar still is a way of distilling water by using the heat of the sun to drive evaporation from a water source and ambient air to cool a condenser film , a concentrated solar still uses a concentrated solar thermal collector to concentrate solar heat and deliver it to a multi-effect evaporation process for distillation , thus increasing the natural rate of evaporation . The concentrated solar still is capable of large-scale water production in areas with plentiful solar energy .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Concentrated_solar_still", "rank": 56, "score": 121762 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal power Content: Geothermal power is power generated by geothermal energy . Technologies in use include dry steam power stations , flash steam power stations and binary cycle power stations . Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 24 countries , while geothermal heating is in use in 70 countries . As of 2015 , worldwide geothermal power capacity amounts to 12.8 gigawatts ( GW ) , of which 28 percent or 3,548 megawatts are installed in the United States . International markets grew at an average annual rate of 5 percent over the last three years and global geothermal power capacity is expected to reach 14.5 -- 17.6 GW by 2020 . Based on current geologic knowledge and technology , the Geothermal Energy Association ( GEA ) estimates that only 6.5 percent of total global potential has been tapped so far , while the IPCC reported geothermal power potential to be in the range of 35 GW to 2 TW . Countries generating more than 15 percent of their electricity from geothermal sources include El Salvador , Kenya , the Philippines , Iceland and Costa Rica . Geothermal power is considered to be a sustainable , renewable source of energy because the heat extraction is small compared with the Earth 's heat content . The greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal electric stations are on average 45 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of electricity , or less than 5 percent of that of conventional coal-fired plants .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Geothermal_power", "rank": 57, "score": 121702 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Turkey Content: Turkey is one of the richest country in the world in terms of renewable resources . For geothermal energy Turkey is ranked first in Europe and seventh in the world . Installed capacity of wind energy in Turkey is increasing rapidly from 20MW in 2002 to 4503MW in 2015 . Turkey has a national renewable energy action plan , published in 2014 by the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources . Turkey 's renewable energy capacity of 24 gigawatts in 2013 is projected to reach 39 gigawatts in 2020 . Solar energy potential in Turkey is 977,000 ( TWh/year ) from which 6105 ( TWh/year ) is technically possible . However due to the high price of the solar energy only 305 ( TWh/year ) is economic potential.Wind energy technical potential is 290 TWh/year . Technical potential of hydraulic energy is 216 TWh/year and economical potential is 127.4 TWh/year . The World Bank has announced a credit line of $ 350 million to support the financing of renewable energy projects in Turkey . Grid parity for solar is forecast for 2018 and for onshore wind 2019 . Biomass is also one of the major resources for the renewable energy in Turkey , yearly biomass economical potential of the Turkeyis 8.6 mtoe/year .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Turkey", "rank": 58, "score": 121697 }, { "content": "Title: Solar energy Content: Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating , photovoltaics , solar thermal energy , solar architecture , molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis . It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power . Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems , concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy . Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun , selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties , and designing spaces that naturally circulate air . The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of electricity . The United Nations Development Programme in its 2000 World Energy Assessment found that the annual potential of solar energy was 1,575 -- 49,837 exajoules ( EJ ) . This is several times larger than the total world energy consumption , which was 559.8 EJ in 2012 . In 2011 , the International Energy Agency said that `` the development of affordable , inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits . It will increase countries ' energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating global warming , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . These advantages are global . Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments ; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared '' .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Solar_energy", "rank": 59, "score": 121461 }, { "content": "Title: Minewater Project Content: The Minewater Project , based in Heerlen and other areas , aims to demonstrate how the geothermal energy stored by mine water can be used as a safe and ecological way to heat buildings .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Minewater_Project", "rank": 60, "score": 121430 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable portfolio standard Content: A renewable portfolio standard ( RPS ) is a regulation that requires the increased production of energy from renewable energy sources , such as wind , solar , biomass , and geothermal . Other common names for the same concept include Renewable Electricity Standard ( RES ) at the United States federal level and Renewables Obligation in the UK . The RPS mechanism places an obligation on electricity supply companies to produce a specified fraction of their electricity from renewable energy sources . Certified renewable energy generators earn certificates for every unit of electricity they produce and can sell these along with their electricity to supply companies . Supply companies then pass the certificates to some form of regulatory body to demonstrate their compliance with their regulatory obligations . RPS can rely on the private market for its implementation . In jurisdictions such as California , minimum RPS requirements are legislated . California Senate Bill 350 passed in October 2015 requires retail sellers and publicly owned utilities to procure 50 percent of their electricity from eligible renewable energy resources by 2030 . RPS programs tend to allow more price competition between different types of renewable energy , but can be limited in competition through eligibility and multipliers for RPS programs . Those supporting the adoption of RPS mechanisms claim that market implementation will result in competition , efficiency , and innovation that will deliver renewable energy at the lowest possible cost , allowing renewable energy to compete with cheaper fossil fuel energy sources . RPS-type mechanisms have been adopted in several countries , including Britain , Italy , Poland , Sweden , Belgium , and Chile , as well as in 29 of 50 U.S. states , and the District of Columbia .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_portfolio_standard", "rank": 61, "score": 121343 }, { "content": "Title: Aquifer thermal energy storage Content: Aquifer thermal energy storage ( ATES ) is the storage and recovery of thermal energy in the subsurface . ATES is applied to provide heating and cooling to buildings . Storage and recovery of thermal energy is achieved by extraction and injection of groundwater from aquifers using groundwater wells . Systems commonly operate in a seasonal mode . The groundwater that is extracted in summer , is used for cooling by transferring heat from the building to the groundwater by means of a heat exchanger . Subsequently , the heated groundwater is injected back into the aquifer , which creates a storage of heated groundwater . In wintertime , the flow direction is reversed such that the heated groundwater is extracted and can be used for heating ( often in combination with a heat pump ) . Therefore , operating an ATES system uses the subsurface as a temporal storage to buffer seasonal variations in heating and cooling demand . When replacing traditional fossil fuel dependent heating and cooling systems , ATES can serve as a cost-effective technology to reduce the primary energy consumption of a building and the associated CO2 emissions . In 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , many countries and regions have made targets for global climate protection . The European Union also set a target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , increase use of sustainable energy and improve energy efficiency . For this target , ATES can actually contribute significantly , as about 40 % of global energy consumption is done by buildings , and is mainly for heating and cooling . Therefore , the development of ATES has been paid a lot of attention and the number of ATES has increased dramatically , especially in Europe . For example , in the Netherlands , it was estimated that about 20,000 ATES systems could be achieved by 2020 . This can yield a CO2 emission reduction of about 11 % , for the target of the Netherlands . Besides the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Turkey , and Sweden are also increasing the application of ATES . ATES can be applied worldwide , as long as the climatic conditions and geohydrological conditions are right . As ATES systems cumulate in urban areas optimisation of subsurface space requires attention in areas with suitable conditions .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Aquifer_thermal_energy_storage", "rank": 62, "score": 120866 }, { "content": "Title: Electricity sector in Sri Lanka Content: Electricity generation in Sri Lanka is primarily run by hydro power and thermal heat , with sources such as photovoltaics and wind power in early stages of deployment . Although potential sites are being identified , other power sources such as geothermal , nuclear , peat , solar thermal and wave power are not used in the power generation process for the national grid .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Electricity_sector_in_Sri_Lanka", "rank": 63, "score": 120786 }, { "content": "Title: Hot water storage tank Content: A hot water storage tank ( also called a hot water tank , thermal storage tank , hot water thermal storage unit , heat storage tank and hot water cylinder ) is a water tank used for storing hot water for space heating or domestic use . Water is a convenient heat storage medium because it has a high specific heat capacity . This means , compared to other substances , it can store more heat per unit of weight . Water is non-toxic and in many countries available free of charge or at low cost . An efficiently insulated tank can retain stored heat for days , reducing fuel costs . Hot water tanks may have a built-in gas or oil burner system , electric immersion heaters , an external heat exchanger such as a central heating system , or heated water from another energy source such as a wood-burning stove , district heating system , solar collectors , a biomass heat source , or an air , water or earth source heat pump or any combination of the above . The most typical , in the domestic context , is a fossil-fuel burner supplemented by electric immersion elements , whether grid powered or using renewable generation such as wind power as an independent installation or a district heating scheme . Largely due to the move towards smaller households in developed countries , along with high density housing and high levels of private home ownership , the trend has been increasingly away from maintaining any hot water storage tanks , opting instead for integrated central heating systems supplied by combination boilers that can supply mains pressure hot water on demand . Water heaters for washing , bathing , or laundry have thermostat controls to regulate the temperature , in the range of 40 to , and are connected to the domestic cold water supply . Where the local water supply has a high content of dissolved minerals such as limestone , heating the water causes the minerals to precipitate in the tank ( scaling ) and a tank may develop leaks due to corrosion after only a few years , a problem exacerbated by dissolved oxygen in the water which accelerates corrosion of both tank and fittings . Typically hot water storage tanks are wrapped in heat insulation to reduce energy consumption , speed up the heating process , and maintain the desired operating temperature .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Hot_water_storage_tank", "rank": 64, "score": 120689 }, { "content": "Title: Availability factor Content: The availability factor of a power plant is the amount of time that it is able to produce electricity over a certain period , divided by the amount of the time in the period . Occasions where only partial capacity is available may or may not be deducted . Where they are deducted , the metric is titled equivalent availability factor ( EAF ) . The availability factor should not be confused with the capacity factor . The capacity factor for a given period can never exceed the availability factor for the same period . The difference arises when the plant is run at less than full capacity , in which case the capacity factor is less than the availability factor . The availability of a power plant varies greatly depending on the type of fuel , the design of the plant and how the plant is operated . Everything else being equal , plants that are run less frequently have higher availability factors because they require less maintenance and because more inspections and maintenance can be scheduled during idle time . Most thermal power stations , such as coal , geothermal and nuclear power plants , have availability factors between 70 % and 90 % . Newer plants tend to have significantly higher availability factors , but preventive maintenance is as important as improvements in design and technology . Gas turbines have relatively high availability factors , ranging from 80 % to 99 % . Gas turbines are commonly used for peaking power plants , co-generation plants and the first stage of combined cycle plants . Originally the term availability factor was used only for power plants that depended on an active , controlled supply of fuel , typically fossil or later also nuclear . The emergence of renewable energy such as hydro , wind and solar power , which operate without an active , controlled supply of fuel and which come to a standstill when their natural supply of energy ceases , requires a more careful distinction between the availability factor and the capacity factor . By convention , such zero production periods are counted against the capacity factor but not against the availability factor , which thus remains defined as depending on an active , controlled supply of fuel , along with factors concerning reliability and maintenance . A wind turbine can not operate in wind speeds above a certain limit , which counts against its availability factor . With this definition , modern wind turbines which require very little maintenance , have very high availability factors , up to about 98 % . Photovoltaic power stations which have few or no moving parts and which can undergo planned inspections and maintenance during night have an availability factor approaching or equal to 100 % .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Availability_factor", "rank": 65, "score": 119860 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy law Content: Renewable energy law is a particular kind of energy law , and relates primarily to the transactional legal and policy issues that surround the development , implementation , and commercialization of renewable sources of energy , such as solar , wind , geothermal and tidal . Renewable energy , ( RE ) law also relates to the land use , siting , and finance issues encountered by developers of renewable energy projects . Renewable energy law also encompasses policies that relate to renewable energy and legislative instruments that further encourage its growth . One such form of legislation is feed-in tariffs , which provide economic incentives to the developers of renewable energy projects by setting a fixed price for the sale of energy produced from renewable sources . Feed-in tariff laws also provide financial certainty , are more cost effective and less bureaucratic than other support schemes such as investment or production tax credits , quota based renewable portfolio standards ( RPS ) , and auction mechanisms . In addition , the feed-in tariff generates more competition , more jobs , and more rapid deployment for manufacturing ; it also does not pick technological winners , for instance between more mature wind power technology versus solar photovoltaics technology .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_energy_law", "rank": 66, "score": 119199 }, { "content": "Title: EurObserv'ER Content: EurObserv ` ER is a consortium dedicated to the monitoring of the development of the various sectors of renewable energies in the European Union . Created in 1999 by Observ ` ER , the Observatory of renewable energies in France , it is composed of five other partners : ECN ( The Energy research Centre of the Netherlands ) , IEO ( EC BREC Institute of Renewable Energetic Ltd ) , RENAC ( Renewables Academy AG ) , FS ( Frankfurt School of finance and management ) and IJS ( Institut Jozef Stefan ) . Each year it publishes a number of reports , one for each sector : photovoltaic , wind energy , solid biomass , hydro , solar thermal , concentrated solar power , ocean energies , geothermal energy , biofuels , biogas and solid waste . These reports are called `` Barometers '' , e.g. `` Biofuels barometer 2013 '' . These barometers summarises the state for each of the EU member states for the particular energy sector using both technical and socioeconomic indicators . It also publishes an annual report on the state of renewable energies in Europe . EurObserv ` ER provides free information to a large public and many other actors as the policy makers , industry players and journalists . It is supported by the Intelligent Energy - Europe Programme , Ademe and Caisse des Dépôts .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "EurObserv'ER", "rank": 67, "score": 119182 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Euromed Content: Solar Euromed is a high technology group based in France specialized in concentrated solar power technology , in activity from 2007 to 2016 . The company provides proprietary solar thermal power systems which produce heat for power generation and industrial applications with the built-in ability to store energy and supply electricity on demand , even after sunset . Solar Euromed 's solar thermal technology is based on the concept of direct steam generation and linear Fresnel optics and was developed together with the French National Centre for Scientific Research and the French Atomic Energy and Alternative Energies Commission .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Solar_Euromed", "rank": 68, "score": 118799 }, { "content": "Title: Extresol Solar Power Station Content: The Extresol Solar Power Station is a 150 megawatt ( MW ) commercial concentrated solar thermal power plant , located in Torre de Miguel Sesmero in the province of Badajoz , Extremadura , Spain . The power station consists of three different systems , Extresol 1 , Extresol 2 and Extresol 3 , of 50 MW each , due to the power limitation of 50 MW per plant established by the Spanish legislation . Extresol uses parabolic trough and has a thermal energy storage system , which absorbs part of the heat produced in the solar field during the day and stores it in molten salts . Extresol 1 cost around $ 300 million and was inaugurated on 25 February 2009 . The name of the power station , Extresol , is based on the name of the autonomous community , Extremadura , and the Spanish word for `` Sun '' .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Extresol_Solar_Power_Station", "rank": 69, "score": 118739 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Kenya Content: The renewable energy sector in Kenya is among the most active in Africa . In Kenya , investment grew from virtually zero in 2009 to US$ 1.3 billion in 2010 across technologies such as wind , geothermal , small-scale hydro and biofuels . This is not saying that Kenya was never active in the renewable energy sector . Kenya is Africa 's first geothermal power producer and the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita . It is still the largest producer of geothermal power in Africa today at 200 MW with only one other African country producing geothermal power , Ethiopia . Connectivity to the national grid in Kenya currently stands at 28 % . In 2011 , Kenya was also the first country in Africa to open a carbon exchange .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Kenya", "rank": 70, "score": 118644 }, { "content": "Title: Pumped-storage hydroelectricity Content: Pumped-storage hydroelectricity ( PSH ) , or pumped hydroelectric energy storage ( PHES ) , is a type of hydroelectric energy storage used by electric power systems for load balancing . The method stores energy in the form of gravitational potential energy of water , pumped from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation . Low-cost surplus off-peak electric power is typically used to run the pumps . During periods of high electrical demand , the stored water is released through turbines to produce electric power . Although the losses of the pumping process makes the plant a net consumer of energy overall , the system increases revenue by selling more electricity during periods of peak demand , when electricity prices are highest . Pumped-storage hydroelectricity allows energy from intermittent sources ( such as solar , wind ) and other renewables , or excess electricity from continuous base-load sources ( such as coal or nuclear ) to be saved for periods of higher demand . The reservoirs used with pumped storage are quite small when compared to conventional hydroelectric dams of similar power capacity , and generating periods are often less than half a day . Pumped storage is the largest-capacity form of grid energy storage available , and , as of 2017 , the DOE Global Energy Storage Database reports that PSH accounts for over 96 % of all active tracked storage installations worldwide , with a total installed nameplate capacity of over 168 GW . The round-trip energy efficiency of PSH varies between 70 % -- 80 % , with some sources claiming up to 87 % . The main disadvantage of PHS is the specialist nature of the site required , needing both geographical height and water availability . Suitable sites are therefore likely to be in hilly or mountainous regions , and potentially in areas of outstanding natural beauty , and therefore there are also social and ecological issues to overcome .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity", "rank": 71, "score": 118626 }, { "content": "Title: Solar power by country Content: Many industrialized nations have installed significant solar power capacity into their electrical grids to supplement or provide an alternative to conventional energy sources while an increasing number of less developed nations have turned to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported fuels . Long distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption . Solar power plants use one of two technologies : Photovoltaic ( PV ) systems use solar panels , either on rooftops or in ground-mounted solar farms , converting sunlight directly into electric power . Concentrated solar power ( CSP , also known as `` concentrated solar thermal '' ) plants use solar thermal energy to make steam , that is thereafter converted into electricity by a turbine . Worldwide growth of photovoltaics is extremely dynamic and varies strongly by country . By the end of 2016 , cumulative photovoltaic capacity increased by more than 75 gigawatt ( GW ) and reached at least 303 GW , sufficient to supply 1.8 percent of the world 's total electricity consumption . The top installers of 2016 were China , the United States , and India . There are more than 24 countries around the world with a cumulative PV capacity of more than one gigawatt . Austria , the Chile , and South Africa , all crossed the one gigawatt-mark in 2016 . The available solar PV capacity in Honduras is now sufficient to supply 12.5 % of the nation 's electrical power while Italy , Germany and Greece can produce between 7 % and 8 % of their respective domestic electricity consumption . After an almost two decade long hiatus , deployment of CSP resumed in 2007 , with significant growth only in the most recent years . However , the design for several new projects is being changed to cheaper photovoltaics . Most operational CSP stations are located in Spain and the United States , while large solar farms using photovoltaics are being constructed in an expanding list of geographic regions . As of January 2017 , the largest solar power plants in the world are the 850 MW Longyangxia Dam Solar Park in China for PV and the 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility in the United States for CSP . Other large CSP facilities include the 354 megawatt ( MW ) Solar Energy Generating Systems power installation in the USA , Solnova Solar Power Station ( Spain , 150 MW ) , Andasol Solar Power Station ( Spain , 150 MW ) and the first part of Shams solar power station ( United Arab Emirates , 100 MW ) .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Solar_power_by_country", "rank": 72, "score": 118484 }, { "content": "Title: Green certificate Content: A Green Certificate - terminology predominantly used in Europe but now becoming more widespread globally - are a tradable commodity proving that certain electricity is generated using renewable energy sources . Typically one certificate represents generation of 1 Megawatthour of electricity . What is defined as `` renewable '' varies from certificate trading scheme to trading scheme . Usually , at least the following sources are considered as renewable : Wind ( often further divided into onshore and offshore ) Solar ( often further divided into photovoltaic and thermal ) Wave ( often further divided into onshore and offshore ) and tidal ( often further divided into onshore and offshore ) Geothermal Hydro ( often further divided into small - microhydro - and large ) Biomass ( mainly biofuels , often further divided by actual fuel used ) . Green certificates represent the environmental value of renewable energy generated . The certificates can be traded separately from the energy produced . Several countries use green certificates as a mean to make the support of green electricity generation closer to a market economy instead of more bureaucratic investment support and feed-in tariffs . Such national trading schemes are in use in e.g. Poland , Sweden , the UK , Italy , Belgium ( Wallonia and Flanders ) , and some US states . Once in the grid , renewable energy is impossible to separate from the conventionally generated energy . This makes purchasing of a green certificate equal to purchasing a claim , that the certificate owner consumed energy from the renewable portion of the whole energy in the grid . Therefore certificate purchase does not affect how much renewable energy was actually generated - only how it was distributed . In contrast to CO2e-Reduction certificates , e.g. AAU 's or CER 's under the UNFCC , which can be exchanged worldwide , Green Certificates can not be exchanged/traded between e.g. Belgium and Italy , let alone the USA and the EU member States .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Green_certificate", "rank": 73, "score": 118366 }, { "content": "Title: Direct exchange geothermal heat pump Content: A direct exchange ( DX ) geothermal heat pump is a type of geothermal heat pump ( or ground source heat pump ) in which refrigerant circulates through copper tubing placed in the ground . It is a closed-loop , refrigerant-based geothermal system . Direct exchange geothermal heat pumps function similarly to air source heat pumps , according to the principles of vapor compression refrigeration , except they take advantage of the relatively constant ground temperatures , which are less variable than outdoor air temperatures . Ground temperature is cooler than the outdoor air temperature in summer -- making for a better heat sink -- and warmer in the winter -- making for a better heat source . Direct exchange geothermal heat pumps are therefore more efficient than air source heat pumps . They are also quieter , more durable and require less maintenance since they do n't have any outdoor fan or outdoor coil . Furthermore , the uniformity of the underground temperature compared to the outdoor air translates into less stress on the systems . In direct exchange systems , the refrigerant exchanges heat directly with the soil through the copper tubing . The designation `` direct exchange '' therefore refers to the heat transfer between the earth and the ground loop without the use of any intermediary . By contrast , water-based geothermal systems rely on two loops on the ground side : a primary refrigerant loop , contained in the appliance cabinet where it exchanges heat with a secondary ground loop that is buried underground and is made of high-density polyethylene containing a mixture of water and anti-freeze ( propylene glycol , denatured alcohol or methanol ) . Direct exchange systems eliminate the plastic water pipe and water circulating pump found in water-source geothermal systems . This simplicity allows the system to reach high efficiencies while using a shorter and smaller set of buried tubing , reducing footprint and installation cost . Like all ground source heat pumps , direct exchange systems indirectly harvest solar energy , by absorbing the solar heat stored at the Earth 's surface . The US Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) has called ground source heat pumps the most energy-efficient , environmentally clean and cost-effective space conditioning systems available . Geothermal heat pumps offer significant emission reductions potential .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Direct_exchange_geothermal_heat_pump", "rank": 74, "score": 118198 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Armenia Content: Renewable energy in Armenia ranges from geothermal , hydroelectric , solar and wind energy in Armenia .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Armenia", "rank": 75, "score": 117584 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal power in Portugal Content: Portugal 's main investment into this type of energy is in the Azores . While electricity is only produced on São Miguel , Azores , direct-use applications are also at Chaves in northern Portugal , at S. Pedro do Sul in central Portugal and at the Lisbon Air Force Hospital .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Geothermal_power_in_Portugal", "rank": 76, "score": 117543 }, { "content": "Title: Active solar Content: Solar hot water systems use pumps or fans to circulate fluid ( often a mixture of water and glycol to prevent freezing during winter periods ) or air , through solar collectors , and are therefore classified under active solar technology . Some of the basic benefits of active systems is that controls ( usually electrical ) can be used to maximize their effectiveness . For example , a passive solar thermal array which does not rely on pumps and sensors will only start circulating when a certain amount of internal energy has built up in the system . Using sensors and pumps , a relatively small amount of energy ( i.e. that used to power a pump and controller ) can harvest a far larger amount of available thermal energy by switching on as soon as a useful temperature differential becomes present . Controls also allow a greater variety of choices for utilizing the energy that becomes available . For example , a solar thermal array could heat a swimming pool on a relatively cool morning where heating a domestic hot water cylinder was impractical due to the different stored water temperatures . Later in the day as the temperature rises the controls could be used to switch the solar heated water over to the cylinder instead . Disadvantages of active solar systems include that the external power sources can fail ( probably rendering them useless ) and that controls require maintenance . Most solar collectors are fixed in their array position mounting , but can have a higher performance if they track the path of the sun through the sky ( however it is unusual for thermal collectors to be mounted in this way ) . Solar trackers , used to orient solar arrays may be driven by either passive or active technology , and can have a significant gain in energy yield over the course of a year when compared to a fixed array . Again passive solar tracking would rely on the inherent thermo-dynamic properties of the materials used in the system rather than an external power source to generate its tracking movement . Active Solar Tracking would utilise sensors and motors track the path of the sun across the sky . This action can be caused by geographical and time data being programmed into the controls . However , some systems actually track the brightest point in the sky using light sensors , and manufacturers claim this can add a significant extra yield over and above geographical tracking .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Active_solar", "rank": 77, "score": 117433 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Africa Content: The developing nations of Africa are popular locations for the application of renewable energy technology . Currently , many nations already have small-scale solar , wind , and geothermal devices in operation providing energy to urban and rural populations . These types of energy production are especially useful in remote locations because of the excessive cost of transporting electricity from large-scale power plants . The applications of renewable energy technology has the potential to alleviate many of the problems that face Africans every day , especially if done so in a sustainable manner that prioritizes human rights . Access to energy is essential for the reduction of poverty and promotion of economic growth . Communication technologies , education , industrialization , agricultural improvement and expansion of municipal water systems all require abundant , reliable , and cost-effective energy access .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Africa", "rank": 78, "score": 117377 }, { "content": "Title: Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Station Content: The Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Station is the largest geothermal power station in Indonesia . The facility utilizes two units , one with 110 MW and the other with 117 MW , with a total installed capacity of 227 MW . The power station is located near the town of Pangalengan , 40 km south of Bandung , West Java . An estimated cost of US$ 200 million was incurred in construction and development . A third unit of 127 MW is being planned and expected to be onstream by mid-2013 . The arrangements to establish and operate the Wayang Windu plant were part of the overall policy towards the development of geothermal energy in Indonesia", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Wayang_Windu_Geothermal_Power_Station", "rank": 79, "score": 117351 }, { "content": "Title: Energy Security Act Content: The Energy Security Act was signed into law by U.S. President Jimmy Carter on June 30 , 1980 . It consisted of six major acts : U.S. Synthetic Fuels Corporation Act Biomass Energy and Alcohol Fuels Act Renewable Energy Resources Act Solar Energy and Energy Conservation Act Solar Energy and Energy Conservation Bank Act Geothermal Energy Act Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Act", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Energy_Security_Act", "rank": 80, "score": 116666 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal power in Turkey Content: Geothermal energy is thermal energy which is derived from the earth 's internal heat . Geothermal power in Turkey began in the 1970s in a prototype plant following systematic exploration of geothermal fields . In the 1980s , a first power plant has grown up out of the pilot facility.Turkey is ranked seventh richest country in the world in geothermal potential . The small-sized geothermal power plant was expanded to the country 's biggest one in 2013 . Currently , two power plants operate in Turkey . Its theoretical geothermal potential is 60GW and potential is 4.5 GW In addition to electric power generation , geothermal heat is used directly .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Geothermal_power_in_Turkey", "rank": 81, "score": 116499 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in the Philippines Content: Renewable energy accounts for 26.44 % of the total electrical energy needs in the Philippines , according to a 2013 survey . Renewable energy sources provided 19,903 gigawatt-hours of electrical energy out of a total need of 75,266 gigawatt-hours in 2013 . There are five main types of renewable energy used in the Philippines , hydropower , geothermal power , wind power , solar power and biomass power . There has been pressure to increase the Philippines ' usage of renewable energy sources in recent years due to the negative effects of fossil fuels -- such as pollution , accelerated climate change and fluctuating prices . A number of laws have been passed by the Philippine Congress to support the use of renewable energy including the Electric Power Industry Reform Act ( 2001 ) , which promotes the use of local and sustainable energy sources to replace imported fossil fuel sources ; the Biofuels Act ( 2006 ) , which encourages the use of biomass fuels ; the Renewable Energy Act ( 2008 ) ; and the Climate Change Act ( 2009 ) , which provides a legal basis for the tackling of climate change through sustainable development . The laws enacted by Congress have resulted in a significant degree of cooperation from private companies producing renewable energy , many of which have contracts with the Philippine Government .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_the_Philippines", "rank": 82, "score": 116288 }, { "content": "Title: Clean Energy Trends Content: Clean Energy Trends is a series of reports by Clean Edge which examine markets for solar , wind , geothermal , fuel cells , biofuels , and other clean energy technologies . Since the publication of the first Clean Energy Trends report in 2002 , Clean Edge has provided an annual snapshot of both the global and U.S. clean energy sector markets .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Clean_Energy_Trends", "rank": 83, "score": 116237 }, { "content": "Title: Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy Content: Although nuclear power is considered a form of low-carbon power , its legal inclusion with renewable energy power sources has been a subject of debate and classification . Statutory definitions of renewable energy usually exclude many present nuclear energy technologies , with notable exceptions in the states of Utah , and Arizona in the United States , where only a particular implementation of nuclear fission with `` waste '' / fuel recycling meets the state 's criteria . Dictionary sourced definitions of renewable energy technologies often omit or explicitly exclude mention to every nuclear energy source , with an exception made for the natural nuclear decay heat generated within the Earth/geothermal energy . The most common fuel used in conventional nuclear fission power stations , uranium-235 is `` non-renewable '' according to the Energy Information Administration , the organization however is silent on the recycled fuel of MOX . Similarly , the National Renewable Energy Laboratory does not mention nuclear power in its `` energy basics '' definition . In 1987 , the World Commission on Environment and Development ( WCED ) classified fission reactors that produce more fissile nuclear fuel than they consume ( breeder reactors , and if developed , fusion power ) among conventional renewable energy sources , such as solar and falling water . The American Petroleum Institute likewise does not consider conventional nuclear fission as renewable , but that breeder reactor nuclear fuel is considered renewable and sustainable , and while conventional fission leads to waste streams that remain a concern for millennia , the waste from efficiently burnt up spent fuel requires storage for no more than a thousand years . The monitoring and storage of radioactive waste products is also required upon the use of other renewable energy sources , such as geothermal energy .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Nuclear_power_proposed_as_renewable_energy", "rank": 84, "score": 115871 }, { "content": "Title: Energy Development Corporation Content: Energy Development Corporation ( or simply EDC ) is the largest producer of geothermal energy in the Philippines and the second largest in the world . It is involved in geothermal , hydroelectric and wind energy projects . The company was formerly owned by the Philippine National Oil Company , a state corporation owned by the Republic of the Philippines engaged in the exploration of resources , production of energy and distribution of power supply to smaller electricity distributor . EDC was privatized and acquired by the Lopez Group as part of its energy and power supply utility business units .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Energy_Development_Corporation", "rank": 85, "score": 115398 }, { "content": "Title: Solar savings fraction Content: In discussing solar energy , the solar savings fraction or solar fraction ( f ) is the amount of energy provided by the solar technology divided by the total energy required . The solar savings fraction thus is zero for no solar energy utilization , to 1.0 for all energy provided by solar . The solar savings fraction of a particular system is dependent on many factors such as the load , the collection and storage sizes , the operation , and the climate . As an example , the same solar-thermal water heating system installed in a single-family house in Arizona might have f = 0.75 ( 75 % ) , while in a much colder and cloudier climate , like Pittsburgh , PA , might only have a solar fraction of f = 0.3 ( 30 % ) or so . Great care is thus needed in designing such systems , and in evaluating their economics . To increase the solar savings fraction , energy conservation measures should be employed first before expanding the size of the solar energy collection system . Doing so reduces the need for hot water or space heating , for example , and typically provides the best economic return on the total investment , including the solar energy system .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Solar_savings_fraction", "rank": 86, "score": 114996 }, { "content": "Title: Kick the Fossil Fuel Habit Content: Kick The Fossil Fuel Habit : 10 Clean Technologies to Save Our World is a 2010 book by clean energy venture capitalist Tom Rand . The book is about making an energy transition from fossil fuels to clean technologies , by changing to 100 % renewable energy . It includes detailed descriptions of the technologies required - solar energy , wind power , geothermal energy and more . Author Tom Rand says we will `` need to deploy resources on a scale not seen since World War II , generate international co-operation , and develop rules to put a price on carbon . '' Rand says that there are lots of reasons to kick the fossil fuel habit : `` energy security ; the moral cost of supporting undemocratic regimes that sit on the oil we use ; the military cost , both in blood and cash , to keep the supply lines open ; and getting a leg up on the competition in the next industrial revolution . Each of these is reason enough to kick the habit '' . Rand stresses that we need to act quickly and , equally important , collectively . That means `` this generation of government , businesses and individuals all need act together to save the world for the next '' .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Kick_the_Fossil_Fuel_Habit", "rank": 87, "score": 114887 }, { "content": "Title: Gemasolar Thermosolar Plant Content: Gemasolar is a concentrated solar power plant with a molten salt heat storage system . It is located within the city limits of Fuentes de Andalucía in the province of Seville , Spain .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Gemasolar_Thermosolar_Plant", "rank": 88, "score": 114304 }, { "content": "Title: Steam accumulator Content: A steam accumulator is an insulated steel pressure tank containing hot water and steam under pressure . It is a type of energy storage device . It can be used to smooth out peaks and troughs in demand for steam . Steam accumulators may take on a significance for energy storage in solar thermal energy projects . An example is the PS10 solar power tower plant near Seville , Spain and one planned for the `` solar steam train '' project in Sacramento , California .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Steam_accumulator", "rank": 89, "score": 114061 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in Indonesia Content: Energy in Indonesia describes energy and electricity production , consumption , import and export in Indonesia . In 2009 Indonesia produced oil , coal , natural gas and palm oil , utilised also as energy raw material in 2010 . Renewable energy potential in Indonesia is high : solar , wind , hydro and geothermal energy . Tropical rain forests and peat land areas have extensive coal storage . Indonesia is geologically unstable country . According to IEA Indonesia was the 10th top natural gas producer in 2009 : 76 billion cubics ( bcm ) 2.5 % of world production of which 36 bcm was exported . In 2009 Indonesia was the 5th top coal producer : 263 million tonnes hard coal and 38 million tonnes brown . The majority of this , 230 Mt of hard coal , was exported .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Energy_in_Indonesia", "rank": 90, "score": 113696 }, { "content": "Title: New energy Content: New energy may refer to : Alternative energy , any energy source other than fossil fuels Perpetual motion or `` free energy '' , an elusive energy source which would violate the laws of thermodynamics Renewable energy , energy from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat", "qid": "2880", "docid": "New_energy", "rank": 91, "score": 113522 }, { "content": "Title: Dispatchable generation Content: Dispatchable generation refers to sources of electricity that can be dispatched at the request of power grid operators or of the plant owner ; that is , generating plants that can be turned on or off , or can adjust their power output accordingly to an order . Often base load power plants such as nuclear or coal can not be turned on and off in less than several hours . The time periods in which dispatchable generation plant may be turned on or off may vary , and be considered in time frames of minutes or hours . The 1,728 MW Dinorwig pumped power station can reach full output in 16 seconds . This may be contrasted with intermittent renewable energy sources such as wind power and solar power which can not be controlled by operators . The most common dispatchable power plant is natural gas . The only types of renewable energy which are dispatchable are biofuel , biomass , hydropower with a reservoir , ocean thermal energy conversion and concentrated solar power with thermal storage . The main reasons for which dispatchable power plants are needed are : - to balance electrical system ( load following , frequency control ) - to optimize generation dispatch ( merit order ) - to provide requested power spinning reserves - to contribute to clear grid congestions/constraints - Load matching - slow changes in power demand between , for example , night and day , require changes in supply too , as the system needs to be balanced at all times ( see also Electricity ) . Peak matching - short periods of time during which demand exceeds the output of load matching plants ; generation capable of satisfying these peaks in demand is implemented through quick deployment of output by flexible sources . Lead-in times - periods during which an alternative source is employed to supplement the lead time required by large coal or natural gas fueled plants to reach full output ; these alternative power sources can be deployed in a matter of seconds or minutes to adapt to rapid shocks in demand or supply that can not be satisfied by peak matching generators . Frequency regulation or intermittent power sources - changes in the electricity output sent into the system may change quality and stability of the transmission system itself because of a change in the frequency of electricity transmitted ; renewable sources such as wind and solar are intermittent and need flexible power sources to smooth out their changes in energy production . Backup for base-load generators - Nuclear power plants , for example , are equipped with nuclear reactor safety systems that can stop the generation of electricity in less than a second in case of emergency . The attractiveness of utility-scale energy storage is that it can compensate for the intermittency of wind power and solar power . However in practice , large-scale storage technologies other than pumped hydro remain in an early stage of development and are expensive .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Dispatchable_generation", "rank": 92, "score": 113356 }, { "content": "Title: George Philippidis Content: George Philippidis is a renewable energy leader who has published and spoken extensively about the global need for energy diversification over the last 20 years . He advocates the development of renewable and alternative low-carbon power and fuels to enhance energy security , combat climate change , and secure sustainable economic growth . He has authored 11 cleantech patents , written numerous articles , and spoken nationally and internationally on this subject emphasizing that renewable and alternative energy will initially supplement and augment current resources and progressively replace fossil energy , provided that governments institute long-term energy policies promoting the development of and private investment in new energy technologies . A diverse energy portfolio , depending on the local availability of natural resources , includes ( 1 ) solar , wind , biomass-to-power , ocean , and geothermal energy for power generation , and ( 2 ) renewable hydrocarbons , biomass - and algae-derived biofuels , and electric vehicles for transportation . The private sector and the markets should determine which of those forms of low-carbon energy are most appropriate and cost-effective locally in different parts of the country and the world . Dr. Philippidis studied Chemical Engineering at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in Greece getting a BS and at the University of Minnesota receiving a PhD . He also studied Business Administration at the University of Denver obtaining an MBA . He led strategic business units at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ( NREL ) of the US Department of Energy in Denver and at a subsidiary of Thermo Electron Corporation in Boston before becoming Energy Director of the Applied Research Center , the business arm of Florida International University in Miami . Presently , he is Director of the Alternative Energy Research Center and Associate Professor of Biofuel Engineering at the University of South Florida Polytechnic in the Tampa Bay area , where he works with companies and venture capital firms to commercialize clean energy technologies and educates students and professionals in critical energy issues . He has been advising the federal and state governments on energy policy , venture capital and private equity firms on investment in cleantech , and the private sector in the United States and Latin America on the establishment of a renewable energy industry .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "George_Philippidis", "rank": 93, "score": 113290 }, { "content": "Title: KaXu Solar One Content: KaXu Solar One ( KXSO ) is a concentrated solar thermal plant , located in the Northern Cape Region of South Africa , located NE from the town of Pofadder , Khai Ma municipality . KaXu Solar One is 100 megawatts ( MW ) . It covers an area of 1100 ha . The KXSO collector surface is more than 800,000 m2 with a full-load molten salt storage capacity of 2.5 hours . The project is developed by the Spanish company Abengoa , and financed with help from Industrial Development Corporation ( IDC ) and Community Trust group .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "KaXu_Solar_One", "rank": 94, "score": 113288 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy sculpture Content: A renewable energy sculpture is a sculpture that produces power from renewable sources , such as solar , wind , geothermal , hydroelectric or tidal . Such a sculpture is functionally both a renewable energy generator and an artwork , fulfilling utilitarian , aesthetic , and cultural functions . The idea of renewable energy sculptures has been pioneered by ecofuturist visionaries such as artists Patrice Stellest , Sarah Hall , Julian H. Scaff , Patrick Marold , architects Laurie Chetwood and Nicholas Grimshaw , University of Illinois professor Bil Becket , and collaborations such as the Land Art Generator Initiative . Echoing the philosophy of the environmental art movement as a whole , artists creating renewable energy sculpture believe that the aesthetics of the artworks are inextricably linked to their ecological function .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_energy_sculpture", "rank": 95, "score": 113286 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Kazakhstan Content: The Republic of Kazakhstan has enormous renewable energy potential , particularly from wind and small hydropower plants . The country has the potential to generate 10 times as much power as it currently needsfrom wind energy alone . But renewable energy accounts for just 0.6 percent of all power installations . Of that , 95 percent comes from small hydropower projects . The main barriers to investment in renewable energy are relatively high financing costs and an absence of uniform feed-in tariffs for electricity from renewable sources . The amount and duration of renewable energy feed-in tariffs are separately evaluated for each project , based on feasibility studies and project-specific generation costs . Power from wind , solar , biomass and water up to 35 MW , plus geothermal sources , are eligible for the tariff and transmission companies are required to purchase the energy of renewable energy producers . An amendmentthat introduces and clarifies technology-specific tariffs is now being prepared . It is expected to be adoptedby Parliament by the end of 2014 . In addition , the World Bank 's Ease of Doing Business indicator shows the country to be relatively investor-friendly , ranking it in 10th position for investor protection . Kazakhstan is a party to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change ( 1995 ) and ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2009 . Kazakhstan has committed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . Having more renewable energy in the energy balance of Kazakhstan is one of the most effective mechanisms to reduce harmful effects of the energy sector and to diversify the national power generation capacity . To help Kazakhstan meet its goals for renewable energy generation , the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( EBRD ) is launching the Kazakhstan Renewable Energy Financing Facility ( KazREFF ) . The KazREFF aims to provide development support and debt finance to renewable energy projects which meet required commercial , technical and environmental criteria . Renewable energy technologies supported will include solar , wind , small hydropower , geothermal , biomass , and biogas . The Facility comprises an amount of up to $ 50 million for financing projects together with up to $ 20 million of concessional finance from Clean Technology Fund ( CTF ) , and the technical assistance funded by the Japanese government through the Japan-EBRD Cooperation Fund ( JECF ) .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Kazakhstan", "rank": 96, "score": 113275 }, { "content": "Title: Solar power tower Content: The solar power tower , also known as ` central tower ' power plants or ` heliostat ' power plants or power towers , is a type of solar furnace using a tower to receive the focused sunlight . It uses an array of flat , movable mirrors ( called heliostats ) to focus the sun 's rays upon a collector tower ( the target ) . Concentrated solar thermal is seen as one viable solution for renewable , pollution-free energy . Early designs used these focused rays to heat water , and used the resulting steam to power a turbine . Newer designs using liquid sodium have been demonstrated , and systems using molten salts ( 40 % potassium nitrate , 60 % sodium nitrate ) as the working fluids are now in operation . These working fluids have high heat capacity , which can be used to store the energy before using it to boil water to drive turbines . These designs also allow power to be generated when the sun is not shining .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Solar_power_tower", "rank": 97, "score": 113256 }, { "content": "Title: Steam-electric power station Content: A steam-electric power station is a power station in which the electric generator is steam driven . Water is heated , turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator . After it passes through the turbine , the steam is condensed in a condenser . The greatest variation in the design of steam-electric power plants is due to the different fuel sources . Almost all coal , nuclear , geothermal , solar thermal electric power plants , waste incineration plants as well as many natural gas power plants are steam-electric . Natural gas is frequently combusted in gas turbines as well as boilers . The waste heat from a gas turbine can be used to raise steam , in a combined cycle plant that improves overall efficiency . Worldwide , most electric power is produced by steam-electric power plants , which produce about 86 % of all electric generation . The only other types of plants that currently have a significant contribution are hydroelectric and gas turbine plants , which can burn natural gas or diesel . Photovoltaic panels , wind turbines and binary cycle geothermal plants are also non-steam electric , but currently do not produce much electricity .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Steam-electric_power_station", "rank": 98, "score": 113154 }, { "content": "Title: Air compressor Content: An air compressor is a device that converts power ( using an electric motor , diesel or gasoline engine , etc. ) into potential energy stored in pressurized air ( i.e. , compressed air ) . By one of several methods , an air compressor forces more and more air into a storage tank , increasing the pressure . When tank pressure reaches its upper limit the air compressor shuts off . The compressed air , then , is held in the tank until called into use . The energy contained in the compressed air can be used for a variety of applications , utilizing the kinetic energy of the air as it is released and the tank depressurizes . When tank pressure reaches its lower limit , the air compressor turns on again and re-pressurizes the tank .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Air_compressor", "rank": 99, "score": 112995 }, { "content": "Title: Molten salt battery Content: Molten salt batteries ( including liquid metal batteries ) are a class of battery that uses molten salts as an electrolyte and offers both a high energy density and a high power density . Traditional `` use once '' thermal batteries can be stored in their solid state at room-temperature for long periods of time before being activated by heating . Rechargeable liquid metal batteries are used for electric vehicles and potentially also for grid energy storage , to balance out intermittent renewable power sources such as solar panels and wind turbines . For comparison , LiFePO4 lithium iron phosphate batteries store 90 -- 110 Wh/kg and the more common LiCoO2 lithium ion batteries store 150 -- 200 Wh/kg . A nano lithium-titanate battery stores 72 Wh/kg and can provide a power of 760 W/kg .", "qid": "2880", "docid": "Molten_salt_battery", "rank": 100, "score": 112644 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Renewable energy Content: Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources , which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , transportation , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services . Based on REN21 's 2016 report , renewables contributed 19.2 % to humans ' global energy consumption and 23.7 % to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015 , respectively . This energy consumption is divided as 8.9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( modern biomass , geothermal and solar heat ) , 3.9 % hydro electricity and 2.2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$ 286 billion in 2015 , with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind , hydro , solar and biofuels . Globally , there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries , with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer . As of 2015 worldwide , more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable . Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas , in contrast to other energy sources , which are concentrated in a limited number of countries . Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security , climate change mitigation , and economic benefits . The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change , a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies . In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power . At the national level , at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply . National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond . Some places and at least two countries , Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already , and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100 % renewable energy in the future . For example , in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply ( electricity , mobility and heating/cooling ) to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 . While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . United Nations ' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity . As most of renewables provide electricity , renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification , which has several benefits : Electricity can be converted to heat ( where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels ) , can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption . In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements , because most renewables do n't have a steam cycle with high losses ( fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65 % ) . Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper . Their share of total energy consumption is increasing . Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables and natural gas .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy", "rank": 1, "score": 136740 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in developing countries Content: Renewable energy technology has sometimes been seen as a costly luxury item by critics , and affordable only in the affluent developed world . This erroneous view has persisted for many years , but 2015 was the first year when investment in non-hydro renewables , was higher in developing countries , with $ 156 billion invested , mainly in China , India , and Brazil . Most developing countries have abundant renewable energy resources , including solar energy , wind power , geothermal energy , and biomass , as well as the ability to manufacture the relatively labor-intensive systems that harness these . By developing such energy sources developing countries can reduce their dependence on oil and natural gas , creating energy portfolios that are less vulnerable to price rises . In many circumstances , these investments can be less expensive than fossil fuel energy systems . In isolated rural areas , electricity grid extensions are often not economical . Off‐grid renewable technologies provide a sustainable and cost‐effective alternative to the diesel generators that would be otherwise be deployed in such areas . Renewable technologies can also help to displace other unsustainable energy sources such as kerosene lamps and traditional biomass . Kenya is the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita ( but not the number of watts added ) . More than 30,000 small solar panels , each producing 12 to 30 watts , are sold in Kenya annually . Kenya was the first African country to use geothermal power , and still has the largest installed capacity of geothermal power in Africa at 200 MW , with a potential of up to 10 GW .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_developing_countries", "rank": 2, "score": 133750 }, { "content": "Title: 100% renewable energy Content: The endeavor to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , heating and cooling , and transport is motivated by global warming , pollution and other environmental issues , as well as economic and energy security concerns . Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system . In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . In 2014 , renewable sources such as wind , geothermal , solar , biomass , and burnt waste provided 19 % of the total energy consumed worldwide , with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass . The most important sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8 % , most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6 % , followed by wind with 3.1 % . There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy . At the national level , at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of the energy supply . Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of `` Climate stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and `` renewable energy sources , '' in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their `` wedges . '' Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program , says that producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible , and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be `` primarily social and political , not technological or economic '' . Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind , solar , and water system should be similar to today 's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies . The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will . Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that `` sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . '' The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "100%_renewable_energy", "rank": 3, "score": 128361 }, { "content": "Title: List of books about renewable energy Content: This is a bibliography of renewable energy . Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , and geothermal heat , which are renewable ( naturally replenished ) . About 16 % of global final energy consumption comes from renewables , with 10 % coming from traditional biomass , which is mainly used for heating , and 3.4 % from hydroelectricity . New renewables ( small hydro , modern biomass , wind , solar , geothermal , and biofuels ) account for another 3 % and are growing very rapidly . Total investment in renewable energy reached $ 244 billion in 2012 . The top countries for investment in recent years were China , Germany , Spain , the United States , Italy , and Brazil . Leading renewable energy companies include BrightSource Energy , Enercon , First Solar , Gamesa , GE Energy , Goldwind , Nordex , Sinovel , Suntech , Trina Solar , Vestas and Yingli .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "List_of_books_about_renewable_energy", "rank": 4, "score": 128008 }, { "content": "Title: Global Apollo Programme Content: The Global Apollo Programme is a call for a major global science and economics research programme to make carbon-free baseload electricity less costly than electricity from coal by the year 2025 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Global_Apollo_Programme", "rank": 5, "score": 126257 }, { "content": "Title: George Philippidis Content: George Philippidis is a renewable energy leader who has published and spoken extensively about the global need for energy diversification over the last 20 years . He advocates the development of renewable and alternative low-carbon power and fuels to enhance energy security , combat climate change , and secure sustainable economic growth . He has authored 11 cleantech patents , written numerous articles , and spoken nationally and internationally on this subject emphasizing that renewable and alternative energy will initially supplement and augment current resources and progressively replace fossil energy , provided that governments institute long-term energy policies promoting the development of and private investment in new energy technologies . A diverse energy portfolio , depending on the local availability of natural resources , includes ( 1 ) solar , wind , biomass-to-power , ocean , and geothermal energy for power generation , and ( 2 ) renewable hydrocarbons , biomass - and algae-derived biofuels , and electric vehicles for transportation . The private sector and the markets should determine which of those forms of low-carbon energy are most appropriate and cost-effective locally in different parts of the country and the world . Dr. Philippidis studied Chemical Engineering at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in Greece getting a BS and at the University of Minnesota receiving a PhD . He also studied Business Administration at the University of Denver obtaining an MBA . He led strategic business units at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ( NREL ) of the US Department of Energy in Denver and at a subsidiary of Thermo Electron Corporation in Boston before becoming Energy Director of the Applied Research Center , the business arm of Florida International University in Miami . Presently , he is Director of the Alternative Energy Research Center and Associate Professor of Biofuel Engineering at the University of South Florida Polytechnic in the Tampa Bay area , where he works with companies and venture capital firms to commercialize clean energy technologies and educates students and professionals in critical energy issues . He has been advising the federal and state governments on energy policy , venture capital and private equity firms on investment in cleantech , and the private sector in the United States and Latin America on the establishment of a renewable energy industry .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "George_Philippidis", "rank": 6, "score": 122879 }, { "content": "Title: Deploying Renewables 2011 Content: Deploying Renewables 2011 : Best and Future Policy Practice is a 2011 book by the International Energy Agency . The book analyses the recent successes in renewable energy , which now accounts for almost a fifth of all electricity produced worldwide , and addresses how countries can best capitalize on that growth to realise a sustainable energy future . The book says that renewable energy commercialization must be stepped up , especially given the world 's increasing appetite for energy and the need to meet this demand more efficiently and with low-carbon energy sources . Wind power and other renewable energy sources offer great potential to address issues of energy security and sustainability . This analysis updates and expands Deploying Renewables : Principles for Effective Policies , published by the IEA in 2008 , in light of events and trends in the last five years . It also `` extends the analysis to a wider range of countries beyond the OECD and BRICS countries , focussing on 56 countries representative of each world region '' .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Deploying_Renewables_2011", "rank": 7, "score": 122733 }, { "content": "Title: World Council for Renewable Energy Content: The World Council for Renewable Energy defends , develops , and promotes policies on the multinational , governmental , regional and individual levels in favor of the use of natural and renewable forms of energy to replace fossil and nuclear energy . Hermann Scheer was the general chairman of the Council . He died in October 2010 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "World_Council_for_Renewable_Energy", "rank": 8, "score": 120867 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in the United States Content: Renewable energy in the United States accounted for 13.44 percent of the domestically produced electricity in 2015 , and 11.1 percent of total energy generation . As of 2016 , more than 260,000 people work in the solar industry and 43 states deploy net metering , where energy utilities buy back excess power generated by solar arrays . Renewable energy reached a major milestone in the first quarter of 2011 , when it contributed 11.7 percent of total U.S. energy production ( 2.245 quadrillion BTU of energy ) , surpassing energy production from nuclear power ( 2.125 quadrillion BTU ) . 2011 was the first year since 1997 that renewables exceeded nuclear in US total energy production . Hydroelectric power is currently the largest producer of renewable power in the U.S. . It produced around 6.14 % of the nation 's total electricity in 2015 which was 45.71 % of the total renewable power in the U.S. . The United States is the fourth largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world after China , Canada and Brazil . The Grand Coulee Dam is the 5th largest hydroelectric power station in the world . U.S. wind power installed capacity now exceeds 72,000 MW and supplies 4.1 % of the nation 's electricity . Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development , followed by Iowa and California . Since the U.S. pioneered the technology in 1981 with Solar One , several solar thermal power stations have also been built . The largest of these solar thermal power stations are the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility ( 392 MW ) , southwest of Las Vegas , and the SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert , with a total generating capacity of 354 MW . Large photovoltaic power plants in the USA include Solar Star ( 579 MW ) , near Rosamond , California , the Desert Sunlight Solar Farm , a 550 MW solar power plant in Riverside County , California and the Topaz Solar Farm , a 550 MW photovoltaic power plant , in San Luis Obispo County , California . The Geysers in Northern California is the largest complex of geothermal energy production in the world . The development of renewable energy and energy efficiency marks `` a new era of energy exploration '' in the United States , according to President Barack Obama . In a joint address to the Congress on February 24 , 2009 , President Obama called for doubling renewable energy within the next three years . In his 2012 State of the Union address , President Barack Obama restated his commitment to renewable energy and mentioned the long-standing Interior Department commitment to permit 10,000 MW of renewable energy projects on public land in 2012 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States", "rank": 9, "score": 120849 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy commercialization Content: Renewable energy commercialization involves the deployment of three generations of renewable energy technologies dating back more than 100 years . First-generation technologies , which are already mature and economically competitive , include biomass , hydroelectricity , geothermal power and heat . Second-generation technologies are market-ready and are being deployed at the present time ; they include solar heating , photovoltaics , wind power , solar thermal power stations , and modern forms of bioenergy . Third-generation technologies require continued R&D efforts in order to make large contributions on a global scale and include advanced biomass gasification , hot-dry-rock geothermal power , and ocean energy . As of 2012 , renewable energy accounts for about half of new nameplate electrical capacity installed and costs are continuing to fall . Public policy and political leadership helps to `` level the playing field '' and drive the wider acceptance of renewable energy technologies . Countries such as Germany , Denmark , and Spain have led the way in implementing innovative policies which has driven most of the growth over the past decade . As of 2014 , Germany has a commitment to the `` Energiewende '' transition to a sustainable energy economy , and Denmark has a commitment to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 . There are now 144 countries with renewable energy policy targets . Renewable energy continued its rapid growth in 2015 , providing multiple benefits . There was a new record set for installed wind and photovoltaic capacity ( 64GW and 57GW ) and a new high of US$ 329 Billion for global renewables investment . A key benefit that this investment growth brings is a growth in jobs . The top countries for investment in recent years were China , Germany , Spain , the United States , Italy , and Brazil . Renewable energy companies include BrightSource Energy , First Solar , Gamesa , GE Energy , Goldwind , Sinovel , Trina Solar , Vestas , and Yingli . Climate change concerns are also driving increasing growth in the renewable energy industries . According to a 2011 projection by the ( IEA ) International Energy Agency , solar power generators may produce most of the world 's electricity within 50 years , reducing harmful greenhouse gas emissions . Renewable power has been more effective in creating jobs than coal or oil in the United States .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_commercialization", "rank": 10, "score": 120280 }, { "content": "Title: List of renewable energy topics by country Content: This is a list of renewable energy topics by country . These links can be used to compare developments in renewable energy in different countries and to help and encourage new writers to participate in writing about developments in their own countries or countries of interest . The list refers to renewable energy in general , as well as solar power , wind power , geothermal energy , biofuel , and hydro-electricity . As of 2013 , China , Germany , and Japan , three of the world 's four largest economies , as well as India , generate more electricity from renewables than from nuclear power . Based on REN21 's 2014 report , renewables contributed 19 percent to humans ' global energy consumption . This energy consumption is divided as 9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( non-biomass ) , 3.8 % hydro electricity and 2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . China is the world 's largest producer of hydroelectricity , followed by Canada . Wind power capacity is growing at the rate of 26 % annually , and is widely used in Europe , Asia , and the United States . Wind power accounts for approximately 30 % of electricity use in Denmark , 20 % in Portugal , and 18 % in Spain . PV power stations are popular in Japan , China and the United States . The world 's largest geothermal power installation is The Geysers in California , with a rated capacity of 750 MW . Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world , involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane , and ethanol now provides 18 percent of the country 's automotive fuel . Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the USA . Plug-in electric vehicles in Norway reached a market share of 22.4 % in 2015 . the highest in the world . While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . Small solar PV systems provide electricity to a few million households , and micro-hydro configured into mini-grids serves many more .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "List_of_renewable_energy_topics_by_country", "rank": 11, "score": 119783 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Africa Content: The developing nations of Africa are popular locations for the application of renewable energy technology . Currently , many nations already have small-scale solar , wind , and geothermal devices in operation providing energy to urban and rural populations . These types of energy production are especially useful in remote locations because of the excessive cost of transporting electricity from large-scale power plants . The applications of renewable energy technology has the potential to alleviate many of the problems that face Africans every day , especially if done so in a sustainable manner that prioritizes human rights . Access to energy is essential for the reduction of poverty and promotion of economic growth . Communication technologies , education , industrialization , agricultural improvement and expansion of municipal water systems all require abundant , reliable , and cost-effective energy access .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Africa", "rank": 12, "score": 119618 }, { "content": "Title: Danish Organisation for Renewable Energy Content: SustainableEnergy ( VedvarendeEnergi ) which was called Danish Organisation for Renewable Energy ( OVE ) until 2010 , is a non-governmental , non-profit , membership based association . SustainableEnergy was founded in 1975 based on a popular movement for renewable energy in Denmark with close relationship to the anti-nuclear movement ( OOA ) , which had an immense popular backup .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Danish_Organisation_for_Renewable_Energy", "rank": 13, "score": 119283 }, { "content": "Title: Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Content: The Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency ( RCREEE ) is an intergovernmental organization with diplomatic status that aims to enable and increase the adoption of renewable energy and energy efficiency practices in the Arab region . RCREEE teams with regional governments and global organizations to initiate and lead clean energy policy dialogues , strategies , technologies and capacity development in order to increase Arab states ' share of tomorrow 's energy . Through its solid alliance with the League of Arab States , RCREEE is committed to tackle each country 's specific needs and objectives through collaborating with Arab policy makers , businesses , international organizations and academic communities in key work areas : capacity development and learning , policies and regulations , research and statistics , and technical assistance . The center is also involved in various local and regional projects and initiatives that are tailored to specific objectives . Having today 17 Arab countries among its members ( Algeria , Bahrain , Djibouti , Egypt , Iraq , Jordan , Kuwait , Lebanon , Libya , Mauritania Morocco , Palestine , Somalia Sudan , Syria , Tunisia , and Yemen ) , RCREEE strives to lead renewable energy and energy efficiency initiatives and expertise in all Arab states based on five core strategic impact areas : facts and figures , policies , people , institutions , and finance . RCREEE is financed through its member state contributions , government grants provided by Germany through the German Development Cooperation ( GIZ ) GmbH ( link ) , Denmark through the Danish International Development Agency ( DANIDA ) ( link ) , and Egypt through the New and Renewable Energy Authority ( NREA ) ( link ) . RCREEE is also financed through selected fee-for-service contracts . History RCREEE was set up based on Cairo Declaration which was signed in June , 2008 by government representatives from ten Arab countries . The declaration outlined the following two core objectives for establishing the center : To diffuse the implementation of cost-effective renewable energy and energy efficiency policies , strategies and technologies in the Arab region . To increase the share of renewable energy and energy efficiency products and services in the Arab region and their share of global market . RCREEE acquired its legal status in August , 2010 as an independent not-for-profit international organization through a Host Country Agreement with the government of Egypt .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Regional_Center_for_Renewable_Energy_and_Energy_Efficiency", "rank": 14, "score": 118229 }, { "content": "Title: Lists of renewable energy topics Content: Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , motor fuels , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services . Based on REN21 's 2014 report , renewables contributed 19 percent to our global energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013 , respectively . These are lists about renewable energy : Index of solar energy articles List of books about renewable energy List of concentrating solar thermal power companies List of countries by electricity production from renewable sources List of energy storage projects Lists of environmental topics List of geothermal power stations List of hydroelectric power stations List of largest hydroelectric power stations List of offshore wind farms Lists of offshore wind farms by country Lists of offshore wind farms by water area List of onshore wind farms List of onshore wind farms in the United Kingdom List of people associated with renewable energy List of photovoltaics companies List of photovoltaic power stations List of pioneering solar buildings List of renewable energy companies by stock exchange List of renewable energy organizations List of renewable energy topics by country List of rooftop photovoltaic installations List of solar car teams List of solar powered products List of solar thermal power stations List of U.S. states by electricity production from renewable sources Lists of wind farms by country List of wind farms in Australia List of wind farms in Canada List of wind farms in Iran List of wind farms in Romania List of wind farms in Sweden List of wind farms in the United States List of wind turbine manufacturers", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Lists_of_renewable_energy_topics", "rank": 15, "score": 118040 }, { "content": "Title: Intermittent energy source Content: An intermittent energy source is any source of energy or electrical power that is not continuously available due to some factor outside direct control . The intermittent source may be quite predictable , for example , tidal power , but can not be dispatched to meet the demand of a power system . Effective use of intermittent sources in an electric power grid usually relies on using the intermittent sources to displace fuel that would otherwise be consumed by non-renewable power stations , or by storing energy in the form of renewable pumped storage , compressed air or ice , or in batteries , for use when needed , or as electrode heating for district heating schemes . The capacity of a reliable renewable power supply , can be fulfilled by the use of backup or extra infrastructure and technology , using mixed renewables to produce electricity above the intermittent average , which may be utilised to meet regular and unanticipated supply demands . Additionally , the storage of energy to fill the shortfall intermittency or for emergencies can be part of a reliable power supply . The penetration of intermittent renewables in most power grids is low , global electricity production in 2014 was supplied by 3.1 % wind , and 1 % solar . Wind generates roughly 16 % of electric energy in Spain and Portugal , 15.3 % in Ireland , and 7 % in Germany . , wind provides 39 % of the electricity generated in Denmark . To operate with this level of penetration , Denmark exports surpluses and imports during shortfalls to and from neighbouring countries , particularly hydroelectric power from Norway , to balance supply with demand . It also uses large numbers of combined heat and power ( CHP ) stations which can rapidly adjust output . The use of small amounts of intermittent power has little effect on grid operations . Using larger amounts of intermittent power may require upgrades or even a redesign of the grid infrastructure .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Intermittent_energy_source", "rank": 16, "score": 114879 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Asia Content: Renewable energy is a viable means of generating energy in Asia . For solar power , South Asia has the ideal combination of both high solar insolation and a high density of potential customers . Cheap solar can bring electricity to a major chunk of subcontinent 's people who still live off-grid , bypassing the need of installation of expensive grid lines . Also since the costs of energy consumed for temperature control squarely influences a regions energy intensity , and with cooling load requirements roughly in phase with the sun 's intensity , cooling from intense solar radiation could make perfect energy-economic sense in the subcontinent .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Asia", "rank": 17, "score": 114852 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in the Philippines Content: Renewable energy accounts for 26.44 % of the total electrical energy needs in the Philippines , according to a 2013 survey . Renewable energy sources provided 19,903 gigawatt-hours of electrical energy out of a total need of 75,266 gigawatt-hours in 2013 . There are five main types of renewable energy used in the Philippines , hydropower , geothermal power , wind power , solar power and biomass power . There has been pressure to increase the Philippines ' usage of renewable energy sources in recent years due to the negative effects of fossil fuels -- such as pollution , accelerated climate change and fluctuating prices . A number of laws have been passed by the Philippine Congress to support the use of renewable energy including the Electric Power Industry Reform Act ( 2001 ) , which promotes the use of local and sustainable energy sources to replace imported fossil fuel sources ; the Biofuels Act ( 2006 ) , which encourages the use of biomass fuels ; the Renewable Energy Act ( 2008 ) ; and the Climate Change Act ( 2009 ) , which provides a legal basis for the tackling of climate change through sustainable development . The laws enacted by Congress have resulted in a significant degree of cooperation from private companies producing renewable energy , many of which have contracts with the Philippine Government .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_the_Philippines", "rank": 18, "score": 114839 }, { "content": "Title: Energy for All Content: Energy for All is the name of an initiative and partnership , both founded by the Asian Development Bank ( ADB ) , to reduce energy poverty in Asia and the Pacific . The initiative aims to develop approaches for providing access to reliable and affordable energy services , and to scale them up . This includes household access to electricity from renewable energy technologies such as micro-hydro , solar , biomass , and small wind power , as well as access to clean cooking fuel , such as LPG or biogas from livestock manure . The partnership was created to allow entities from different sectors in the region to cooperate . Its stated goal is to provide access to energy to 100 million people in the region by 2015 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Energy_for_All", "rank": 19, "score": 114587 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable energy Content: Sustainable energy is energy that is consumed at insignificant rates compared to its supply and with manageable collateral effects , especially environmental effects . Another common definition of sustainable energy is an energy system that serves the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs . The organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development , which includes the four interconnected domains : ecology , economics , politics and culture . Sustainability science is the study of sustainable development and environmental science . Technologies promote sustainable energy including renewable energy sources , such as hydroelectricity , solar energy , wind energy , wave power , geothermal energy , bioenergy , tidal power and also technologies designed to improve energy efficiency . Costs have fallen dramatically in recent years , and continue to fall . Most of these technologies are either economically competitive or close to being so . Increasingly , effective government policies support investor confidence and these markets are expanding . Considerable progress is being made in the energy transition from fossil fuels to ecologically sustainable systems , to the point where many studies support 100 % renewable energy .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Sustainable_energy", "rank": 20, "score": 114149 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable portfolio standard Content: A renewable portfolio standard ( RPS ) is a regulation that requires the increased production of energy from renewable energy sources , such as wind , solar , biomass , and geothermal . Other common names for the same concept include Renewable Electricity Standard ( RES ) at the United States federal level and Renewables Obligation in the UK . The RPS mechanism places an obligation on electricity supply companies to produce a specified fraction of their electricity from renewable energy sources . Certified renewable energy generators earn certificates for every unit of electricity they produce and can sell these along with their electricity to supply companies . Supply companies then pass the certificates to some form of regulatory body to demonstrate their compliance with their regulatory obligations . RPS can rely on the private market for its implementation . In jurisdictions such as California , minimum RPS requirements are legislated . California Senate Bill 350 passed in October 2015 requires retail sellers and publicly owned utilities to procure 50 percent of their electricity from eligible renewable energy resources by 2030 . RPS programs tend to allow more price competition between different types of renewable energy , but can be limited in competition through eligibility and multipliers for RPS programs . Those supporting the adoption of RPS mechanisms claim that market implementation will result in competition , efficiency , and innovation that will deliver renewable energy at the lowest possible cost , allowing renewable energy to compete with cheaper fossil fuel energy sources . RPS-type mechanisms have been adopted in several countries , including Britain , Italy , Poland , Sweden , Belgium , and Chile , as well as in 29 of 50 U.S. states , and the District of Columbia .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_portfolio_standard", "rank": 21, "score": 112361 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable Energy for All Content: Sustainable Energy for All ( SE4ALL ) is a global initiative led by the Secretary-General of the United Nations , Ban Ki-moon to achieve universal energy access , improve energy efficiency , and increase the use of renewable energy . It was launched to coincide with the designation of 2012 as the International Year of Sustainable Energy for All by the UN General Assembly in December 2010 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Sustainable_Energy_for_All", "rank": 22, "score": 112249 }, { "content": "Title: World Renewable Energy Network Content: WREN is a major non-profit organization registered in the United Kingdom with charitable status and affiliated to UNESCO , the Deputy Director General of which is its honorary President . It has a Governing Council , an Executive Committee and a Director General . It maintains links with many United Nations , governmental and non-governmental organisations . Established in 1992 during the second World Renewable Energy Congress in Reading , UK , WREN is one of the most effective organizations in supporting and enhancing the utilisation and implementation of renewable energy sources that are both environmentally safe and economically sustainable . This is done through a worldwide network of agencies , laboratories , institutions , companies and individuals , all working together towards the international diffusion of renewable energy technologies and applications . Representing most countries in the world , it aims to promote the communication and technical education of scientists , engineers , technicians and managers in this field and to address itself to the energy needs of both developing and developed countries . Over two billion dollars have now been allocated to projects dealing with renewable energy and the environment by the World Solar Summit and World Solar Decade along with the World Bank .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "World_Renewable_Energy_Network", "rank": 23, "score": 111890 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy debate Content: There is a renewable energy debate about the constraints and opportunities associated with the use of renewable energy . Renewable electricity production , from sources such as wind power and solar power , is sometimes criticized for being variable or intermittent . However , the International Energy Agency has stated that this only applies to certain renewables , mainly wind and solar photovoltaics , and its significance depends on a range of factors , such as the penetration of the renewables concerned . There have been `` not in my back yard '' ( NIMBY ) concerns relating to the visual and other impacts of some wind farms , with local residents sometimes fighting or blocking construction . In the USA , the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of aesthetic concerns . However , residents in other areas have been more positive and there are many examples of community wind farm developments . According to a town councillor , the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area . The market for renewable energy technologies has continued to grow . Climate change concerns , coupled with high oil prices , peak oil , and increasing government support , are driving increasing renewable energy legislation , incentives and commercialization . New government spending , regulation and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_debate", "rank": 24, "score": 111866 }, { "content": "Title: Lightsource Renewable Energy Content: Lightsource Renewable Energy is the UK 's largest solar energy generator , operating the largest portfolio of commercial scale solar photovoltaic ( PV ) assets on ground and roof in Britain . Founded in 2010 , it now consists of 250 professionals , and has gained an exceptional track record in the distribution of solar farms and commercial rooftop installations in the UK . The company provides fully funded solar PV solutions to property owners wishing to gain an attractive rental income from their land or gain significant reductions in electricity bills by employing unused roof space . In 2011 , they established the first solar farm in Truro , the biggest in the UK with more than 5,000 panels that generate enough electricity for 430 homes in the area , saving over 700 tons of CO2 . Lightsource Renewable Energy has been the recipient of renewable energy awards , including an award for most innovative system design and a leadership award in renewable energy .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Lightsource_Renewable_Energy", "rank": 25, "score": 111653 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in China Content: China is the world 's leading country in electricity production from renewable energy sources , with over double the generation of the second-ranking country , the United States . China 's renewable energy sector is growing faster than its fossil fuels and nuclear power capacity . In 2013 the country had a total capacity of 378 GW of renewable power , mainly from hydroelectric and wind power . Although China currently has the world 's largest installations of hydro , solar and wind power , its energy needs are so large that in 2013 renewables provided just a little over 20 % of its power generation , with most of the remainder provided by traditional coal power facilities . Nevertheless , the share of renewables in the energy mix had been gradually rising from 2013 and targets from 2015 onwards have represented a step change in ambition . China sees renewables as a source of energy security and not just only to reduce carbon emission . China 's Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution issued by China 's State Council in September 2013 , illustrates the government 's desire to increase the share of renewables in China 's energy mix . Unlike oil , coal and gas , the supplies of which are finite and subject to geopolitical tensions , renewable energy systems can be built and used wherever there is sufficient water , wind , and sun . From 2005 to 2014 , production of solar cells in China has expanded 100-fold . As Chinese renewable manufacturing has grown , the costs of renewable energy technologies have dropped dramatically . Innovation has helped , but the main driver of reduced costs has been market expansion . In 2015 China became the world 's largest producer of photovoltaic power , with 43 GW of total installed capacity .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_China", "rank": 26, "score": 111634 }, { "content": "Title: Energy transition Content: Energy transition is generally defined as a long-term structural change in energy systems . These have occurred in the past , and still occur worldwide . Historic energy transitions are most broadly described by Vaclav Smil . Contemporary energy transitions differ in terms of motivation and objectives , drivers and governance . An example of transition toward sustainable energy , is the shift by Germany ( Energiewende ) , to decentralised renewable energy , and energy efficiency . Although so far these shifts have been replacing nuclear energy , their declared goal is the abolishment of coal , reducing non-renewable energy sources and the creation of an energy system based on 60 % renewable energy by 2050 . Renewable energy encompasses wind , hydropower , solar power , geothermal , and ocean power . These renewable sources are to serve as an alternative to fossil fuels ( oil , coal , natural gas ) and nuclear fuel ( uranium ) . Solving the energy/global warming problem is regarded as the most important challenge facing humankind in the 21st century . Piecemeal measures often have only limited potential , so a timely implementation for the energy transition requires multiple approaches in parallel . Energy conservation and improvements in energy efficiency thus play a major role . An example of an effective energy efficiency measure is improved insulation for buildings . Smart electric meters can schedule energy consumption for times when electricity is available inexpensively . After such a transitional period , with a continuing increase in renewable energy production these are expected to make up most , if not all , of the world 's energy production in 50 years according to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency , dramatically reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Energy_transition", "rank": 27, "score": 111432 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Bhutan Content: Renewable energy in Bhutan is the use of renewable energy for electricity generation in Bhutan . The renewable energy sources include hydropower . While Bhutan has seen great successes with developing its large hydropower projects through technical and financial assistance from India , little or no private sector participation with other forms of renewable energy has been evident . In part because of the Sustainable development goals , Bhutan has established a minimum goal of 20 megawatts of renewable energy product by 2025 , through a mix of renewable energy technologies . Bhutan 's Department of Renewable Energy helped formulate and launch its Alternative Renewable Energy Policy in order to promote in Bhutan a mix of clean Renewable Energy ( RE ) technologies - solar , wind , bio-mass , geo-thermal , pico/micro/mini / small hydropower plants up to 25 MW in size and waste-to-energy technologies .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Bhutan", "rank": 28, "score": 110359 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable portfolio standard (United States) Content: A Renewable Portfolio Standard ( RPS ) is a regulation that requires the increased production of energy from renewable energy sources , such as wind , solar , biomass , and geothermal . The federal RPS is called the Renewable Electricity Standard ( RES ) . The RPS mechanism generally places an obligation on electricity supply companies to produce a specified fraction of their electricity from renewable energy sources . Certified renewable energy generators earn certificates for every unit of electricity they produce and can sell these along with their electricity to supply companies . Supply companies then pass the certificates to some form of regulatory body to demonstrate their compliance with their regulatory obligations . Because it is a market mandate , the RPS relies almost entirely on the private market for its implementation . Unlike feed-in tariffs which guarantee purchase of all renewable energy regardless of cost , RPS programs tend to allow more price competition between different types of renewable energy , but can be limited in competition through eligibility and multipliers for RPS programs . Those supporting the adoption of RPS mechanisms claim that market implementation will result in competition , efficiency , and innovation that will deliver renewable energy at the lowest possible cost , allowing renewable energy to compete with cheaper fossil fuel energy sources . RPS programs have been adopted in 29 of 50 U.S. states , and the District of Columbia .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_portfolio_standard_(United_States)", "rank": 29, "score": 110348 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in the European Union Content: The countries of the European Union are the number two global leaders in the development and application of renewable energy . Promoting the use of renewable energy sources is important both to the reduction of the EU 's dependence on foreign energy imports , and in meeting targets to combat global warming .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_the_European_Union", "rank": 30, "score": 110315 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation Content: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) published a special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) on May 9 , 2011 . The report developed under the leadership of Ottmar Edenhofer evaluates the global potential for using renewable energy to mitigate climate change . This IPCC special report provides broader coverage of renewable energy than was included in the IPCC 's 2007 climate change assessment report , as well as stronger renewable energy policy coverage . Renewable energy can contribute to `` social and economic development , energy access , secure energy supply , climate change mitigation , and the reduction of negative environmental and health impacts '' . Under favourable circumstances , cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_Energy_Sources_and_Climate_Change_Mitigation", "rank": 31, "score": 110067 }, { "content": "Title: Regional Renewable Energy Procurement Project Content: The Regional Renewable Energy Procurement Project is an energy project in the San Francisco Bay Area , set to develop 186 sites that will generate a total of 31 megawatts , enough electricity for more than 6,000 residences . The project is expected to create more than 800 jobs . In May 2015 , Gina McCarthy , head of the federal Environmental Protection Agency , presided over a dedication ceremony at the first designated site for the project , at the location of Hayward 's former landfill , next to the Hayward Regional Shoreline .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Regional_Renewable_Energy_Procurement_Project", "rank": 32, "score": 109956 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable fuels Content: Renewable fuels are fuels produced from renewable resources . Examples include : biofuels ( e.g. Vegetable oil used as fuel , ethanol , methanol from clean energy and carbon dioxide or biomass , and biodiesel ) and Hydrogen fuel ( when produced with renewable processes ) . This is in contrast to non-renewable fuels such as natural gas , LPG ( propane ) , petroleum and other fossil fuels and nuclear energy . Renewable fuels can include fuels that are synthesized from renewable energy sources , such as wind and solar . Renewable fuels have gained in popularity due to their sustainability , low contributions to the carbon cycle , and in some cases lower amounts of greenhouse gases . The geo-political ramifications of these fuels are also of interest , particularly to industrialized economies which desire independence from Middle Eastern oil .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_fuels", "rank": 33, "score": 109867 }, { "content": "Title: Growth of photovoltaics Content: Worldwide growth of photovoltaics has been fitting an exponential curve for more than two decades . During this period of time , photovoltaics ( PV ) , also known as solar PV , has evolved from a pure niche market of small scale applications towards becoming a mainstream electricity source . When solar PV systems were first recognized as a promising renewable energy technology , programs , such as feed-in tariffs , were implemented by a number of governments in order to provide economic incentives for investments . For several years , growth was mainly driven by Japan and pioneering European countries . As a consequence , cost of solar declined significantly due to Experience curve effects like improvements in technology and economies of scale . Experience curves describe that the price of a thing decreases with the sum-total ever produced . PV growth increased even more rapidly when production of solar cells and modules started to ramp up in the USA with their Millions solar roofs project , and when renewables were added to China 's 5-year-plans for energy production . Since then , deployment of photovoltaics is gaining momentum on a worldwide scale , particularly in Asia but also in North America and other regions , where solar PV is now increasingly competing with conventional energy sources as grid parity has already been reached in about 30 countries . Projections for photovoltaic growth are difficult and burdened with many uncertainties . Official agencies , such as the International Energy Agency consistently increased their estimates over the years , but still fell short of actual deployment . Historically , the United States had been the leader of installed photovoltaics for many years , and its total capacity amounted to 77 megawatts in 1996 -- more than any other country in the world at the time . Then , Japan stayed ahead as the world 's leader of produced solar electricity until 2005 , when Germany took the lead . The country is currently approaching the 40,000 megawatt mark . China is expected to continue its rapid growth and to triple its PV capacity to 70,000 megawatts by 2017 . In 2015 , China became world 's largest producer of photovoltaic power . By the end of 2016 , cumulative photovoltaic capacity reached at least 302 gigawatts ( GW ) , sufficient to supply 1.8 % of global electricity demands . Solar now contributes 8 % , 7.4 % and 7.1 % to the respective annual domestic consumption in Italy , Greece and Germany . For 2016 , worldwide deployment of up to 77 GW is being forecasted , and installed capacity is projected to more than double or even triple beyond 500 GW between now and 2020 . By 2050 , solar power is anticipated to become the world 's largest source of electricity , with solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power contributing 16 % and 11 % , respectively . This will require PV capacity to grow to 4,600 GW , of which more than half is forecasted to be deployed in China and India .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Growth_of_photovoltaics", "rank": 34, "score": 109684 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable Energy (journal) Content: Renewable Energy is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on renewable energy , sustainable energy and the energy transition . It is published by Elsevier and the editor-in-chief is S.A. Kalogirou ( Cyprus University of Technology ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 3.361 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_Energy_(journal)", "rank": 35, "score": 109547 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable Energy Utility Content: Sustainable Energy Utility ( SEU ) is a community-based model of development based on energy conservation and the use of renewables , seeking to permanently decrease the use of source materials , water , and energy . The model prescribes the creation of independent and financially self-sufficient non-profit entities for energy sustainability through conservation , efficiency , and end-user based decentralized renewable energy in an effort to address concerns about climate change , rising energy prices , inequity of energy availability , and a lack of community governance of energy development . The SEU model was developed by Dr. J. Byrne at the Center for Energy and Environmental Policy , University of Delaware . The Foundation for Renewable Energy and Environment ( FREE ) is implementing versions of the model . In the US , the SEU model was first implemented by the State of Delaware , the District of Columbia this is false information , the DC SEU is supported by the Vermont Energy Investment Corporation , which helped established Efficiency Vermont . ( https://www.dcseu.com/about-dcseu , Sonoma County in California , the California Statewide Communities Development Authority ( CSCDA ) , and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania . International application of SEU is being investigated by the City of Seoul ( South Korea ) and the City of Thane ( India ) . The SEU is recognized by the U.S. White House ( the SEU the White House mentioned is the DC SEU model , which is supported by the Vermont Energy Investment Corporation . https://www.dcseu.com/about-dcseu ) and the Asian Development Bank as a viable platform to spur sustainable energy investment while driving local economic development .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Sustainable_Energy_Utility", "rank": 36, "score": 109518 }, { "content": "Title: Stefan Krauter Content: Stefan Krauter ( born 1963 in Göppingen , Germany ) is Professor and Entrepreneur in the area of Renewable Energies . His activities in research , teaching and business are directed to establish a global sustainable energy supply . He specialized in the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity - photovoltaics . He initiated and organized in Rio de Janeiro several congresses ( RIO 02/3/5 / 6/9/12 / 15 - World Climate & Energy Events ) and the Latin America Renewable Energy Fair ( LAREF ) , to sustain the vision of the UNCED Earth Summit of Rio 1992 in that area .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Stefan_Krauter", "rank": 37, "score": 108989 }, { "content": "Title: Potrero Generating Station Content: The Potrero Generating Station was a natural gas and diesel burning electricity generating station owned by Mirant and located on a 23 acre site in Potrero Point , San Francisco , California . The plant 's primary power source was a 206 MW , natural gas burning steam turbine providing baseload power and referred to as `` Unit 3 '' . In addition , three 52 MW peaking power diesel generators provided additional power during times of highest consumption . Since the closure of the Hunters Point Power Plant in 2006 , Potrero was the last remaining fossil fuel power plant within the confines of San Francisco , with capacity to provide approximately 1/3 of the City 's peak electrical power needs . On Dec. 21 , 2010 , San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom announced that the Potrero plant would cease operations by the end of the year . In a press conference announcing the closure , Newsom stated that `` this is a monumental step towards cleaner air , environmental justice and our future of renewable energy and healthier communities . '' The plant was shut down in January 2011 , and the property is being considered for redevelopment .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Potrero_Generating_Station", "rank": 38, "score": 108946 }, { "content": "Title: Energy security and renewable technology Content: The environmental benefits of renewable energy technologies are widely recognised , but the contribution that they can make to energy security is less well known . Renewable technologies can enhance energy security in electricity generation , heat supply , and transportation .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Energy_security_and_renewable_technology", "rank": 39, "score": 108939 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Mexico Content: Renewable energy in Mexico contributes to 26 percent of electricity generation in Mexico . As of 2009 , electricity generation from renewable energy comes from hydro power , geothermal , solar power and wind . There is a long term effort established to increase the use of renewable energy sources . The amount of geothermal energy used and harvested , places Mexico as number four in the world . As one of the leading countries in renewable energy , more specifically , geothermal placing Mexico as the 4th ranked country in the world . As the importance of clean sustainable energy becomes more prevalent , the country and government officials continue to invest in research and innovations to continue to allow Mexico to be a leading example of renewable energy . Predictions based on current energy standings lead the country to anticipate by the year 2035 , the 26 percent renewable energy in Mexico will rise to 35 percent . Not only will this prove a more sustainable future it also increases jobs in rural areas . Jobs increased by 14 percent within the last 8 years in the renewable energy sector . With the objection to create more in home jobs for residents of Mexico , an increase in sustainable energy , results in a lower demand for conventional fuels such as fuel oil , petrol gas , coal and natural gas . With a lower demand on these fuels , mainly gasoline and diesel and on the rise jet fuel , this will result in a lower need for imports . With relying on fewer imports , national security is higher .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Mexico", "rank": 40, "score": 108800 }, { "content": "Title: Copper in renewable energy Content: Renewable energy sources such as solar , wind , tidal , hydro , biomass , and geothermal have become significant sectors of the energy market . The rapid growth of these sources in the 21st century has been prompted by increasing costs of fossil fuels as well as their negative environmental impacts . While the average capacity of renewable energy sources was only 7 % globally in 2010 , most installation of new capacity has been with renewables . Few new installations were from fossil fuel-based power plants . The trend towards new power capacity by renewables is expected to continue through 2020 . Since renewable energy supplies offset the amount of fossil fuels that need to be combusted in power plants , the use of renewables indirectly helps to reduce CO2 emissions . Hence , renewable energy supplies enable societies to progress towards lower-carbon-based economies . Copper plays an important role in renewable energy systems . Since copper is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor among the engineering metals ( second only to silver ) , power systems that utilize copper generate and transmit energy with high efficiency and with minimum environmental impacts . By using copper instead of other lower electrical energy-efficient metal conductors , less electricity needs to be generated to satisfy a given power demand . This article discusses the role of copper in various renewable energy generation systems .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Copper_in_renewable_energy", "rank": 41, "score": 108618 }, { "content": "Title: International Renewable Energy Alliance Content: International Renewable Energy Alliance ( REN Alliance ) is a formal partnership entered into on 4 June 2004 by five non-profit international renewable energy organisations : International Hydropower Association ( IHA ) , International Solar Energy Society ( ISES ) , International Geothermal Association ( IGA ) , World Wind Energy Association ( WWEA ) , World Bioenergy Association ( WBA ) . ( Since June 2009 ) They represent the hydro , geothermal , solar , and wind power/energy and bioenergy sector . The alliance provides a unified cross-sectoral voice on renewable energy in international and regional energy fora and media . Climate change concerns , coupled with high oil prices , peak oil , and increasing government support , are driving increasing renewable energy legislation , incentives and commercialization . As of 2011 , 119 countries have some form of national renewable energy policy target or renewable support policy . National targets now exist in at least 98 countries . There is also a wide range of policies at state/provincial and local levels .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "International_Renewable_Energy_Alliance", "rank": 42, "score": 108193 }, { "content": "Title: Solar power by country Content: Many industrialized nations have installed significant solar power capacity into their electrical grids to supplement or provide an alternative to conventional energy sources while an increasing number of less developed nations have turned to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported fuels . Long distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption . Solar power plants use one of two technologies : Photovoltaic ( PV ) systems use solar panels , either on rooftops or in ground-mounted solar farms , converting sunlight directly into electric power . Concentrated solar power ( CSP , also known as `` concentrated solar thermal '' ) plants use solar thermal energy to make steam , that is thereafter converted into electricity by a turbine . Worldwide growth of photovoltaics is extremely dynamic and varies strongly by country . By the end of 2016 , cumulative photovoltaic capacity increased by more than 75 gigawatt ( GW ) and reached at least 303 GW , sufficient to supply 1.8 percent of the world 's total electricity consumption . The top installers of 2016 were China , the United States , and India . There are more than 24 countries around the world with a cumulative PV capacity of more than one gigawatt . Austria , the Chile , and South Africa , all crossed the one gigawatt-mark in 2016 . The available solar PV capacity in Honduras is now sufficient to supply 12.5 % of the nation 's electrical power while Italy , Germany and Greece can produce between 7 % and 8 % of their respective domestic electricity consumption . After an almost two decade long hiatus , deployment of CSP resumed in 2007 , with significant growth only in the most recent years . However , the design for several new projects is being changed to cheaper photovoltaics . Most operational CSP stations are located in Spain and the United States , while large solar farms using photovoltaics are being constructed in an expanding list of geographic regions . As of January 2017 , the largest solar power plants in the world are the 850 MW Longyangxia Dam Solar Park in China for PV and the 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility in the United States for CSP . Other large CSP facilities include the 354 megawatt ( MW ) Solar Energy Generating Systems power installation in the USA , Solnova Solar Power Station ( Spain , 150 MW ) , Andasol Solar Power Station ( Spain , 150 MW ) and the first part of Shams solar power station ( United Arab Emirates , 100 MW ) .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Solar_power_by_country", "rank": 43, "score": 108103 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in the United Kingdom Content: Renewable energy in the United Kingdom '' ' can be divided into the generation of renewable electricity , the generation of renewable heat and renewable energy use in the transport sector . From the mid-1990s renewable energy began to contribute to the electricity generated in the United Kingdom , adding to a small hydroelectricity generating capacity . The total of all renewable electricity sources provided for 14.9 % of the electricity generated in the United Kingdom in 2013 , reaching 53.7 TWh of electricity generated . In the second quarter of 2015 , renewable electricity penetration exceeded 25 % and coal generation for the first time . Renewable energy contributions to meeting the UK 's 15 % target reduction in total energy consumption by 2020 , in accordance with the 2009 EU Renewable Directive , totalled 5.2 % in 2013 as measured in accordance with the methodology set out in the Directive . By 2016 provisional calculations show that the figure had risen again to 8.3 per cent of energy consumption ( all sources ) coming from renewable sources in 2015 . Interest in renewable energy in the UK has increased in recent years due to new UK and EU targets for reductions in carbon emissions and the promotion of renewable electricity power generation through commercial incentives such as the Renewable Obligation Certificate scheme ( ROCs ) and Feed in tariffs ( FITs ) and the promotion of renewable heat through the Renewable Heat Incentive . Historically hydroelectric schemes were the largest producers of renewable electricity in the UK , but these have now been surpassed by wind power schemes , for which the UK has large potential resources .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 44, "score": 107941 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal power in New Zealand Content: Geothermal power in New Zealand is a small but significant part of the energy generation capacity of the country , providing approximately 13 % of the country 's electricity with installed capacity of 854 MW . New Zealand , like only a small number of other countries worldwide , has numerous geothermal sites that could be developed for exploitation , and also boasts some of the earliest large-scale use of geothermal energy in the world . Geothermal energy has been described as New Zealand 's most reliable renewable energy source , above wind , solar and even hydroelectricity , due to its lack of dependence on the weather . It has also been described as the currently ( 2000s and 2010s ) most attractive new source of energy for New Zealand , as petrochemical fuel prices rise and easy hydro power sites have been tapped - though some warn that the easier geothermal sites now have also been built on , making future large-scale projects more cost-intensive .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Geothermal_power_in_New_Zealand", "rank": 45, "score": 107937 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Nepal Content: Renewable energy in Nepal is a sector that is rapidly developing in Nepal . While Nepal mainly relies on hydro electricity for its energy needs , solar and wind power is being seen as an important supplement to solve its energy crisis .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Nepal", "rank": 46, "score": 107803 }, { "content": "Title: Variable renewable energy Content: Variable renewable energy ( VRE ) is a renewable energy source that is non-dispatchable due to its fluctuating nature , like wind power and solar power , as opposed to a controllable renewable energy source such as hydroelectricity , or biomass , or a relatively constant source such as geothermal power or run-of-the-river hydroelectricity .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Variable_renewable_energy", "rank": 47, "score": 107276 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Uruguay Content: Renewable energy in Uruguay is the use of renewable energy primarily for electricity generation in Uruguay . Uruguay is notable for its use of renewable energies , which provide 94.5 % of the country 's electricity and 55 % of the country 's total energy mix . Uruguay has already developed all its potential for large hydroelectric projects . Existing plants are Terra ( 152 MW ) , Baygorria ( 108 MW ) , Constitución ( 333 MW ) and the bi-national Salto Grande , with a total capacity of 1,890 MW . Wind power is experiencing a boom recently . Biomass and solar power have also been ramped up . This is further helping the country slash its carbon footprint . Heating is another spectrum where the use of renewable resources is being implemented . Firewood is mostly used for home heating .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Uruguay", "rank": 48, "score": 107170 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Afghanistan Content: Renewable energy in Afghanistan includes biomass , hydropower , solar , wind power . Afghanistan is a landlocked country located in Asia that holds a spot as one of the countries with a smaller ecological footprint . It has been contended at different levels that hydropower may be an easier source of renewable energy for Afghanistan than other nations due to their geographical location . Their mountainous environment facilitates hydro dams and other facets of hydro energy ( Yasah et al. ) . The nation however , is not entirely independent on their sources of energy ; they import an annual sum from neighboring countries like Tajikistan ( Mainali & Silveira ) . Another form of renewable energy that Afghanistan has been doing is the implementation of Biogas ( Amjid et al. ) . With the start of Biogas , communities have begun to feel the benefits beyond that of the environment through capacity building as well ( Amjid et al. ) . Afghanistan is one of the lowest energy consuming countries in relation to a global standing ( Mainali & Silveira ) . The country continues to feel the effect of the war , and the hardships it has endured in the name of it continue to leave scars . With `` looting and lack of maintenance and spare parts mean that generation capacity is far below the potential level -LSB- ... -RSB- which in turn is sustainability below the country 's need '' . Afghanistan is not self sustainable with their use of energy , they also have the need to import energy from neighboring countries . One particular country that Afghanistan imports from is Tajikistan . It is known that `` the three countries also agreed to set up a joint commission to explore possibilities into the transfer of 500 Kilo Watts of energy from Tajikistan to Afghanistan and Iran '' ( Institute for the Study of War ) . Importing energy is a popular thing among central Asian countries , adding a deeper level of connectedness between governments and citizens . -LSB- 2 -RSB-", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Afghanistan", "rank": 49, "score": 106653 }, { "content": "Title: Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy Content: Although nuclear power is considered a form of low-carbon power , its legal inclusion with renewable energy power sources has been a subject of debate and classification . Statutory definitions of renewable energy usually exclude many present nuclear energy technologies , with notable exceptions in the states of Utah , and Arizona in the United States , where only a particular implementation of nuclear fission with `` waste '' / fuel recycling meets the state 's criteria . Dictionary sourced definitions of renewable energy technologies often omit or explicitly exclude mention to every nuclear energy source , with an exception made for the natural nuclear decay heat generated within the Earth/geothermal energy . The most common fuel used in conventional nuclear fission power stations , uranium-235 is `` non-renewable '' according to the Energy Information Administration , the organization however is silent on the recycled fuel of MOX . Similarly , the National Renewable Energy Laboratory does not mention nuclear power in its `` energy basics '' definition . In 1987 , the World Commission on Environment and Development ( WCED ) classified fission reactors that produce more fissile nuclear fuel than they consume ( breeder reactors , and if developed , fusion power ) among conventional renewable energy sources , such as solar and falling water . The American Petroleum Institute likewise does not consider conventional nuclear fission as renewable , but that breeder reactor nuclear fuel is considered renewable and sustainable , and while conventional fission leads to waste streams that remain a concern for millennia , the waste from efficiently burnt up spent fuel requires storage for no more than a thousand years . The monitoring and storage of radioactive waste products is also required upon the use of other renewable energy sources , such as geothermal energy .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Nuclear_power_proposed_as_renewable_energy", "rank": 50, "score": 106593 }, { "content": "Title: Hydroelectricity Content: Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower . In 2015 hydropower generated 16.6 % of the world 's total electricity and 70 % of all renewable electricity , and was expected to increase about 3.1 % each year for the next 25 years . Hydropower is produced in 150 countries , with the Asia-Pacific region generating 33 percent of global hydropower in 2013 . China is the largest hydroelectricity producer , with 920 TWh of production in 2013 , representing 16.9 percent of domestic electricity use . The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low , making it a competitive source of renewable electricity . The hydro station consumes no water , unlike coal or gas plants . The average cost of electricity from a hydro station larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour . With a dam and reservoir it is also a flexible source of electricity since the amount produced by the station can be changed up or down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands . Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed , the project produces no direct waste , and has a considerably lower output level of greenhouse gases than fossil fuel powered energy plants .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Hydroelectricity", "rank": 51, "score": 106385 }, { "content": "Title: Severn Tidal Power Feasibility Study Content: Severn Tidal Power Feasibility Study is the name of a UK Government feasibility study into a tidal power project looking at the possibility of using the huge tidal range in the Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel to generate electricity . On 22 January 2008 , the Government launched the feasibility study . The study , previously led by the Department of Business , Enterprise and Regulatory Reform ( BERR ) is now led by the new Department for Energy and Climate Change and includes representation from the Welsh Assembly Government and the South West Regional Development Agency . Previous reports on tidal power in the Severn did not -- and did not aim to -- provide a detailed analysis of all tidal range technologies . This feasibility study aims to consider all tidal range technologies , including barrages and lagoons . The focus is on tidal range technologies as this is where the energy potential in the Severn Estuary is the greatest , as opposed to ` tidal flow ' which is the current in moving tidal waters . The tidal range in the Severn Estuary is the second highest in the world and can rise as much as 14 metres , meaning it has the potential to generate more renewable electricity than all other UK estuaries . This could create up to 5 % of the UK 's electricity , contributing significantly to UK climate change goals as well as European Union renewable energy targets . The Government is carrying out the feasibility study to look at all the costs , benefits and impacts of a Severn tidal power scheme . The study , often incorrectly called the Severn Barrage , looks at all tidal range technologies -- including barrages , lagoons as well as other technologies . A decision whether the Government will support the scheme or not will take place after a second public consultation in 2010 . It was decided after much debate that the scheme would be closed forever and that this would not be brought up in future discussions to save time . The first consultation of the feasibility study was launched on 26 January 2009 and closed on the 23 April 2009 . It looked at the scope of the Strategic Environmental Assessment , the issues the feasibility study considered and the shortlisted schemes up for more detailed analysis in stage two .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Severn_Tidal_Power_Feasibility_Study", "rank": 52, "score": 106044 }, { "content": "Title: Energy Globe Award Content: The International Energy Globe Awards ( the World Awards for Sustainability or Nature 's Nobel Prize ) have been awarded by the Energy Globe Foundation annually to recognise projects that ` make careful and economical use of resources and employ alternative energy sources . ' The winners , in the categories of Earth , Fire , Water , Air and Youth , are selected by a panel including members from the United Nations Industrial Development Organization , World Bank and the European Renewable Energy Council . In 2016 , the category Sustainable Plastics was added to the over five categories . The awards were an initiative by Austrian engineer and environmentalist Wolfgang Neumann . The herculean status of the Award often equates it to Nobel Prize . It distinguishes projects regionally , nationally and globally every year since 2000 . The goal of the Energy Globe Award is to create the necessary awareness concerning solutions to our environmental problems and to demonstrate that each of us can make a positive contribution . The winning ENERGY GLOBE projects serve as examples , which are presented on the Energy Globe website and in the Energy Globe project database . The monetary prize for first place in the international award is 10,000 euro which is distributed among the six categories . The ( inter ) national ENERGY GLOBE winner projects are honored at festive ceremonies and presented in the media and on television . Large-scale awards were held in 2007 and 2008 in the Plenary Hall of the European Parliament in Brussels with the support of prominent people from all over the world . 2009 the Energy Globe gala was the opening event of the informal meeting of the EU Environmental Ministers in Prague . 2010 Energy Globe together with UNEP has opened the UN World Environment Day in Kigali/Rwanda . The 2014/2015 celebration took place in Tehran/Iran . More than 1000 projects from all over the world are submitted each year . In all some 7000 projects from 177 countries have been submitted for the Energy Globe Award . The ENERGY GLOBE Jury is headed by Maneka Gandhi ( Member of Parliament ) , incumbent Indian minister for Ministry of Women and Child Development and former Indian Minister for Environment . International personalities such as former Secretary General of the UN Kofi Annan , former Russian President Mikhail Gorbachev , the President of the European Parliament and EU Commission , world stars like actor Martin Sheen , `` Columbo '' Peter Falk , Bollywood star Aamir Khan , musicians like Alanis Morissette , Dionne Warwick , Zucchero , Robin Gibb ( Bee Gees ) , etc. , offer their services for Energy Globe .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Energy_Globe_Award", "rank": 53, "score": 105861 }, { "content": "Title: Powerful: Energy for Everyone Content: Powerful : Energy for Everyone is a 2010 Canadian documentary that explores different sources of renewable energy . David Chernushenko takes audiences on a global journey to discover different ways of achieving a more sustainable lifestyle.The film introduces audiences to communities , both small and large , that have managed to adapt their way of life and embrace renewable energy .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Powerful:_Energy_for_Everyone", "rank": 54, "score": 105556 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy law Content: Renewable energy law is a particular kind of energy law , and relates primarily to the transactional legal and policy issues that surround the development , implementation , and commercialization of renewable sources of energy , such as solar , wind , geothermal and tidal . Renewable energy , ( RE ) law also relates to the land use , siting , and finance issues encountered by developers of renewable energy projects . Renewable energy law also encompasses policies that relate to renewable energy and legislative instruments that further encourage its growth . One such form of legislation is feed-in tariffs , which provide economic incentives to the developers of renewable energy projects by setting a fixed price for the sale of energy produced from renewable sources . Feed-in tariff laws also provide financial certainty , are more cost effective and less bureaucratic than other support schemes such as investment or production tax credits , quota based renewable portfolio standards ( RPS ) , and auction mechanisms . In addition , the feed-in tariff generates more competition , more jobs , and more rapid deployment for manufacturing ; it also does not pick technological winners , for instance between more mature wind power technology versus solar photovoltaics technology .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_law", "rank": 55, "score": 105497 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in India Content: Renewable energy in India comes under the purview of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy ( MNRE ) . Newer renewable electricity sources are targeted to grow massively by 2022 , including a more than doubling of India 's large wind power capacity and an almost 15 fold increase in solar power from April 2016 levels . Such ambitious targets would place India amongst the world leaders in renewable energy use and place India at the centre of its International Solar Alliance project promoting the growth and development of solar power internationally to over 120 countries . India was the first country in the world to set up a ministry of non-conventional energy resources , in early 1980s . As of September 30 , 2016 India 's cumulative grid interactive or grid tied renewable energy capacity ( excluding large hydropower ) reached about 50.02 GW . 61 % of the renewable power came from wind , while solar contributed nearly 19 % . Large hydro installed capacity was 44.41 GW as of February 28 , 2017 and is administered separately by the Ministry of Power and not included in MNRE targets . From 2015 onwards the MNRE began laying down actionable plans for the renewable energy sector under its ambit to make a quantum jump , building on strong foundations already established in the country . MNRE renewable electrictricity targets have been upscaled to grow from just under 43 GW in April 2016 to 175 GW by the year 2022 , including 100 GW from solar power , 60 GW from wind power , 10 GW from bio power and 5 GW from small hydro power . The Ministry of Power has announced that no new coal-based capacity addition is required for the 10 years to 2027 beyond the 50 GW under different stages of construction and likely to come online between 2017 and 2022 The ambitious targets would see India quickly becoming one of the leading green energy producers in the world and surpassing numerous developed countries . The government intends to achieve 40 % cumulative electric power capacity from non fossil fuel sources by 2030 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_India", "rank": 56, "score": 105434 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Content: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on sustainable energy . It is published in 12 issues per year by Elsevier and the editor-in-chief is L. Kazmerski ( National Renewable Energy Laboratory ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2015 impact factor of 6.798 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_and_Sustainable_Energy_Reviews", "rank": 57, "score": 105421 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable Energy Systems Content: The RES Group ( Renewable Energy Systems ) is a global renewable energy company which has been active in the renewable energy industry for over 30 years . Its core business is to develop , construct and operate large-scale , grid-connected renewable energy projects worldwide for commercial , industrial and utility clients ' . RES is active in the wind ( onshore and offshore wind ) and solar energy sectors and is increasingly focussed on the transition to a low-carbon economy providing transmission , energy storage and demand side management expertise .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_Energy_Systems", "rank": 58, "score": 105258 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable heat Content: Renewable heat is an application of renewable energy and it refers to the renewable generation of heat , rather than electrical power ( e.g. replacing a fossil fuel boiler using concentrating solar thermal to feed radiators ) . Renewable heat technologies include renewable biofuels , solar heating , geothermal heating , heat pumps and heat exchangers to recover lost heat . Significant attention is also applied to insulation . Many colder countries consume more energy for heating than electrical power . For example , in 2005 the United Kingdom consumed 354 TWh of electric power , but had a heat requirement of 907 TWh , the majority of which ( 81 % ) was met using gas . The residential sector alone consumed a massive 550 TWh of energy for heating , mainly in the form of gas . Almost half of the final energy consumed in the UK ( 49 % ) was in the form of heat , of which 70 % was used by households and in commercial and public buildings . Households used heat mainly for space heating ( 69 % ) and heating water . The relative competitiveness of renewable electricity and renewable heat depends on a nation 's approach to energy and environment policy . Few renewable technologies ( whether for heat , electricity or transport ) are competitive with fossil fuels without some form of carbon valuation or subsidy . In those countries , such as Sweden , Denmark and Finland , where government intervention has been closest to a technology-neutral form of carbon valuation ( i.e. carbon and energy taxes ) , renewable heat has played the leading role in a very substantial renewable contribution to final energy consumption . In those countries , such as Germany , Spain , the USA , and the UK , where government intervention has been set at different levels for different technologies , uses and scales , the contributions of renewable heat and renewable electricity technologies have depended on the relative levels of support , and have resulted generally in a lower renewable contribution to final energy consumption .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_heat", "rank": 59, "score": 104656 }, { "content": "Title: Solar power in Jamaica Content: Jamaica 's electricity sector is dominated by non-renewable generators that use petroleum products , primarily Bunker C fuel oil and automotive diesel which generated 93 % of the annual output for 2014 . There is a small contribution from a few small hydroelectric plants and a couple of wind farms , one of which , Wigton Wind Farm , contributes a very small amount despite being the largest wind farm in the Caribbean . In 2005 , Jamaica embarked on the preparation of a 25-year National Development Plan called `` Vision 2030 '' which encompassed the National Energy Policy 2009 -- 2030 . The policy was adopted in late 2009 and followed in 2010 by a National Renewable Energy Policy 2009 -- 2030 . According to the message from the then minister responsible for energy , `` Since 2005 , Jamaica has embarked upon the preparation of a 25-year National Development Plan called Vision 2030 which is expected to put the country in a path to achieve developed country status by 2030 . One of the expected outcomes of the plan is the diversification of Jamaica 's energy supply to increase energy security and to contribute to the cost efficiency of the country 's energy sector . '' After the National Energy Policy was approved the authorities set about creating a regulatory and technical framework for the interconnection of solar PV systems to the national grid in consultation with the grid operator . The result was the formulation of a Standard Offer Contract for the sale of electricity to the grid under a net billing arrangement . Under the net billing arrangement any electricity not consumed on the premises it is produced , is delivered to the grid and is purchased by the grid operator at a price set by the Office of Utilities Regulation to be close to the avoided cost of generation by the existing suppliers . That price is available at the regulators web site . Any electricity consumed from the grid is billed at the regular retail prices and at the end of the month the difference between the delivered and consumed amounts is settled . Technical guidelines for the interconnection to the grid are also now available and the Government Electrical Inspectorate is prepared to perform inspection of installations . This is the basis on which most major installations have proceeded .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Solar_power_in_Jamaica", "rank": 60, "score": 104544 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Canada Content: Canada generates a significant majority of its electricity from hydroelectric dams ( 59 % in 2006 ) . Wind power is growing quickly with Canada in 2011 being the 6th largest producer of wind power in the world . Canada has built a number of photovoltaic power plants , mainly in Ontario , with one in Sarnia being the largest in the world at the time of construction . A 15 megawatt tidal plant sits at Annapolis , Nova Scotia , and uses the daily tides of the Bay of Fundy . Politicians have expressed interest in increasing the percentage of Canada 's electricity generated by renewable methods . Ontario has created a subsidy to assist wind and solar power producers .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Canada", "rank": 61, "score": 104300 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Tuvalu Content: Renewable energy in Tuvalu is a growing sector of the country 's energy supply . Tuvalu has committed to becoming the first country to get 100 % of its electricity from renewable energy sources by 2020 . This is considered possible because of the small size of the population of Tuvalu and its abundant solar energy resources due to its tropical location . It is somewhat complicated because Tuvalu consists of nine inhabited islands . The Tuvalu National Energy Policy ( TNEP ) was formulated in 2009 , and the Energy Strategic Action Plan defines and directs current and future energy developments so that Tuvalu can achieve the ambitious target of 100 % renewable energy for power generation by 2020 . The program is expected to cost 20 million US dollars and is supported by the e8 , a group of 10 electric companies from G8 countries . The Government of Tuvalu worked with the e8 group to develop the Tuvalu Solar Power Project , which is a 40 kW grid-connected solar system that is intended to provide about 5 % of Funafuti 's peak demand , and 3 % of the Tuvalu Electricity Corporation 's annual household consumption . Tuvalu participates in the Alliance of Small Island States ( AOSIS ) , which is a coalition of small island and low-lying coastal countries that have concerns about their vulnerability to the adverse effects of global climate change . Under the Majuro Declaration , which was signed on 5 September 2013 , Tuvalu has commitment to implement power generation of 100 % renewable energy ( between 2013 and 2020 ) , which is proposed to be implemented using Solar PV ( 95 % of demand ) and biodiesel ( 5 % of demand ) . The feasibility of wind power generation will be considered . In November 2015 Tuvalu committed to reduction of emissions of green-house gases from the electricity generation ( power ) sector to almost zero emissions by 2025 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 62, "score": 104182 }, { "content": "Title: International Sustainable Energy Organization Content: The objective of the International Sustainable Energy Organization for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency ( ISEO ) with headquarters in Geneva is to accelerate and enlarge the world-wide contribution of clean , sustainable energy to economic and equitable social development . Gustav R. Grob founded ISEO for the United Nations in 2002 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "International_Sustainable_Energy_Organization", "rank": 63, "score": 104121 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Bangladesh Content: Renewable energy in Bangladesh refers to the use of renewable energy to generate electricity in Bangladesh . The current renewable energy comes from biogas , hydro power , solar and wind .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Bangladesh", "rank": 64, "score": 104115 }, { "content": "Title: REN21 Content: REN21 , the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century , is a global renewable energy multi-stakeholder policy network that provides international leadership for the rapid transition to renewable energy . The network was launched in June 2004 as an outcome of the International Conference for Renewable Energies in Bonn , Germany . REN21 brings together governments , nongovernmental organisations , research and academic institutions , international organisations and industry to learn from one another and build on successes that advance renewable energy . To assist policy decision making , REN21 provides high quality information , catalyses discussion and debate and supports the development of thematic networks . REN21 has produced a number of internationally recognised reports on renewable energy policy , industry and market development . Since 2005 it has produced its annual flagship publication , theRenewables Global Status Report ( GSR ) . The GSR provides a comprehensive overview of renewable energy market , industry , investment and policy development worldwide . Data is collected from a network of more than 500 contributors and researchers . REN21 also produces regional analyses such as regional reports for MENA , ECOWAS , SADC , EAC . The range of credible possibilities on the future of renewable energy is detailed in the publication Renewables Global Futures Report . Up-to-date country data on renewable energy can be accessed through REN21 's Interactive Map . This map was created to facilitate the accessibility of renewable energy knowledge to a broad range of stakeholders in the energy sector and beyond . REN21 works in cooperation with other organisations . A sister report to REN21 's GSR is the Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment Report ( GTR ) produced by theFrankfurt School -- UNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance . REN21 is also a partner of the Global Tracking Framework , which is convened by the UN Secretary General 's Sustainable Energy for All ( SE4All ) Initiative . REN21 also collaborates with other intergovernmental organisations such as the IEA , the World Bank and IRENA . Initiated at the renewables 2004 conference in Bonn , IRECs a high-level political conference series dedicated to renewable energy policy worldwide . Dedicated exclusively to the renewable energy sector , IRECs are hosted by alternate Governments every two years and convened by REN21 . REN21 's role in the IREC process is as follows : • Establishment of an International Advisory Committee ( IAC ) and hosting of its meetings on a frequency to be agreed to by the Parties • Development of the IREC conference programme in collaboration with the host country • Facilitation of the production of the IREC Conference Declaration and outcomes • Promoting IREC on a global level through the REN21 network and its associated events These multi-stakeholder events act as a common platform for government , private sector and civil society leaders to jointly address the goal of advancing renewable energy and have provided the impulse for several momentous initiatives over the past decade . IREC have served as motor in the respective host country ( 2004 : Germany ; 2005 : China ; 2008 : USA ; 2010 : India ; 2013 : United Arab Emirates ; 2015 : South Africa ) . The REN21 secretariat is based at UNEP ( United Nations Environment Programme ) in Paris , France and is a registered non-profit association under German law ( e.V. ) . When established in Paris in 2006 , Paul Hugo Suding , was the first Head of Secretariat . Since formalization Christine Lins is Executive Secretary .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "REN21", "rank": 65, "score": 103766 }, { "content": "Title: Green Power Partnership Content: The United States Environmental Protection Agency 's Green Power Partnership is a voluntary program that supports the organizational procurement of green power by offering expert advice , technical support , tools and resources . The EPA defines ` green power ' as a subset of renewable energy and `` represents those renewable energy resources and technologies that provide the highest environmental benefit '' , with electricity produced from solar , wind , geothermal , biogas , biomass , and low-impact small hydroelectric sources listed as types of green power .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Green_Power_Partnership", "rank": 66, "score": 103740 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable resource Content: A renewable resource is a natural resource which replenishes to overcome resource depletion caused by usage and consumption , either through biological reproduction or other naturally recurring processes in a finite amount of time in a human time scale . Renewable resources are a part of Earth 's natural environment and the largest components of its ecosphere . A positive life cycle assessment is a key indicator of a resource 's sustainability . Definitions of renewable resources may also include agricultural production , as in sustainable agriculture and to an extent water resources . In 1962 Paul Alfred Weiss defined Renewable Resources as : `` The total range of living organisms providing man with food , fibres , drugs , etc. . . '' . Another type of renewable resources is renewable energy resources . Common sources of renewable energy include solar , geothermal and wind power , which are all categorised as renewable resources .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_resource", "rank": 67, "score": 103646 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership Content: The Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership ( REEEP ) is a Vienna-based international organisation ( link in German ) that advances markets for renewable energy and energy efficiency with a particular emphasis on the emerging markets and developing countries . Its primary focus is in de-risking and scaling up clean energy business models . REEEP was originally launched by the government of the United Kingdom , along with other partners , at the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development ( WSSD ) in August 2002 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_Energy_and_Energy_Efficiency_Partnership", "rank": 68, "score": 103619 }, { "content": "Title: Ladakh Renewable Energy Development Agency Content: Ladakh Renewable Energy Development Agency ( LREDA ) is a renewable energy initiative in Ladakh , a mountainous region of India in the state of Jammu and Kashmir . It has been called `` the largest off-grid renewable energy project in the world . '' The Himalayan mountains make it difficult to connect the Ladakh region to the main national grid . Historically most electricity was created using diesel generators . However , Ladakh has been called the `` roof of the world '' with abundant sunlight and clear air making it unusually suitable for solar energy technologies . LREDA was founded in 2000 by the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council that `` studied and advised the local government to harness solar energy in the mountainous region . '' In 2012 , Jigmet Takpa , director of LREDA said , `` Diesel is highly polluting and its cost is extremely high . In the next five years , the whole of Ladakh will be electrified by hydro , solar or geothermal generated renewable power . '' LREDA has a number of initiatives including the Ladakh Renewable Energy Initiative Project ( LREI ) , an off-grid renewable energy development program establish in 2011 , which sought to install over the next three years : `` 11 micro-hydro projects with a total capacity of 11.2 MW , 125 solar-photovoltaic power plants of varying capacities , solar water heaters for 40 % of the building in Leh , 3000 solar greenhouses , 4500 solar cookers , solar driers , solar passive housing projects and ground based heat pumping for space heating . '' In 2013 , LREDA was awarded the Renewtech India Excellence Award . LREDA also conferred with UNDP GEF 's Award 2013 , securing first position in capacity addition of solar water heating systems during the year 2013 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Ladakh_Renewable_Energy_Development_Agency", "rank": 69, "score": 103604 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental and Energy Study Institute Content: The Environmental and Energy Study Institute ( EESI ) is an independent , bi-partisan 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization that aims to promote environmentally sustainable societies . Based out of Washington , DC , EESI seeks to be a catalyst moving society away from environmentally damaging fossil fuels and toward a clean energy future . The organization was established in 1984 by a bipartisan and bicameral group of members of the United States Congress who were concerned with global environmental and energy problems . EESI works to advance policy solutions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions and ground-level air pollution ; improve public health , energy security , and economic development opportunities ; and increase use of renewable energy and energy efficiency . The group seeks to advance its mission through policymaker education , coalition building , and policy development .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Environmental_and_Energy_Study_Institute", "rank": 70, "score": 103347 }, { "content": "Title: The Solutions Project Content: The Solutions Project is an organization first conceived in 2011 by prominent figures in science , business and the entertainment media with the goal of utilizing the combined efforts of individuals in the fields of science , business and culture to accelerate the transition to 100 % renewable energy use in the United States . Based on the results of academic research , the organization maintains that America is capable of meeting its entire energy needs through renewable energy sources , and that this goal can be achieved by the year 2050 . ( The organization defines renewable energy as solar power , wind power , hydroelectric power , geothermal energy and wave/tidal power . ) Furthermore , the organization claims that the solutions that will be needed to achieve this goal are primarily social and political , not technical , in nature , as most of the technology necessary to bring about the transition already exists . The organization has proposed what it calls the `` 50 States 50 Plans '' initiative . These are plans developed for each of the 50 United States specifying the precise mix of renewable energy types that , given factors such as geography and climate , would allow that particular state to receive all of its energy from renewable sources by 2050 . The organization claims that , beyond the issue of environmental sustainability , a number of significant benefits to society would come about if the initiative were adopted , including consumer energy cost savings , health cost savings and millions of long-term ( 40 years or more ) jobs . Founders of The Solutions Project include Stanford University professor Mark Z. Jacobson , renewable energy executive Marco Krapels , documentary filmmaker and activist Josh Fox and Hollywood actor and activist Mark Ruffalo .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "The_Solutions_Project", "rank": 71, "score": 103203 }, { "content": "Title: Sunlabob Content: Sunlabob Renewable Energy is a Lao commercial company that provides sustainable renewable solutions to areas that are off the electrical grid . It was licensed in 2001 and its headquarters and base are in Vientiane , the capital of the Lao People 's Democratic Republic . The company operates as a profitable , full-service renewable energy provider selling hardware and providing commercially viable energy services . Besides Laos , Sunlabob also has operations in other parts of the world . In January 2008 , Sunlabob extended its activities to the Kingdom of Thailand through their franchise partner Samui Service Solarpower Ltd. . While the focus in the Lao PDR is more on rural electrification , the market in Thailand is more focused on promoting solar water heating and energy efficiency consulting , both for homes and businesses . In May 2009 after being approached by United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) , Afghanistan Small and Medium Enterprise Development ( ASMED ) , and ( Development Alternatives , Inc. ) DAI , Sunlabob carried out an assessment of the feasibility of the solar lamp project in Afghanistan , taking into account the local human , social and technical constraints . One of the aims was to evaluate whether the Sunlabob approach to financing and establishing franchised SME energy service hubs in small remote villages could be replicated in Afghanistan . In April 2009 , Sunlabob embarked on its first development in Africa . Together with its Ugandan franchise partner , TSSD , Sunlabob visited Ssazi village in Northern Uganda and introduced its Solar Lantern Programme . Sunlabob has partnered with private , public and non-governmental organizations such as engineering company Comin Khmere , the Laos Ministry of Energy and Mines , Electricite du Laos and Engineers Without Borders . It is the winner of the 2008 UNEP Sasakawa Prize and the European Parliament 's 2007 , 2008 and 2009 National Energy Globe Award . Sunlabob is located in Vientiane . In 2007 Sunlabob won an Ashden Award for their work with solar powered lighting . In 2010 , Sunlabob established Sunlabob International Pte Ltd and broadened its international presence in Singapore , principally to enhance marketing and business development operations . In 2012 , Sunlabob won a Best Practice in CSR Award at the World CSR Day held in India . List of awards/prizes : 2012 : Best practice in CSR Award 2010 : Winner Cleantech National Competition in Singapore 2010 : Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship Winner ( Asia Region ) 2009 : National Energy Globe Award 2009 : Asia Forum for Clean Energy Financing Finalist 2008 : UNEP Sasakawa Prize 2008 : Lighting Africa 2008 : National Energy Globe Award 2008 : Tech Awards Laureate 2007 : Ashden Award 2007 : National Energy Globe Award 2006 : World Challenge Finalist 2005 : Development Marketplace ( World Bank ) 2005 : DGS Solar Prize", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Sunlabob", "rank": 72, "score": 103188 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy sculpture Content: A renewable energy sculpture is a sculpture that produces power from renewable sources , such as solar , wind , geothermal , hydroelectric or tidal . Such a sculpture is functionally both a renewable energy generator and an artwork , fulfilling utilitarian , aesthetic , and cultural functions . The idea of renewable energy sculptures has been pioneered by ecofuturist visionaries such as artists Patrice Stellest , Sarah Hall , Julian H. Scaff , Patrick Marold , architects Laurie Chetwood and Nicholas Grimshaw , University of Illinois professor Bil Becket , and collaborations such as the Land Art Generator Initiative . Echoing the philosophy of the environmental art movement as a whole , artists creating renewable energy sculpture believe that the aesthetics of the artworks are inextricably linked to their ecological function .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_sculpture", "rank": 73, "score": 102969 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable Power Direct Content: Renewable Power Direct , LLC ( RPD ) is a supplier of directly sourced renewable electricity to large commercial and industrial customers . RPD was founded in 2014 and is authorized by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission to act as a wholesale power marketer . Renewable Power Direct has offices in Washington , DC and Houston , Texas , and is currently led by CEO , Eric Alam . RPD 's publicly reported customers include Intuit Inc. . and Iron Mountain Incorporated . The company 's innovative approach to sourcing green power for corporate customers has been profiled by Triple Pundit and GreenBiz . Renewable Power Direct is a founding member of the Business Renewables Center ( BRC ) , a member-based platform that streamlines and accelerates corporate purchasing of off-site , large-scale wind and solar energy . The BRC was organized by the Rocky Mountain Institute and publicly launched in February 2015 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_Power_Direct", "rank": 74, "score": 102949 }, { "content": "Title: RenewableUK Content: RenewableUK , formerly known as the ` British Wind Energy Association ' ( BWEA ) , is the trade association for wind power , wave power and tidal power industries in the United Kingdom . RenewableUK has over 660 corporate members , from wind , wave and tidal stream power generation and associated industries . The association carries out research , and co-ordinates statistics and intelligence on marine and wind power in the UK and its waters . It also represents its members internationally , and to Government , regional bodies and local authorities in the UK .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "RenewableUK", "rank": 75, "score": 102721 }, { "content": "Title: International Renewable Energy Agency Content: The International Renewable Energy Agency ( IRENA ) is an intergovernmental organization to promote adoption and sustainable use of renewable energy . It was founded in 2009 and its statute entered into force on 8 July 2010 . The agency is headquartered in Abu Dhabi . The Director-General of IRENA is Adnan Amin , a national of Kenya . IRENA is an official United Nations observer .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "International_Renewable_Energy_Agency", "rank": 76, "score": 102657 }, { "content": "Title: SolarFest Content: The SolarFest Renewable Energy music festival began in Vermont in 1995 . The stated goals of the nonprofit Solarfest organization are to inspire the conservation of Earth 's limited resources , to promote renewable energy , and to support the creation of sustainable communities . Solar Energy is the sun 's rays ( solar radiation ) that reach the earth . This energy can be converted into other forms of energy , such as heat and electricity . In the 1830s , the British astronomer John Herschel used a solar thermal collector box ( a device that absorbs sunlight to collect heat ) to cook food during an expedition to Africa . Today , Solar energy can be converted to thermal ( or heat ) energy and used to : Heat water -- for use in homes , buildings , or swimming pools . Solar energy can also be used to heat spaces such has homes , buildings or arenas as is seen by SolarFest . The festival spans 3 days and runs on renewable energy -- primarily solar power , but with wind and biodiesel also incorporated . The New England Renewable Energy Festival has been coined ' a party with a purpose ' . For an entire weekend , the 80 - acre Forget-Me-Not Farm in Tinmouth , owned by Marshall and Melody Squier , becomes an outdoor campus ; a place to be entertained , educated and inspired .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "SolarFest", "rank": 77, "score": 102553 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Italy Content: Renewable energy has developed rapidly in Italy over the past decade and provided the country a means of diversifying from its historical dependency on imported fuels . Solar energy production alone accounted for around 8 % of the total electric production in the country in 2014 , making Italy the country with the highest contribution from solar energy in the world . Rapid growth in the deployment of solar , wind and bio energy in recent years lead to Italy producing over 40 % of its electricity from renewable sources in 2014 . The share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption ( all energy uses ) had risen to 17.1 % in 2014 . This number has been growing steadily and today accounts for one of the principal components of national energy consumption . In 2014 , 38.2 % of the national electric energy consumption came from renewable sources ( in 2005 this value was 15.4 % ) , covering 16 % of the total energy consumption of the country ( 5.3 % in 2005 ) . The corresponding figure for electricity generation was even higher as consumption figures are reduced by electricity imports ( 13.6 % of the total in 2014 . Imported electricity may also contain a high proportion of electricity generated from renewable sources but these are not accounted for in consumption figures . All 8,047 Italian municipalities ( comune ) have deployed some source of renewable energy , with hydroelectric power being the leading renewable energy source in terms of production . Bio energy , wind power and geothermal power also make an important contribution to national energy demands . By 2013 , renewable energy primary consumption in Italy had grown to 14.6 Mtoe ( Million tonnes of oil equivalent ) . Italy has implemented generous incentive schemes to encourage the development of renewable energy production . Its largest scheme incentivised solar PV production and lead Italy from a low base of installed PV in 2010 to become the world 's fourth largest country by installations by the end of 2014 , ahead of the USA at that time . All sources of renewable energy have grown in Italy during recent years and many continue to receive incentives .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Italy", "rank": 78, "score": 102449 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical study of energy data Content: Energy statistics refers to collecting , compiling , analyzing and disseminating data on commodities such as coal , crude oil , natural gas , electricity , or renewable energy sources ( biomass , geothermal , wind or solar energy ) , when they are used for the energy they contain . Energy is the capability of some substances , resulting from their physico-chemical properties , to do work or produce heat . Some energy commodities , called fuels , release their energy content as heat when they burn . This heat could be used to run an internal or external combustion engine . The need to have statistics on energy commodities became obvious during the 1973 oil crisis that brought tenfold increase in petroleum prices . Before the crisis , to have accurate data on global energy supply and demand was not deemed critical . Another concern of energy statistics today is a huge gap in energy use between developed and developing countries . As the gap narrows ( see picture ) , the pressure on energy supply increases tremendously . The data on energy and electricity come from three principal sources : Energy industry Other industries ( `` self-producers '' ) Consumers The flows of and trade in energy commodities are measured both in physical units ( e.g. , metric tons ) , and , when energy balances are calculated , in energy units ( e.g. , terajoules or tons of oil equivalent ) . What makes energy statistics specific and different from other fields of economic statistics is the fact that energy commodities undergo greater number of transformations ( flows ) than other commodities . In these transformations energy is conserved , as defined by and within the limitations of the first and second laws of thermodynamics .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Statistical_study_of_energy_data", "rank": 79, "score": 102399 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Albania Content: Renewable energy in Albania ranges from biomass , geothermal , hydropower , solar , wind energy in Albania . Albania relies mostly on hydroelectric resources , therefore , it has difficulties when water levels are low . Albania has a great potential for solar , wind , and geothermal energy . The climate in Albania is Mediterranean so it possesses considerable potential for solar energy . Similarly , the mountain elevations provide good areas for wind projects . There is also potential for geothermal energy because Albania has natural wells .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Albania", "rank": 80, "score": 102368 }, { "content": "Title: Global Energy Network Institute Content: The Global Energy Network Institute ( GENI ) is a research and education organization founded by Peter Meisen in 1986 and registered as a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization in 1991 . GENI 's focus is on the interconnection of electric power transmission networks between nations and continents , emphasizing tapping abundant renewable energy resources , and utilizing the efficiencies of seasonal , time of day , and load differences around the world .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Global_Energy_Network_Institute", "rank": 81, "score": 102054 }, { "content": "Title: Skybuilt Power Content: Skybuilt Power , a company based in Arlington , Virginia , has received some press attention for the use of its products by the US Department of Defense and CIA . The company designs portable power stations and devices that can be used in harsh environments to provide efficient renewable energy . Its products draw upon a combination of solar and wind power , fuel cells , batteries and diesel generators to portably generate energy . The company claims its products can save up to 95 % on fuel costs in the field . The company 's main products include : the SkyStation , a complete power station that can be set up in rugged climates the SkySkid , which can be transported easily via helicopter or forklift the SkyTrailer , which directly provides energy to military grade trailers the SkyCase and SkyPAKs , which are man-portable renewable energy generators In-Q-Tel , a CIA-funded venture capital fund , is an investor in the company . Because many war casualties are due to attacks on fuel convoys and a strategic shift toward greater operational energy-efficiency , the US Department of Defense has increasingly begun use these types of technologies .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Skybuilt_Power", "rank": 82, "score": 102005 }, { "content": "Title: Hydroelectric power in the United States Content: Hydroelectric power stations in the United States are currently the largest renewable source of energy , but the second for capacity ( behind Wind power in the United States ) . Hydroelectric power produced 35 % of the total renewable electricity in the U.S. in 2015 , and 6.1 % of the total U.S. electricity . According to IEA the United States was the 4th largest producer of hydroelectric power in the world in 2008 after China , Canada and Brazil . Produced hydroelectricity was 282 TWh ( 2008 ) . It was 8.6 % of the world 's total hydropower . The installed capacity was 100 GW in 2007 . The amount of hydroelectric power generated is strongly affected by changes in precipitation and surface runoff . Hydroelectric stations exist in at least 34 US states . The largest concentration of hydroelectric generation in the US is in the Columbia River basin , which in 2012 was the source of 44 % of the nation 's hydroelectricity . Hydroelectricity projects such as Hoover Dam , Grand Coulee Dam , and the Tennessee Valley Authority have become iconic large construction projects . Of note , however , is that California does not consider power generated from large hydroelectric facilities ( facilities greater than 30 megawatts ) to meet its strictest definition of `` renewable '' , due to concerns over the environmental impact of large hydroelectric projects . As such , electricity generated from large hydroelectric facilities does not count toward California 's strict Renewable Portfolio Standards . Roughly about 10 to 15 percent of California 's energy generation is from large hydroelectric generation that is not RPS-eligible .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Hydroelectric_power_in_the_United_States", "rank": 83, "score": 101778 }, { "content": "Title: Green certificate Content: A Green Certificate - terminology predominantly used in Europe but now becoming more widespread globally - are a tradable commodity proving that certain electricity is generated using renewable energy sources . Typically one certificate represents generation of 1 Megawatthour of electricity . What is defined as `` renewable '' varies from certificate trading scheme to trading scheme . Usually , at least the following sources are considered as renewable : Wind ( often further divided into onshore and offshore ) Solar ( often further divided into photovoltaic and thermal ) Wave ( often further divided into onshore and offshore ) and tidal ( often further divided into onshore and offshore ) Geothermal Hydro ( often further divided into small - microhydro - and large ) Biomass ( mainly biofuels , often further divided by actual fuel used ) . Green certificates represent the environmental value of renewable energy generated . The certificates can be traded separately from the energy produced . Several countries use green certificates as a mean to make the support of green electricity generation closer to a market economy instead of more bureaucratic investment support and feed-in tariffs . Such national trading schemes are in use in e.g. Poland , Sweden , the UK , Italy , Belgium ( Wallonia and Flanders ) , and some US states . Once in the grid , renewable energy is impossible to separate from the conventionally generated energy . This makes purchasing of a green certificate equal to purchasing a claim , that the certificate owner consumed energy from the renewable portion of the whole energy in the grid . Therefore certificate purchase does not affect how much renewable energy was actually generated - only how it was distributed . In contrast to CO2e-Reduction certificates , e.g. AAU 's or CER 's under the UNFCC , which can be exchanged worldwide , Green Certificates can not be exchanged/traded between e.g. Belgium and Italy , let alone the USA and the EU member States .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Green_certificate", "rank": 84, "score": 101756 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy Content: The Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy is a free and rapid publishing peer-reviewed , online-only , open access , scientific journal published by the American Institute of Physics covering all areas of renewable and sustainable energy-related fields that apply to the physical science and engineering communities . Online submissions are posted daily and organized into bimonthly issues . The journal was established in 2009 . The Co-Editors-in-Chief are P. Craig Taylor ( Colorado School of Mines ) and John A. Turner ( National Renewable Energy Laboratory ) .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Journal_of_Renewable_and_Sustainable_Energy", "rank": 85, "score": 101572 }, { "content": "Title: Wind power in Asia Content: Wind power in Asia is an important component in the Asian energy industry and one of the key sources of renewable energy in the region . As of April 2016 , the installed capacity of wind power in Asia ( excluding the Middle East ) totalled 175,831 MW . Asia is the fastest growing region in terms of wind energy , having increased its installed capacity by 33,858 MW in 2005 ( a 24 % increase over 2014 ) . China , with 145,362 MW of installed capacity , is the world 's largest generator of electricity from wind energy . India is the second largest in Asia with an installed capacity of 25,088 MW . Other key countries include Japan ( 1,394 MW ) , Taiwan ( 188 MW ) , South Korea ( 173 MW ) and the Philippines ( 33 MW ) .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Wind_power_in_Asia", "rank": 86, "score": 101525 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Seychelles Content: Renewable energy in Seychelles is a recent development in providing power to the country . Electricity for the island nation of Seychelles is primarily produced by diesel generators which must import their fuel ( 69 MW on Mahe and 12 MW on Praslin ) . Energy policy calls for 15 % renewables by 2030 . In June 2013 , the first wind farm in Seychelles was officially inaugurated . This 6 MW power plant can produce up to 2 % of the Seychelles ' power and is located on Mahé Island . It is expected that the wind farm will replace 1.6 million litres of diesel fuel . The wind farm is expected to generate 7GHw of electricity and the islands consume 350GHw of electricity per year . The project was developed by Masdar of Abu Dhabi . Unison of S. Korea manufactured and installed the wind farm , with a 2-year maintenance contract upon commissioning . Electricity production is expected to be highly seasonal with the majority of energy produced in the months of June to September when wind strength and wind probability are highest on the island of Mahe . Project Development The wind farm project was fully funded by the Abu Dhabi government through a $ 28Million grant to the Seychelles . The Abu Dhabi government appointed Masdar as project manager . The wind farm was originally envisaged to be commissioned by November 2012 however this suffered several delays . The commissioning date was moved to February 2013 but just three of the eight turbines were commissioned by this date . The farm was finally fully commissioned 8 months later than first planned in June 2013 . The wind farm operator , the state owned Public Utilities Corporation ( PUC ) , confirmed on 25 July 2013 that one of the turbines was out of operation due to an overheating transformer . This followed weeks of speculation on local social media networks that one of the turbines was not in operation . The PUC also confirmed that the farm had produced 2.4 GHw of electricity during 2013 up to 25 July 2013 , approximately halfway through the windy season . Energy production from the wind farm is therefore expected to be below expectations in 2013 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Seychelles", "rank": 87, "score": 101509 }, { "content": "Title: Hybrid renewable energy system Content: Hybrid renewable energy systems ( HRES ) are becoming popular as stand-alone power systems for providing electricity in remote areas due to advances in renewable energy technologies and subsequent rise in prices of petroleum products . A hybrid energy system , or hybrid power , usually consists of two or more renewable energy sources used together to provide increased system efficiency as well as greater balance in energy supply .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Hybrid_renewable_energy_system", "rank": 88, "score": 101506 }, { "content": "Title: China Village Electrification Program Content: The China Village Electrification Program ( Song Dian Dao Cun ) is a scheme to provide renewable electricity to 3.5 million households in 10,000 villages by 2010 . This is to be followed by full rural electrification using renewable energy by 2015 . The total program is expected to cost in the region of US$ 5 billion , and solar generated electricity is expected to play a major role . China produces around 20 % of the world 's total solar cells , and production is growing at over 50 % each year . small hydro and wind power are also likely to be employed . The Program follows on from the smaller China Township Electrification Program which ended in 2005 . China is committed to generating 10 % of its electricity from renewables by 2010 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "China_Village_Electrification_Program", "rank": 89, "score": 101479 }, { "content": "Title: Energiewende in Germany Content: The Energiewende ( German for energy transition ) is the transition by Germany to a low carbon , environmentally sound , reliable , and affordable energy supply . The new system will rely heavily on renewable energy ( particularly wind , photovoltaics , and hydroelectricity ) , energy efficiency , and energy demand management . Most if not all existing coal-fired generation will need to be retired . The phase-out of Germany 's fleet of nuclear reactors , to be complete by 2022 , is a key part of the program . Legislative support for the Energiewende was passed in late 2010 and includes greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reductions of 80 -- 95 % by 2050 ( relative to 1990 ) and a renewable energy target of 60 % by 2050 . These targets are ambitious . The Berlin-based policy institute Agora Energiewende noted that `` while the German approach is not unique worldwide , the speed and scope of the Energiewende are exceptional '' . The Energiewende also seeks a greater transparency in relation to national energy policy formation . Germany has made significant progress on its GHG emissions reduction target , achieving a 27 % decrease between 1990 and 2014 . However Germany will need to maintain an average GHG emissions abatement rate of 3.5 % per annum to reach its Energiewende goal , equal to the maximum historical value thus far . Germany spends $ 1.5 billion per annum on energy research ( 2013 figure ) in an effort to solve the technical and social issues raised by the transition . This includes a number of computer studies that have confirmed the feasibility and a similar cost ( relative to business-as-usual and given that carbon is adequately priced ) of the Energiewende . The term Energiewende is regularly used in English language publications without being translated ( a loanword ) .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Energiewende_in_Germany", "rank": 90, "score": 101438 }, { "content": "Title: Mainstream Renewable Power Content: Mainstream Renewable Power Ltd. is a privately held renewable energy development company founded in 2008 by Eddie O'Connor and former Airtricity staff following the sale of Airtricity to E.ON and Scottish and Southern Energy . The company 's head office is located in Dublin , Ireland , with additional offices located in regions of substantial development interests : Berlin , Chicago , Cape Town , London , Santiago , and Calgary . Mainstream is committed to global partnerships and have partnered with Actis , a global pan-emerging market private equity firm to create Aela Energia in the Chilean market and Lekela Power in sub-Saharan Africa . Both companies will be used as platforms to deliver renewable energy projects throughout Chile and Africa respectively . Mainstream have helped deliver over 2,500 MW of significant infrastructure projects around the world . Power hungry companies such as IKEA have also bought into Mainstream 's wind projects .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Mainstream_Renewable_Power", "rank": 91, "score": 101424 }, { "content": "Title: Energy development Content: Energy development is the field of activities focused on obtaining sources of energy from natural resources . These activities include production of conventional , alternative and renewable sources of energy , and for the recovery and reuse of energy that would otherwise be wasted . Energy conservation and efficiency measures reduce the demand for energy development , and can have benefits to society with improvements to environmental issues . Societies use energy for transportation , manufacturing , illumination , heating and air conditioning , and communication , for industrial , commercial , and domestic purposes . Energy resources may be classified as primary resources , where the resource can be used in substantially its original form , or as secondary resources , where the energy source must be converted into a more conveniently usable form . Non-renewable resources are significantly depleted by human use , whereas renewable resources are produced by ongoing processes that can sustain indefinite human exploitation . Thousands of people are employed in the energy industry . The conventional industry comprises the petroleum industry , the natural gas industry , the electrical power industry , and the nuclear industry . New energy industries include the renewable energy industry , comprising alternative and sustainable manufacture , distribution , and sale of alternative fuels .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Energy_development", "rank": 92, "score": 101421 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Chile Content: Renewable energy in Chile is a fast growing sector that in 2014 provided 9 % of the country 's electricity . Chile has vast geothermal , solar and wind energy resources while fossil fuel resources are limited . It has a legislated renewable energy target of 20 % by 2025 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Chile", "rank": 93, "score": 101249 }, { "content": "Title: Alternative Energy: Political, Economic, and Social Feasibility Content: Alternative Energy : Political , Economic , and Social Feasibility ( Lanham , Maryland : Rowman & Littlefield , 2006 . ) , a 2006 book by Christopher A. Simon , discusses the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy . The book has been called a `` sophisticated , insightful , and well written book on the current global push to adopt varying forms of alternative energy , from wind to solar , geothermal , hydrogen , and beyond '' . In 2008 , Christopher Simon , associate professor of political science at the University of Nevada , Reno , was named the `` Technology Educator of the Year '' by Nevada 's Center for Entrepreneurship and Technology .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Alternative_Energy:_Political,_Economic,_and_Social_Feasibility", "rank": 94, "score": 101128 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Turbine Plants Content: A solar turbine power plant uses the energy in solar radiation captured by so-called solar collectors . Solar power is a renewable source of energy . The solar radiant energy reaching the earth 's surface is around 1.783 * 1014 KJ or 1.353 kJ/s per square meter . Solar power plants , such as the Blythe Solar Power Project , operate mainly on closed power cycles : Rankine cycles ( for low temperature ranges ) and Brayton cycles ( for high temperature ranges ) . Solar plants provide energy ranging from a few kilowatts to a few megawatts . The constraints associated with solar plants are size , space , high capital cost , and the inevitable fluctuations in the daily supply of solar radiant energy .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Solar_Turbine_Plants", "rank": 95, "score": 101003 }, { "content": "Title: EU Directive on Electricity Production from Renewable Energy Sources 2001/77/EC Content: The Directive on Electricity Production from Renewable Energy Sources 2001/77/EC is a European Union Directive for promoting renewable energy use in electricity generation . It is popularly known as the RES Directive . The directive , which took effect in October 2001 , sets national indicative targets for renewable energy production from individual member states . As the name implies , the EU does not strictly enforce these targets . However , The European Commission monitors the progress of the member states of the European Union -- and will , if necessary , propose mandatory targets for those who miss their goals . These objectives contribute toward achieving the overall indicative EU targets , which are listed in the white paper on renewable sources of energy . Regulators want a 12 % share of gross renewable domestic energy consumption by 2010 and a 20 % share by 2020 . The directive was superseded by Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC , published on 23April 2009 .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "EU_Directive_on_Electricity_Production_from_Renewable_Energy_Sources_2001/77/EC", "rank": 96, "score": 100997 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal power Content: Geothermal power is power generated by geothermal energy . Technologies in use include dry steam power stations , flash steam power stations and binary cycle power stations . Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 24 countries , while geothermal heating is in use in 70 countries . As of 2015 , worldwide geothermal power capacity amounts to 12.8 gigawatts ( GW ) , of which 28 percent or 3,548 megawatts are installed in the United States . International markets grew at an average annual rate of 5 percent over the last three years and global geothermal power capacity is expected to reach 14.5 -- 17.6 GW by 2020 . Based on current geologic knowledge and technology , the Geothermal Energy Association ( GEA ) estimates that only 6.5 percent of total global potential has been tapped so far , while the IPCC reported geothermal power potential to be in the range of 35 GW to 2 TW . Countries generating more than 15 percent of their electricity from geothermal sources include El Salvador , Kenya , the Philippines , Iceland and Costa Rica . Geothermal power is considered to be a sustainable , renewable source of energy because the heat extraction is small compared with the Earth 's heat content . The greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal electric stations are on average 45 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of electricity , or less than 5 percent of that of conventional coal-fired plants .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Geothermal_power", "rank": 97, "score": 100877 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Spain Content: Electricity from renewable sources in Spain represented 42.8 % of electricity demand coverage during 2014 . The country has a very large wind power capability built up over many years and is one of the world leaders in wind power generation . Initially Spain also positioned itself as a European leader in Solar power , by 2007-2010 the country was second only to Germany in installed capacity , however other countries ( Italy in particular ) have since leapfrogged Spanish development . By 2015 solar power in Spain though significant produced less than a third of that of wind power in 2015 . Spain has set the target of generating 20 % of all its energy needs from renewable energy sources by 2020 and an additional 0.8 % may be available for other EU countries under the cooperation mechanism bringing the total to 20.8 % . By the end of 2014 Spain had reached a level of 16.2 % of all its energy needs from renewable energy sources . The story of renewable energy development in Spain is both a mixed and unfinished one . Under previous subsidies the country expanded its renewable base rapidly and helped establish a domestic industry in both wind turbine and solar energy . However , support was drastically cut back following the global financial crisis and new installations stagnated between 2012 and 2015 . The debts incurred during the boom period have led to tougher and retrospective revisions of contracts to providers of renewable energy reducing returns considerably . In being one of the first-to-market countries , Spain faces the challenge of powerful competitors from countries such as Denmark , Germany and China and ironically a cheaper and more mature renewable energy sector which Spain itself helped to pioneer . In 2015 solar power suddenly demonstrated a possible way through the impasse . The continued fall in prices for solar systems and Spain 's abundant sunshine led to prices for solar power reaching grid price parity . Suddenly there was the potential for sustained and spontaneous growth in solar installations in Spain as households and producers could produce power more economically . However the Spanish government introduced what has been dubbed the world 's first `` sun tax '' on solar installations making them economically less viable as well as draconian fines ( up to 60 million Euros ) for anyone not complying with the tax . The tax has proved highly controversial . On the one hand the government has argued that those generating their own power still rely on the national grid for power backup and so should be liable for contributing to the cost . On the other hand , the solar industry has argued that the government is simply trying to protect the centralised established power producers whose revenues would be threatened by this competitive solar threat . Environmentalists have criticised the tax for artificially blocking Spain from continuing its long standing movement to renewable energy production . Whatever the merits of both arguments , the controversy can only become more heightened as the price of solar energy continues to fall and if PV solar power installed capacity in Spain were to continue sliding down the EU league from 12th position in 2014 ( 102.9 kW per 1000 inhabitants ) . In the same year in terms of wind energy production Spain was much stronger in 3rd position ( 495 kW per 1000 inhabitants ) .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Spain", "rank": 98, "score": 100777 }, { "content": "Title: Desertec Content: DESERTEC was a large scale project supported by a foundation of the same name and the consortium Dii ( Desertec industrial initiative ) created in Germany as a limited liability company ( GmbH ) . The project aimed at creating a global renewable energy plan based on the concept of harnessing sustainable power from sites where renewable sources of energy are more abundant and transferring it through high-voltage direct current transmission to consumption centers . All kinds of renewable energy sources are envisioned , but the sun-rich deserts of the world play a special role . There are some parallels between Desertec and the Atlantropa project plan in the 1920s . Atlantropa aimed to integrate Europe and Northern Africa and its electricity grid based on a giant hydro power station at Gibraltar . The industry platform Dii is continuing to pave the way for renewables and grid integration on a very pragmatic basis .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Desertec", "rank": 99, "score": 100653 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Honduras Content: In Honduras , there is an important potential of untapped indigenous renewable energy resources . Due to the variability of high oil prices and declining renewable infrastructure costs , such resources could be developed at competitive prices . Currently hydropower , solar and biomass are used on a large scale for electricity generation . While the potential of large generation from hydropower and geothermal energy has been studied in detail , the potential for the development of other renewable energy resources is yet to be explored in depth .", "qid": "2881", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Honduras", "rank": 100, "score": 100651 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Kevin_E._Trenberth", "rank": 1, "score": 176950 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change and Global Energy Security Content: Climate Change and Global Energy Security : Technology and Policy Options is a 2011 book by Marilyn A. Brown and Benjamin K. Sovacool . In this book , Brown and Sovacool offer detailed assessments of commercially available technologies for strengthening global energy security and climate change mitigation . They also evaluate the barriers to the deployment of these technologies and critically review public policy options for their commercialization . Arguing that society has all the technologies necessary for the task , the authors discuss an array of options available today , including high-efficiency transportation , renewable energy , carbon sequestration , and demand side management .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Climate_Change_and_Global_Energy_Security", "rank": 2, "score": 118380 }, { "content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)", "rank": 3, "score": 114713 }, { "content": "Title: Women in climate change Content: The contributions of women in climate change have received increasing attention in the early 21st century . Feedback from women and the issues faced by women have been described as `` imperative '' by the United Nations and `` critical '' by the Population Reference Bureau . A report by the World Health Organization concluded that incorporating gender-based analysis would `` provide more effective climate change mitigation . ''", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Women_in_climate_change", "rank": 4, "score": 111659 }, { "content": "Title: Global Change Research Act of 1990 Content: The Global Change Research Act 1990 is a United States law requiring research into global warming and related issues . It requires a report to Congress every four years on the environmental , economic , health and safety consequences of climate change . According to a summary by the Congressional Research Service , the Act : `` Directs the President , through the Federal Coordinating Council on Science , Engineering , and Technology ( Council ) , to establish the Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences to carry out Council functions under specified provisions of the National Science and Technology Policy , Organization , and Priorities Act of 1976 relating to global change research , to increase the effectiveness and productivity of Federal global change research efforts . Directs the President to establish an interagency United States Global Change Research Program to improve understanding of global change . Requires the Chairman of the Council , through the Committee , to develop a National Global Change Research Plan for implementation of the Program . Sets forth required Plan contents and research elements , including that the Plan provide recommendations for collaboration within the Federal Government and among nations . Requires the Chairman to enter into an agreement with the National Research Council to : ( 1 ) evaluate the scientific content of the Plan ; and ( 2 ) provide information and advice and recommended priorities for future global change research . Requires the Committee to provide general guidance each year to each Federal agency or department participating in the Program with respect to preparation of requests for appropriations related to the Program . Requires the Council , at least every four years , through the Committee , to submit to the President and the Congress an assessment regarding the findings of the Program and associated uncertainties , the effects of global change , and current and major long-term trends in global change . Requires that the research findings of the Committee and of Federal agencies and departments be made available to the Environmental Protection Agency and all Federal agencies and departments . Title II : International Cooperation in Global Change Research - International Cooperation in Global Change Research Act of 1990 - Declares that the President should direct the Secretary of State to initiate discussions with other nations on : ( 1 ) international agreements to coordinate global change research ; and ( 2 ) an international research protocol for cooperation on the development of energy technologies which have minimally adverse effects on the environment . Directs the President to establish an Office of Global Change Research Information to disseminate to foreign governments and their citizens , businesses , and institutions scientific research useful in preventing , mitigating , or adapting to the effects of global change . Title III : Growth Decision Aid - Directs the Secretary of Commerce to : ( 1 ) conduct a study on the implications of growth and development on urban , suburban , and rural communities ; and ( 2 ) based on the study , produce a decision aid to assist State and local authorities in planning and managing growth and development while preserving community character . '' Following the publication of the first National Climate Assessment Report there were accusations that information was being suppressed , leading to complacency around public works , such as New Orleans flood defences . Greenpeace , the Center for Biological Diversity and Friends of the Earth challenged the delay in federal district court on August 21 , 2007 . A judge ruled that an updated national assessment must be produced by May 31 , 2008 .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Global_Change_Research_Act_of_1990", "rank": 5, "score": 110682 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Report Content: World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels , was produced by the Greening Earth Society , a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association . Early editions were paper based ; it was then transferred to a web-only format , having ceased publication as a physically based report with Volume 8 in 2002 . It continues to exist in blog form at www.worldclimatereport.com , although the website itself has not been updated since late 2012 . World Climate Report presents a scientific skeptical view of populist anthropogenic-driven mass global climate change , or as it describes , ` Global Warming Alarmism ' . However , it does not reject the concepts of global climate change or greenhouse theory ( or other well-established and widely accepted scientific theories or empirical studies ) , in general attempting to engender itself as giving a well balanced and scientific view of the sources ( though often at a contrary expense of its perceived adversaries : the aforementioned alleged ` Global Warming Alarmists ' ) . WCR says of itself : World Climate Report , a concise , hard-hitting and scientifically correct response to the global change reports which gain attention in the literature and popular press . As the nation 's leading publication in this realm , World Climate Report is exhaustively researched , impeccably referenced , and always timely . This popular biweekly newsletter points out the weaknesses and outright fallacies in the science that is being touted as `` proof '' of disastrous warming . It 's the perfect antidote against those who argue for proposed changes to the Rio Climate Treaty , such as the Kyoto Protocol , which are aimed at limiting carbon emissions from the United States ... World Climate Report has become the definitive and unimpeachable source for what nature now calls the `` mainstream skeptic '' point of view . . In addition to Patrick Michaels ( chief editor ) , the staff is listed as Robert C. Balling , Jr ( contributing editor ) , Robert Davis ( contributing editor ) , and Paul Knappenberger ( Administrator ) . New Hope Environmental Services , an advocacy science consulting firm , claims WCR as its biweekly newsletter .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "World_Climate_Report", "rank": 6, "score": 109652 }, { "content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change", "rank": 7, "score": 109650 }, { "content": "Title: Muslim Seven Year Action Plan on Climate Change Content: The Muslim Seven Year Action Plan on Climate Change is a climate action plan for the global Islamic community , meant to run from 2010 to 2017 . It was developed by the British Earth Mates Dialogue Center and the Kuwaiti Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs . It is one of several multi-year climate action plans developed by major religious communities , developed in coordination with the Alliance of Religions and Conservation and the United Nations Development Programme . According to the Alliance of Religions and Conservation , the plan proposes `` investigating every level of Muslim activity from daily life to annual pilgrimages , from holy cities to the future training of Imams , '' `` developing the major Muslim cities as green city models for other Islamic urban areas , '' and `` developing an Islamic label for environmentally friendly goods and services . '' Proposals were to be managed by a group called the Muslim Association for Climate Change Action ( MACCA , an acronym meant to sound like `` Mecca '' ) .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Muslim_Seven_Year_Action_Plan_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 8, "score": 109009 }, { "content": "Title: Global Roundtable on Climate Change Content: The Global Roundtable on Climate Change , convened by the Earth Institute at Columbia University brought together representatives from corporations , research institutions , and government organizations to discuss the scientific consensus , economics , technology , and public policy issues associated with climate change . Following preliminary research and discussions , the group first met in 2005 and held a series of public and private meetings over the next five year . The Roundtable had five objectives : Improve global consensus on the science , technology , economics , and policy issues of anthropogenic climate change . Review technology and policy proposals for mitigating climate change while meeting global energy demand . Support research and prototypes of technologies and policies that address climate change . Provide a forum for discussion , analysis , and exchange of ideas from the represented groups . Support proposals and initiatives generated by the Roundtable 's discussions . Participants in the Roundtable meetings : ABB , Air France , Alcan , Alcoa , Alliant Energy , Allianz , American Electric Power , BASF , Bayer , Calvert Group , China Renewable Energy Industry Association , Citigroup , Coalition of Rainforest Nations , Columbia University , Deutsche Telekom , DuPont , Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand , Endesa , Environmental Defense , Eskom , Eni , Exelon , Fairfield University , FPL Group , General Electric , Iberdrola , ING Group , Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , International Gas Union , Munich Re , National Grid , NRG Energy , Rainforest Alliance , Republic of Iceland , Ricoh , Suntech Power , Swiss Re , Vattenfall , Volvo , World Council on Churches , World Petroleum Council , and many others . The Roundtable was funded by a grant from the Lenfest Foundation . Jeffrey Sachs , Director of the Earth Institute served as Chair . David L. Downie served as Director of the Global Roundtable on Climate Change before leaving the Earth Institute to join Fairfield University . On February 20 , 2007 , the Roundtable released `` The Path to Climate Sustainability : A Joint Statement by the Global Roundtable on Climate Change '' . The Joint Statement outlines a post-Kyoto framework and has been endorsed by over 100 of the Roundtable participating corporations and organizations . The Statement outlines ways to effect change at the levels of policy and industry , particularly in regards to creating sustainable energy systems necessary for achieving economic growth . In addition to its internal discussions , which were aimed at information exchange , education and consensus building , and development of the parthbreaking Joint Statement , Roundtable participants also participated in public forums . For example , David L. Downie organized two side-event panels during sessions of the global climate negotiations that featured presentations by Roundtable Participants , including himself , regarding how businesses and scientists were working together to lower greenhouse gas emissions . David L. Downie also discussed the Roundtable and related issues at other events during the climate negotiations and in other forums", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Global_Roundtable_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 9, "score": 108835 }, { "content": "Title: Richard G. Richels Content: Richard `` Rich '' Gayle Richels directs global climate change research at the Electric Power Research Institute . Richels received a BS degree in physics from the College of William & Mary . He was awarded MS and PhD degrees in decision science from Harvard University 's Division of Applied Sciences . Richels has served on a number of national and international advisory panels , including committees of the Department of Energy , the Environmental Protection Agency , and the National Research Council . He served as an expert witness at the Department of Energy 's hearings on the National Energy Strategy and testified at Congressional hearings on priorities in global climate change research . He was a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Second , Third and Fourth Assessment Reports ( the IPCC shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore ) and served on the Synthesis Team for the US National Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on the United States . He currently serves on the Scientific Steering Committee for the US Carbon Cycle Program and the Advisory Committee for Princeton University Carbon Mitigation Initiative . He has served as Editor of the Energy , Environment and National Resources area of the Operations Research Journal . He has also served on the Board of Editors of The Energy Journal and the Journal of Applied Stochastic Models and Data Analysis , and contributed to the Energy Modeling Forum . Richels is a co-author of Buying Greenhouse Insurance - the Economic Costs of Emission Limits ( with Alan S. Manne ) , and of Economic and environmental choices in the stabilization of atmospheric concentrations ( with Tom Wigley and Jae Edmonds ) . Both studies outline an economic approach to climate policy . Richels is a researcher on integrated assessment modelling for climate change , and regularly appears in the media .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Richard_G._Richels", "rank": 10, "score": 106655 }, { "content": "Title: Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration Content: The Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration was created as part of the Clear Skies Initiative in February 2002 by George W. Bush , as a Cabinet-level effort to coordinate climate change science and technology research . The White House says : `` The Secretary of Commerce and Secretary of Energy will lead the effort , in close coordination with the President 's Science Advisor . The research effort will continue to be coordinated through the National Science and Technology Council in accordance with the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . ''", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Committee_on_Climate_Change_Science_and_Technology_Integration", "rank": 11, "score": 106605 }, { "content": "Title: European Union climate and energy package Content: The European plan on climate change consists of a range of measures adopted by the members of the European Union to fight against climate change . The plan was launched in March 2007 , and after months of tough negotiations between the member countries , it was adopted by the European Parliament on December 2008 . The package focuses on emissions cuts , renewables and energy efficiency .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "European_Union_climate_and_energy_package", "rank": 12, "score": 106340 }, { "content": "Title: World Wide Views on Global Warming Content: World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 . World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "World_Wide_Views_on_Global_Warming", "rank": 13, "score": 106240 }, { "content": "Title: The 2010 Imperative Content: The 2010 Imperative is an initiative issued by Architecture 2030 that requires ecological literacy , largely missing from the curriculum in the United States , to become a key element of design education by 2010 , in order to combat global warming and world resource depletion .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "The_2010_Imperative", "rank": 14, "score": 106151 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program", "rank": 15, "score": 105942 }, { "content": "Title: Virgin Earth Challenge Content: The Virgin Earth Challenge is a competition offering a $ 25 million prize for whoever can demonstrate a commercially viable design which results in the permanent removal of greenhouse gases out of the Earth 's atmosphere to contribute materially in global warming avoidance . The prize was conceived and financed by Sir Richard Branson , a successful British entrepreneur , and was announced in London on 9 February 2007 by Branson and former US Vice President and 2007 Nobel Prize winner Al Gore , creator of the 2006 film An Inconvenient Truth on climate change . Among more than 2600 applications , 11 finalists were announced on 2 November 2011 . These are Biochar Solutions , from the US ; Biorecro , Sweden ; Black Carbon , Denmark ; Carbon Engineering , Canada ; Climeworks , Switzerland ; COAWAY , US ; Full Circle Biochar , US ; Global Thermostat , US ; Kilimanjaro Energy , US ; Smartstones -- Olivine Foundation , Netherlands , and The Savory Institute , US .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Virgin_Earth_Challenge", "rank": 16, "score": 105430 }, { "content": "Title: David Legates Content: David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university , and a former Delaware State Climatologist . Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale . Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "David_Legates", "rank": 17, "score": 105161 }, { "content": "Title: U.S. Climate Change Technology Program Content: The United States Climate Change Technology Program or CCTP is a multi-agency planning and coordination entity . Its purpose is to accelerate the development and deployment of technologies that can reduce , avoid , or capture and store greenhouse gas emissions . CCTP was established administratively in 2002 , authorized by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , and appropriated funds in 2007 . Currently , the Department of Energy is designated as the lead agency .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "U.S._Climate_Change_Technology_Program", "rank": 18, "score": 104982 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon lock-in Content: Carbon lock-in refers to the self-perpetuating inertia created by large fossil fuel-based energy systems that inhibits public and private efforts to introduce alternative energy technologies . Related to the concept of technological lock-in , the concept is most used in relation to the challenge of altering the current energy infrastructure to respond to global climate change . The concept and term was first coined by Gregory C. Unruh in a 1999 Fletcher School , Tufts University doctoral thesis entitled `` Escaping Carbon Lock-In . '' It has since gained popularity in climate change policy discussions , especially those focused on preventing the globalization of carbon lock-in to rapidly industrializing countries like China and India . The source of carbon lock-in inertia in energy systems arises from the co-evolution of large interdependent technological networks and the social institutions and cultural practices that support and benefit from system growth . The growth of the system is fostered by increasing returns to scale .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Carbon_lock-in", "rank": 19, "score": 104031 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 20, "score": 103499 }, { "content": "Title: Societal Benefit Areas Content: The Societal Benefit Areas ( SBAs ) are eight environmental fields of interest , all of which relate to climate , around which the Global Earth Observation System of Systems ( GEOSS ) project is exerting its efforts . These include : Biodiversity and Ecosystem Sustainability , Disaster Resilience , Energy and Mineral Resources Management , Food Security and Sustainable Agriculture , Infrastructure and Transport Management , Public Health Surveillance , Sustainable Urban Development , and Water Resources Management around which a preliminary hierarchical vocabulary has been created . One of the aims of GEOSS is to implement a proper system of Earth monitoring and to render information deriving from this process available to a global range of users . Currently , the hierarchical vocabulary structuring these societal benefit categories and their subcategories are available only in English . However , translations have been created for French , Spanish and Italian versions by Claudia Cialone and Kristin Stock of the Centre for Geospatial Science ( CGS ) at the University of Nottingham , UK , with input from a number of people from the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche ( CNR ) in Italy , the University of Zaragoza and the European Union Joint Research Centre ( JRC ) . Translations have also been accomplished for a Slovenian version of the SBAs by the Biotehnical faculty of the University of Ljubljana , SI .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Societal_Benefit_Areas", "rank": 21, "score": 103394 }, { "content": "Title: Surviving the Century Content: Surviving the Century : Facing Climate Chaos and Other Global Challenges , edited by Herbert Girardet , is the first major book from the World Future Council , published by Earthscan in 2007 . Eight main issues relating to the politics of climate change are covered in the book : countering climate chaos , renewable energy policy , creating sustainable cities , local farming systems , rainforests and climate change , cradle to cradle production systems , an alternative vision for trade and creating a living democracy .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Surviving_the_Century", "rank": 22, "score": 102814 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 23, "score": 102700 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Taylor (environmentalist) Content: Peter Taylor ( b. 24 Jan 1948 ) is a UK environmentalist with a long track record of public activism and scholarship on issues ranging from nuclear safety , ocean pollution , biodiversity strategies , renewable energy and climate change . His recent work on global warming has been questioned by environmentalists . His 2009 book Chill : a reassessment of global warming theory argued that most of the recent documented warming is caused by peaking natural cycles , that there is also a potential for global cooling and that adaptation not mitigation should be a priority . His views received widespread coverage in the media -- with front page on the Daily Express , and articles in the online versions of The Mail , The Times and an Al Jazeera video .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Peter_Taylor_(environmentalist)", "rank": 24, "score": 102559 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 25, "score": 102319 }, { "content": "Title: William Kininmonth (meteorologist) Content: William Robert Kininmonth is an Australian retired meteorologist noted for his views as an opponent of anthropogenic global warming theory and for his frequent writings on the topic of climate change .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "William_Kininmonth_(meteorologist)", "rank": 26, "score": 102163 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Climate_change_(general_concept)", "rank": 27, "score": 102154 }, { "content": "Title: Baseline Surface Radiation Network Content: Baseline Surface Radiation Network ( BSRN ) is a project of the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) and the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) and as such is aimed detecting important changes in the Earth 's radiation field at the Earth 's surface which may be related to climate changes . The central archive of the BSRN is the World Radiation Monitoring Center ( WRMC ) which was initiated by Atsumu Ohmura in 1992 and operated at ETH until 2007 . Since 2008 the WRMC is operated by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research ( AWI ) , Germany .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Baseline_Surface_Radiation_Network", "rank": 28, "score": 102103 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 29, "score": 102061 }, { "content": "Title: World wide views Content: The World Wide Views projects were started in 2009 by the Danish Board of Technology Foundation to involve citizens in global environmental policy making through deliberation and voting . Recent decades have shown a growing need for global solutions to global problems . As cross-border environmental challenges have grown in scale , the nations of the world have turned to international organisations in search of a common platform in which to address these problems . One such platform has been the United Nations ( UN ) , institutionalized in the Conventions on Global Warming and on Biodiversity , more specifically the Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) & the Convention on Biological Diversity ( CBD ) . One of the challenges presented by these international platforms has been , and is , how to involve the citizens of the world in decisions and policies resulting from the Conference of Parties ( COP ) meetings held regularly and involving political leaders and heads of state of the participating UN member states . As environmental hazards and changes affect us all without regards to our nationality , citizen participation in global policy making is crucial both to every one of us as citizens , and to the nations of the world gathering at COP 's in order to find and commit to sustainable and reasonable solutions . With its extensive experience in involving citizens in citizen deliberation on a broad range of issues , the Danish Board of Technology Foundation ( DBT ) has started the World Wide Views projects , organising partner organisations from all over the world in a World Wide Views Alliance with the main purpose of involving citizens in global environmental policy making through deliberation and voting . The aim is to provide ordinary citizens of the world with a direct link to political decision makers , while providing the decision makers with an informed insight into the needs and views of the citizens they are representing , as well as creating public awareness of environmental hazards and challenges .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "World_wide_views", "rank": 30, "score": 102004 }, { "content": "Title: List of climate change initiatives Content: Here is a list of international , national , regional , and local political initiatives to take action on climate change ( global warming ) . A Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide efforts for climate change mitigation .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "List_of_climate_change_initiatives", "rank": 31, "score": 101707 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 32, "score": 101529 }, { "content": "Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy", "rank": 33, "score": 101443 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency Content: The Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency was an Australian Government department . Its role was to serve the people of Australia by developing a more prosperous and sustainable Australia by leading and coordinating the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions , promotion of energy efficiency , adaptation to climate change and shaping of global solutions . The Department was led by its Secretary , Blair Comley PSM who was responsible to the Minister for Climate Change and Energy Efficiency , the Honourable Greg Combet AM MP . The minister was assisted by the Parliamentary Secretary for Climate Change and Energy Efficiency , the Honourable Mark Dreyfus QC MP . On 25 March 2013 , responsibility for Climate Change passed to the newly formed Department of Industry , Innovation , Climate Change , Science , Research and Tertiary Education .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Department_of_Climate_Change_and_Energy_Efficiency", "rank": 34, "score": 101154 }, { "content": "Title: The Hartwell Paper Content: The Hartwell Paper calls for a reorientation of climate policy after the perceived failure in 2009 of the UNFCCC climate conference in Copenhagen . The paper was published in May 2010 by the London School of Economics in cooperation with the University of Oxford . The authors are 14 natural and social scientists from Asia , Europe and North America , including Mike Hulme , Roger A. Pielke ( Jr ) , Nico Stehr and Steve Rayner , who met under the Chatham House Rule . The paper argues that `` decarbonisation will only be achieved successfully as a benefit contingent upon other goals which are politically attractive and relentlessly pragmatic . '' It emphasizes human dignity as a necessary guiding principle for climate policy : `` To reframe the climate issue around matters of human dignity is not just noble or necessary . It is also likely to be more effective than the approach of framing around human sinfulness -- which has failed and will continue to fail . '' It has three main objectives : 1 . Energy access for all The paper advocates taking investments in the innovations of renewable energy to decrease energy costs and to make them more affordable to society . Only this diversification of energy could extend the access to energy , especially in undeveloped countries . 2 . Clean energy 3 . Dealing with climate change The ultimate goal is `` to develop non-carbon energy supplies at unsubsidised costs less than those using fossil fuels . '' The Hartwell Paper recommends achieving this goal by introducing low carbon taxes . Moreover this money should be used to develop a CO2 free energy supply .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "The_Hartwell_Paper", "rank": 35, "score": 100878 }, { "content": "Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan", "rank": 36, "score": 100697 }, { "content": "Title: Clean Power Plan Content: The Clean Power Plan is an Obama administration policy aimed at combating anthropogenic climate change ( global warming ) that was first proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency in June 2014 . It is widely expected to be eliminated under President Donald Trump , who signed an executive order on March 28 , 2017 mandating the EPA to review the plan . The final version of the plan was unveiled by President Obama on August 3 , 2015 . The 460-page rule ( RIN 2060 -- AR33 ) titled `` Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources : Electric Utility Generating Units '' was published in the Federal Register on October 23 , 2015 . The Obama administration designed the plan to lower the carbon dioxide emitted by power generators .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Clean_Power_Plan", "rank": 37, "score": 100263 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)", "rank": 38, "score": 99629 }, { "content": "Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States", "rank": 39, "score": 99502 }, { "content": "Title: Shobhakar Dhakal Content: Shobhakar Dhakal ( born in Nepal ) is the Head of Department of Energy , Environment and Climate Change at the Asian Institute of Technology , Thailand . His main areas of expertise are energy and climate change policies . Dhakal actively contributes to international and scientific arena . He was the Coordinating Lead Author of the Nobel Prize winning 5th Mitigation Assessment Report written by the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change ( released in April 2014 ) for the Chapter on Human Settlements , Infrastructure and Spatial Planning .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Shobhakar_Dhakal", "rank": 40, "score": 99349 }, { "content": "Title: Steve Running Content: Steven W. Running , ( born 1950 ) Regents Professor , Forest Ecology , College of Forestry & Conservation at the University of Montana , and Director of the Numerical Terradynamics Simulation Group , is responsible for developing the earth observing-oriented algorithms used by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) on board NASA 's satellites , Terra and Aqua . He continues to be the lead investigator on this project . Running 's MOD17 algorithms are used to provide accurate and continuous global monitoring of the terrestrial biosphere , specifically , generating near-real-time data sets for repeated monitoring of vegetation primary production on vegetated land at 1-km resolution at 8-day intervals . These datasets are unique in that they provide global data on primary productivity and span a decade . A recognized expert in global ecosystem monitoring , Running was invited to serve on the board of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . In 2007 , the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . Running made the following statement about winning the prize : `` We 've got to get past all the petty bickering and get to work . This is about a big transition for society over the next 50 years . The path we are on is unsustainable . What the Nobel committee is saying is that we 've got to wake up . We 've got to change the course of the whole world . '' Steve Running is co-author of the 2007 book , Forest Ecosystems , and has published over 240 scientific papers . In 2012 , Running suggested a tenth planetary boundary , the annual net global primary production of all terrestrial plants , as an easily determinable measure integrating many variables that will give `` a clear signal about the health of ecosystems '' .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Steve_Running", "rank": 41, "score": 99148 }, { "content": "Title: 2006 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2006 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place between November 6 and 17 , 2006 in Nairobi , Kenya . The conference included the 12th Conference of the Parties ( COP12 ) and the 2nd Meeting of the Parties ( MOP2 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . At the meeting , BBC reporter Richard Black coined the phrase `` climate tourists '' to describe some delegates who attended `` to see Africa , take snaps of the wildlife , the poor , dying African children and women '' . Black also noted that due to delegates concerns over economic costs and possible losses of competitiveness , the majority of the discussions avoided any mention of reducing emissions . Black concluded that was a disconnect between the political process and the scientific imperative . Despite such criticism , certain strides were made at COP12 , including in the areas of support for developing countries and clean development mechanism . The parties adopted a five-year plan of work to support climate change adaptation by developing countries , and agreed on the procedures and modalities for the Adaptation Fund . They also agreed to improve the projects for clean development mechanism .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "2006_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 42, "score": 98931 }, { "content": "Title: Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Content: The Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) is a research program of the World Climate Research Programme intended to observe , comprehend and model the Earth 's water cycle . The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives , studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed . Sunlight 's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain , and dries out land masses after rain . Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes . GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere . If the Earth 's climates were identical from year to year , then people could predict when , where and what crops to plant . However , instability created by solar variation , weather trends , and chaotic events create weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales . Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities . GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data , and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future . GEWEX is organized into several structures . As GEWEX was conceived projects were organized by participating factions , this task is now done by the International GEWEX Project Office ( IGPO ) . IGPO oversees major initiatives and coordinates between national projects in an effort to bring about communication of researchers . IGPO claims to support communication exchange between 2000 scientist and is the instrument for publication of major reports . The Scientific Steering Group organizes the projects and assigns them to panels , which oversee progress and provide critique . The Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Observations Project ( CEOP ) the ` Hydrology Project ' is a major instrument in GEWEX . This panel includes geographic study areas such as the Climate Prediction Program for the Americas operated by NOAA , but also examines several types of climate zones ( e.g. high altitude and semi-arid ) . Another panel , the GEWEX Radiation Panel oversees the coordinated use of satellites and ground based observation to better estimate energy and water fluxes . One recent result GEWEX 's Radiation panel has assessed data on rainfall for the last 25 years and determined that global rainfall is 2.61 mm/day with a small statistical variation . While the study period is short , after 25 years of measurement regional trends are beginning to appear . The GEWEX Modeling and Prediction Panel takes current models and analyzes the models when climate forcing phenomena occur ( global warming as an example of a ` climate forcing ' event ) . GEWEX is now the core project of WCRP .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Global_Energy_and_Water_Cycle_Experiment", "rank": 43, "score": 98867 }, { "content": "Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Climate_variability", "rank": 44, "score": 98656 }, { "content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "qid": "2882", "docid": "James_Hansen", "rank": 45, "score": 97952 }, { "content": "Title: New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers Climate Change Action Plan 2001 Content: The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers ( NEG-ECP ) Climate Change Action Plan 2001 is a resolution adopted on August 28 , 2001 , by the New England Governors and the Eastern Canadian Premiers . The resolution calls for a reduction in greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions to 1990 levels by 2010 , at least 10 % below 1990 levels by 2020 , and a 75-85 % reduction of 2001 levels as a long-term goal . Participating are the six states belonging to New England : Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Vermont ; as well as the Eastern Canadian provinces : New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec . In addition , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management ( NESCAUM ) is building a Regional Greenhouse Gas Registry ( RGGR ) to help track emissions in the region . This effort is similar to that of the California Climate Action Registry .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "New_England_Governors_and_Eastern_Canadian_Premiers_Climate_Change_Action_Plan_2001", "rank": 46, "score": 97881 }, { "content": "Title: Global Climate Network Content: The Global Climate Network ( GCN ) is an alliance of influential think tanks and research institutes in different countries that collaborate on research into climate change policy and whose stated aim is to help address the political blockages to ambitious action to tackle global warming . The Network has members in nine countries worldwide , including the USA , China , India , UK , Australia , Brazil , Norway , South Africa and Nigeria . Its Secretariat is housed at the Institute for Public Policy Research in London , UK . GCN members are engaged jointly in a programme of research projects , the results of which each member feeds into policy making at the domestic and international levels . Collectively , members of the Global Climate Network are committed to a vision of a prosperous and secure world in which greenhouse gas emissions have been reduced to a level that is no longer harmful to the climate system . Working together , the Network construct a narrative for action on climate change that is concerned with human and economic progress as well as environmental wellbeing . The Network 's patrons are Dr Rajendra Pachauri , chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and director-general of the Energy and Resources Institute in India ; John Podesta , former Chief of Staff to President Bill Clinton and director of Center for American Progress , and Lord Christopher Patten of Barnes , former European Commissioner for External Affairs .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Global_Climate_Network", "rank": 47, "score": 97835 }, { "content": "Title: G8 Climate Change Roundtable Content: The G8 Climate Change Roundtable was formed in January 2005 at the World Economic Forum in Davos , Switzerland . Its purpose was to address the global climate change issue facing governments , business and civil society . The first meeting was held in Gleneagles , Scotland , from 6 -- 8 July 2005 , to coincide with the 31st G8 summit . The roundtable was established by twenty-three leading international businesses with the assistance of G8 President and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair , to co-operatively engage in a global plan of action . The aim of the group was to ensure that a long-term policy framework was set up to enable consistent and transparent market-based solutions in mitigating climate change , while also addressing issues linked to climate change ; such as economic growth , poverty , and adequate energy supplies . Carbon trading is one of the most popular pricing mechanisms used to the reduce greenhouse emissions worldwide . The group devised a Framework for Action which called for technology incentive programs , the establishment of common metrics , for example in energy efficiency , and the expansion of emissions trading schemes . Some of the companies participating include Ford , British Airways , HSBC , EdF and BP . Now , the Climate Change Roundtable has a membership of 150 businesses spread across the globe . Environmentalists raised concerns that the body 's statement does not call for targets or include timetables . Friends of the Earth noted that the roundtable represented a major shift by the business community towards efforts to mitigate climate change .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "G8_Climate_Change_Roundtable", "rank": 48, "score": 97747 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 49, "score": 97610 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming game Content: A global warming game , also known as a climate game or a climate change game , is a type of serious game . As a serious game , it attempts to simulate and explore real life issues to educate players through an interactive experience . The issues particular to a global warming video game are usually energy efficiency and the implementation of green technology as ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus counteract global warming . Global warming games also include more traditional board games , video games , as well as other varieties .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Global_warming_game", "rank": 50, "score": 97520 }, { "content": "Title: Christopher C. Horner Content: Christopher C. Horner is an attorney in Washington , D.C. and a Senior Fellow at the Competitive Enterprise Institute who opposes the mainstream view of climate change and has been prominent in promoting climate change denial . He is the author of three books disputing the scientific evidence for man-made global warming . Horner had a financial relationship with coal companies who provided him with funds . Horner has been criticized for hounding climate scientists with frivolous requests for documentation and emails .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Christopher_C._Horner", "rank": 51, "score": 96873 }, { "content": "Title: Planning Act 2008 Content: The Planning Act 2008 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom intended to speed up the process for approving major new infrastructure projects such as airports , roads , harbours , energy facilities such as nuclear power and waste facilities . Along with the Climate Change Bill and the Energy Bill this bill was considered by the Brown administration to be one of the `` three legislative pillars of the Government 's strategy to secure long-term prosperity and quality of life for all '' .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Planning_Act_2008", "rank": 52, "score": 96822 }, { "content": "Title: Global Energy and Water Exchanges Content: The Global Energy and Water cycle Exchanges project (abbreviated GEWEX, formerly named the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment from 1990 to 2012) is an international research project and a core project of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP). In the beginning, the project intended to observe, comprehend and model the Earth's water cycle. The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives, studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed. Sunlight's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain, and dries out land masses after rain. Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes. GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere. If the Earth's climates were identical from year to year, then people could predict when, where and what crops to plant. However, instability created by solar variation, weather trends, and chaotic events creates weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales. Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities. GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data, and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future.", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Global_Energy_and_Water_Exchanges", "rank": 53, "score": 96748 }, { "content": "Title: Global Land Project Content: The Global Land Project -LSB- changed to Global Land Programme in 2016 -RSB- is a research initiative of Future Earth ( originally the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ( IGBP ) and the International Human Dimensions Programme ( IHDP ) ) . It aims to understand the changes of the land systems given the prospects of rapid and massive global environmental change . The goal of GLP is `` to measure , model and understand the coupled human-environment system '' . The Global Land Project Science Plan describes the scientific questions that the land systems research community considers to be crucial for the next decade . GLP has three objectives that determine the research framework : To identify the agents , structures and nature of change in coupled human-environment systems on land , and to quantify their effects on the coupled system ; To assess how the provision of ecosystem services is affected by the changes in ( i ) above ; and To identify the character and dynamics of vulnerable and sustainable coupled human-environment systems to interacting perturbations , including climate change .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Global_Land_Project", "rank": 54, "score": 96680 }, { "content": "Title: The Great Warming Content: The Great Warming is a 2006 documentary film directed by Michael Taylor . The film was hosted by Alanis Morissette and Keanu Reeves and even before its November 3 , 2006 première helped establish an alliance between Democrats and Evangelicals trying to shake the administration out of its inertia on Climate change mitigation . It is also the anchor for a broad , pro-active coalition ranging from Friends of the Earth to Union of Concerned Scientists to Churches of Christ . Theatre giant Regal Cinemas released the film in its top 50 markets on the weekend of November 4 to November 5 , 2006 , which makes the launch three times larger than for any other film of its kind , and highlights the growing currency of the global warming issues in the mainstream.A special program was developed for faith communities , and the film was distributed to over 500 churches , synagogues and mosques across the US . Featuring elements of the 2005 Public Broadcasting Service special Global Warming : the Signs and the Science , The Great Warming ( produced by the same team ) , it talks to key researchers and reports on social justice and day-to-day impacts as well as emission statistics . It 's also populated with everyday people from all over the United States and the planet who are feeling the brunt of global warming , and/or finding innovative ways to tackle it . While making the movie , producer Karen Coshof was determined not to lose sight of her most important advocate , the person on the street , to make the issue of global warming resonate in every household around the globe . Every person should `` feel empowered to act . '' In media interviews , Coshof explained that the film attracted an unprecedented coalition of leaders in science , religion , business , environmental activism and education . They have built bridges over historic gaps to support the message of this film to believe in the individual and collective moral responsibility to reverse the growing threats to the environment , and to the health and quality of life . The effort goes beyond the documentary : with a release timed just before the United States House elections , 2006 , the website featured a Questions for Candidates link where voters could send a questionnaire on energy , environment , and taxation to their federal and state candidates . The campaign also includes a Call to Action signed by leaders from every arena of public life , and which can be signed online by anyone who chooses . Advance DVD screenings at schools , churches , and town halls across the country have already mobilized thousands of people to change personal habits and demand action , and coalition members are working to track the effort .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "The_Great_Warming", "rank": 55, "score": 96427 }, { "content": "Title: Michael Helfert Content: Dr. Michael Helfert was a senior scientist at NASA 's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center , and acted as chief scientist and scientist for Earth observations for 100 + Space Shuttle missions ( 1982 -- 2008 ) . Those Mission Reports were primarily published in the journal Geocarto International . He was also the Director of the National Climatic Data Center 's Southeast Regional Climate Center and the South Carolina state climatologist . While at the National Climate Data Center he was also the Director of the U.S. Climate Reference Network . This program designed and maintained very precise climate monitoring stations throughout the USA as well as selected overseas locations in Italy and Siberia .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Michael_Helfert", "rank": 56, "score": 96411 }, { "content": "Title: U.S. Global Change Research Program Content: The United States Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) coordinates and integrates federal research on changes in the global environment and their implications for society . The program began as a presidential initiative in 1989 and was codified by Congress through the Global Change Research Act of 1990 ( P.L. 101-606 ) , which called for `` a comprehensive and integrated United States research program which will assist the Nation and the world to understand , assess , predict , and respond to human-induced and natural processes of global change . '' Thirteen departments and agencies participate in the USGCRP , which was known as the U.S. Climate Change Science Program from 2002 through 2008 . The program is steered by the Subcommittee on Global Change Research under the Committee on Environment , Natural Resources and Sustainability , overseen by the Executive Office of the President , and facilitated by a National Coordination Office . During the past two decades , the United States , through the USGCRP , has made the world 's largest scientific investment in the areas of climate change and global change research . Since its inception , the USGCRP has supported research and observational activities in collaboration with several other national and international science programs . These activities led to major advances in several key areas including : Observing and understanding short - and long-term changes in climate , the ozone layer , and land cover ; Identifying the impacts of these changes on ecosystems and society ; Estimating future changes in the physical environment , and vulnerabilities and risks associated with those changes ; and Providing scientific information to enable effective decision making to address the threats and opportunities posed by climate and global change . These advances have been documented in numerous assessments commissioned by the program and have played prominent roles in international assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Program results and plans are documented in the program 's annual report , Our Changing Planet .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "U.S._Global_Change_Research_Program", "rank": 57, "score": 96373 }, { "content": "Title: Earth Simulator Content: The , developed by the Japanese government 's initiative `` Earth Simulator Project '' , was a highly parallel vector supercomputer system for running global climate models to evaluate the effects of global warming and problems in solid earth geophysics . The system was developed for Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency , Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute , and Japan Marine Science and Technology Center ( JAMSTEC ) in 1997 . Construction started in October 1999 , and the site officially opened on March 11 , 2002 . The project cost 60 billion yen . Built by NEC , ES was based on their SX-6 architecture . It consisted of 640 nodes with eight vector processors and 16 gigabytes of computer memory at each node , for a total of 5120 processors and 10 terabytes of memory . Two nodes were installed per 1 metre x 1.4 metre x 2 metre cabinet . Each cabinet consumed 20 kW of power . The system had 700 terabytes of disk storage ( 450 for the system and 250 for the users ) and 1.6 petabytes of mass storage in tape drives . It was able to run holistic simulations of global climate in both the atmosphere and the oceans down to a resolution of 10 km . Its performance on the LINPACK benchmark was 35.86 TFLOPS , which was almost five times faster than the previous fastest supercomputer , ASCI White . ES was the fastest supercomputer in the world from 2002 to 2004 . Its capacity was surpassed by IBM 's Blue Gene/L prototype on September 29 , 2004 . ES was replaced by the Earth Simulator 2 ( ES2 ) in March 2009 . ES2 is an NEC SX-9 / E system , and has a quarter as many nodes each of 12.8 times the performance ( 3.2 x clock speed , four times the processing resource per node ) , for a peak performance of 131 TFLOPS . With a delivered LINPACK performance of 122.4 TFLOPS , ES2 was the most efficient supercomputer in the world at that point . In November 2010 , NEC announced that ES2 topped the Global FFT , one of the measures of the HPC Challenge Awards , with the performance number of 11.876 TFLOPS . ES2 was replaced by the Earth Simulator 3 ( ES3 ) in March 2015 . ES3 is a NEC SX-ACE system with 5120 nodes .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Earth_Simulator", "rank": 58, "score": 96137 }, { "content": "Title: Global Climate and Energy Project Content: The Global Climate and Energy Project ( GCEP ) at Stanford University , `` seeks new solutions to one of the grand challenges of this century : supplying energy to meet the changing needs of a growing world population in a way that protects the environment . '' Beginning in December 2002 , GCEP is a 10-year , $ 225m research project aimed at developing new energy technologies . These new energy technologies include areas of interest such as renewable energy , CO2 capture and storage , hydrogen storage and electrocatalysis . It has the support of four major companies - ExxonMobil , General Electric , Schlumberger , and Toyota . Under the heading `` Grand Challenge '' , it identifies a global warming-related need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through future energy development .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Global_Climate_and_Energy_Project", "rank": 59, "score": 95937 }, { "content": "Title: Stockholm Memorandum Content: The Stockholm Memorandum is a document signed in May 2011 by many Nobel Laureates based on the verdict from the trial of humanity , which opened the 3rd Nobel Laureate Symposium . The jury of Nobel laureates concluded that Earth has entered a new geological age , which it calls the Anthropocene , in which humans are the most significant driver of global climate change , and in which human collective actions could have abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems . The memorandum was signed by 20 winner of the Nobel Prize winners or the Sveriges Riksbank Prize for Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel ( six in Chemistry , five in Physics , three in Physiology or Medicine , one in Literature , one Peace Prize winner and four in Economic Sciences ) was submitted to the United Nations High Level Panel on global sustainability . `` We are the first generation with the insight of the new global risks facing humanity , that people and societies are the biggest drivers of global change . The basic analysis is not in question : we can not continue on our current path and need to take action quickly . Science can guide us in identifying the pathway to global sustainability , provided that it also engages in an open dialogue with society , '' says Professor Mario Molina , who acted as judge and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Stockholm_Memorandum", "rank": 60, "score": 95933 }, { "content": "Title: Are We Changing Planet Earth? Content: Are We Changing Planet Earth ? and Can We Save Planet Earth ? are two programmes that form a documentary about global warming , presented by David Attenborough . They were first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 24 May and 1 June 2006 respectively . Part of a themed season by the BBC entitled `` Climate Chaos '' , the programmes were produced in conjunction with the Discovery Channel and the Open University . They were directed by Nicolas Brown and produced by Jeremy Bristow . The music was composed by Samuel Sim . Attenborough undertook the assignment in between his ` Life ' series Life in the Undergrowth and Life in Cold Blood . Around the same time , the naturalist also narrated Planet Earth .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Are_We_Changing_Planet_Earth?", "rank": 61, "score": 95716 }, { "content": "Title: Paul Raskin Content: Paul Raskin is the founding President of the Tellus Institute , which has conducted over 3,500 research and policy projects throughout the world on environmental issues , resource planning , scenario analysis , and sustainable development . His research and writing has centered on formulating and analyzing alternative global and regional scenarios , and the requirements for a transition to a sustainable , just , and livable future , called the Great Transition . Dr. Raskin has served as a lead author on a number of high profile international reports , including the U.S. National Academy of Science 's Board on Sustainability , the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment , the United Nations Environment Programme 's Global Environment Outlook , the Earth Charter , and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Paul_Raskin", "rank": 62, "score": 95552 }, { "content": "Title: Lawrence Wollersheim Content: Lawrence Dominick Wollersheim has been an active director of several specialized non-profit organizations since 2002 . He has worked with others to help to develop the concepts and practices of `` Sustainable Prosperity , '' `` the Universe Evolutionary Worldview , '' `` Evolution Spirituality , '' `` Progressive Evolution , '' the `` Universe Principles of Sustainability '' and `` Job One for Humanity Climate Restabilization Plan . '' The Job One plan is a meta-systemic , long-term plan for mitigating global warming and climate destabilization . Much of his current work for these organizations is focused on how to apply the scientific principles of universe-scale evolution to our daily lives and to resolve our biggest global challenges . Wollersheim is also a former Scientologist . He sued the Church of Scientology in 1980 . The story of Xenu was made public when Church materials detailing the Operating Thetan Level 3 were used as exhibits . In Wollersheim 's court case Scientology 's `` top secret '' materials about Xenu and their beliefs in past alien invasions of Earth was filed with the LA court on his behalf and then copied from court records and published by media all over the world . Wollersheim helped co-found Factnet.org in 1993 to help other victims of cult abuse . Currently he is still a director of Factnet .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Lawrence_Wollersheim", "rank": 63, "score": 95066 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Content: The Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 ( c 19 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which aims to boost the number of heat and electricity microgeneration installations in the United Kingdom , so helping to cut carbon emissions and reduce fuel poverty . The Act was piloted through the House of Commons as a Private Member 's Bill by Mark Lazarowicz , MP . The Rt Hon Eric Forth MP , a well known opponent of Private Members ' Bills who often fillibustered them in Parliament , died during the passage of this bill through Parliament , after having prolonged the debate during Third Reading and Report for a number of days .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Climate_Change_and_Sustainable_Energy_Act_2006", "rank": 64, "score": 94949 }, { "content": "Title: Center for Climate and Energy Solutions Content: The Center for Climate and Energy Solutions ( C2ES ) is an environmental nonprofit organization based in Arlington , Virginia . Launched in 2011 , C2ES is the successor to the Pew Center on Global Climate Change . C2ES works closely with policymakers and stakeholders to promote pragmatic , effective policies at the state , national and international levels .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Center_for_Climate_and_Energy_Solutions", "rank": 65, "score": 94758 }, { "content": "Title: Energy policy of the United Kingdom Content: The current energy policy of the United Kingdom is set out in the Energy White Paper of May 2007 and Low Carbon Transition Plan of July 2009 , building on previous work including the 2003 Energy White Paper and the Energy Review Report in 2006 . It was led by the Department of Energy and Climate Change , then headed by Amber Rudd ( the DECC was disbanded on 14July 2016 ) . The current focus of policy are on reforming the Electricity Market , rolling out smart meters and improving the energy efficiency of the UK building stock through the Green Deal .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Energy_policy_of_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 66, "score": 94564 }, { "content": "Title: Turning the Corner Plan Content: Turning the Corner Plan is a Canadian climate change action plan introduced by the Harper Conservative Government in April 2007 by then Minister of the Environment John Baird . Turning the Corner has plans set out to reduce Canada 's greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % relative to 2006 levels by 2020 , and reductions of 60 to 70 percent below 2006 levels by 2050 .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Turning_the_Corner_Plan", "rank": 67, "score": 94406 }, { "content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming", "rank": 68, "score": 94397 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 69, "score": 94383 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Energy and Climate Change Content: The Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) was a British government department created on 3 October 2008 , by then Prime Minister Gordon Brown to take over some of the functions related to energy of the Department for Business , Enterprise and Regulatory Reform , and those relating to climate change of the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs . It was led at time of closure by the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change , Amber Rudd MP . Following Theresa May 's appointment as Prime Minister in July 2016 , the department was disbanded and merged with the Department for Business , Innovation and Skills , to form the Department for Business , Energy and Industrial Strategy under Greg Clark MP . The Department released a major White Paper in July 2009 , setting out its purpose and plans . The majority of DECC 's budget was spent on managing the historic nuclear sites in the United Kingdom , in 2012/13 this being 69 % of its budget spent through the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority . The costs to the government of nuclear decommissioning are expected to increase when the last of the United Kingdom 's Magnox reactors are shut down and no longer produce an income .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Department_of_Energy_and_Climate_Change", "rank": 70, "score": 94379 }, { "content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Leipzig_Declaration", "rank": 71, "score": 94310 }, { "content": "Title: Greening Earth Society Content: The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Greening_Earth_Society", "rank": 72, "score": 94205 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 73, "score": 94121 }, { "content": "Title: Christopher Flavin Content: Christopher Flavin is the former president of the Worldwatch Institute , an independent research organization focused on natural resource and environmental issues , based in Washington , DC . He is also a founding member of the Board of Directors of the Business Council for Sustainable Energy and is a member of the National Academy of Sciences Board on Energy and Environmental Systems , the Climate Institute , and the Environmental and Energy Study Institute . His research and writing focus is international energy and climate policy . Flavin has participated in several notable international conferences , including the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and the Climate Change Conference in Kyoto , Japan , in 1997 . He has testified before national and state legislatures and meets frequently with government and international leaders . Flavin is a native of Monterey , California and a cum laude graduate of Williams College , where he studied economics , biology , and environmental studies .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Christopher_Flavin", "rank": 74, "score": 94104 }, { "content": "Title: World People's Conference on Climate Change Content: The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth was a global gathering of civil society and governments hosted by the government of Bolivia in Tiquipaya , just outside the city of Cochabamba from April 19 -- 22 , 2010 . The event was attended by around 30,000 people from over 100 countries , and the proceedings were transmitted live online by OneClimate and the Global Campaign for Climate Action ( GCCA ) . The conference was viewed as a response to what some termed failed climate talks in Copenhagen during the 15th United Nations Conference of Parties ( COP15 ) climate meetings in December 2009 . There have been claims after the Conference ended that there were flaws in its organization and that the Venezuelan government funded it partially . One of the important objectives of the conference was to produce proposals for new commitments to the Kyoto Protocol and projects in the lead-up to the next UN climate negotiations scheduled during the COP16 meeting in Cancun , Mexico in December 2010 . Conference topics included a Universal Declaration on the Rights of Mother Earth ( see external links below ) , a World People 's Referendum on Climate Change , and the establishment of a Climate Justice Tribunal . The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of the Mother Earth resulted in a People 's Accord .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "World_People's_Conference_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 75, "score": 93773 }, { "content": "Title: Willie Soon Content: Wei-Hock `` Willie '' Soon ( born 1966 ) is an externally-funded part-time researcher of the Smithsonian at the Solar and Stellar Physics ( SSP ) Division of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics . Soon co-authored The Maunder Minimum and the Variable Sun -- Earth Connection with Steven H. Yaskell . The book treats historical and proxy records of climate change coinciding with the Maunder Minimum , a period from 1645 to about 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare . Soon disputes the current scientific understanding of climate change , and contends that most global warming is caused by solar variation rather than by human activity . He gained visibility in part due to strong scientific criticism of the methodology of a paper which he co-wrote . Climate scientists such as Gavin Schmidt of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies have strongly refuted Soon 's arguments , and the Smithsonian does not support his conclusions . He is nonetheless frequently cited by politicians opposed to climate-change legislation .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Willie_Soon", "rank": 76, "score": 93730 }, { "content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years", "rank": 77, "score": 93715 }, { "content": "Title: Daniel Kammen Content: Daniel Kammen is the Class of 1935 Distinguished Professor of Energy at the University of California , Berkeley and a climate Science Envoy for the State Department . He holds a dual appointment at the Energy and Resources Group ( part of the College of Natural Resources ) and the Goldman School of Public Policy . He is also a coordinating lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which won the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , for their report , Climate Change 2007 , assessing man-made global warming . Kammen was elected a permanent fellow of the African Academy of Sciences in 1998 and , in 2007 , received the Distinguished Citizen Award from the Commonwealth Club of California . On September 9 , 2010 , Kammen was appointed chief technical specialist for renewable energy and energy efficiency at the World Bank . In 2016 , he was selected as a U.S. Science Envoy by the United States State Department .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Daniel_Kammen", "rank": 78, "score": 93417 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Climate_change_denial", "rank": 79, "score": 93338 }, { "content": "Title: Ten Technologies to Fix Energy and Climate Content: Ten Technologies to Fix Energy and Climate ( second edition , 2009 ) or Ten Technologies to Save the Planet ( first edition , 2008 ) is a popular science book by Chris Goodall first published in 2008 and re-issued in 2009 by Profile Books . Its ten chapters each detail a technology that has the potential to reduce Greenhouse Gases while being economically and technologically viable in the present or near future . The book received a positive critical response for the way in which it was written and dealt with the issues surrounding Global Warming .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Ten_Technologies_to_Fix_Energy_and_Climate", "rank": 80, "score": 93182 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Climate_Code_Red", "rank": 81, "score": 93088 }, { "content": "Title: Dennis Tirpak Content: Dennis Tirpak is an expert on Climate Change . He is a Senior Fellow at the World Resources Institute . He was the director of Global Climate Change Policy at the United States Environmental Protection Agency for ten years . He was the Coordinator of Science and Technology at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for nine years . He was the head of the climate change unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) for three years . He has also worked on the Montreal Protocol and held positions in industry with Texaco and Alcoa . He is one of the coordinating lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice President Al Gore . He advises national governments and industry as an associate with the International Institute for Sustainable Development in Canada and a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute in Washington , D.C. He was the Chairman of The International Scientific Steering Committee for Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations which took place at the invitation of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2005 . In 1989 he co-authored the first report to Congress , The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change on the United States , and has written a scientific and policy history on climate change and contributed to many publications including the New York Times in an op-ed titled `` How Green is My Taxi '' .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Dennis_Tirpak", "rank": 82, "score": 92956 }, { "content": "Title: Global Planners Network Content: The Global Planners Network ( commonly abbreviated to GPN ) is a group of spatial planning institutes and other organisations , who have signed the Vancouver Declaration . Members sign this declaration to show their commitment to working `` together , and with others , to tackle the challenges of rapid urbanisation , the urbanisation of poverty and the hazards posed by climate change and natural disasters . '' Current GPN membership extends to 25 organisations representing more than 150,000 planners .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Global_Planners_Network", "rank": 83, "score": 92943 }, { "content": "Title: Michelle Patron Content: Michelle Naomi ( Billig ) Patron ( born 1974 ) is an energy policy expert who currently serves in the White House as Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director for energy and climate change on the U.S. National Security Staff . Patron received her bachelor 's degree from Columbia University and her master 's degree in international studies from Johns Hopkins University in 1999 . From 1999 to 2003 , Patron was an international policy advisor at the U.S. Department of Energy , advising on relations with major energy producing and consuming countries and designing strategies to address climate change , energy security , and market reform . During 2001 , she served as Energy Attach ¨ at the U.S. Embassy in Beijing . Patron was an International Affairs Fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations in 2003-2004 and conducted energy research at Deutsche Bank in New York . She also worked at the International Energy Agency and the Center for International Environmental Law . In 2004 , Patron moved to PIRA ( Petroleum Industry Research Associates ) Energy Group , an energy consulting firm in New York , where she was senior director , managing a research service that tracked global political and regulatory developments and assessing their impact on energy markets . She was at the same time an adjunct professor at New York University 's Center for Global Affairs . Patron is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and has written for Foreign Affairs , Financial Times , and the Los Angeles Times .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Michelle_Patron", "rank": 84, "score": 92886 }, { "content": "Title: The Climate Mobilization Content: The Climate Mobilization ( TCM ) is a grassroots environmental advocacy group working toward large-scale political action against global warming , with the belief that the crisis of climate change requires a national economic effort on the scale of the American mobilization of the home front during World War II . It was founded by psychologist Margaret Klein Salamon to confront climate change denial and build the political will necessary to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions and 100 % clean energy within a decade in order to avoid crossing potentially catastrophic climate tipping points and begin restoring a safe climate .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "The_Climate_Mobilization", "rank": 85, "score": 92804 }, { "content": "Title: Global Change Information System Content: The US Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) develops and curates the Global Change Information System ( GCIS ) to establish `` data interfaces and interoperable repositories of climate and global change data which can be easily and efficiently accessed , integrated with other data sets , maintained and expanded over time . '' The initial focus of GCIS is to support the United States Third National Climate Assessment ( NCA3 ) , which is to publish reports that enhance the transparency and ability of decision-makers to understand the conclusions and use of the underlying data for their own purposes .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Global_Change_Information_System", "rank": 86, "score": 92726 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Capitalism Content: Climate Capitalism : Capitalism in the Age of Climate Change is a 2011 book by L. Hunter Lovins and Boyd Cohen . It presents positive stories and examples of how profit-seeking companies are helping to save the planet , and says that `` the best way to rebuild America 's economy , cities and job markets is to invest in energy efficiency and renewable energy resources , whether climate change is happening or not '' . However , reviewer Gail Whiteman is unconvinced by the argument that naked greed and market forces will drive businesses to cut their greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Climate_Capitalism", "rank": 87, "score": 92456 }, { "content": "Title: Global change Content: Global change refers to planetary-scale changes in the Earth system . The system consists of the land , oceans , atmosphere , polar regions , life , the planet 's natural cycles and deep Earth processes . These constituent parts influence one another . The Earth system now includes human society , so global change also refers to large-scale changes in society . More completely , the term `` global change '' encompasses : population , climate , the economy , resource use , energy development , transport , communication , land use and land cover , urbanization , globalization , atmospheric circulation , ocean circulation , the carbon cycle , the nitrogen cycle , the water cycle and other cycles , sea ice loss , sea-level rise , food webs , biological diversity , pollution , health , over fishing , and more .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Global_change", "rank": 88, "score": 92308 }, { "content": "Title: Trewartha climate classification Content: The Trewartha climate classification is a climate classification system published by American geographer Glenn Thomas Trewartha in 1966 , and updated in 1980 . It is a modified version of the 1899 Köppen system , created to answer some of the deficiencies of the Köppen system . The Trewartha system attempts to redefine the middle latitudes to be closer to vegetation zoning and genetic climate systems . It was considered a more true or `` real world '' reflection of the global climate . The changes were seen as most effective on the large landmasses in Asia and North America , where many areas fall into a single group ( C ) in the Köppen system . For example , under the standard Köppen system , Washington and Oregon are classed into the same climate zone as Southern California , even though the two regions have strikingly different weather and vegetation . Another example was classifying cities like London in the same climate group as Brisbane or New Orleans , despite great differences in seasonal temperatures and native plant life .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Trewartha_climate_classification", "rank": 89, "score": 92256 }, { "content": "Title: Sentinel-3 Content: Sentinel-3 is an Earth observation satellite constellation developed by the European Space Agency as part of the Copernicus Programme . Copernicus , formerly Global Monitoring for Environment and Security , is the European programme to establish a European capacity for Earth observation designed to provide European policy makers and public authorities with accurate and timely information to better manage the environment , and to understand and mitigate the effects of climate change .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Sentinel-3", "rank": 90, "score": 92158 }, { "content": "Title: Christopher Field Content: Chris Field , Ph.D is an American scientist and researcher , who has contributed to the field of climate change . The author of more than 200 scientific publications , Field 's research emphasizes impacts of climate change , from the molecular to the global scale . His work includes major field experiments on responses of California grassland to multi-factor global change , integrative studies on the global carbon cycle , and assessments of impacts of climate change on agriculture . Field 's work with models includes studies on the global distribution of carbon sources and sinks , and studies on environmental consequences of expanding biomass energy .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Christopher_Field", "rank": 91, "score": 92058 }, { "content": "Title: Jorge Moreira da Silva Content: Jorge Manuel Lopes Moreira da Silva , GOIH ( born 24 April 1971 in Vila Nova de Famalicão ) is a Portuguese politician and an international expert on climate change , carbon finance , energy and environmental policy . He is a Member of the Portuguese Parliament . He was the Minister of Environment , Territorial Planning and Energy from 2013 to 2015 in the government led by Pedro Passos Coelho . As Minister on Environment , Spatial Planning and Energy he was responsible for energy , water , waste , spatial planning and housing sector structural reforms in Portugal . Under his leadership Portugal adopted a comprehensive Green Taxation Reform and the Portuguese Green Growth Commitment . Jorge Moreira da Silva was , from 2009 to 2012 , Senior Environmental Finance Advisor and Program Manager for Climate Change Innovative Finance at the Bureau for Policy Development at UNDP -- United Nations Development Programme . At UNDP , Jorge has worked on the post-2012 climate change negotiations , on the establishment of innovative financing strategies on climate change and energy , and on the development of climate change market-based mechanisms . Mr. Moreira da Silva has been a Visiting Professor and invited speaker on development , climate change , energy , environment and carbon markets at several Portuguese and international universities and institutions . He is Member of the European Commission High-Level Group on Research , Innovation , and Science Policy ( RISE ) and was also a member of the advisory committee of CIRCLE ( Climate Impact Research Coordination for a Larger Europe ) . He has served as : Senior Advisor to the President of the Portuguese Republic , Consultant to the President of the European Commission , Consultant to the European Investment Bank , EIB , Member ( elected ) of the Portuguese Parliament , Secretary of State on Environment and Spatial Planning at the Portuguese Government , Secretary of State on Science and Higher Education at the Portuguese Government , Member ( elected ) of the European Parliament , and Vice-President of GLOBE-Europe . He is a member of the Social Democratic Party . In April 2010 , Jorge Moreira da Silva was elected Vice-President of the national board of the Social Democratic Party and since 2012 he is the First Vice-President and Standing Coordinator of the Social Democratic Party , chaired by Pedro Passos Coelho . From 1995 to 1998 he was the leader of Juventude Social Democrata , the youth organization of the party . He is also the Founder and Chairman of the Lisbon-based think-tank Platform for a Sustainable Growth .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Jorge_Moreira_da_Silva", "rank": 92, "score": 92003 }, { "content": "Title: Global Change Observation Mission Content: GCOM ( Global Change Observation Mission ) , is a series of JAXA Earth observation satellites as a successor to the ill-fated ADEOS 2 satellite and to the Aqua Mission . GCOM is , together with the GPM Mission , Japan 's contribution to the GEOSS ( Global Earth Observation System of Systems ) . To increase security and scientific output , JAXA made the decision to split the original ADEOS 2 mission into two models of smaller satellites , GCOM-W for water observation and GCOM-C for climate observation . It is planned to launch three satellites for each mission during the next decade , with each subsequent satellite overlapping to provide continuous coverage .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Global_Change_Observation_Mission", "rank": 93, "score": 91892 }, { "content": "Title: Straight Up (book) Content: Straight Up : America 's Fiercest Climate Blogger Takes on the Status Quo Media , Politicians , and Clean Energy Solutions is a book by author , blogger , physicist and climate expert Joseph J. Romm . A Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and former Acting Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Department of Energy , Romm writes about methods of reducing global warming and increasing energy security through energy efficiency , green energy technologies and green transportation technologies . Romm writes and edits the climate blog ClimateProgress.org for the Center for American Progress , where he is a Senior Fellow . Time magazine named this blog one of the `` Top 15 Green Websites '' and called Romm `` The Web 's most influential climate-change blogger '' , naming him as one of its `` Heroes of the Environment ( 2009 ) '' . Straight Up was released on April 19 , 2010 by Island Press . It is `` largely a selection of -LSB- Romm -RSB- 's best blog postings over the past few years related to climate change issues '' . TreeHugger describes the book as `` a whirlwind tour through the state of climate change , the media that so badly neglects it , the politicians who attempt to address it ( and those who obstruct their efforts and ignore -LSB- the -RSB- science ) , and the clean energy solutions that could help get us out of the mess . ''", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Straight_Up_(book)", "rank": 94, "score": 91887 }, { "content": "Title: Xiuhtezcatl Martinez Content: Xiuhtezcatl Martinez , or Xiuhtezcatl Roske-Martinez , is a climate change activist , hip-hop artist and youth director of Earth Guardians , a worldwide conservation organization . As a teenager , Martinez has given TED talks and spoken before the United Nations on environmental policy . Martinez 's first name is an Aztec word pronounced `` Shu-TEZ-caht '' . Martinez was raised in Boulder , Colorado .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Xiuhtezcatl_Martinez", "rank": 95, "score": 91854 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States", "rank": 96, "score": 91826 }, { "content": "Title: Lawrence Taub Content: Lawrence Taub is a futurist and the author of the book The Spiritual Imperative : Sex , Age , and The Last Caste ( Clear Glass Press , 2002 , ISBN 0-931425-37-9 ) . The title of the book refers to three models the author developed to give readers a framework for anticipating global future trends . The book has been translated into Japanese , Korean and Spanish . In 2013 , the Japanese edition of the book reached the Number 1 spot on the Japanese bestsellers list . In the foreword to the Japanese edition , economist Masanori Kanda referred to Taub as Alvin Toffler , Peter Drucker and John Kenneth Galbraith all rolled into one . Taub was born and grew up in Newark , New Jersey 's Central Ward ghetto in 1936 , of Jewish ancestry . He received his B.A. in History from New York University ( summa cum laude , Phi Beta Kappa ) , with minors in Political Science and French . Next he studied at Harvard Law School . Later , Taub chose not to return to Harvard University School of Law from a two-year leave of absence . Instead he went to the Sorbonne ( University of Paris ) to earn a certificate to teach French . Taub lived and worked in Los Angeles , Paris , Copenhagen , Stockholm , Israel , India , Kathmandu , New York City , Munich , and Australia . He eventually settled in Tokyo , where he has lived for 23 of the last 31 years . There he worked as an ESL instructor , free-lance translator from Swedish , Hebrew , German , and Japanese to English , and as a narrator of commercial films . He speaks ten languages with different levels of fluency . In the early 1970s , he collaborated with Sawako Takagi , a co-founder of the Japanese radical feminist movement , on Femintern Press , a feminist publishing project . He later co-authored Multinational Sex , one of the first books exposing the ins and outs of sex tourism . Taub 's book presents his macrohistorical discoveries and predicts future trends based on them . He has published articles on the subject , presented related papers at conferences , has been interviewed on radio and television . He is a member of the World Futures Studies Federation since 1997 .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Lawrence_Taub", "rank": 97, "score": 91664 }, { "content": "Title: AATSR Content: The Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer ( AATSR ) is one of the Announcement of Opportunity ( AO ) instruments on board the European Space Agency ( ESA ) 's Envisat satellite . This instrument is a multi-channel imaging radiometer with the principal objective of providing data concerning global Sea Surface Temperature ( SST ) to the high levels of accuracy and stability required for monitoring and carrying out research into the behaviour of the Earth 's climate . AATSR can measure Earth 's surface temperature to a precision of 0.3 K-change , for climate research . Among the secondary objectives of AATSR is the observation of environmental parameters such as aerosols , clouds , fires , gas flares , water content , biomass , and vegetal health and growth . AATSR is the successor of ATSR-1 and ATSR-2 , payloads of ERS-1 and ERS-2 .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "AATSR", "rank": 98, "score": 91350 }, { "content": "Title: Jyoti Kirit Parikh Content: Jyoti Kirit Parikh -RSB- is the current Executive Director of Integrated Research and Action for Development IRADe . She was a Member of the Prime Minister 's Council on Climate Change -- India and is a recipient of Nobel Peace Prize awarded To IPCC authors in 2007 . She was a Senior Professor at Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research ( IGIDR ) , Mumbai . She also worked at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis ( IIASA ) , Austria and served as senior energy consultant at the Niti Aayog ( formally Planning Commission ) , New Delhi ( 1978 -- 80 ) . She was a visiting professor at the Institute of Advanced Studies ( IAS ) of UNU , Tokyo ( 1995 -- 96 ) . She was the Acting Director of IGIDR for 1997-98 . She has an experience for nearly thirty years on energy and environment problems of the developing countries .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Jyoti_Kirit_Parikh", "rank": 99, "score": 91250 }, { "content": "Title: Ove Hoegh-Guldberg (biologist) Content: Ove Hoegh-Guldberg ( born 26 September 1959 , in Sydney , Australia ) , is the inaugural Director of the Global Change Institute at the University of Queensland , and the holder of a Queensland Smart State Premier fellowship ( 2008 -- 2013 ) . He studies climate change and coral reefs . Hoegh-Guldberg has appeared on television , including two Australian Story series profiling his life and work , and radio , and maintains a blog on coral reefs , politics and the environment . He is of Danish ancestry and is a direct descendant and namesake of Ove Høegh-Guldberg , a politician in late 18th Century Denmark .", "qid": "2882", "docid": "Ove_Hoegh-Guldberg_(biologist)", "rank": 100, "score": 91143 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Kevin_E._Trenberth", "rank": 1, "score": 322343 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''", "qid": "2886", "docid": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 2, "score": 286861 }, { "content": "Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 3, "score": 269870 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 4, "score": 249164 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 5, "score": 247757 }, { "content": "Title: Joel B. Smith Content: Joel B. Smith is an expert on climate change policy . He was a coordinating lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2001 assessment report and a lead author of the 2007 assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) . He is currently a Principal at Stratus Consulting Inc. , in Boulder , CO. .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Joel_B._Smith", "rank": 6, "score": 245004 }, { "content": "Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy", "rank": 7, "score": 238942 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 8, "score": 236567 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow", "rank": 9, "score": 236467 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Second Assessment Report Content: The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report", "rank": 10, "score": 233982 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 11, "score": 231649 }, { "content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Climate_risk", "rank": 12, "score": 231617 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992", "rank": 13, "score": 230385 }, { "content": "Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Michael_E._Mann", "rank": 14, "score": 228743 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 15, "score": 227256 }, { "content": "Title: 2007 Nobel Peace Prize Content: The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in two equal parts , between the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and Al Gore `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "2007_Nobel_Peace_Prize", "rank": 16, "score": 226014 }, { "content": "Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "John_T._Houghton", "rank": 17, "score": 225449 }, { "content": "Title: Yuri Izrael Content: Yuri Antonovich Izrael ( Юрий Антониевич Израэль 15 May 1930 , Tashkent -- 23 January 2014 , Moscow ) was a vice-chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) until September 2008 , when the new bureau was elected . He was the `` most influential scientific adviser '' for Vladimir Putin , the former president of Russia , according to CNN . Izrael was former chairman of the Committee for Hydrometeorology . He also served as director of the Institute of Global Climate and Ecology , which is a part of the Russian Academy of Sciences . He was a first vice-president of the World Meteorological Organization and helped develop the World Weather Watch . In 1992 , Izrael won the International Meteorological Organization Prize and the UNEP Sasakawa Environment Prize for , among other accomplishments , contributing to the `` success of Working Group I I '' of the IPCC .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Yuri_Izrael", "rank": 18, "score": 224926 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Roger_Pulwarty", "rank": 19, "score": 218464 }, { "content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Reasons_for_concern", "rank": 20, "score": 217926 }, { "content": "Title: Rajendra K. Pachauri Content: Rajendra Kumar Pachauri ( born 20 August 1940 ) was the chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He held the post from 2002 until his resignation in 2015 , during which time the organization was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . He resigned from IPCC in February 2015 . Following a media trial , The Energy and Resources Institute ( TERI ) Governing Council asked him to step down from the post of Director-General of the institute . The Governing Council of TERI in a meeting in February 2016 appointed Ashok Chawla , a Gujarat cadre Indian Administrative Service Office who was former Union Finance Secretary and former Chairman of the Competition Commission , as its new chairman . Ajay Mathur , a technocrat in the Bureau of Energy Efficiency , was appointed as the Director General of TERI by the Governing Council in July 2015 .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Rajendra_K._Pachauri", "rank": 21, "score": 216307 }, { "content": "Title: Bert Bolin Content: Bert Rickard Johannes Bolin ( -LSB- bæʈː bʊliːn -RSB- ; 15 May 1925 -- 30 December 2007 ) was a Swedish meteorologist who served as the first chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , from 1988 to 1997 . He was professor of meteorology at Stockholm University from 1961 until his retirement in 1990 .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Bert_Bolin", "rank": 22, "score": 215970 }, { "content": "Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "David_Karoly", "rank": 23, "score": 214238 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 24, "score": 214211 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation Content: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) published a special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) on May 9 , 2011 . The report developed under the leadership of Ottmar Edenhofer evaluates the global potential for using renewable energy to mitigate climate change . This IPCC special report provides broader coverage of renewable energy than was included in the IPCC 's 2007 climate change assessment report , as well as stronger renewable energy policy coverage . Renewable energy can contribute to `` social and economic development , energy access , secure energy supply , climate change mitigation , and the reduction of negative environmental and health impacts '' . Under favourable circumstances , cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Renewable_Energy_Sources_and_Climate_Change_Mitigation", "rank": 25, "score": 213907 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 26, "score": 212347 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 27, "score": 211764 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Summary for Policymakers Content: The Summary for policymakers ( SPM ) is a summary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports intended to aid policymakers . The form is approved line by line by governments : `` Negotiations occur over wording to ensure accuracy , balance , clarity of message , and relevance to understanding and policy . ''", "qid": "2886", "docid": "IPCC_Summary_for_Policymakers", "rank": 28, "score": 210691 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 29, "score": 206537 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change acronyms Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Climate_change_acronyms", "rank": 30, "score": 204827 }, { "content": "Title: List of environmental reports Content: This is a list of notable environmental reports . In this context they relate to the impacts of human activity on the environment . City-level Decoupling : Urban Resource Flows and the Governance of Infrastructure Transitions - by the International Resource Panel Clean Energy Trends - a series of reports by Clean Edge - beginning in 2002 Copeland Report - for the U.S. government , completed in 1933 Copenhagen Diagnosis - written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries Dioxin Reassessment Report - by the United States Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport ( `` Leopold Report '' ) - United States Department of the Interior ( 1969 ) Environmental Risks and Challenges of Anthropogenic Metals Flows and Cycles - by the International Resource Panel Forest Principles - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) The Global 2000 Report to the President - Council on Environmental Quality ( 1981 ) Global Environment Outlook - United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Hirsch report ( Peaking of World Oil Production : Impacts , Mitigation , and Risk Management ) - United States Department of Energy Index of Leading Environmental Indicators - Pacific Research Institute IPCC First Assessment Report - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) IPCC supplementary report , 1992 - IPCC IPCC Second Assessment Report - IPCC IPCC Third Assessment Report Climate Change 2001 - IPCC ( 2001 ) IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 - IPCC ( 2007 ) IPCC Fifth Assessment Report ( 2014 ) Leopold Report ( `` Wildlife Management in the National Parks '' ) - Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management ( 1963 ) Livestock 's Long Shadow - Environmental Issues and Options - United Nations ( 2006 ) Living Planet Report - WWF , every two years Making Sweden an Oil-Free Society - Government of Sweden ( 2006 ) Meat Atlas - published by the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe Nuclear Power and the Environment - UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution - 1976 Our Common Future - World Commission on Environment and Development ( 1987 ) Outlook On Renewable Energy In America ( 2 volumes ) - American Council on Renewable Energy - 2007 Phase I Environmental Site Assessment - generic Planning Policy Statement 10 : Planning for Sustainable Waste Management ( PPS 10 ) - British Government Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation - United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) - planned for 2010 Report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification - Royal Commission on Genetic Modification ( 2001 ) State of the Climate - NOAA/NCDC ( published annually ) The State of the World - Worldwatch Institute ( published yearly since 1984 ) Wegman Report - to validate criticisms of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years Windscale : Britain 's Biggest Nuclear Disaster ( 2007 ) World Climate Report - Greening Earth Society The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates - selected and published by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group ( IUCN/SSC PSG ) , the International Primatological Society ( IPS ) , and Conservation International ( CI )", "qid": "2886", "docid": "List_of_environmental_reports", "rank": 31, "score": 204183 }, { "content": "Title: The Deniers Content: The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "The_Deniers", "rank": 32, "score": 201367 }, { "content": "Title: Arturo Villavicencio Content: Arturo Villavicencio is an Ecuadorian environmental researcher . He was nominated by Denmark in 1995 for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributed to its fourth assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Arturo_Villavicencio", "rank": 33, "score": 199911 }, { "content": "Title: Indur M. Goklany Content: Indur M. Goklany is a science and technology policy analyst for the United States Department of the Interior , where he holds the position of Assistant Director of Programs , Science and Technology Policy . He has represented the United States at the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and during the negotiations that led to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . He was a rapporteur for the Resource Use and Management Subgroup of Working Group III of the IPCC First Assessment Report in 1990 , and is the author of Clearing the Air ( 1999 ) , The Precautionary Principle ( 2001 ) , and The Improving State of the World ( 2007 ) .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Indur_M._Goklany", "rank": 34, "score": 199310 }, { "content": "Title: Raymond Pierrehumbert Content: Raymond T. Pierrehumbert is the Halley Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford . Previously , he was Louis Block Professor in Geophysical Sciences at the University of Chicago . He was a lead author on the Third Assessment Report of the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) and a co-author of the National Research Council report on abrupt climate change . He was awarded a John Simon Guggenheim Fellowship in 1996 , which was used to launch collaborative work on the climate of early Mars with collaborators in Paris . He is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union ( AGU ) and has been named Chevalier de l'Ordre des Palmes Académiques by the Republic of France . He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2015 and sits on the Science and Security Board of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists . Pierrehumbert 's central research interest is how climate works as a system and developing idealized mathematical models to be used to address questions of climate science such as how the earth kept from freezing over : the faint young sun paradox . Current interests include climate of extrasolar planets . Pierrehumbert contributes to RealClimate . Pierrehumbert is married to Janet Pierrehumbert , professor of Language Modeling at the University of Oxford .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Raymond_Pierrehumbert", "rank": 35, "score": 198772 }, { "content": "Title: Burtoni Award Content: The Burtoni Award was created in 2003 by a group of leading experts and policy makers in the field of climate change . Its purpose is to recognize outstanding contributions to the science of adaptation to climate change . The award is named after the first recipient of the award , Ian Burton , an Emeritus Professor at the University of Toronto and a pioneer in the field of adaptation to climate change and extreme events and disasters . Ian has contributed to three Assessment Reports of the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) and the recent Special Report on Extremes ( SREX ) . Subsequent recipients of the Burtoni Award are : Roger Jones ( Australia ) 2005 . Saleemul Huq ( Bangladesh ) 2007 . Coleen Vogel ( South Africa ) 2010 . Karen O'Brien ( Norway/USA ) 2012 . Mark Pelling ( United Kingdom ) 2015 . Richard J.T. Klein ( the Netherlands ) 2016 . Short biographies of the awardees follow : Roger Jones is Professorial Research Fellow at the Centre for Strategic Economic Research , Victoria University Australia . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and has the same role in the Fifth Assessment Report . The Burtoni was awarded in recognition of his innovations in research methods for assessing adaptation to climate change , particularly in the application of risk management to adaptation . Saleemul Huq is a Senior Fellow with the International Institute for Environment and Development in London and Director of ICCCD ( International Centre for Climate Change and Development in Dhaka , Bangladesh . He received the award for his work linking adaptation and development , his research on decision making and his efforts to build capacity . It was awarded during a three-day workshop on Community-based Adaptation to Climate Change in Dhaka . Coleen Vogel is an Independent Consultant and previously Professor of Sustainability at the University of Witwatersrand , Johannesburg . She was Lead Author for the IPCC 4th assessment Report Working Group 2 Chapter on Africa , and she chaired the International Scientific Committee of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Climate Change . Karen O'Brien is Professor in the Department of Sociology and Human Geography at the University of Oslo , Norway . She was Lead Author of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report for Working Group II ( Chapter 20 : Climate-resilient pathways : adaptation , mitigation , and sustainable development ) . She was a Coordinating Lead Author of the IPCC Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation ( SREX ) in Chapter 8 ` Towards a Resilient and Sustainable Future ' . She was Chair of the Global Environmental Change and Human Security ( GECHS ) project of the IHDP from 2005-2010 . Mark Pelling is Professor of Geography at King 's College London . His research interests are in the institutions and social relationships that shape vulnerability and adaptation to natural disasters , including those associated with climate change , and in the ways in which conflicting values and practices of development inform resilience and transformation in the face of environmental change . He served as a coordinating author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation ( SREX ) and its Fifth Assessment Report . He also sits on the Scientific Steering Committees for the IGBP-IHDP core project Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone ( LOICZ ) and the ICSU core project Integrated Research on Disaster Risk ( IRDR ) . Richard J.T. Klein is a Senior Research Fellow at the Stockholm Environment Institute and Editor-in-Chief of the journal Climate and Development . He was awarded the Burtoni in recognition of his work to advance knowledge through international research , capacity-building and educational collaborations , including as co-director and chief scientist of the Nordic Centre of Excellence for Strategic Adaptation Research ( NORD-STAR ) and as a member , until 2015 , of the Scientific Steering Committee of the Global Programme of Research on Climate Change Vulnerability , Impacts and Adaptation ( PROVIA ) . He was only 24 when he became lead author of a chapter in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Second Assessment Report , published in 1994 . He has been a lead author or coordinating lead author of every IPCC Assessment Report since , as well as two Special Reports .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Burtoni_Award", "rank": 36, "score": 198525 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 37, "score": 197928 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program", "rank": 38, "score": 197856 }, { "content": "Title: Anders Levermann Content: Anders Levermann is a climate scientist at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Columbia University . He is a Professor of the Dynamics of the Climate System at Institute for Physics and Astrophysics of the Potsdam University , Germany . He was a lead author of the chapter on sea-level changes of the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC AR5 ) , and contributed to the paleoclimate chapter in the previous report ( IPCC-AR4 ) . Levermann advises political and economic stakeholders on the issue of climate change .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Anders_Levermann", "rank": 39, "score": 197144 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 40, "score": 194869 }, { "content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment", "rank": 41, "score": 193540 }, { "content": "Title: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Content: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Venkatachalam_Ramaswamy", "rank": 42, "score": 193528 }, { "content": "Title: Paul Raskin Content: Paul Raskin is the founding President of the Tellus Institute , which has conducted over 3,500 research and policy projects throughout the world on environmental issues , resource planning , scenario analysis , and sustainable development . His research and writing has centered on formulating and analyzing alternative global and regional scenarios , and the requirements for a transition to a sustainable , just , and livable future , called the Great Transition . Dr. Raskin has served as a lead author on a number of high profile international reports , including the U.S. National Academy of Science 's Board on Sustainability , the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment , the United Nations Environment Programme 's Global Environment Outlook , the Earth Charter , and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Paul_Raskin", "rank": 43, "score": 193412 }, { "content": "Title: Ismail El Gizouli Content: Ismail Abdel Rahim El Gizouli is a Sudanese civil servant specializing in energy and environment and a member of the bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He has acted as interim chairman of the IPCC since 24 February 2015 , following the resignation of Rajendra Kumar Pachauri . This appointment will last until the next election for a chairman , which is due to take place at the 42nd session in October 2015 .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Ismail_El_Gizouli", "rank": 44, "score": 193232 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC (disambiguation) Content: IPCC may refer to : Independent Police Complaints Commission of England and Wales Independent Police Complaints Council of Hong Kong Integrated Professional Competency Course , a course of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations . Interworld Police Coordinating Company , a fictional organization in Jack Vance 's novels Irish Peatland Conservation Council", "qid": "2886", "docid": "IPCC_(disambiguation)", "rank": 45, "score": 192108 }, { "content": "Title: C. Vernon Cole Content: Dr. C. Vernon Cole ( 1922 -- August 30 , 2013 ) was a soil scientist known primarily for his work on nutrient cycling in agroecosystems . He was a member of Working Group II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Second Assessment report , and the lead author of Chapter 23 `` Agricultural Options for Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions '' . The IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "C._Vernon_Cole", "rank": 46, "score": 191083 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios", "rank": 47, "score": 190475 }, { "content": "Title: Hoesung Lee Content: Hoesung Lee ( born December 31 , 1945 ) is a South Korean economist and current chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . He is professor in the economics of climate change , energy and sustainable development in the Graduate School of Energy , Environment , Policy & Technology at Korea University in the Republic of Korea . Lee received his B.A. in economics from Seoul National University and a Ph.D. in economics from Rutgers University . Lee was elected as the chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) on October 6 , 2015 . One of his elder brothers is Lee Hoi-chang , former Prime Minister of South Korea and three-time presidential candidate .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Hoesung_Lee", "rank": 48, "score": 188220 }, { "content": "Title: Jean Palutikof Content: Jean Palutikof is founding Director of the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility ( NCCARF ) at Griffith University , Australia . She has held this position since 2008 . Prior to this , Professor Palutikof was based at the UK Met Office during which time she managed the production of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report for Working Group II ( Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability ) . Professor Palutikof is among the foremost scholars of climate change adaptation and was lead author and review editor for several assessments of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and was present in Oslo at the ceremony at which the IPCC received the Nobel Peace Prize .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Jean_Palutikof", "rank": 49, "score": 186998 }, { "content": "Title: Bert Metz Content: Bert Metz ( born 15 August 1945 , The Hague ) is a Dutch climate policy expert . He was Co-chair of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group III on mitigation on climate change for the third and fourth assessment report of the IPCC . Currently he is a fellow at the european climate foundation . Metz obtained an Engineer 's degree in Chemical Engineering at Delft University of Technology and subsequently his Ph.D. degree at the same university . From 1976 to 1987 he worked for Dutch Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment in the fields of air pollution , external safety , noise pollution , chemical waste and the enforcement of environmental laws . From 1987 until 1992 he was Counsellor for Health and Environment at the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Washington DC . In 1992 he became Deputy Director for Air and Energy of the Netherlands Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment , with responsibility for climate policy . He led the Netherlands delegation to the negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the Climate Convention . In 1997 he moved to the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency at RIVM to head the group on climate change and global sustainability and was elected as co-chairman of the Working Group on Climate Change Mitigation of the IPCC for the preparation of the Third Assessment Report . In 2002 he was re-elected in that position for the 4th Assessment Report cycle . Although formally retired , Bert Metz is still very active in the climate policy arena , among others as advisor for the European Climate Foundation and as steering group member of UNEP 's annual Emissions Gap Report . In 2008 he was named Officer in the Order of Orange-Nassau . .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Bert_Metz", "rank": 50, "score": 186812 }, { "content": "Title: Gary Yohe Content: Gary Wynn Yohe is the Huffington Foundation Professor of Economics and Environmental Studies at Wesleyan University , Middletown , Connecticut . He holds a PhD from Yale University . Yohe specializes in Microeconomic theory , Natural Resources , and Environmental Economics . He is a researcher on the economics of climate change and integrated assessment modelling . Among other works , he is an editor of the book `` Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change '' and co-author ( with Edwin Mansfield ) of `` Microeconomics | Microeconomics : Theory and Applications '' . He is a senior member of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was awarded a share of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore . He has been involved with the IPCC since the mid-1990s , has served , among other capacities , as a Lead Author for four different chapters in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , and as Convening Lead Author for the last chapter of the contribution of Working Group II to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Yohe also worked with the Core Writing Team to prepare the overall Synthesis Report for the entire Assessment . Yohe is also a member of the New York City Panel on Climate Change and the standing Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change of the National Academy of Sciences . He is also a standing member of the National Academy of Sciences ' Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change . He was a vice-chair of the Third National Climate Assessment . He is one of the four co-signers of an open letter , dated March 12 , 2010 , regarding possible errors in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and regularly advises the US government .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Gary_Yohe", "rank": 51, "score": 185782 }, { "content": "Title: Fatima Denton Content: Fatima Denton is the Co-ordinator for the African Climate Policy Centre ( ACPC ) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa ( UNECA ) , based in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia . She directs a special initiatives division focused on innovation , science , technology and natural resource management . She partners with countries such as Benin and Liberia to develop and implement country needs assessment missions . Fatima Denton writes about topics including renewable energy , sustainable development , climate change , gender and climate change , climate change adaptation , vulnerability , food security and water and energy poverty . She is a lead author for Working Group II 's Fifth Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and for the IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) . She has served on a number of scientific committees including the Independent Science Panel ( ISP ) of the CGIAR Climate Change and Food Security Programme ( CCAFS ) . Denton was the 2015 Barbara Ward Lecturer , challenging policy-makers , researchers , and academics in London to reexamine Africa and its relationship to climate change . She is a speaker at the 2016 Borlaug Dialogue International Symposium , one of several `` Women Leaders Driving Agricultural Transformation in Africa '' .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Fatima_Denton", "rank": 52, "score": 185219 }, { "content": "Title: Jim Salinger Content: Michael Jim Salinger is an Auckland-based climate change scientist who formerly worked for the Crown Research Institute National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research ( NIWA ) . He was a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . From 2006 to 2010 , Salinger was President of the Commission for Agricultural Meteorology at the World Meteorological Organization . On 23 April 2009 , Salinger was dismissed by NIWA , ostensibly for breaching NIWA 's media policy . Salinger had represented NIWA to the public and media for many years and the dismissal caused a ` wide public outcry ' according to Television New Zealand . The Institute of Agricultural and Horticultural Science described the incident as a ` national embarrassment ' . In late May 2009 , Salinger stated that mediation with NIWA over the dismissal had failed and that he would be lodging a claim with the Employment Relations Authority . On 19 October 2009 , the Employment Relations Authority in Auckland began a hearing into Salinger 's dismissal ; during the hearing it emerged the Salinger has suffered from depression . In December 2009 , the Employment Relations Authority upheld Salinger 's dismissal . In 2012 , Salinger was Lorry Lokey Visiting Professor at Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Jim_Salinger", "rank": 53, "score": 184362 }, { "content": "Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Seita_Emori", "rank": 54, "score": 183666 }, { "content": "Title: Mohan Munasinghe Content: Mohan Munasinghe is a Sri Lankan physicist , academic and economist with a focus on energy , water resources , sustainable development and climate change . He was a Vice-Chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former Vice-President of the United States Al Gore . Munasinghe is the Chairman of the Munasinghe Institute for Development . Currently he is a Professor of Sustainable Development at the Sustainable Consumption Institute , University of Manchester , and Institute Professor at the Vale Sustainable Development Institute , Federal University of Para , Brazil . He also serves on the board of directors of Green Cross International and is a member of the Club of Rome .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Mohan_Munasinghe", "rank": 55, "score": 183297 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report", "rank": 56, "score": 182828 }, { "content": "Title: Stephen Schneider Content: Stephen Henry Schneider ( February 11 , 1945 -- July 19 , 2010 ) was Professor of Environmental Biology and Global Change at Stanford University , a Co-Director at the Center for Environment Science and Policy of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and a Senior Fellow in the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment . Schneider served as a consultant to federal agencies and White House staff in the Richard Nixon , Jimmy Carter , Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , George W. Bush and Barack Obama administrations . Schneider 's research included modeling of the atmosphere , climate change , and the effect of global climate change on biological systems . Schneider was the founder and editor of the journal Climatic Change and authored or co-authored over 450 scientific papers and other publications . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in Working Group II Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report and was engaged as a co-anchor of the Key Vulnerabilities Cross-Cutting Theme for the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) at the time of his death . During the 1980s , Schneider emerged as a leading public advocate of sharp reductions of greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming . In 2006 Professor Schneider was an Adelaide Thinker in Residence advising the South Australian Government of Premier Mike Rann on climate change and renewable energy policies . In ten years South Australia went from zero to 31 % of its electricity generation coming from renewables . An annual award for outstanding climate science communication was created in Schneider 's honor after his death , by the Commonwealth Club of California .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Stephen_Schneider", "rank": 57, "score": 182438 }, { "content": "Title: Gabriele C. Hegerl Content: Gabriele C. Hegerl FRS ( born 1962 ) is Professor of Climate System Science at the University of Edinburgh School of GeoSciences . Prior to 2007 she held research positions at Texas A&M University and at Duke University 's Nicholas School of the Environment , during which time she was a coordinating lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth and Fifth Assessment Report .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Gabriele_C._Hegerl", "rank": 58, "score": 181528 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 59, "score": 181140 }, { "content": "Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :", "qid": "2886", "docid": "List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis", "rank": 60, "score": 181099 }, { "content": "Title: Steve Running Content: Steven W. Running , ( born 1950 ) Regents Professor , Forest Ecology , College of Forestry & Conservation at the University of Montana , and Director of the Numerical Terradynamics Simulation Group , is responsible for developing the earth observing-oriented algorithms used by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) on board NASA 's satellites , Terra and Aqua . He continues to be the lead investigator on this project . Running 's MOD17 algorithms are used to provide accurate and continuous global monitoring of the terrestrial biosphere , specifically , generating near-real-time data sets for repeated monitoring of vegetation primary production on vegetated land at 1-km resolution at 8-day intervals . These datasets are unique in that they provide global data on primary productivity and span a decade . A recognized expert in global ecosystem monitoring , Running was invited to serve on the board of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . In 2007 , the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . Running made the following statement about winning the prize : `` We 've got to get past all the petty bickering and get to work . This is about a big transition for society over the next 50 years . The path we are on is unsustainable . What the Nobel committee is saying is that we 've got to wake up . We 've got to change the course of the whole world . '' Steve Running is co-author of the 2007 book , Forest Ecosystems , and has published over 240 scientific papers . In 2012 , Running suggested a tenth planetary boundary , the annual net global primary production of all terrestrial plants , as an easily determinable measure integrating many variables that will give `` a clear signal about the health of ecosystems '' .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Steve_Running", "rank": 61, "score": 180789 }, { "content": "Title: Piers Forster Content: Piers Forster is Professor of Physical Climate Change and Director of the Priestley International Centre for Climate at the University of Leeds . A physicist by training , his research focuses on quantifying the different human causes of climate change and the way the Earth responds . He is best known for his work on radiative forcing , climate sensitivity , contrails and geoengineering . He has contributed heavily to the writing of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports , including acting as a Lead Author for both the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Piers_Forster", "rank": 62, "score": 180489 }, { "content": "Title: David Titley Content: David W. Titley is a professor of meteorology at Pennsylvania State University and the founding director of their Center for Solutions to Weather and Climate Risk . He was also NOAA 's chief operating officer from 2012 -- 2013 . Before assuming these positions , he was a rear admiral in , and the chief oceanographer of , the U.S. Navy , in which he served for 32 years . Titley initiated the Navy 's Task Force on Climate Change , and serves on the CNA Corporation 's Military Advisory Board . He was formerly a climate change skeptic , but later changed his mind after looking at the evidence of what factors influence climate -- which are , according to Titley , `` what are the larger things doing -- what is the ocean doing ? What is the sun doing ? And what 's our atmosphere doing ? '' Since then , he has described climate change as `` one of the driving forces in the 21st century '' and said that it contributed to the 2011 Arab Spring . The Department of Defense requested that Titley present on their behalf at both Congressional Hearings and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) meetings from 2009 to 2011 . Titley is a member of the Hoover Institution 's Arctic Security Initiative , and serves on the Advisory Boards of the Applied Research Laboratory at Penn State , the Center for Climate and Security , Columbia University 's Center for Research on Environmental Decisions , and the Association of Climate Change Officers . He is a member of the National Academies of Science committee on Geoengineering and the Center for Naval Analysis ' Military Advisory Board and co-chairs the National Research Council 's `` A Decadal Survey of Ocean Sciences '' committee . Titley sits on the Science and Security Board at the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , which , among other things , enables him to participate in the discussions that determine the position of the Bulletin 's famed Doomsday Clock . Titley is also on the Advisory Board of Citizens Climate Lobby .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "David_Titley", "rank": 63, "score": 176428 }, { "content": "Title: Richard G. Richels Content: Richard `` Rich '' Gayle Richels directs global climate change research at the Electric Power Research Institute . Richels received a BS degree in physics from the College of William & Mary . He was awarded MS and PhD degrees in decision science from Harvard University 's Division of Applied Sciences . Richels has served on a number of national and international advisory panels , including committees of the Department of Energy , the Environmental Protection Agency , and the National Research Council . He served as an expert witness at the Department of Energy 's hearings on the National Energy Strategy and testified at Congressional hearings on priorities in global climate change research . He was a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Second , Third and Fourth Assessment Reports ( the IPCC shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore ) and served on the Synthesis Team for the US National Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on the United States . He currently serves on the Scientific Steering Committee for the US Carbon Cycle Program and the Advisory Committee for Princeton University Carbon Mitigation Initiative . He has served as Editor of the Energy , Environment and National Resources area of the Operations Research Journal . He has also served on the Board of Editors of The Energy Journal and the Journal of Applied Stochastic Models and Data Analysis , and contributed to the Energy Modeling Forum . Richels is a co-author of Buying Greenhouse Insurance - the Economic Costs of Emission Limits ( with Alan S. Manne ) , and of Economic and environmental choices in the stabilization of atmospheric concentrations ( with Tom Wigley and Jae Edmonds ) . Both studies outline an economic approach to climate policy . Richels is a researcher on integrated assessment modelling for climate change , and regularly appears in the media .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Richard_G._Richels", "rank": 64, "score": 172515 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 65, "score": 171925 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 66, "score": 171617 }, { "content": "Title: Vincent R. Gray Content: __ NOTOC __ Vincent Richard Gray ( born 24 March 1922 ) is a New Zealand-based chemist , and a founder of the New Zealand Climate Science Coalition . Born in London on 24 March 1922 , Gray was awarded a PhD in physical chemistry by the University of Cambridge after studies on incendiary bomb fluids made from aluminium soaps . In New Zealand , he was the first Director of Building Research and later , Chief Chemist of the Coal Research Association . He has also published many articles and reports , seven in peer-reviewed journals . After retirement , he had four and a half years in China and when he returned became a critic of the claim that climate was harmed by human emissions of greenhouse gases . He has commented on every publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , with 1,898 comments on the 2007 Report . He has published critical studies on all of the reports including a book `` The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of ` Climate Change 2001 ' '' . He has published `` Confessions of a Climate Sceptic '' He is sceptical of the anthropogenic global warming : `` The two main `` scientific '' claims of the IPCC are the claim that `` the globe is warming '' and `` Increases in carbon dioxide emissions are responsible '' . Evidence for both of these claims is fatally flawed . '' Gray has called for the IPCC to be abolished , claiming it is `` fundamentally corrupt '' due to his conclusion that for significant parts of the work of the IPCC , the data collection and scientific methods employed are unsound and that the IPCC resists all efforts to try to discuss or rectify these problems . Gray was featured on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation program Counterpoint in a debate entitled `` Nine Lies about Global Warming '' , and was interviewed in a featured story in the New Zealand Herald as a `` prominent '' global warming skeptic . In 2002 , Gray also published a book , The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of `` Climate Change 2001 '' . In it , Gray argues `` that the quality and reliability of the IPCC 's measurements are poor , the system of determining how much weight should be attributed to different influences on the earth 's temperature is faulty , and the validity of evidence derived from computer modeling is questionable . ''", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Vincent_R._Gray", "rank": 67, "score": 169618 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act", "rank": 68, "score": 169526 }, { "content": "Title: Giulio Boccaletti Content: Giulio Boccaletti , Ph.D. , ( born in Modena , Italy ) is the British-Italian Chief Strategy Officer and Global Managing Director for Water at The Nature Conservancy . Trained as a physicist and atmospheric scientist , Boccaletti currently sits on the World Economic Forum 's Global Agenda Council , and has served on the OECD-WWC High Level Panel on Infrastructure Financing for a Water-Secure World . An alumnus of MIT , Princeton and Bologna universities , Boccaletti was briefly a lead author of the fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributes to the ideas platform published by the Edge Foundation , Inc. .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Giulio_Boccaletti", "rank": 69, "score": 168692 }, { "content": "Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Peter_A._Stott", "rank": 70, "score": 167731 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Bullock (scientist) Content: Peter Bullock ( 6 July 1937 -- 5 April 2008 ) was a soil scientist whose initial work in the field of soil micromorphology preceded an interest in land degradation . His advocacy of the need to treat soil as a sustainable resource led to his appointment to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Bullock contributed to the reports of the IPCC , which was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Peter_Bullock_(scientist)", "rank": 71, "score": 166683 }, { "content": "Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Long-term_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 72, "score": 166116 }, { "content": "Title: Steve Rayner Content: Steve Rayner is James Martin Professor of Science and Civilization at Oxford University and Director of the Institute for Science , Innovation and Society , a member of the Oxford Martin School . He describes himself as an `` undisciplined social scientist '' having been trained in philosophy , comparative religion ( BA University of Kent ) and political anthropology ( PhD University College London ) . A key research interest is climate policy , in particular adaptation and geoengineering as ways to mitigate climate change 's effects . He has been an outspoken critic of the architecture of the Kyoto Protocol , and his paper The Wrong Trousers : Radically Rethinking Climate Policy , co-written with Gwyn Prins of the London School of Economics has been widely cited on this topic . He is also interested in wicked problems , uncomfortable knowledge and clumsy solutions . He is currently principal investigator of the Oxford Programme for the Future of Cities and co-director of the Oxford Geoengineering Programme . In 2008 , he was listed by Wired Magazine as one of the 15 people the next President should listen to and was recognized for his contribution to the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Steve_Rayner", "rank": 73, "score": 165179 }, { "content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason", "rank": 74, "score": 164287 }, { "content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory", "rank": 75, "score": 163872 }, { "content": "Title: Dennis Tirpak Content: Dennis Tirpak is an expert on Climate Change . He is a Senior Fellow at the World Resources Institute . He was the director of Global Climate Change Policy at the United States Environmental Protection Agency for ten years . He was the Coordinator of Science and Technology at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for nine years . He was the head of the climate change unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) for three years . He has also worked on the Montreal Protocol and held positions in industry with Texaco and Alcoa . He is one of the coordinating lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice President Al Gore . He advises national governments and industry as an associate with the International Institute for Sustainable Development in Canada and a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute in Washington , D.C. He was the Chairman of The International Scientific Steering Committee for Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations which took place at the invitation of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2005 . In 1989 he co-authored the first report to Congress , The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change on the United States , and has written a scientific and policy history on climate change and contributed to many publications including the New York Times in an op-ed titled `` How Green is My Taxi '' .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Dennis_Tirpak", "rank": 76, "score": 163725 }, { "content": "Title: John Woods (oceanographer) Content: Professor John Woods , CBE ( born 1939 ) is a British oceanographer . He studied physics at Imperial College , London ( 1958-66 ) , after which he was appointed principal research fellow at the Meteorological Office ( 1966-72 ) , while leading the RN Operation Thermocline in which he pioneered underwater flow visualisation . Later he joined NERC as Director of Marine and Atmospheric Science ( 1986-1994 ) , where he created the National Oceanography Centre at Southampton . He held professorships at Southampton University ( 1972-77 ) , Kiel University ( 1977-86 ) and Imperial College London ( 1994 - ) , carrying out research into the seasonal boundary layer of the ocean and plankton ecosystem models , and modelling global container freight . Woods has served on a number of international project committees , including GARP ( Global Atmospheric Research Programme ) , WCRP ( World Climate Research Programme0 , IGBP ( International GeoSphere-Biosphere Programme ) , EuroGOOS ( European Global Ocean Observing System ) . He was co-chairman of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment . He was a lead author of the first report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , an organisation which was later awarded the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize jointly with Al Gore . He is now ( 2015 ) Emeritus Professor of Oceanography & Complex Systems in the Faculty of Engineering , Department of Earth Science & Engineering , Imperial College London . He is Adjunct Fellow of Linacre College , University of Oxford ( 1994 - ) , and Emeritus Researcher of the CNR ( Italian National Research Council ) .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "John_Woods_(oceanographer)", "rank": 77, "score": 163367 }, { "content": "Title: Daniel Kammen Content: Daniel Kammen is the Class of 1935 Distinguished Professor of Energy at the University of California , Berkeley and a climate Science Envoy for the State Department . He holds a dual appointment at the Energy and Resources Group ( part of the College of Natural Resources ) and the Goldman School of Public Policy . He is also a coordinating lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which won the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , for their report , Climate Change 2007 , assessing man-made global warming . Kammen was elected a permanent fellow of the African Academy of Sciences in 1998 and , in 2007 , received the Distinguished Citizen Award from the Commonwealth Club of California . On September 9 , 2010 , Kammen was appointed chief technical specialist for renewable energy and energy efficiency at the World Bank . In 2016 , he was selected as a U.S. Science Envoy by the United States State Department .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Daniel_Kammen", "rank": 78, "score": 163217 }, { "content": "Title: David Wratt Content: David Stuart Wratt QSO is the Chief Scientist ( Climate ) at the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research ( NIWA ) and is responsible for NIWA 's National Climate Centre . He has a PhD in atmospheric physics from the University of Canterbury . He has worked in the USA and Australia as well as New Zealand . His expertise includes climate and meteorology , climate change science and impacts , mountain meteorology , and air quality . He is a Companion of the Royal Society of New Zealand . He chairs the Climate Committee of the Royal Society of New Zealand . He is a member of the Bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and he is a Vice-Chair of IPCC Working Group 1 , which assesses the physical science of climate change . He was a Coordinating Lead Author of the `` Australia and New Zealand '' chapter of the IPCC Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . After gaining a PhD in atmospheric physics from the University of Canterbury and a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Illinois , he worked for the New Zealand Meteorological Service . In 1992 he and other climate researchers transferred to NIWA . Wratt has stated : `` There 's a strong scientific case for significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions . We need a combination of reducing our emissions in New Zealand and being part of international negotiations to reduce emissions globally in order to forestall the worst effects . '' Wratt was made a Companion of the Queen 's Service Order in the 2012 New Year Honours , for services to science .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "David_Wratt", "rank": 79, "score": 163205 }, { "content": "Title: Kathleen Miller Content: Kathleen A. Miller is a climate scientist who specializes in the economics of climate change and its effects on institutions , management of risk and investment decisions . She has worked as the lead author on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change chapter on North America in the report Climate Change 2001 : Impacts , Adaptations and Vulnerability . She is based at the United States National Center for Atmospheric Research in Colorado . Miller undertook her doctorate in Economics at the University of Washington in 1985 . Her dissertation was entitled The Right to Use vs. the Right to Sell : Water Rights in the Western United States . It explored the evolution of property institutions governing access to water in the arid western states and modelled the operation and effects of these institutions in the presence of both scarcity and inter-temporal variability in water supplies .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Kathleen_Miller", "rank": 80, "score": 162965 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy", "rank": 81, "score": 162862 }, { "content": "Title: Harry F. Lins Content: Harry F. Lins ( born 1948 ) is a hydrologist with the U.S. Geological Survey . Since joining USGS in 1971 , his work has spanned several Earth science disciplines , including coastal processes , surface water hydrology , and hydroclimatology . Although most of his career has been spent conducting research , he managed the USGS Global Change Hydrology Program from 1989 to 1997 , and served as Co-Chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Hydrology and Water Resources Working Group for the First Assessment Report . In 1999 , he and USGS colleague David Wolock developed `` WaterWatch '' , the Nation 's first website depicting maps and graphs of water resources conditions in near real-time . Lins currently serves as President of the World Meteorological Organization 's ( WMO ) Commission for Hydrology . Since the early 1980s , Lins ' research has focused principally on characterizing the surface water response to climate , with an emphasis on regional streamflow variability , long-term trends , and the statistical techniques appropriate for such analyses . Lins ' most controversial research , which has not been fully embraced by the climate science community , suggests that the significance of climate trends may be greatly overstated because it does not consider the possibility that long-term persistence is a component of climatic variations . Lins holds a B.S. in Geography from the University of Maryland ( 1971 ) , an M.S. in Geography from the University of Delaware , ( 1978 ) , and a Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences from the University of Virginia ( 1993 ) .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Harry_F._Lins", "rank": 82, "score": 162626 }, { "content": "Title: John Zillman Content: John W. Zillman AO ( born 28 July 1939 ) is an Australian meteorologist , and former President of the World Meteorological Organization and the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering ( ATSE ) . He was born and was educated in Brisbane , Queensland . Through his leadership in professional organizations and advisory groups , Zillman has contributed to shaping science and innovation policy in Australia . More widely , he has contributed to raising awareness to the consequences of global climate change through involvement in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "John_Zillman", "rank": 83, "score": 161847 }, { "content": "Title: Rajendra Shende Content: Rajendra Madhavrao Shende ( born 13 July 1949 ) , an alumnus of Indian Institute of Technology ( IIT ) and former Director in United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , is currently serving as the Chairman of TERRE Policy Centre which is a not-for-profit organization engaged in the evidence-based policy development and project based advocacy on the sustainable development . Before August 2011 , he was the Head of the OzonAction Branch of the United Nations Environment Programme , Division of the Technology , Industry and Economics ( UNEP DTIE ) in Paris . He served as Review Editor for the IPCC Special report on Technology Transfer in 2000 and was a Coordinating Lead Author for the IPCC/TEAP special report on Safeguarding the Ozone layer and Global Climate System in 2005 . The work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize . His UNEP programme became the first in the United Nations to bag an award from the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) for global efforts to protect the ozone layer . He also won a United States EPA award for Climate Protection . In 2006 he was felicitated by President of India Dr. Abdul Kalam for his role in development of the solar vaccine cooler for the poor , rural and remote communities . He is a member steering committee of key UNEP reports on interlinkages between Ozone Layer Protection and climate change . He has adopted his village Rahimatpur to develop it into a role model and a Social Laboratory for the sustainable development .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Rajendra_Shende", "rank": 84, "score": 161403 }, { "content": "Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists", "rank": 85, "score": 161091 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents", "rank": 86, "score": 160918 }, { "content": "Title: Dork Sahagian Content: Dork Sahagian is an Armenian American climate scientist . He is the Director of the Environmental Initiative at Lehigh University in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania . He invented a technique for calculating the Earth 's air pressure in the past , based on the difference in the size of the bubbles in cooled volcanic lava . Sahagian contributed to three of four assessment reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , which on October 12 , 2007 was jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize with former vice president Al Gore .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Dork_Sahagian", "rank": 87, "score": 157267 }, { "content": "Title: Carlo Carraro Content: Carlo Carraro ( born May 17 , 1957 , in Italy ) is the Chancellor of the University of Venice for the three-year period 2009-2012 , with a two-year extension of his mandate in accordance to the Gelmini University Law bringing it up to summer 2014 . He is also professor of Environmental Economics at the same University . He is Director of the Sustainable Development Programme of the Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei and Director of the Climate Impacts and Policy Division of the Euro-Mediterranean Center for Climate Change ( CMCC ) . In 2008 , Carlo Carraro was elected Vice-Chair of the Working Group III and Member of the Bureau of the Nobel Laureate Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Carlo_Carraro", "rank": 88, "score": 156917 }, { "content": "Title: Pedro Moura Costa Content: Pedro Moura Costa ( born 1963 , Brazil ) is an entrepreneur involved in environmental finance with a focus on the international efforts for greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emission reductions . Of particular relevance , he was the founder and President of EcoSecurities Group Plc. , one of the leading project developers for the international carbon markets , and has written widely about the policy and science of climate change mitigation , including contributions to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Pedro_Moura_Costa", "rank": 89, "score": 156652 }, { "content": "Title: Henry Pollack (geophysicist) Content: Henry Pollack is emeritus professor of geophysics at the University of Michigan . Pollack received his A.B. from Cornell University in 1958 and Ph.D in 1963 from the University of Michigan . He is also an advisor to the National Science Foundation and an author ( along with 2000 other people ) of a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which was awarded the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore . Pollack has conducted scientific research on all seven continents and has traveled regularly to Antarctica . In 2010 , Pollack wrote the book A World Without Ice which provides an analysis of climate change science . In 2003 , he wrote Uncertain Science ... Uncertain World .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Henry_Pollack_(geophysicist)", "rank": 90, "score": 156259 }, { "content": "Title: Ottmar Edenhofer Content: Ottmar Georg Edenhofer ( born in 8 July 1961 in Gangkofen , Lower Bavaria , Germany ) is one of the world 's leading experts on climate change policy , environmental and energy policy , and energy economics . Edenhofer currently holds the professorship of the Economics of Climate Change at the Technical University of Berlin . He is deputy director and chief economist of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research ( PIK ) as well as director of the Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change ( MCC ) . From 2008 to 2015 he served as one of the co-chairs of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group III `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . Among other functions , he is a member of the OECD Advisory Council `` Growth , Investment and the Low-Carbon Transition '' , a member of the High-Level Commission on Carbon Prices , a member of the Advisory Committee of the Green Growth Knowledge Platform ( GGKP ) , and a member of the German Academy of Science and Engineering ( acatech ) .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Ottmar_Edenhofer", "rank": 91, "score": 154854 }, { "content": "Title: Richard A. Betts Content: Richard A. Betts is Head of the Climate Impacts strategic area at the Met Office Hadley Centre in Exeter , United Kingdom . He is also Chair in Climate Impacts at the University of Exeter and the Principal Investigator of the EU FP7 project HELIX ( High-End cLimate Impacts and eXtremes ) . He was a lead author for Working Group I and a contributing author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He was a lead author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is an editor for the International Journal of Global Warming , the Journal of Environmental Investing , and for Earth System Dynamics . After studying physics at the University of Bristol , Betts switched to meteorology at the University of Birmingham and then studied for a doctorate in meteorology at the University of Reading . He is noted for engaging with critics of climate science on Twitter and was selected by TIME as one of the 140 best Twitter feeds of 2012 .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Richard_A._Betts", "rank": 92, "score": 154481 }, { "content": "Title: Kirk R. Smith Content: Kirk R. Smith is an expert on the health and climate effects of household energy use in developing nations . He is currently a professor of Global Environmental Health at the University of California , Berkeley , where his research focuses on the relationships among environmental quality , health , resource use , climate , development , and policy in developing countries . Smith contributed a great deal to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and the work of the IPCC ( including the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize . Smith is a recipient of the 2012 Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement for his work with cookstoves , health , and climate . He is also credited with designing and implementing the first randomized controlled trial of the health effects of indoor air pollution ( IAP ) from cookstoves .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Kirk_R._Smith", "rank": 93, "score": 153845 }, { "content": "Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 94, "score": 152392 }, { "content": "Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 95, "score": 152311 }, { "content": "Title: Berrien Moore III Content: Berrien Moore III is the former director of the Institute for the Study of Earth , Oceans , and Space at the University of New Hampshire and the founding director of Climate Central . In June 2010 , he accepted a set of linked positions at the University of Oklahoma : Vice President , Weather & Climate Programs , Director , National Weather Center , and Dean , College of Atmospheric and Geographic Sciences . He holds the Chesapeake Energy Corporation Chair in Climate Studies . Moore was a coordinating lead author of the final chapter of the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , an organisation that shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize . Among his other honors are the 2007 Dryden Lectureship in Research from the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal . Moore holds a Ph.D. in Mathematics from the University of Virginia .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Berrien_Moore_III", "rank": 96, "score": 152048 }, { "content": "Title: Julie Arblaster Content: Dr Julie Michelle Arblaster is an Australian scientist . She is currently an Associate Professor in the School of Earth , Atmosphere and Environment at Monash University . Arblaster was a lead author on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Julie_Arblaster", "rank": 97, "score": 151612 }, { "content": "Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 98, "score": 151531 }, { "content": "Title: Werner Kurz Content: Werner Kurz is a Canadian research scientist at Canada 's Pacific Forestry Centre in Victoria , British Columbia . He is leading the development of an accounting system to assess potential climate change known as the National Forest Carbon Accounting System for Canada . Currently , his research focuses on using forest land to its maximum carbon efficiency , reducing the impact of natural disasters , and managing forests . Kurz holds a PhD in forest ecology from the University of British Columbia . He has made significant contributions to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and the work of the IPCC ( including the contributions of many scientists ) was recognized by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Werner_Kurz", "rank": 99, "score": 149398 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Stilbs Content: Peter Stilbs ( born 1 June 1945 ) is an emeritus professor in physical chemistry at the Royal Institute of Technology ( KTH ) in Stockholm , Sweden . Stilbs earned a master 's degree in chemical engineering from the Lund Institute of Technology at Lund University in 1969 , and a Ph.D. in physical chemistry in 1974 . He served as a research assistant in physical chemistry at Uppsala University from 1976 to 1982 , and as an assistant professor from 1982 to 1986 . In 1986 he became a professor in physical chemistry at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm . His main fields of research are the techniques and applications of nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) . Stilbs has also been active in the debate on global warming . He has criticised the view that there is a scientific consensus on the attribution of recent climate change , and described the climate projections conducted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) as inadequate and misleading . In September 2006 he was chairman of an international seminar at the Royal Institute of Technology labelled Global Warming -- Scientific Controversies in Climate Variability , where both critics and supporters of the theory of man-made global warming were invited .", "qid": "2886", "docid": "Peter_Stilbs", "rank": 100, "score": 149238 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Prognosis (disambiguation) Content: Prognosis is a doctor 's prediction about a disease . Prognosis may also refer to : Prediction , a statement or claim that a particular event will occur in the future Prognostics , an engineering discipline focused on predicting the future condition or estimating remaining useful life of a component and/or system of components Precognition , the claimed psychic ability to perceive information about future places or events before they happen Fortune-telling , predicting the future , usually of an individual , often commercially Divination , the alleged practice of ascertaining information from supernatural sources", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Prognosis_(disambiguation)", "rank": 1, "score": 109028 }, { "content": "Title: Prognosis Content: Prognosis ( Greek : πρόγνωσις `` fore-knowing , foreseeing '' ) is a medical term for predicting the likely outcome of one 's chance of survival . When applied to large statistical populations , prognostic estimates can be very accurate : for example the statement `` 45 % of patients with severe septic shock will die within 28 days '' can be made with some confidence , because previous research found that this proportion of patients died . However , it is much harder to translate this into a prognosis for an individual patient : additional information is needed to determine whether a patient belongs to the 45 % who will die , or to the 55 % who survive . A complete prognosis includes the expected duration , function , and description of the course of the disease , such as progressive decline , intermittent crisis , or sudden , unpredictable crisis .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Prognosis", "rank": 2, "score": 97168 }, { "content": "Title: Relief of Fevers Content: Relief of Fevers ( Ջերմանց Մխիտարություն , Jermants Mkhitarutiun ) is an encyclopedic study written by medieval Armenian physician Mkhitar Heratsi in 1184 , which has survived in full . The author uses the word fever to designate diseases that cause fever , such as malaria , yellow fever , and typhoid , which seem to have been common in the lowlands of Cilicia at the time . The fact that the book is written not in Classical Armenian ( grabar ) but in the vernacular is evidence that the author wanted to make it available to ordinary people . Heratsi speaks at lengths on the symptoms of various fevers ; for example , he gives a clinical prognosis of three types of malaria , namely , quotidian ( miorya ) , tertan ( alternate days , yerekorya ) , and quartan ( three days apart , chorekorya ) . The manuscript was discovered in 1727 in Constantinople and was purchased by the National Library of Paris . It appeared in print for the first time in 1832 in Venice . Later in the century , it was brought to the attention of Western scholars by a number of German researchers who published some excerpts in German . Excerpts were also published in French by Vahram Torkomian in 1899 . The whole work was translated into German by Ernst Seidel in 1908 . A Russian translation was published in Yerevan in 1955 .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Relief_of_Fevers", "rank": 3, "score": 87805 }, { "content": "Title: Probabilistic prognosis Content: Probabilistic prognosis means the anticipation of future events based on a probabilistic structure of past experiences of individual and present situations . Past experiences and present situations help to create hypothesis about the forthcoming future and attributes certain probabilities to them . According to probabilistic prognosis , the preparation of an individual occurs to corresponding actions . This ability is the result of biological evolution in a probabilistically organized environment . The prognosis of living creatures optimizes the results of their actions , and therefore they are adequate , exactly to those variable characteristics of environment on which the success of action -- satisfaction of needs , achieving goals , depends on . Under some pathological conditions , such as schizophrenia , local damage of the brain , the probabilistic prognosis mechanism can be disturbed . The theory of probabilistic prognosis originated as a continuation of Nikolai Bernstein 's ideas stated in his work `` Essays of the Physiology of Movement and Physiology of Activity '' ( 1966 ) A new direction of studies of probabilistic prognosis started with works of Professor J.Feigenberg ( 1969 ) , Professor M.Tsiskaridze ( 1969 ) , and Preofessor V.Ivannikov ( 1971 ) , and later were widely explored by other scientists . Studies of probabilistic prognosis remain topical until now and have many followers .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Probabilistic_prognosis", "rank": 4, "score": 84423 }, { "content": "Title: Hagnothemis Content: According to Plutarch , six years after Alexander the Great 's death Hagnothemis claimed that Antipater was responsible for poisoning Alexander , and that it was Aristotle who instigated this and procured the poison . Hagnothemis claimed he had heard King Antigonus speak of this , and that the poison was `` deadly cold '' water distilled from a rock and so `` cold and penetrating '' that it could only be kept in an ass 's hoof . Though the claim spread widely in antiquity , it is now considered unlikely . Other than this brief passage in Plutarch , we have no further biographical details for Hagnothemis .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Hagnothemis", "rank": 5, "score": 83218 }, { "content": "Title: The Best of Hed Planet Earth Content: The Best of ( həd ) Planet Earth is a compilation album by American rock band Hed PE . Released on June 6 , 2006 , the album was compiled by Jive Records from the group 's first three albums , Hed PE , Broke and Blackout '' , and released without the group 's authorization , permission , consent , or knowledge .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "The_Best_of_Hed_Planet_Earth", "rank": 6, "score": 83017 }, { "content": "Title: Bilious fever Content: Bilious fever was a medical diagnosis often used for any fever that exhibited the symptom of nausea or vomiting in addition to an increase in internal body temperature and strong diarrhea . `` Bilious '' means the condition was thought to arise from disorders of bile , the two types of which were two of the Four Humours of traditional Galenic medicine in 200 A.D. The term is obsolete and no longer used , but was used by medical practitioners in the 18th and 19th centuries , often cited as a cause on death certificates . President Lincoln 's son Willie was said to have died from bilious fever . Modern diagnoses for the same symptoms would include a wide range of conditions and infections . Bilious fever ( Latin bilis , `` bile '' ) : Refers to fever associated with excessive bile or bilirubin in the blood stream and tissues , causing jaundice ( a yellow color in the skin or sclera of the eye ) . The most common cause was malaria . Viral hepatitis and bacterial infections of the blood stream ( sepsis ) may have caused a few of the deaths reported as bilious fever .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Bilious_fever", "rank": 7, "score": 82129 }, { "content": "Title: C. J. Prosise Content: Calvin `` C. J. '' Prosise Jr. ( born May 20 , 1994 ) is an American football running back for the Seattle Seahawks of the National Football League ( NFL ) . He was drafted by the Seahawks in the third round of the 2016 NFL draft . He played college football at Notre Dame .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "C._J._Prosise", "rank": 8, "score": 81294 }, { "content": "Title: The Fever Code Content: The Fever Code is a 2016 young adult dystopian science fiction novel written by American author James Dashner and published on September 27 , 2016 by Delacorte Press . It is the second prequel book in The Maze Runner series and the fifth installment overall . The book is chronologically set in between the events of The Kill Order and immediately before The Maze Runner book . Dashner has stated that he had always wanted to write about how the rest of the Gladers got to the Maze and the events prior to Thomas entering the box . The novel is written from the various points of view of the Gladers . The book primarily focuses on the training that Thomas and the others undergo before being sent into the Maze , however , it also explores the relationships between the Gladers before they underwent the ` Swipe ' , the `` Purge '' that is briefly mentioned in The Death Cure and the lives of the Gladers in Thomas ' absence , as he is working with WICKED at the time . The book ends with the final moments of Thomas entering the Box ready to be sent to the Maze , leading to the beginning of The Maze Runner .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "The_Fever_Code", "rank": 9, "score": 81222 }, { "content": "Title: Prognoz (satellite) Content: Prognoz , also known as SO-M was a Soviet scientific research satellite programme . Twelve Prognoz satellites were launched between 14 April 1972 and 29 August 1996 , by Molniya-M carrier rockets . The satellites were placed in High Earth orbits . All launches occurred from Site 31/6 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome The satellites were primarily used for Solar research , however the later satellites were used for other research , including research into the Big Bang theory , and Earth 's magnetosphere . The tenth satellite was used as part of the Interkosmos programme .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Prognoz_(satellite)", "rank": 10, "score": 80686 }, { "content": "Title: WVM Content: WVM ( Born David Alvarez ) is a musician , composer and visual artist located in Los Angeles , California . He is a multi-instrumentalist who mainly uses analog equipment . In early 2017 WVM released `` Sown , '' `` Blood '' and `` I Will Run '' mixed by Christoffer Berg ( The Knife , Fever Ray ) as digital singles . In May of 2017 , `` Empire '' ( Originally released in 2014 ) mixed by Sean Beavan debuted on The CW 's TV show `` The 100 ''", "qid": "2887", "docid": "WVM", "rank": 11, "score": 80576 }, { "content": "Title: Antonio Vagnozzi Content: Antonio Vagnozzi ( born 1950 ) is an amateur Italian astronomer and a discoverer of asteroids . Vagnozzi is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of 46 minor planets during 1993 -- 1999 . In 1993 , he was Italy 's first amateur astronomer ( and the second discoverer worldwide ) to discover a minor planet using a CCD camera . ( The first numbered CCD-based discovery was 4255 Spacewatch , which was discovered by the Spacewatch project in 1986 ) . He also searches for supernovae and is a co-discoverer of SN 1996ae . The main-belt asteroid 7529 Vagnozzi was named in his honor . Naming citation was published on 11 April 1998 .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Antonio_Vagnozzi", "rank": 12, "score": 78983 }, { "content": "Title: Lord Feverstone Content: Richard Devine , Lord Feverstone is a fictional character in two of the books of C. S. Lewis 's Interplanetary Trilogy . Richard ( `` Dick '' ) Devine knew the protagonist , Elwin Ransom , at school , where they did not get on . As a schoolboy , Devine had `` learned just half a term earlier than anyone else that kind of humour which consists in a perpetual parody of ... the idealistic clichés of one 's elders . For a few weeks his references to the Dear Old Place and to Playing the Game , ... to the White Man 's Burden ... , had swept everyone ... off their feet . '' His charm and shrewd backroom manipulation lead to his steady rise in wealth and position . Ransom meets him again years later , in Out of the Silent Planet . At this time Devine is the business partner of Professor Weston , a physicist , who has invented a spacecraft and is engaged in voyages to Mars . Devine is mainly interested in the gold found there . They kidnap Ransom with a view to giving him to a Martian ruler who they believe ( wrongly ) to be asking for a human sacrifice . They travel to Mars but Ransom escapes . Devine is described by the ruler of Mars as being dead as a person , whereas his companion Weston is only `` bent '' , because Devine cares only for wealth , comfort , and prestige . Devine expresses his instrumental view of morality in his dismissal of Weston 's rationalizations for sacrificing Ransom : `` Quite , quite . It is understood that you are doing it all from the highest motives . So long as they lead to the same actions as my motives , you are quite welcome to them . '' On the return trip , Devine earns some grudging respect from Ransom by his courage in steering the ship through a crisis . It is implied that Weston and Devine part ways upon their return to Earth . In the third book of the trilogy , That Hideous Strength , Devine has gone up in the world . He has been given a peerage , with the title Lord Feverstone . He has influence in the British government , and is on the verge of being admitted to the Cabinet . He is also a fellow of Bracton College at the University of Edgestow , and a leading member of the N.I.C.E. ( see University of Edgestow ) . He brings Mark Studdock into the N.I.C.E. As ( engineered ) disturbances break out at Edgestow , Feverstone is made Emergency Commissioner , since he represents simultaneously the nation ( as a Cabinet Minister ) , the University , and the N.I.C.E. Feverstone 's appointment is part of the N.I.C.E. 's plan to take over Britain , but , ever ready to abandon his allies , he keeps his options open in case the scheme misfires . Keeping a clear head amid chaos , he survives the destruction of the N.I.C.E. headquarters , but is then caught in the supernatural destruction of Edgestow . Feverstone 's character is one that would now probably be described as that of a sociopath or psychopath , with great charm , complete selfishness , and a lack of guilt . `` He had a perfectly clear conscience ... . He had never slandered another man except to get his job , never cheated except because he wanted money , never really disliked people unless they bored him . '' Feverstone is fond of muffins , which he can devour in one bite , although there is some controversy among Lewis scholars about whether these are traditional English muffins or , less likely , American muffins .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Lord_Feverstone", "rank": 13, "score": 78296 }, { "content": "Title: Prognoz Content: Prognoz may refer to : PROGNOZ , a Russian company . Prognoz SO-M , a Soviet space science programme . US-KMO , a series of early warning satellites sometimes mistakenly called Prognoz .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Prognoz", "rank": 14, "score": 78080 }, { "content": "Title: Running on Empty (1982 film) Content: Running on Empty ( released in America as Fast Lane Fever ) is a 1982 Australian action film .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Running_on_Empty_(1982_film)", "rank": 15, "score": 78026 }, { "content": "Title: Fever (DC Comics) Content: Fever is a fictional character , a DC Comics superheroine and Doom Patrol member . She first appeared in Doom Patrol vol . 3 # 1 ( December 2001 ) , and was created by John Arcudi and Tan Eng Huat .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Fever_(DC_Comics)", "rank": 16, "score": 77703 }, { "content": "Title: PROGNOZ Content: PROGNOZ is a privately held company based in Perm , Russia that develops business software . The company 's software is commonly categorized in the business intelligence or business process management market segments . In addition to its headquarters in Perm , PROGNOZ has offices in Beijing , Brussels , Moscow , and Washington . The company name derives from the Russian word for `` forecast . ''", "qid": "2887", "docid": "PROGNOZ", "rank": 17, "score": 77531 }, { "content": "Title: Prodrome Content: In medicine , a prodrome is an early sign or symptom ( or set of signs and symptoms ) , which often indicate the onset of a disease before more diagnostically specific signs and symptoms develop . It is derived from the Greek word prodromos , meaning `` running before '' . Prodromes may be non-specific symptoms or , in a few instances , may clearly indicate a particular disease , such as the prodromal migraine aura . For example , fever , malaise , headache and lack of appetite frequently occur in the prodrome of many infective disorders . A prodrome can be the early precursor to an episode of a chronic neurological disorder such as a migraine headache or an epileptic seizure , where prodrome symptoms may include euphoria or other changes in mood , insomnia , abdominal sensations , disorientation , aphasia , or photosensitivity . Such a prodrome occurs on a scale of days to an hour before the episode , where an aura occurs more immediate to it . Prodromal labour , mistakenly called `` false labour , '' refers to the early signs before labour starts .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Prodrome", "rank": 18, "score": 77396 }, { "content": "Title: Champagne Fever Content: Champagne Fever ( foaled 26 May 2007 ) is an Irish Thoroughbred racehorse who competes in National Hunt racing . He is noted for his front-running style and has won seven of his thirteen races . After beginnin his racing career on the amateur point-to-point circuit he became the dominant National Hunt Flat performer in Britain and Ireland in 2012 , winning the Champion Bumper and the Champion INH Flat Race . In the following season he was campaigned in novice hurdle races and won two more Grade I races , the Deloitte Novice Hurdle in Ireland and Supreme Novices ' Hurdle in England . In his first season over steeplechase fences he won one minor race and finished second in the Arkle Challenge Trophy and in the following year he added win in the Clonmel Oil Chase and Red Mills Chase .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Champagne_Fever", "rank": 19, "score": 76818 }, { "content": "Title: Gold Fever Content: Gold Fever was the name of a BBC documentary , shown in August 2000 , which followed Steve Redgrave and his British rowing coxless four teammates Matthew Pinsent , Tim Foster and James Cracknell in the years leading up to the Sydney Olympics , where Redgrave was looking to claim his fifth consecutive gold medal . The 3-part series included video diaries recording the highs and lows in the quest for gold . Among these were Redgrave being diagnosed with diabetes , and Foster possibly losing his spot on the team after injuring his hand punching a window at a party , and later undergoing back surgery that required additional months of recovery time . Coach Jurgen Grobler was also featured in the programme . A follow-up documentary programme entitled The Rowers Return was produced in the aftermath of the Sydney Olympics . The title was part-reference to a fictional public house , The Rovers Return , a venue in the long-running British soap opera Coronation Street . The documentary detailed the crew 's return to the UK and completed the Gold Fever story .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Gold_Fever", "rank": 20, "score": 76274 }, { "content": "Title: Hed PE Content: Hed PE , also known as ( hed ) Planet Earth and stylized as ( həd ) p.e. , is an American rap rock band from Huntington Beach , California . Formed in 1994 , the band performs a style of music which it refers to as `` G-punk '' , a fusion of punk rock and gangsta rap . After releasing three albums on Jive Records , Hed PE left the label to record independently , eventually signing with Suburban Noize Records in 2006 . Since 2006 , the band has become known for its involvement in the 9/11 Truth movement , referencing it in many of their song lyrics and concerts , as well as the concept of the album New World Orphans . To date , they have released nine studio albums , one live album and two compilation albums .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Hed_PE", "rank": 21, "score": 75258 }, { "content": "Title: Howard Menger Content: Howard Menger ( February 17 , 1922 -- February 25 , 2009 ) was an American contactee who claimed to have met extraterrestrials throughout the course of his life , meetings which were the subject of books he wrote , such as From Outer Space To You and The High Bridge Incident . Menger , who rose to prominence as a charismatic contactee detailing his chats with friendly Adamski-style Venusian `` space brothers '' in the late 1950s , was accepted by some UFO believers . Later in his life Menger stated in several documetaries that he believed he had misunderstood the space aliens and where they came from . He stated the space aliens did not live on Venus but they had bases on Venus or were passing by or exploring the planet . Menger also wrote about this newer position about where he believed the space people come from in one of his later books . Menger states : '' ` Years ago , on a T.V. program , when I first voiced my opinion that the people I met and talked with from the craft might not be extraterrestrial , it was thought that I had recanted . However , they ( the aliens ) said they had just come from the planet we call Venus ( or Mars ) . It is my opinion that these space travelers may have by-passed or visited other planets ( as we are planning ) but were not native to those planets any more than our astronauts are native to the moon . ' '' Menger had religious revelations to impart after his `` experiences , '' and also came back from his contacts with practical messages . When he was still young he moved with his parents to the rolling hills of Hunterdon County , New Jersey . His first alleged contact with a person from another planet was at the age of ten , in the woods near his hometown of High Bridge , New Jersey . Shortly after leaving high school , he entered the United States Army and was attached to the 17th Tank Battalion . In later life he was often employed as a sign painter . He died on February 25 , 2009 , at the age of 87 .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Howard_Menger", "rank": 22, "score": 74918 }, { "content": "Title: Prita Mulyasari Content: Prita Mulyasari is an Indonesian housewife and mother of two who in 2008 was a patient at Omni International Hospital in Tangerang , west of Jakarta , for an illness that was misdiagnosed as dengue fever , whereas she actually had mumps . Her complaints about her misdiagnosis started as a private email that went viral and she was jailed after losing a civil defamation suit taken by the hospital in 2009 . The case highlighted the over-reaction of Indonesian prosecutors when presented with cases being pursued by influential individuals and companies Due to the proximity of the presidential elections in July 2009 , the various candidates either visited Prita Mulyasari in jail or publicly commented on the case Support from a group on MySpace attracted considerable support as well as Indonesian blog sites The case brought attention to clauses of the Indonesian Information and Electronic Transaction Law which are currently being challenged and questioned as a result of Prita Mulyasari 's case Prita was fined 204 million rupiah ( US$ 20,500 ) , causing support for her to grow stronger . A mailing list and Facebook group called `` KOIN UNTUK PRITA '' started raising money from people throughout Indonesia . People started collecting coins to help Prita to pay the fine . Seeing the huge support for Prita , Omni International Hospital dropped the civil lawsuit . The Indonesian Supreme Court in June 2012 overturned Prita 's conviction and jail sentence .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Prita_Mulyasari", "rank": 23, "score": 74732 }, { "content": "Title: Der Untergang der islamischen welt: Eine prognose Content: The fall of the Islamic world : A forecast ( ISBN 9789025437398 , original German title : Der Untergang der islamischen Welt : Eine Prognose , ISBN 9783426275443 ) is a book from 2010 of the German-Egyptian political scientist and Islam critic Hamed Abdel-Samad . In the book Abdel-Samad claims Islam is over its peak . If root cause , he points to the contradiction that contemporary Muslims do consume the material achievements of modern society , but on a spiritual plane they are not open to much of associated concepts such as freedom , equality and religious criticism in modern society . Moreover , Muslims in the West are largely financially economically dependent on Western social order but despise the underlying moral values . The gap between Islam and society grows and loses its relevance . Adbel-Samad sees a solution in what he called a `` post-Koran discourse '' a religious-ethnical Islamic revival , but not literally on the Qu ` ran word . Category : Political literature Category : German literature Category :2010 books Category : Books about Islam", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Der_Untergang_der_islamischen_welt:_Eine_prognose", "rank": 24, "score": 74680 }, { "content": "Title: Fever (Aerosmith song) Content: `` Fever '' is a song by American hard rock band Aerosmith . It is from the band 's massively successful 1993 album Get a Grip . It was written by Steven Tyler and Joe Perry and is the only Tyler/Perry song on Get a Grip written without the aid of `` song doctors '' . The song is the fourth track on Get a Grip , running four minutes and 15 seconds . The song reached # 5 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart and is one of seven tracks from Get a Grip to make a chart appearance on any chart .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Fever_(Aerosmith_song)", "rank": 25, "score": 74588 }, { "content": "Title: Thái Ngọc Content: Thái Ngọc ( born 1942 ) is a Vietnamese insomniac . According to Vietnamese news organization Thanh Niên , he is best known for his claim of being awake for 43 years . Thanh Niên also claimed that Ngoc acquired the ability to go without sleep after a bout of fever in 1973 , but according to the Vietnam Investment Review , there was no apparent cause . At the time of the Thanh Niên report , Ngoc suffered from no apparent ill effect other than being unable to sleep . He was mentally sound and carried two 50 kg of pig feed down a 4 km road every day . In October 2006 , however , Ngoc reported that he was beginning to feel `` like a plant without water '' due to the lack of sleep .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Thái_Ngọc", "rank": 26, "score": 74537 }, { "content": "Title: Josiah C. Nott Content: Josiah Clark Nott ( March 31 , 1804March 31 , 1873 ) was an American physician and surgeon . He was also an author of surgical , yellow fever , and racist theories . Nott was influenced by the racial theories of Samuel George Morton ( 1799 -- 1851 ) , one of the inspirators of physical anthropology . Morton collected hundreds of human skulls from around the world and tried to classify them . Morton had been among the first to claim that he could judge the intellectual capacity of a race by the cranial capacity ( the measure of the volume of the interior of the skull ) . A large skull meant a large brain and high intellectual capacity , and a small skull indicated a small brain and decreased intellectual capacity . By studying these skulls he came to the conclusion of polygenism , that each race had a separate origin . Nott , the owner of nine slaves , `` used his influence and his science to defend the subjugation of blacks through slavery '' . He claimed that `` the negro achieves his greatest perfection , physical and moral , and also greatest longevity , in a state of slavery '' .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Josiah_C._Nott", "rank": 27, "score": 74279 }, { "content": "Title: Fever of unknown origin Content: Fever of unknown origin ( FUO ) , pyrexia of unknown origin ( PUO ) or febris e causa ignota ( febris E.C.I. ) refers to a condition in which the patient has an elevated temperature ( fever ) but despite investigations by a physician no explanation has been found . If the cause is found it is usually a diagnosis of exclusion , that is , by eliminating all possibilities until only one explanation remains , and taking this as the correct one .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Fever_of_unknown_origin", "rank": 28, "score": 74227 }, { "content": "Title: The Flintstones: Jogging Fever Content: Jogging Fever is a 1981 animated television special and is the fourth and final of The Flintstone Special limited-run prime time revival of The Flintstones produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions which premiered on NBC on October 11 , 1981 . Jogging Fever was animated at Filman , an animation studio in Madrid , Spain ( headed by Carlos Alfonso and Juan Pina ) who did a lot of animation work for Hanna-Barbera between the early 1970s through the mid-1980s . This was also notable for being the final television special to feature Hanna-Barbera 's controversial studio-made laugh track , which was used throughout the 1970s .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "The_Flintstones:_Jogging_Fever", "rank": 29, "score": 74060 }, { "content": "Title: Menace (video game) Content: Menace is a side-scrolling shooter video game developed by DMA Design and published by Psygnosis . It was originally released for the Amiga in 1988 , and was ported for the Atari ST , Commodore 64 , and MS-DOS in 1989 . The game is set on the planet of Draconia , where players are tasked with destroying the planet 's defence mechanisms in order to kill the harmful creatures . The game was designed by David Jones , and was the first game developed by his company DMA Design . First developed in his bedroom at his parents ' house , Jones began seeking an official development studio and publisher when the game was nearing completion . He eventually settled upon a publishing deal with Psygnosis , who first published the game in 1988 to positive reviews ; praise was given to the game 's graphics , sound and gameplay , while criticism was directed at its ports to inferior hardware . The game was commercially successful , selling over 20,000 copies .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Menace_(video_game)", "rank": 30, "score": 74016 }, { "content": "Title: Barak Fever Content: Barak Fever Daniels ( Holon , Israel ; 27 August 1981 ) is a Mexican sport journalist who works for the multinational sport chain ESPN . He began his professional career in TV Azteca in 1998 in their statistics department and has covered a wide variety of major sporting events such as Euro 2004 in Portugal , Euro 2008 in Austria-Switzerland , Olympics 2008 in Beijing , FIFA World Cup in Germany 2006 and America 's Cup 2007 in Venezuela . Fever studied Communications at Universidad Iberoamericana in Mexico City .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Barak_Fever", "rank": 31, "score": 73825 }, { "content": "Title: Time Is Running Out (album) Content: Time is Running Out is the second and final album by American jazz/R & B group Brass Fever recorded in 1976 and released on the Impulse ! label .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Time_Is_Running_Out_(album)", "rank": 32, "score": 73765 }, { "content": "Title: Prognoz 9 Content: Prognoz 9 was a Soviet satellite . It was designed to investigate residual radiation from the Big Bang and gamma flares in deep space .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Prognoz_9", "rank": 33, "score": 73671 }, { "content": "Title: Prognoz mine Content: The Prognoz mine is one of the largest silver mines in Russia and in the world . The mine is located in Sakha Republic . The mine has estimated reserves of 205 million oz of silver .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Prognoz_mine", "rank": 34, "score": 73634 }, { "content": "Title: Fever One Content: Carter `` Fever One '' McGlasson is a b-boy and DJ originally from Seattle , Washington who relocated to New York City in 1997 and eventually joined the world-famous Rock Steady Crew . He is most well known for his ` gunzblazin ' style which he developed while studying with his mentors Icey Ice and Lil ' Lep of the New York City Breakers .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Fever_One", "rank": 35, "score": 73609 }, { "content": "Title: Steve Running Content: Steven W. Running , ( born 1950 ) Regents Professor , Forest Ecology , College of Forestry & Conservation at the University of Montana , and Director of the Numerical Terradynamics Simulation Group , is responsible for developing the earth observing-oriented algorithms used by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) on board NASA 's satellites , Terra and Aqua . He continues to be the lead investigator on this project . Running 's MOD17 algorithms are used to provide accurate and continuous global monitoring of the terrestrial biosphere , specifically , generating near-real-time data sets for repeated monitoring of vegetation primary production on vegetated land at 1-km resolution at 8-day intervals . These datasets are unique in that they provide global data on primary productivity and span a decade . A recognized expert in global ecosystem monitoring , Running was invited to serve on the board of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . In 2007 , the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . Running made the following statement about winning the prize : `` We 've got to get past all the petty bickering and get to work . This is about a big transition for society over the next 50 years . The path we are on is unsustainable . What the Nobel committee is saying is that we 've got to wake up . We 've got to change the course of the whole world . '' Steve Running is co-author of the 2007 book , Forest Ecosystems , and has published over 240 scientific papers . In 2012 , Running suggested a tenth planetary boundary , the annual net global primary production of all terrestrial plants , as an easily determinable measure integrating many variables that will give `` a clear signal about the health of ecosystems '' .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Steve_Running", "rank": 36, "score": 73570 }, { "content": "Title: Ed Kavalee Content: Edward Robert Kavalee ( born 30 June 1979 ) is an Australian actor and radio host . He was a co-host of a comedy sports program on the Seven Network , Santo , Sam and Ed 's Sports Fever ! , with Santo Cilauro and Sam Pang ( A spin-off of Santo , Sam and Ed 's Cup Fever , a program coinciding with the 2010 FIFA World Cup on SBS TV ) . They also did a show on Foxtel called `` Santo , Sam and Ed 's Total Football '' from 2013-2015 . The trio are now broadcasting a weekly podcast on the ABC called `` Santo , Sam , and Ed 's Total Football Podcast '' . He was formerly part of the ensemble cast of Thank God You 're Here , and host of TV Burp , both of which aired on the Seven Network . He got his break into the entertainment industry as Tony Martin 's co-host on Get This , a radio show which aired on the Triple M Network in Australia in 2006 -- 07 , panelled by Richard Marsland . This was the most popular radio show in Australia and provided Kavalee with a cult following . Following Get This he was co-presenter of Nova 's The Wrong Way Home , alongside Akmal Saleh and Cal Wilson , and currently appears on the Marto & Ed Kavalee show in the breakfast slot on Triple M , and is part of the recurring panelists on Channel Ten 's Have You Been Paying Attention ?", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Ed_Kavalee", "rank": 37, "score": 73496 }, { "content": "Title: Albert Abrams Content: Albert Abrams ( December 8 , 1863 -- January 13 , 1924 ) was a Jewish American doctor , well known during his life for inventing machines which he claimed could diagnose and cure almost any disease . These claims were challenged from the outset . Towards the end of his life , and again shortly after his death , many of his machines and conclusions were demonstrated to be intentionally deceptive or false .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Albert_Abrams", "rank": 38, "score": 73372 }, { "content": "Title: Co-Ed Fever Content: Co-Ed Fever is an American sitcom that aired on CBS in 1979 . The series attempted to capitalize on the success of the motion picture National Lampoon 's Animal House . It was the third of three `` frat house '' comedy series to air in early 1979 ( the others were ABC 's Delta House and NBC 's Brothers and Sisters ) . CBS cancelled Co-Ed Fever after only one episode , and all three series were off the air by the end of April 1979 . The series was so low rated it never made it to its regular time slot , Monday night , instead having aired as a `` special preview '' the night before . In 2002 , Co-Ed Fever ranked number 32 on TV Guides 50 Worst Shows of All Time list .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Co-Ed_Fever", "rank": 39, "score": 72934 }, { "content": "Title: Visceral leishmaniasis Content: Visceral leishmaniasis ( VL ) , also known as kala-azar , black fever , and Dumdum fever , is the most severe form of leishmaniasis and , without proper diagnosis and treatment , is associated with high fatality . Leishmaniasis is a disease caused by protozoan parasites of the Leishmania genus . This disease is the second-largest parasitic killer in the world ( after malaria ) , responsible for an estimated 200,000 to 400,000 infections each year worldwide . The parasite migrates to the internal organs such as the liver , spleen ( hence `` visceral '' ) , and bone marrow , and , if left untreated , will almost always result in the death of the host . Signs and symptoms include fever , weight loss , fatigue , anemia , and substantial swelling of the liver and spleen . Of particular concern , according to the World Health Organization ( WHO ) , is the emerging problem of HIV/VL co-infection .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Visceral_leishmaniasis", "rank": 40, "score": 72934 }, { "content": "Title: Prognostics Content: Prognostics is an engineering discipline focused on predicting the time at which a system or a component will no longer perform its intended function . This lack of performance is most often a failure beyond which the system can no longer be used to meet desired performance . The predicted time then becomes the remaining useful life ( RUL ) , which is an important concept in decision making for contingency mitigation . Prognostics predicts the future performance of a component by assessing the extent of deviation or degradation of a system from its expected normal operating conditions . The science of prognostics is based on the analysis of failure modes , detection of early signs of wear and aging , and fault conditions . An effective prognostics solution is implemented when there is sound knowledge of the failure mechanisms that are likely to cause the degradations leading to eventual failures in the system . It is therefore necessary to have initial information on the possible failures ( including the site , mode , cause and mechanism ) in a product . Such knowledge is important to identify the system parameters that are to be monitored . Potential uses for prognostics is in condition-based maintenance . The discipline that links studies of failure mechanisms to system lifecycle management is often referred to as prognostics and health management ( PHM ) , sometimes also system health management ( SHM ) or -- in transportation applications -- vehicle health management ( VHM ) or engine health management ( EHM ) . Technical approaches to building models in prognostics can be categorized broadly into data-driven approaches , model-based approaches , and hybrid approaches .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Prognostics", "rank": 41, "score": 72767 }, { "content": "Title: New York Centaurs Content: The New York Centaurs were an A-League professional soccer club , based in New York City . The team played only one season in 1995 . The New York Fever of the USISL Pro League , debuted in 1994 , playing two seasons in the league before merging with the Centaurs organization in 1996 . The unified New York Fever team competed in one season in the A-League in 1996 before folding . The Fever originally played out of Barrett Stadium on the campus of Westchester Community College in Valhalla , New York . The Centaurs played their games at Downing Stadium on Randall 's Island , the former home of the New York Cosmos .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "New_York_Centaurs", "rank": 42, "score": 72111 }, { "content": "Title: Brett Gotcher Content: Brett Gotcher is an American long distance runner . Gotcher ran for Aptos High School and Stanford University . At the 2009 IAAF World Half Marathon Championships Gotcher finished 64th . At the 2009 IAAF World Cross Country Championships Gotcher finished 75th . He made his marathon debut in 2010 .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Brett_Gotcher", "rank": 43, "score": 71995 }, { "content": "Title: List of films set on Mars Content: There is a body of films that are set on the planet Mars . In the late 19th century , people erroneously believed that there were canals on Mars . Into the early 20th century , additional observations of Mars fed people 's interest in what was called `` Mars fever '' . One of the earliest films to be set on Mars was the short film A Trip to Mars ( 1910 ) , which was produced by one of Thomas Edison 's film companies . In the 1920s through the 1960s , more films featured Mars or extraterrestrial Martians . In the 1960s and 1970s , the Mariner program and the Viking program revealed new scientific details about Mars that showed little prospect for life . The Guardian said , `` These disappointing discoveries changed the place of Mars on humanity 's mental map . Films began to reflect this . '' Films such as Total Recall ( 1990 ) and Red Planet ( 2000 ) focused more on the colonization of Mars by humans . The Guardian , reporting on the release of John Carter ( 2012 ) , said , since 1995 , six films featuring Mars performed poorly at the box office . Wired , reporting on the release of The Martian ( 2015 ) , said prior films set on Mars -- Red Planet , Mission to Mars ( 2000 ) , and The Last Days on Mars ( 2013 ) -- were `` notable flops '' that were the most recent in a `` dismal track record of Mars movies '' . The Atlantic called The Martian `` the subgenre 's newest and best entry '' , citing the positive reviews and strong box office returns on opening weekend . It said , `` Many films seek to dramatize the Red Planet 's harsh landscape as a romantic frontier , but The Martian is one that actually succeeds . ''", "qid": "2887", "docid": "List_of_films_set_on_Mars", "rank": 44, "score": 71985 }, { "content": "Title: Hipgnosis Content: Hipgnosis was an English art design group based in London that specialised in creating cover art for the albums of rock musicians and bands . Notable commissions included work for Pink Floyd , T. Rex , the Pretty Things , UFO , 10cc , Bad Company , Led Zeppelin , AC/DC , Scorpions , Yes , Def Leppard , Paul McCartney & Wings , the Alan Parsons Project , Genesis , Peter Gabriel , Electric Light Orchestra , the Police , Rainbow , Styx , Pezband , XTC and Al Stewart . Hipgnosis consisted primarily of Cambridge natives Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell , and later Peter Christopherson . The group dissolved in 1983 , though Thorgerson worked on album designs until his death on 18 April 2013 , and Powell works in film and video , most notably with Paul McCartney , the Who , and Monty Python 's Flying Circus , and is the creative director for both Pink Floyd and its member David Gilmour .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Hipgnosis", "rank": 45, "score": 71977 }, { "content": "Title: Robert Reidt Content: Robert Reidt ( June 25 , 1892 -- March 1966 ) was a German-born American who is best known for promoting a prediction that the world would end on February 6 , 1925 . Reidt was a house painter living in Long Island , New York , and heard about Californian Margaret Rowen 's claim that the day of judgment was coming on February 6 , 1925 . Calling himself the `` Apostle of Doom '' , he sold all his assets to spread word of the coming event . After nothing happened at the appointed hour outside his small rented abode in East Patchogue , he later blamed photo flashbulbs for obscuring a supposedly visible sign in the skies . He then suggested the end was coming in the following week . The events received regular front-page coverage in The New York Times and nationwide news coverage . In February 1926 , Reidt made a new prediction that a fireball would soon strike New York City . This event also failed to occur . He made yet another unsuccessful prediction of doom in 1932 . The last contemporary press coverage that Reidt received was in 1938 , in connection with a planetarium trying to publicize a show about end of the world predictions . Reidt died at age 73 in March 1966 in Florida .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Robert_Reidt", "rank": 46, "score": 71537 }, { "content": "Title: Prognostic chart Content: A prognostic chart is a map displaying the likely weather forecast for a future time . Such charts generated by atmospheric models as output from numerical weather prediction and contain a variety of information such as temperature , wind , precipitation and weather fronts . They can also indicate derived atmospheric fields such as vorticity , stability indices , or frontogenesis . Forecast errors need to be taken into account and can be determined either via absolute error , or by considering persistence and absolute error combined .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Prognostic_chart", "rank": 47, "score": 71394 }, { "content": "Title: Disco Fever Content: Disco Fever was a New York City dance club located in the South Bronx that operated from 1976 to 1986 . After initially failing to draw very many customers , Sal Abbatiello convinced his father , the owner , to hand over the reins . Abbatiello quickly began featuring hip hop artists including a young Grandmaster Flash , and the club greatly increased in popularity and fame . Hip hop group Run-D.M.C . performed their first show at the club .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Disco_Fever", "rank": 48, "score": 71373 }, { "content": "Title: Adult-onset Still's disease Content: Adult-onset Still 's disease ( AOSD ) is a rare systemic autoinflammatory disease characterized by the classic triad of persistent high spiking fevers , joint pain , and a distinctive salmon-colored bumpy rash . The disease is considered a diagnosis of exclusion . Levels of the iron-binding protein ferritin may be elevated with this disorder . AOSD may present in a similar manner to other inflammatory diseases and to autoimmune diseases , which must be ruled out before making the diagnosis . Prognosis is usually favorable but manifestations of the disease affecting the lungs , heart , or kidney may occasionally cause severe life-threatening complications . It is treated first with steroids such as prednisone . Drugs that block the action of interleukin-1 , particularly IL-1β , are effective treatments .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Adult-onset_Still's_disease", "rank": 49, "score": 71327 }, { "content": "Title: Wind turbine prognostics Content: The growing demand for renewable energy has spurred global adoption and expansion of wind turbine technology . To increase energy capacity for existing and future wind farm projects , prognostics and health management ( PHM ) techniques are considered as a critical approach , whose functionality to diagnose and prognose system degradation and failure is capable to enhance reliability and reduce downtime .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Wind_turbine_prognostics", "rank": 50, "score": 71238 }, { "content": "Title: Fever (comics) Content: Fever , in comics , may refer to : Fever ( DC Comics ) , a DC Comics character Fever , an Image Comics character who appeared in Freak Force Fever , a Marvel Comics character who appeared in Doom 2099 Spider-Man : Fever , a 3-issue mini-series from Marvel Comics by Brendan McCarthy It may also refer to : Fever Dreams , a one-shot from Kitchen Sink Press containing work by Richard Corben Fever Pitch ( comics ) a Marvel Comics supervillain Millennium Fever ( comics ) , a 1995 mini-series from Vertigo Silk Fever , a Marvel Comics supervillain", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Fever_(comics)", "rank": 51, "score": 71204 }, { "content": "Title: Jerome Apt Content: Jerome III `` Jay '' Apt , Ph.D. ( born April 28 , 1949 in Massachusetts ) is an American astronaut and professor at Carnegie Mellon University . Before he became an astronaut , Apt was a physicist who worked on the Pioneer Venus 1978 space probe project , and used visible light and infrared techniques to study the planets and moons of the solar system from ground-based observatories .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Jerome_Apt", "rank": 52, "score": 71104 }, { "content": "Title: Fever (Kylie Minogue album) Content: Fever is the eighth studio album by Australian singer Kylie Minogue , released on 1 October 2001 internationally by Parlophone . The album was later released in the United States on 26 February 2002 by Capitol Records and was Minogue 's first album release in the region since her second studio album Enjoy Yourself ( 1989 ) . Minogue worked with writers and producers such as Cathy Dennis , Rob Davis , Richard Stannard , Julian Gallagher , TommyD , Tom Nichols , Pascal Gabriel and others to create the disco and Europop-influenced dance-pop album . Other musical influences of the album range from synthpop to club music . Four singles were released from the album . Its lead single `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' was released in September 2001 and became a massive commercial success , peaking atop the charts of 40 countries and selling more than five million copies worldwide . The song , which is often recognised as Minogue 's signature song , is her highest selling single as of today and one of the best-selling singles of all time . Follow-up singles `` In Your Eyes '' and `` Love at First Sight '' also performed well on charts internationally . The last single `` Come into My World '' won Minogue a Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording in 2004 , and stands as her only Grammy Award-winning song to date . All four singles charted within the top 10 in Australia and the United Kingdom , with `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' peaking at number one in both countries . In order to promote the album , Minogue embarked on the KylieFever2002 tour . Upon its release , Fever received generally positive reviews from music critics , many of whom praised its production and commercial nature . Likewise , the album was a commercial success , peaking at number one on the charts of countries like Australia , Austria , Germany , Ireland and the United Kingdom . In the United States , the album peaked at number three on the US Billboard 200 chart , becoming Minogue 's biggest hit in the country . The album was certified seven-times platinum in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , five-times platinum in the United Kingdom by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , and platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Fever won the Brit Award for `` Best International Album '' at the 2002 awards show ceremony . In Australia , Fever was the thirteenth best selling album of the decade .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Fever_(Kylie_Minogue_album)", "rank": 53, "score": 71094 }, { "content": "Title: Planet Earth (Prince album) Content: Planet Earth is the thirty-second studio album by American recording artist Prince . It was released on July 15 , 2007 by NPG Records and distributed by Columbia Records in the UK as a free covermount with The Mail on Sunday national newspaper . This was followed by the album 's worldwide distribution . It features contributions from his newest protegée Bria Valente and former New Power Generation members Marva King , Sonny T. , and Michael Bland , as well as Sheila E. and former Revolution members Wendy & Lisa . The album debuted at number 3 on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling 96,000 in its first week .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Planet_Earth_(Prince_album)", "rank": 54, "score": 71013 }, { "content": "Title: Planet Earth Live Content: Planet Earth Live is a 2010 BBC nature documentary film that celebrated its premier in the U.S. with a tour featuring narration and live orchestral accompaniment featuring the score by composer George Fenton , who serves as conductor . Each show runs 90 minutes plus an intermission , featuring the highlights from the television series Planet Earth in a full high definition screening with live orchestra and narration . The tour features some of the leading classical orchestras providing accompaniment in prominent music venues in several large cities . The tour which was originally scheduled to visit Dallas , Atlanta , Chicago and Los Angeles , has added performances in Philadelphia and the Baltimore-Washington , D.C. area . In 2011 , the documentary played in the United Kingdom .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Planet_Earth_Live", "rank": 55, "score": 70937 }, { "content": "Title: Arthur B. Rubinstein Content: Arthur B. Rubinstein ( born March 31 , 1938 in Brooklyn , New York ) is an American composer . He composed several TV series soundtracks and songs for film scores , including Video Fever and Edge of the World in the 1983 film WarGames . During the making of these soundtracks , he was a member of the band The Beepers . He has frequently been hired by film director John Badham , and the majority of his movie soundtracks are found in Badham 's work , including Whose Life Is It Anyway ? ( 1981 ) , Blue Thunder ( 1983 ) , Stakeout ( 1987 ) , The Hard Way ( 1991 ) , Another Stakeout ( 1993 ) , and Nick of Time ( 1995 ) . In 1983 Rubinstein created the score to Blue Thunder ( which he composed , conducted and produced ) using various synthesizers , a popular instrument of the 80 's era . In the score Rubinstein used these synthesizers in a symphonic manner by combining them with brass , percussion and string ensembles . Using the Synclavier II ( a digital computer instrument ) and dubbing this with both the Jupiter , the Prophet and the Moog analog synthesizers , Rubinstein also created a very unusual sound by placing a microphone inside a large empty water bottle and placing it underneath a Steinway grand piano . His many other film and TV movie scores include The Great Bank Hoax ( 1978 ) , On the Right Track ( 1981 ) , Deal of the Century ( 1983 ) , The Cartier Affair ( 1984 ) , It Came Upon the Midnight Clear ( 1984 ) , Lost in America ( 1985 ) , Murder in Space ( 1985 ) , The Best of Times ( 1986 ) , Hyper Sapien : People from Another Star ( 1986 ) , Love Among Thieves ( 1987 ) , Once Upon a Texas Train ( 1988 ) , Inherit the Wind ( 1988 ) and Dead Man 's Island ( 1996 ) .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Arthur_B._Rubinstein", "rank": 56, "score": 70908 }, { "content": "Title: Fever Pitch (1985 film) Content: Fever Pitch is a 1985 American drama film starring Ryan O'Neal , and written and directed by Richard Brooks . This turned out to be the final film for Brooks , director of such acclaimed pictures as Blackboard Jungle , Elmer Gantry , Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and In Cold Blood . Co-starring in the film were Giancarlo Giannini , Chad Everett , John Saxon and Catherine Hicks . The original music score was composed by Thomas Dolby . The film failed at the box office after it grossed only a little more than $ 600,000 . Fever Pitch was nominated for four Razzie Awards , including Worst Picture , as well as contributing to O'Neal 's later Razzie nomination for Worst Actor of the Decade . The film is listed in Golden Raspberry Award founder John Wilson 's book The Official Razzie Movie Guide as one of the 100 Most Enjoyably Bad Movies Ever Made .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Fever_Pitch_(1985_film)", "rank": 57, "score": 70797 }, { "content": "Title: Gliese 581g Content: Gliese 581g -LSB- ˈɡliːzə -RSB- , unofficially known as Zarmina ( or Zarmina 's World ) , is an unconfirmed ( and disputed ) exoplanet claimed to orbit within the Gliese 581 planetary system , twenty light-years from Earth . It was discovered by the Lick -- Carnegie Exoplanet Survey , and is the sixth planet orbiting the star ; however , its existence could not be confirmed by the European Southern Observatory ( ESO ) / High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher ( HARPS ) survey team , and its existence remains controversial . It is thought to be near the middle of the habitable zone of its star . That means it could sustain liquid water -- a necessity for all known life -- on its surface , if there are favorable atmospheric conditions on the planet . Gliese 581g was claimed to be detected by astronomers of the Lick -- Carnegie Exoplanet Survey . The authors stated that data sets from both High Resolution Echelle Spectrometer ( HIRES ) and HARPS were needed to sense the planet ; however , the ESO/HARPS survey team could not confirm its existence . The planet remained unconfirmed as consensus for its existence could not be reached . Additional reanalysis only found evidence for four planets , but the discoverer , Steven S. Vogt , did not agree with those conclusions ; another study by Guillem Anglada-Escudé later supported the planet 's existence . In 2012 , a reanalysis by Vogt supported its existence . A new study in 2014 concluded that it was a false positive ; however , in 2015 , a reanalysis of the data suggested that it could still exist . The planet is thought to be tidally locked to its star . If the planet has a dense atmosphere , it may be able to circulate heat . The actual habitability of the planet depends on the composition of its surface and the atmosphere . It is thought to have temperatures around − 37 to − 11 ° C ( − 35 to 10 ° F ) . By comparison , Earth has an average surface temperature of 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) -- while Mars has an average surface temperatures of about − 63 ° C ( − 81 ° F ) . The planet has , according to Vogt , a `` 100 % '' chance of supporting life , but this is disputed . The supposed detection of Gliese 581g foreshadows what Vogt calls `` a second Age of Discovery '' .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Gliese_581g", "rank": 58, "score": 70756 }, { "content": "Title: Fever (1989 film) Content: Fever is a 1989 Australian erotic thriller film about an Australian policeman who finds a suitcase full of money , and the course of events which unfold when he decides to keep it . The film was directed by Craig Lahiff , and stars Bill Hunter , Gary Sweet , and Mary Regan .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Fever_(1989_film)", "rank": 59, "score": 70645 }, { "content": "Title: Paradox of the Court Content: The Paradox of the Court , also known as the counterdilemma of Euathlus , is a very old problem in logic stemming from ancient Greece . It is said that the famous sophist Protagoras took on a pupil , Euathlus , on the understanding that the student pay Protagoras for his instruction after he wins his first court case . After instruction , Euathlus decided to not enter the profession of law , and Protagoras decided to sue Euathlus for the amount owed . Protagoras argued that if he won the case he would be paid his money . If Euathlus won the case , Protagoras would still be paid according to the original contract , because Euathlus would have won his first case . Euathlus , however , claimed that if he won , then by the court 's decision he would not have to pay Protagoras . If , on the other hand , Protagoras won , then Euathlus would still not have won a case and would therefore not be obliged to pay . The question is : which of the two men is in the right ? The story is related by the Latin author Aulus Gellius in Attic Nights .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Paradox_of_the_Court", "rank": 60, "score": 70562 }, { "content": "Title: Carl Mayrhofer Content: Carl Mayrhofer ( June 2 , 1837 in Austria -- June 3 , 1882 in Franziskovy , Czech Republic ) was a physician conducting work on the role of germs in childbed fever . In 1862 he was appointed second assistant to professor Carl Braun in the maternity clinic at Vienna General Hospital . He was encouraged by Braun to study airborne organisms as the source of childbed fever . As such , Mayrhofer was asked to support the position of Braun in his extremely bitter feud with Ignaz Semmelweis , who claimed that the disease was caused by contaminated hands , in effect blaming doctors for the horrific mortality rates at the time ( i.e. that it was an iatrogenic disease ) . Mayrhofer referred to these organisms as vibrions . At first , Mayrhofer 's work supported Braun 's views and the results were published . In an 1865 publication , however , Mayrhofer concluded that infection was usually the result of contaminated hands thus rejecting Braun 's concept and supporting Ignaz Semmelweis ' rivalling theory . Openly disagreeing with his superior , his fate was sealed . Mayrhofer 's work was rejected and he soon left the clinic . He entered into private practice . He was appointed privatdozent of obstetrics in 1870 , and a few years later , adjunct professor within the same field .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Carl_Mayrhofer", "rank": 61, "score": 70400 }, { "content": "Title: Earth 2100 Content: Earth 2100 is a television program that was presented by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) network on June 2 , 2009 and was aired on the History Channel in January 2010 and was shown through the year . Hosted by ABC journalist Bob Woodruff , the two-hour special explored what `` a worst-case '' future might look like if humans do not take action on current or impending problems that could threaten civilization . The problems addressed in the program include current climate change , overpopulation , and misuse of energy resources . The events following the life of a fictitious storyteller , `` Lucy '' ( told through the use of motion comics , or limited animation ) , as she describes how the events affect her life . The program included predictions of a dystopian Earth in the years 2015 , 2030 , 2050 , 2085 , and 2100 by scientists , historians , social anthropologists , and economists , including Jared Diamond , Thomas Homer-Dixon , Peter Gleick , James Howard Kunstler , Heidi Cullen , Alex Steffen and Joseph Tainter . It ended with a quote from writer Alex Steffen , saying `` Kids born today will see us navigate past the first greatest test of humanity , which is : can we actually be smart enough to live on a planet without destroying it ? '' According to Executive Producer Michael Bicks , `` this program was developed to show the worst-case scenario for human civilization . Again , we are not saying that these events will happen -- rather , that if we fail to seriously address the complex problems of climate change , resource depletion and overpopulation , they are much more likely to happen . ''", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Earth_2100", "rank": 62, "score": 70382 }, { "content": "Title: Narayan Apte Content: Narayan Dattatraya Apte ( 1911 -- 15 November 1949 ) was an Indian activist and entrepreneur who was executed for his role in the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi . In 1932 , Apte graduated from Bombay University as a Bachelor of Science . After obtaining his B.Sc. , Degree , Apte accepted a teacher 's job at Ahmednagar . During his stay at Ahmednagar , he was married to Mr Phadtare 's daughter named Champa . He appeared for his B.T. examination and got his degree . In 1939 , Apte joined the Hindu Mahasabha . While Gandhi was staying at Panchagani , a group of some twenty-five young men led by Apte staged a protest against Gandhi 's policies on 22 July 1944 . Apte planned and executed another such demonstration before Gandhi while he stayed in the sweepers ' colony in Delhi . Apte considered himself an expert prognosticator when it came to reading the stars and predicting the future . His predictions that killing Gandhi would somehow magically reunify India with Pakistan and that he would live to be both old and revered throughout India proved to be inaccurate . He worked with Nathuram Godse for almost six years under the Hindu Mahasabha . On 28 March 1944 the publication of Marathi daily Agrani started at Pune . Godse was its editor and Apte its manager . It bore a picture of Vinayak Damodar Savarkar on its front page . Apte was present on the spot at Mahatma Gandhi 's assassination , with Godse . He was executed by hanging , simultaneously with Nathuram Godse , on 15 November 1949 , at Ambala Jail .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Narayan_Apte", "rank": 63, "score": 70317 }, { "content": "Title: Postoperative fever Content: Postoperative fever is a common condition challenging doctors to find the right diagnosis , because it can be a hallmark of serious underlying conditions . One third of patients develop fever after surgery depending on type of surgery but only a small percentage turn out to be due to infection .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Postoperative_fever", "rank": 64, "score": 70212 }, { "content": "Title: Gene Brewer Content: Gene Brewer ( born Eugene N. Brewer , 4 July 1937 ) is an American writer , the author of the K-PAX series of novels , about a man who claims to be a visiting extraterrestrial from a planet called K-PAX : K-PAX ( 1995 ) , On a Beam of Light ( 2001 ) , K-PAX III : The Worlds of Prot ( 2002 ) , K-PAX IV ( 2007 ) and Prot 's Report , a brief natural history of the Earth , which appears in K-PAX : The Trilogy , an omnibus edition of the first three K-PAX books . The first book in the series was made into a Universal Pictures film in 2001 ; it stars Kevin Spacey and Jeff Bridges .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Gene_Brewer", "rank": 65, "score": 70210 }, { "content": "Title: Particle Fever Content: Particle Fever is a 2013 American documentary film tracking the first round of experiments at the Large Hadron Collider near Geneva , Switzerland . The film follows the experimental physicists at CERN who run the experiments , as well as the theoretical physicists who attempt to provide a conceptual framework for the LHC 's results . The film begins in 2008 with the first firing of the LHC and concludes in 2012 with the successful identification of the Higgs boson . The Communication Awards of the National Academies of Sciences , Engineering , and Medicine awarded a $ 20,000 prize for excellence in communicating science to the general public in Film/Radio/TV to David Kaplan and Mark Levinson for `` Particle Fever '' on October 14 , 2015 . The awards are given to individuals in four categories : books , film/radio/TV , magazine/newspaper and online , and are supported by the W. M. Keck Foundation . .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Particle_Fever", "rank": 66, "score": 70170 }, { "content": "Title: Troels Wörsel Content: Troels Wörsel ( born November 10 , 1950 in Aarhus , Danmark ) is a Danish painter , currently based in Cologne and Pietrasanta . Troels Wörsel is self-taught and in the 1970s , became interested in Pop art and conceptual art . Philosophical issues such as the relationship between space and time characterised his art . In the early 1980s , he contributed to the pioneer exhibition Rundschau Deutschland and Bildwechsel at West Berlin 's Akademie der Künste . In 1995 Wörsel was awarded the Eckersberg Medal , and in 2002 he won Carnegie Art Award 's first prize with three paintings all of which were executed on the reverse of the canvas . ''", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Troels_Wörsel", "rank": 67, "score": 70032 }, { "content": "Title: Ill Na Na 2: The Fever Content: Ill Na Na 2 : The Fever was intended to be the fourth full-length studio album and fifth recording by American hip-hop artist Foxy Brown . Scheduled for a May 6 , 2003 release date , the album was cancelled due to disagreements between Foxy Brown and Bad Boy CEO Sean Combs .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Ill_Na_Na_2:_The_Fever", "rank": 68, "score": 69930 }, { "content": "Title: Earth Run Content: Earth Run is a 1986 album by American Guitarist Lee Ritenour released in 1986 on the GRP label . The album reached # 10 on Billboard 's Contemporary Jazz chart . Earth Run is notable for Ritenour 's use of the SynthAxe , which he is pictured holding on the cover art .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Earth_Run", "rank": 69, "score": 69754 }, { "content": "Title: Arie Verveen Content: Arie Verveen ( born 28 September 1976 ) is an Irish actor whose accomplished list of movies and directors he has collaborated with include Terrence Malick ( The Thin Red Line ) , Robert Rodriguez - Frank Miller ( Sin City ) , Guy Ritchie ( Suspect ) , Eli Roth ( Cabin Fever ) , Sergei Bodrov ( Running Free ) and Robert M. Young ( Caught ) . He has received an Independent Spirit Award Nomination , a Golden Satellite Award and notable critical acclaim , for his work .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Arie_Verveen", "rank": 70, "score": 69627 }, { "content": "Title: Prognostic equation Content: Prognostic equation - in the context of physical ( and especially geophysical ) simulation , a prognostic equation predicts the value of variables for some time in the future on the basis of the values at the current or previous times . For instance , the well-known Navier-Stokes equations that describe the time evolution of a fluid are prognostic equations that predict the future distribution of velocities in that fluid on the basis of current fields such as the pressure gradient .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Prognostic_equation", "rank": 71, "score": 69462 }, { "content": "Title: Fever (band) Content: Fever was a disco trio from San Francisco who scored a number of hits on the Hot Dance Music/Club Play Chart , the most successful being `` Beat of the Night '' / `` Pump It Up , '' which hit # 1 . The band consisted of Dale Reed , Joseph `` Joe '' Bomback and Dennis Wadlington . The single `` Beat of the Night '' was the most successful of the group 's three releases on the disco/dance chart . Along with the track `` Pump it Up '' , `` Beat of the Night '' hit number one on the disco chart for one week . The single also peaked at number ninety-three on the soul singles . The group got together in 1978 and put out a 12 '' that was a cover of The Four Tops hit `` Standing in the Shadows of Love '' which peaked at number nineteen on the disco chart . Their LP that followed featured Patrick Cowley on synthesizers .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Fever_(band)", "rank": 72, "score": 69384 }, { "content": "Title: Aubrey Powell (designer) Content: Aubrey `` Po '' Powell , ( born 23 September 1946 ) , co-founded the album cover design company Hipgnosis with Storm Thorgerson in 1967 . The company ran successfully for 15 years until 1982 . Hipgnosis created some of the most innovative and surreal record cover art of the 1960s , 1970s and 1980s for many of the most famous rock bands of the era including Pink Floyd , Led Zeppelin , Paul McCartney , Yes , Genesis , 10cc , Peter Gabriel , Bad Company , Emerson , Lake & Palmer , Scorpions , Styx , Syd Barrett , and Black Sabbath . Hipgnosis was nominated five times for Grammy Awards .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Aubrey_Powell_(designer)", "rank": 73, "score": 69312 }, { "content": "Title: Buck Nelson Content: Buck Nelson ( April 9 , 1895 -- 1982 ) was an American farmer who claimed to have had an encounter with an unidentified flying object and its human crew in 1954 while living in Missouri . Buck Nelson believed the friendly occupants of the spacecraft to be humans from the planet Venus . His story is contained in a 1956 booklet he authored , My Trip to Mars , the Moon , and Venus . It has been speculated by some that the space visitors have bases on Venus , the Moon , and Mars instead of living on those planets .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Buck_Nelson", "rank": 74, "score": 69059 }, { "content": "Title: Febrile seizure Content: A febrile seizure , also known as a fever fit or febrile convulsion , is a seizure associated with a high body temperature but without any serious underlying health issue . They most commonly occur in children between the ages of 6 months and 5 years . Most seizures are less than five minutes in duration and the child is completely back to normal within sixty minutes of the event . Febrile seizures may run in families . The diagnosis involves verifying that there is not an infection of the brain , there are no metabolic problems , and there have not been prior seizures that have occurred without a fever . There are two types of febrile seizures : simple febrile seizures and complex febrile seizures . Simple febrile seizures involve an otherwise healthy child who has at most one tonic-clonic seizure lasting less than 15 minutes in a 24-hour period . Blood testing , imaging of the brain or an electroencephalogram ( EEG ) is typically not needed for the diagnosis . Examination to determine the source of the fever is recommended . In otherwise healthy looking children a lumbar puncture is not necessarily required . Neither anti-seizure medication nor anti-fever medication are recommended in an effort to prevent further simple febrile seizures . In the few cases that last greater than five minutes a benzodiazepine such as lorazepam or midazolam may be used . Outcomes are generally excellent with similar academic achievements to other children and no change in the risk of death for those with simple seizures . There is tentative evidence that children have a slight increased risk of epilepsy at 2 % . Febrile seizures affect two to ten percent of children before the age of five . They are more common in boys than girls . After a single febrile seizure there is a 15 to 70 % chance of another one .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Febrile_seizure", "rank": 75, "score": 69032 }, { "content": "Title: Fever (Destefano novel) Content: Fever is a 2013 young-adult dystopian novel written by Lauren DeStefano . It was published on February 12 . 2012 , by Simon & Schuster Book 's For Young Readers . It takes place in a dystopian future where scientists have created a generation of perfect humans , who suffer from no illnesses or disorders . However , an unforeseen virus derived from the cure plagues the children and the grandchildren of the perfection generation and kills females at age 20 and males at age 25 . This leads to a dramatic crisis in the population with the young dying and the perfect generation reaching old age , and a race to create a cure . It is the second book of The Chemical Garden Trilogy . The first book , Wither , was released in March 2011 . The third and final book , Sever , was released in December 2013 .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Fever_(Destefano_novel)", "rank": 76, "score": 68962 }, { "content": "Title: Prognostic variable Content: In the context of prognostics , a prognostic variable is a measured or estimated variable that is correlated with the health condition of a system , and may be used to predict its residual useful life . An ideal prognostic variable is easily measured or calculated , and provides an exact estimation of how long time the system can continue to operate before maintenance or replacement will be required . Real prognostic variables are usually either known with some uncertainty , may be difficult to measure , and their correlation to the state of health of the system may not be exact . Examples of prognostic variables are the age of a vehicle and its odometer reading : the older a car is , and the longer it has been driven , the more worn it can be expected to be . These prognostic variables are useful , but not ideal , since they do not consider other aspects such as the regularity of the maintenance that was applied on the vehicle , how they were driven , in which weather conditions , etc ; they do , however , have the advantage of being easily measured , understood and verified , whereas an in-depth analysis of the mechanical condition of the vehicle would be expensive to perform , require specific skills to be understood and would be difficult to verify .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Prognostic_variable", "rank": 77, "score": 68852 }, { "content": "Title: Julian Gallagher Content: Julian Gallagher ( born 17 July 1968 in Bromley , London ) is a British songwriter and record producer , known for helping Kylie Minogue on her 2001 album , Fever . He also co-wrote songs with Gabrielle on her 2007 album , Always , as well as co-writing many songs for boy band Five , including the chart-topping singles `` Keep On Movin ' '' and `` Let 's Dance '' . Other songs co-written by Gallagher include `` Lullaby '' for Mel B , and the British chart-topper `` What Took You So Long ? '' for Emma Bunton . Although mainly a rhythm and lead guitarist , Julian is also proficient on keyboards , bass guitar and drums . In addition to his own songwriting career , he has worked on many projects with his elder brother , producer and engineer Dillon Gallagher . Julian 's father is Scottish singer-songwriter Benny Gallagher , of the duo Gallagher and Lyle .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Julian_Gallagher", "rank": 78, "score": 68832 }, { "content": "Title: Planet (horse) Content: Planet ( 1855 -- 1875 ) was a racehorse and hall of fame inductee who to the people , was considered the best horse before the American Civil War . He set a record for prize money earnings which stood for 20 years . ( He earned $ 1,915,334.25 adjusted by inflation )", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Planet_(horse)", "rank": 79, "score": 68704 }, { "content": "Title: Prognorisma Content: Prognorisma is a genus of moths of the Noctuidae family .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Prognorisma", "rank": 80, "score": 68569 }, { "content": "Title: But It's Better If You Do Content: `` But It 's Better If You Do '' is a song by American rock band Panic ! at the Disco , released on May 16 , 2006 as the third single from their debut album A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out ( 2005 ) . Taking its title from a quote said by Natalie Portman 's character in the 2004 film Closer , the song was written by band members Ryan Ross , Brendon Urie and Spencer Smith , and is about being in and not enjoying the location of a strip club . `` But It 's Better If You Do '' failed to recreate the success the previous single `` I Write Sins Not Tragedies '' had in the United States but found chart prominence in Europe and Oceania , peaking at number 10 in New Zealand , number 15 in Australia and number 23 in the UK . The accompanying music video for the song , directed by Shane Drake , features the band performing at a masquerade-style strip club .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "But_It's_Better_If_You_Do", "rank": 81, "score": 68106 }, { "content": "Title: Glenn O'Shea Content: Glenn O'Shea ( born 14 June 1989 ) is an Australian track cyclist who won the Omnium at the 2012 UCI Track Cycling World Championships . He was also a member of the Australian team that won silver in the team pursuit . O'Shea briefly quit cycling as an under-23 in 2010 after contracting a severe case of glandular fever . However , after a representing the Australia in team pursuit and omnium in both the Worlds and the Olympics in 2012 , he joined the continental cycling team for 2013 . A third place at Ronde de l'Oise , in which he celebrated a stage win and wore the leader 's jersey led to interest from for whom he rode in the 2013 World Ports Classic . He started the 2013 Tour of Britain as lead-out man for Steele Von Hoff . He remained with into 2014 . In November 2014 O'Shea was announced as part of the Team Budget Forklifts line-up for 2015 alongside fellow members of the Australian endurance track squad Luke Davison , Jack Bobridge , Scott Sunderland and Mitchel Mulhearn , riding a domestic programme with a focus on achieving success on the track at the 2016 Summer Olympics . O'Shea signed for ONE Pro Cycling for 2016 .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Glenn_O'Shea", "rank": 82, "score": 68075 }, { "content": "Title: Go fever Content: In the US space industry , `` go fever '' is an informal term used to refer to the overall attitude of being in a rush or hurry to get a project or task done while overlooking potential problems or mistakes . `` Go fever '' results from both individual and collective aspects of human behavior . It is due to the tendency as individuals to be overly committed to a previously chosen course of action based on time and resources already expended ( sunk costs ) despite reduced or insufficient future benefits , or even considerable risks . It is also due to general budget concerns and due to the desire of members of a team not to be seen as the one who is not equally committed to the team 's goals or to be the one interfering with the team 's progress or success . The term was coined after the Apollo 1 fire in 1967 and has been referred to in subsequent NASA incidents such as the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986 and the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003 . `` Go fever '' can also be similar to the groupthink phenomenon , where a group may end up making a bad decision for the sake of cordiality and maintaining the group 's atmosphere ; coined by the social psychologist Irving Janis in 1972 .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Go_fever", "rank": 83, "score": 68055 }, { "content": "Title: Erik Davis Content: Erik Davis ( born June 12 , 1967 ) is an American writer , scholar , journalist and public speaker whose writings have run the gamut from rock criticism to cultural analysis to creative explorations of esoteric mysticism . He is perhaps best known for his book Techgnosis : Myth , Magic and Mysticism in the Age of Information , as well as his work on California counterculture , including Burning Man , the human potential movement , and the writings of Philip K. Dick .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Erik_Davis", "rank": 84, "score": 68053 }, { "content": "Title: William A. Cugno Content: Major General William A. Cugno was born April 4 , 1948 , in Waterbury , CT. . He was the son of Anthony and Marie Cugno of Harwich , MA . He graduated from Waterbury 's Crosby High School in 1967 . He earned a bachelor of arts degree in political science from Eastern Connecticut State University in Willimantic , CT in 1984 and a master 's degree in public administration from Shippensburg University , Shippensburg , PA , in 1991 . General Cugno served as the adjutant general and commander of the Connecticut Army and Air National Guard from June 1999 until his retirement in April 2005 . Prior to becoming the adjutant general , during his 38-year military career , he served in several command and staff positions . General Cugno was a combat veteran of Vietnam where he served as a platoon leader from August 1968 to 1969 with the 9th Infantry Division . He joined the Connecticut Army National Guardin 1970 and held several staff and company command positions to include the 1st Battalion , 192nd ( coastal ) Artillery ; Headquarters and Headquarters Co. , 242nd Engineer Battalion ; 130th Public Affairs Detachment . Following his company commands , General Cugno served as the Connecticut National Guard 's Recruiting and Retention Manager for eight years . He then served as the commander of the 242nd Combat Engineer Battalion . Upon graduation from the U.S. Army War College , General Cugno was assigned as the commander of the 85th Troop Command , a brigade-size command , and served until 1994 when he was named the State Director of Plans , Operations , and Military Support for the Connecticut Military Department . In 1996 , he served as the chief of staff for the City of Waterbury and was responsible for the day-to-day operations of city government .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "William_A._Cugno", "rank": 85, "score": 67865 }, { "content": "Title: Michael Gallagher (postman and prognosticator) Content: Michael Gallagher is an Irish postman from County Donegal , known for accurately predicting weather-related events in Ireland . He studies the behaviour of animals and plants to determine the nature of the weather . His predictions have been disputed by Met Éireann and their scientific methods yet he says between 70 and 80 per cent of his predictions come true . The Evening Herald has described him as `` one of the country 's more unusual forecasters '' . According to The Irish Times , he is the most well-known amateur forecaster in Ireland . His first book , Old Traditional Weather Signs , was released in August 2009 , his second book Remedies and Cures of Bygone Era launched in June 2012 .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Michael_Gallagher_(postman_and_prognosticator)", "rank": 86, "score": 67809 }, { "content": "Title: Jitendra Kumar Content: Jitendra Kumar is an Indian actor famous for his roles in comedy sketch The Viral Fever . He is known for his characters Jeetu , Munna Jazbaati and Arjun Kejriwal mimicking Indian politician turned Delhi Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Jitendra_Kumar", "rank": 87, "score": 67742 }, { "content": "Title: Alabama Fever Content: Alabama Fever was the land rush that occurred as settlers and speculators moved in to establish land claims in Alabama as Native American tribes ceded territory . It came to be characterized as a movement of farmers and their slaves ever further west to new slave states and territories in the pursuit of fertile land for growing cotton . It was one of the first great American land booms until superseded by the California Gold Rush in 1848 .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Alabama_Fever", "rank": 88, "score": 67465 }, { "content": "Title: Fever (2014 film) Content: Fever ( Fieber ) is a 2014 drama film directed by Elfi Mikesch and produced by Amour Fou . The film was shot in Luxembourg , Austria , Italy and Serbia and had its world premiere in the Panorama section of the 64th Berlin International Film Festival . The film is set in Austria in the early 1950s .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Fever_(2014_film)", "rank": 89, "score": 67445 }, { "content": "Title: Mike Lunsford Content: Mike Lunsford is the chief executive officer of SK Planet , Inc. , the U.S. arm of SK Planet , Ltd. , a Korean-based company . He is the former executive vice president and interim chief executive officer of RealNetworks , the former chief executive officer of Rhapsody , a joint venture between RealNetworks and Viacom , and the former president and interim chief executive officer of Earthlink . Before joining EarthLink , Lunsford worked as a consultant at Andersen Consulting ( now Accenture ) in Chicago and Scott , Madden & Associates , a management consulting firm in Raleigh , North Carolina . He received an undergraduate degree and a Masters of Business Administration ( MBA ) from the University of North Carolina .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Mike_Lunsford", "rank": 90, "score": 67433 }, { "content": "Title: The Gods of Earth and Heaven Content: The Gods of Earth and Heaven is Army of Lovers third studio album . It 's the first new album , after the replacement of La Camilla by Michaela Dornonville de la Cour and the introduction of a new member , Dominika Peczynski . It was never released in the United States , because of the strong lyrics . It contains hit songs like Israelism and La Plage de Saint-Tropez . `` Israelism '' was banned from MTV for allegedly making fun of Jewish culture ( despite the fact that two of the band members were Jewish ) . The album did n't do as well as Massive Luxury Overdose did . The Gods of Earth And Heaven reached # 1 in Russia , Greece and Hong Kong . In Russia the album spent four months at # 1 . In the Finnish album charts , it reached # 11 and sold over 22 000 copies . The Gods Of Earth And Heaven sold 1,7 million copies worldwide . In some parts of Europe it was considered as a flop but it became their most successful album ever in Russia , and to date , Army of Lovers have been the only foreign act in Russia to achieve diamond status besides Kylie Minogue 's 2001 album Fever . In the end of June 1993 , Army of Lovers performed in several TV shows in France , Spain and Italy . The first single from the album , Israelism , is about Jean-Pierre Barda 's way back to his Jewish culture and history .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "The_Gods_of_Earth_and_Heaven", "rank": 91, "score": 67406 }, { "content": "Title: Protagoras Content: Protagoras ( -LSB- proʊˈtægərəs -RSB- Πρωταγόρας c. 490 -- c. 420 BC ) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and is numbered as one of the sophists by Plato . In his dialogue , Protagoras , Plato credits him with having invented the role of the professional sophist . He also is believed to have created a major controversy during ancient times through his statement that , `` Man is the measure of all things '' , interpreted by Plato to mean that there is no absolute truth , but that which individuals deem to be the truth . Although there is reason to question the extent of the interpretation of his arguments that has followed , that concept of individual relativity was revolutionary for the time , and contrasted with other philosophical doctrines that claimed the universe was based on something objective , outside of human influence or perceptions .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Protagoras", "rank": 92, "score": 67388 }, { "content": "Title: Arunabh Kumar Content: Arunabh Kumar ( born November 26 , 1982 ) is the founder of The Viral Fever , an online entertainment source that satirizes Indian politics , movies , lifestyle , social system and concepts etc. . He is the incumbent CEO ( Chief Experiment Officer ) of The Viral Fever Media Labs .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Arunabh_Kumar", "rank": 93, "score": 67368 }, { "content": "Title: 2001 Indiana Fever season Content: The 2001 WNBA season was the 2nd season for the Indiana Fever . In the 2001 WNBA Draft , the Fever drafted Tamika Catchings as the 3rd pick , but due to a college injury , she missed the entire 2001 season . With that , the Fever tied with two teams with the worst record in the Eastern Conference , only ahead of the Detroit Shock and the Washington Mystics .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "2001_Indiana_Fever_season", "rank": 94, "score": 67307 }, { "content": "Title: Planet Earth (1986 series) Content: Planet Earth is a seven-episode 1986 PBS television documentary series focusing on the Earth , narrated by Richard Kiley . Planet Earth explores geoscience and how discoveries of the early and mid-1980s were revolutionizing mankind 's understanding of the Earth 's past , present , and future . It also highlights scientific discoveries not yet fully understood and still under study in the mid-1980s . The series explores the Earth 's origins , history , and structure ; the forces that operate continually to alter its surface ; its oceans ; its climate ; its natural resources ; its biosphere and the effects of life on the physical world ; its relationship to the Sun and other bodies in the solar system ; and its possible future in the face of pressures the growing human population places on the natural world . The BBC used the same title for its 2006 series , but the two series are completely unrelated and quite different in focus and content .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Planet_Earth_(1986_series)", "rank": 95, "score": 67270 }, { "content": "Title: Run with the Pack Content: Run with The Pack is the third studio album by British supergroup Bad Company . It was released in January 1976 . Run with The Pack was recorded in France with The Rolling Stones Mobile Truck in September 1975 with engineer Ron Nevison and mixed in Los Angeles by Eddie Kramer . The album was the only original Bad Company album not to feature artwork from Hipgnosis as it featured artwork from Kosh instead . The album peaked at No. 4 in the UK Albums Chart and No. 5 on the US Billboard 200 . It has sold to date three million copies in the US alone . Their cover of the Coasters single `` Young Blood '' peaked at No. 20 . The album also spawned rock radio classics `` Silver , Blue and Gold '' , `` Live For the Music '' , and the title track . Although `` Silver , Blue & Gold '' remains one of the band 's most popular compositions , the song was never released as a single . The album was remastered and re-released in 1994 . The vinyl album had a shiny , silver cover , but CD versions feature a simple , light grey cover . The original album cover also came as a gatefold , with a photo of the band inside , sitting around a couch near a television tuned in to a Bugs Bunny cartoon .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Run_with_the_Pack", "rank": 96, "score": 67135 }, { "content": "Title: Adidas Fevernova Content: The Adidas Fevernova was the official match ball of 2002 FIFA World Cup in South Korea and Japan , manufactured by Adidas . Its styling marked a departure from the traditional Tango ball design .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Adidas_Fevernova", "rank": 97, "score": 67088 }, { "content": "Title: Charles Duncombe, 1st Baron Feversham Content: Charles Duncombe , 1st Baron Feversham ( 5 December 1764 -- 16 July 1841 ) was a British Member of Parliament . He was born the eldest son of Charles Slingsby Duncombe of Duncombe Park and educated at Harrow school ( 1799 ) . Feversham was appointed High Sheriff of Yorkshire in 1790 . He was elected to the House of Commons for Shaftesbury in 1790 , a seat he held until 1796 , and then represented Aldborough from 1796 to 1806 , Heytesbury from 1812 to 1816 and Newport , Isle of Wight from 1818 to 1826 . However , he never held ministerial office . In 1826 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Feversham , of Duncombe Park in the County of York . Lord Feversham married Lady Charlotte Legge , daughter of William Legge , 2nd Earl of Dartmouth , in 1795 . He died in July 1841 , aged 76 , and was succeeded in the barony by his son William . His younger sons Arthur and Octavius were both Conservative politicians who served in Parliament . Lady Feversham died in 1848 .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Charles_Duncombe,_1st_Baron_Feversham", "rank": 98, "score": 67042 }, { "content": "Title: Fever Pitch (comics) Content: Fever Pitch is a fictional villain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . The character is usually depicted as a member of the second incarnation of the mutant terrorist organization Gene Nation and later as a member of X-Corps . He was one of the few Gene Nationals to make a sustained appearance outside of the group besides the various leaders : Marrow , Mikhail Rasputin , Callisto , and Dark Beast .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Fever_Pitch_(comics)", "rank": 99, "score": 67042 }, { "content": "Title: Planet Earth (song) Content: `` Planet Earth '' is the debut single by the English pop rock band Duran Duran , released on 2 February 1981 . It was an immediate hit in the band 's native UK , reaching # 12 on the UK Singles Chart on 21 February , and did even better in Australia , hitting # 8 to become Duran Duran 's first Top 10 hit anywhere in the world . The song later appeared on the band 's eponymous debut album Duran Duran , released in June , 1981 .", "qid": "2887", "docid": "Planet_Earth_(song)", "rank": 100, "score": 67001 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Kevin_E._Trenberth", "rank": 1, "score": 117612 }, { "content": "Title: Uunartoq Qeqertaq Content: Uunartoq Qeqertaq , Greenlandic for `` The Warming Island '' , is an island off the east central coast of Greenland , 550 km north of the Arctic Circle . It became recognised as an island only in September 2005 , by US explorer Dennis Schmitt . It was attached to the mainland of Liverpool Land by glacial ice even in 2002 , when the ice shelves began retreating rapidly in this area , so that by 2005 it was no longer attached to the mainland . Members of the scientific community believe this newly discovered island is a direct result of global warming . The island has three large peninsulas , and thus resembles the letter W , or the Chinese character 山 .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Uunartoq_Qeqertaq", "rank": 2, "score": 81925 }, { "content": "Title: Moment (film) Content: Moment ( Трен , translit . Tren ) is a 1978 Yugoslav war film directed by Stole Janković . It was entered into the 11th Moscow International Film Festival where Bata Živojinović won the award for Best Actor .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Moment_(film)", "rank": 3, "score": 80982 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 4, "score": 79918 }, { "content": "Title: Sclerodoris trenberthi Content: Sclerodoris trenberthi is a species of sea slug , a dorid nudibranch , shell-less marine opisthobranch gastropod mollusks in the family Discodorididae .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Sclerodoris_trenberthi", "rank": 5, "score": 77571 }, { "content": "Title: The Great Warming Content: The Great Warming is a 2006 documentary film directed by Michael Taylor . The film was hosted by Alanis Morissette and Keanu Reeves and even before its November 3 , 2006 première helped establish an alliance between Democrats and Evangelicals trying to shake the administration out of its inertia on Climate change mitigation . It is also the anchor for a broad , pro-active coalition ranging from Friends of the Earth to Union of Concerned Scientists to Churches of Christ . Theatre giant Regal Cinemas released the film in its top 50 markets on the weekend of November 4 to November 5 , 2006 , which makes the launch three times larger than for any other film of its kind , and highlights the growing currency of the global warming issues in the mainstream.A special program was developed for faith communities , and the film was distributed to over 500 churches , synagogues and mosques across the US . Featuring elements of the 2005 Public Broadcasting Service special Global Warming : the Signs and the Science , The Great Warming ( produced by the same team ) , it talks to key researchers and reports on social justice and day-to-day impacts as well as emission statistics . It 's also populated with everyday people from all over the United States and the planet who are feeling the brunt of global warming , and/or finding innovative ways to tackle it . While making the movie , producer Karen Coshof was determined not to lose sight of her most important advocate , the person on the street , to make the issue of global warming resonate in every household around the globe . Every person should `` feel empowered to act . '' In media interviews , Coshof explained that the film attracted an unprecedented coalition of leaders in science , religion , business , environmental activism and education . They have built bridges over historic gaps to support the message of this film to believe in the individual and collective moral responsibility to reverse the growing threats to the environment , and to the health and quality of life . The effort goes beyond the documentary : with a release timed just before the United States House elections , 2006 , the website featured a Questions for Candidates link where voters could send a questionnaire on energy , environment , and taxation to their federal and state candidates . The campaign also includes a Call to Action signed by leaders from every arena of public life , and which can be signed online by anyone who chooses . Advance DVD screenings at schools , churches , and town halls across the country have already mobilized thousands of people to change personal habits and demand action , and coalition members are working to track the effort .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "The_Great_Warming", "rank": 6, "score": 76942 }, { "content": "Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Neoglaciation", "rank": 7, "score": 74193 }, { "content": "Title: El tren de la muerte Content: El tren de la muerte ( `` The Death Train '' ) refers to a network of Mexican freight trains that are utilized by U.S. - bound migrants to more quickly traverse the length of Mexico , also known as La Bestia ( `` The Beast '' ) and El tren de los desconocidos ( `` The train of the unknowns '' ) . This mode of travel is extremely dangerous and illegal . It is estimated that yearly between 400,000 and 500,000 migrants , the majority of whom are of Central American origin , continue to ride atop these trains in the effort to reach the United States . The National Migration Service ( Spanish : Instituto Nacional de Migración ( INM ) ) reports that of 64,061 foreign nationals that were detained in the year 2009 , 60,383 were from El Salvador , Guatemala , and Honduras . Furthermore , according to the consul of El Salvador , Vilma Mendoza , `` Around 30 percent of those who ride the trains are ` cyclical migrants ' ; men and women who attempt to return to the United States after deportation , or after a failed attempt '' . Other factors that have contributed to the mass exodus of Central Americans , according to Juan Pardinas , CEO of the Mexican Institute for Competitiveness , are `` the precarious economic situation of their countries of origin , the consequences of civil and political-military conflict , as well as social and economic devastation caused by natural disasters , such as hurricanes '' . Although these trains ( which transport products and materials including corn , cement , and minerals ) are regarded as a free form of travel that allows migrants to avoid Mexico 's numerous immigration checkpoints and 48 detention centers , the risks are high and many riders are left with life-altering injuries that limit their capacity to work . As of May 9 , 2014 , train operators have banned the passengers from traveling by the train .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "El_tren_de_la_muerte", "rank": 8, "score": 70478 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 9, "score": 70054 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 10, "score": 69853 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 11, "score": 69232 }, { "content": "Title: El Tren de los Momentos Content: El Tren de los Momentos is the eighth studio album recorded by Spanish singer-songwriter Alejandro Sanz , which counts with the collaborations of Juanes , Antonio Carmona ( ex-Ketama ) , Shakira and Calle 13 . Ten songs produced by him and Lulo Pérez , with a diversity of voices that allows to approach loving topics from opposite points of view , touching social , political and faith matters . It was recorded in Havana , Miami , Bahamas and Madrid , though most realized for the first time in a studio that Alejandro Sanz has in his house in Miami . The album won the Best Latin Pop Album at the 50th Grammy Awards . Also was nominated for a Latin Grammy Award for Album of the Year , which was awarded to La Llave de Mi Corazón by Juan Luis Guerra .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "El_Tren_de_los_Momentos", "rank": 12, "score": 69158 }, { "content": "Title: Trenutak istine Content: Trenutak istine is a Croatian franchise of the game show The Moment of Truth , produced by Nova TV crew in HD technology . Trenutak istine puts participants to the test -- the polygraph test -- to reveal whether or not they are telling the truth for a chance to win a great prize of 500,000 HRK ( c. $ 69,000 ) . First season show started in September 2008 and was broadcast Tuesdays at 9 pm , and the second season started in the fall of 2009 . It is hosted by journalist Jasna Nanut . Trenutak istine gained significant attention in the Croatian media and is one of the most controversial Croatian TV programs in recent years . In February 2009 , the Croatian Psychological Association started a petition to ban the show , describing it as exploitative and morally corrupting . The Serbian version , produced by RTV Pink and hosted by Tatjana Vojtehovski , carries the same name . The top prize is 5,000,000 RSD ( c. $ 50,000 ) .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trenutak_istine", "rank": 13, "score": 68982 }, { "content": "Title: Oerth Content: In the Dungeons & Dragons roleplaying game , Oerth -LSB- ˈɔərθ -RSB- is the name of the fictional planet on which one of the earliest campaign settings , the World of Greyhawk , is located . Oerth has an axial tilt of 30 degrees , which would cause greater seasonal temperature variation than on Earth , were it not for wizardly and divine magic that shifts weather patterns to be more favorable to the populace ( at least the god-fearing folks ) .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Oerth", "rank": 14, "score": 68654 }, { "content": "Title: Unruh effect Content: The Unruh effect ( or sometimes Fulling -- Davies -- Unruh effect ) is the prediction that an accelerating observer will observe blackbody radiation where an inertial observer would observe none . In other words , the background appears to be warm from an accelerating reference frame ; in layman 's terms , a thermometer waved around in empty space , subtracting any other contribution to its temperature , will record a non-zero temperature . The ground state for an inertial observer is seen as in thermodynamic equilibrium with a non-zero temperature by the uniformly accelerating observer . The Unruh effect was first described by Stephen Fulling in 1973 , Paul Davies in 1975 and W. G. Unruh in 1976 . It is currently not clear whether the Unruh effect has actually been observed , since the claimed observations are disputed . There is also some doubt about whether the Unruh effect implies the existence of Unruh radiation .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Unruh_effect", "rank": 15, "score": 68305 }, { "content": "Title: El Tren De Los Momentos Tour Content: El Tren De Los Momentos Tour is a concert tour by Spanish singer Alejandro Sanz as promoting his album El Tren de los Momentos .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "El_Tren_De_Los_Momentos_Tour", "rank": 16, "score": 68010 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 17, "score": 67088 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 18, "score": 66579 }, { "content": "Title: Athanasius Treweek Content: Lieutenant Colonel Athanasius Pryor `` Ath '' Treweek ( 1911 -- 1995 ) was an Australian academic , linguist , mathematician and code-breaker . He was the son of Walter Henry Treweek ( a teacher who came from Cornwall to Australia in the 1880s ) and Mary Matilda Dwyer a nurse . They married in Cooma , New South Wales , Australia on 11 February 1909 . She was 37 and he was 43 . He was an only child and his father died in 1920 of the Spanish influenza when Ath was 8 years old . His mother could only work as a nurse by living in at a hospital so he was sent to a boarding school in Bowral . After attending St Ignatius ' College , Riverview , where he was dux in 1928 , `` Ath '' Treweek ( as he was generally known ) won the 1932 Cooper Scholarship for first place in Latin and Greek examinations conducted by the University of Sydney . Ath took both a First in Latin and Greek , with the University Medal in Classics , and an Honours degree in Mathematics . The combination led to a PhD thesis on fourth-century Greek geometry . He joined the Greek Department at University of Sydney in 1938 , eventually going on to become a Professor of Greek at that very same institution . In 1937 , in anticipation of impending war , he had taught himself to read Japanese . He was already a Major in the Citizen Military Forces commanding a field battery in the Sydney University Regiment . Following the outbreak of World War II in 1939 , he was seconded from the Australian Army to FRUMEL in Melbourne which was linked to the American Sixth Fleet . He duly reported at the Navy . Office , Melbourne for full-time duty on 19 June . He was part of a team instrumental in breaking Japanese naval codes . A Japanese success there would have been a major blow for the Allies . Decoded signals following the battle confirmed the Japanese had lost four aircraft carriers . This ended Japan 's offensive capability : from then on , its strategy was defensive . It was the turning point . The notebooks of his research for his Ph D are online Emeritus Professor Bill Ritchie wrote : Apart from his particular interest in Greek mathematics , Ath 's interests were especially in the language , of which he had a particularly fine knowledge . He was a very effective teacher at all levels , and especially for those whose bent was towards philological studies . He will be remembered with respect and affection by a generation of classicists .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Athanasius_Treweek", "rank": 19, "score": 66440 }, { "content": "Title: Trenutak, sat, godina Content: Trenutak , Sat , Godina ( trans . the moment , an hour , a year ) is the third studio album by Bosnian rock band Zona Iskljuchenja ( trans . Exclusion Zone ) , released on December 16 , 2016 , by Hayat Production . The title of the album is marginally corrected title of the song listed among the tracks , and the title symbolizes how fast the life is passing by . The cover-art designer and the band member Dženan Hadžović tried to explain it by presenting the life with human candle . This album came after the 8 year long discography lapse . Since the band got the new guitarist in winter 2012 , they immediately started with the work on this material and released an early single `` Moj Svijet '' ( trans . My World ) on March 14 , 2013 announcing return to the Bosnian rock scene . The following three years the band was recording material in Pavarotti Studio in Mostar , but still continued cooperation with Bosnian producer Marin Mestrovic , who worked with the band on previous two albums , to do the final touch in mastering and postproduction . The album is finally unveiled on December 16 , 2016 , with the promo concert in Sarajevo . '' `` Trenutak , sat , godina '' '' contains 9 songs that sound much more compact than the previous album , and the band members described that as `` the maturity of the band '' Just before the album promotion date , Zona Iskljuchenja released an announcing single and music video `` Vila Unplugged '' '' ( trans . The fairy - unplugged ) , an acoustic version of the song that was published on the previous album . The both music videos from this album is signed and produced by the band 's photographer and friend Edin Dzeko , who also participated during recordings of the material , even singing some back-vocals .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trenutak,_sat,_godina", "rank": 20, "score": 66360 }, { "content": "Title: Trematovalsa Content: Trematovalsa is a genus of fungi within the Diaporthales order , class Sordariomycetes . The relationship of this taxon to other taxa within the order is unknown ( incertae sedis ) . According to the 2007 Outline of Ascomycota , the placement of this genus in the Diapthorales order is uncertain .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trematovalsa", "rank": 21, "score": 66134 }, { "content": "Title: Feel This Moment Content: `` Feel This Moment '' is a song by the American rapper Pitbull , the recording of which features the American singer Christina Aguilera . It is taken from Pitbull 's seventh studio album , Global Warming , which he released in 2012 . The song was released on February 22 , 2013 as the fourth single from the album by Mr. 305 , Polo Grounds Music and RCA Records . It is a dance-pop number that talks about stopping to take a moment to appreciate life . `` Feel This Moment '' was written by Nasri Atweh , Chantal Kreviazuk , Adam Messinger , Sir Nolan , DJ Buddha , Pitbull , and Aguilera , while production was handled by Adam Messinger , Sir Nolan , Nasri Atweh , and DJ Buddha . The song takes the main melody from `` Take on Me '' by A-ha , which , in turn , was written and composed by Morten Harket , Paul Waaktaar-Savoy , and Magne Furuholmen . `` Feel This Moment '' received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who praised Aguilera 's appearance and the sample used on the song , and some of whom compared the song 's theme to songs by Ludacris , David Guetta , Usher and Kesha . The single was a commercial success , reaching the top ten of the charts in many countries including Australia , Canada , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . In the United States , it peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 , and was eventually certified platinum for shipments of one million units . It garnered multiple certifications in many regions , including by the Australian Recording Industry Association and the British Phonographic Industry . An accompanying music video for `` Feel This Moment '' was directed by David Rousseau and was released on March 15 , 2013 . The video was shot in a black and white scene , featuring several shots from Pitbull 's Planet Pit World Tour and Aguilera with big curly hair . The clip garnered positive feedback , who praised Aguilera 's new figure in it . At the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards , the video was nominated for Best Collaboration . The duo performed `` Feel This Moment '' on a number of occasions , including at the 2012 American Music Awards , 2013 Kids ' Choice Awards , and the 2013 Billboard Music Awards ; in this last , Morten Harket himself , the lead-singer of A-ha , was featured as a guest star .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Feel_This_Moment", "rank": 22, "score": 65770 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy", "rank": 23, "score": 65706 }, { "content": "Title: Tremateia Content: Tremateia is a genus of fungi in the class Dothideomycetes . The relationship of this taxon to other taxa within the class is unknown ( incertae sedis ) . A monotypic genus , it contains the single species Tremateia halophila .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Tremateia", "rank": 24, "score": 65458 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 25, "score": 65448 }, { "content": "Title: Tren Content: Tren may mean : Tris ( 2-aminoethyl ) amine , a coordination chemistry compound Trenbolone , a veterinary steroid The Romanian and Spanish word for train Tren , a 1978 Yugoslav film", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Tren", "rank": 26, "score": 65297 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 27, "score": 65084 }, { "content": "Title: Trewartha climate classification Content: The Trewartha climate classification is a climate classification system published by American geographer Glenn Thomas Trewartha in 1966 , and updated in 1980 . It is a modified version of the 1899 Köppen system , created to answer some of the deficiencies of the Köppen system . The Trewartha system attempts to redefine the middle latitudes to be closer to vegetation zoning and genetic climate systems . It was considered a more true or `` real world '' reflection of the global climate . The changes were seen as most effective on the large landmasses in Asia and North America , where many areas fall into a single group ( C ) in the Köppen system . For example , under the standard Köppen system , Washington and Oregon are classed into the same climate zone as Southern California , even though the two regions have strikingly different weather and vegetation . Another example was classifying cities like London in the same climate group as Brisbane or New Orleans , despite great differences in seasonal temperatures and native plant life .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trewartha_climate_classification", "rank": 28, "score": 65057 }, { "content": "Title: Remote Sensing Systems Content: Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California . They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction . I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Remote_Sensing_Systems", "rank": 29, "score": 64326 }, { "content": "Title: Tren del Valle Content: Tren del Valle is a 10 km commuter rail service that connects cities of Neuquén and Cipolletti , in the Río Negro and Neuquén Provinces of Argentina , running on Roca Railway tracks . In a second stage , the line would be extended to General Roca and Plottier , in the same province . The Tren del Valle is named after `` Alto valle del Río Negro '' , a valley located at the north west of Río Negro Province , crossing cities of General Roca , Cipolletti , Villa Regina , Cinco Saltos , among others . It extends from the confluence of Limay and Neuquén rivers to Chichinales . The region is about 52,000 m2 in size , and is also notable for its production of apples as well as its vast Vaca Muerta oil field , whose freight lines will share some tracks with the Tren del Valle . The service , after preliminary tests , was opened on 21 July 2015 , being operated by state-owned Trenes Argentinos .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Tren_del_Valle", "rank": 30, "score": 64304 }, { "content": "Title: Třebíč Content: Třebíč ( -LSB- ˈtr̝̊ɛbiːtʃ -RSB- ; Trebitz ) is a town in the Moravian part of the Vysočina Region of the Czech Republic . Třebíč is situated 35 km southeast of Jihlava and 65 km west of Brno on the Jihlava River . Třebíč 's elevation is from 392 to 503 metres above sea-level . Třebíč has a temperate climate with occasional rains . Average annual temperature is 7.5 ° C , average temperature in July is 18.5 ° C and − 3.4 ° C in January . Třebíč is a regional centre with a population of approximately 40,000 . In the age of expansion , Třebíč was the third most important town in Moravia . The population growth started after World War II . Třebíč is the administrative capital of the Třebíč District . There are many well-known tourist sights . The Jewish Quarter and St. Procopius Basilica are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Nearly 37 thousand people lived in Třebíč in 2016 . Beginning of the town 's history is connected with an establishment of Benedictine monastery , where the castle is located today .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Třebíč", "rank": 31, "score": 64189 }, { "content": "Title: 2009 Handlová mine blast Content: The 2009 Handlová mine blast occurred on 10 August , 2009 roughly 330 metres ( 1,080 ft ) underground in Trencin Region , Slovakia at Hornonitrianske Bane Prievidza , a.s.s ( HNB ) coal mine located in the town of Handlová . 20 people were killed , nine others suffered minor injuries and were taken to hospital for treatment . Some historians have called the disaster the largest mining tragedy in Slovakia 's history . The deadly explosion , probably caused by flammable gases , occurred after mine rescuers had earlier been deployed to extinguish a fire in the Eastern shaft of the mine . The incident is the deadliest mining disaster in Slovakia 's history since the country 's independence in 1993 . Only 12 people had been killed while mining in Slovakia during the previous twelve years . An official investigation into the disaster concluded in 2011 , that several factors caused the explosion , but was unable to determine if any breaches of safety regulation had occurred . There employees with the mining company were eventually charged with negligence .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "2009_Handlová_mine_blast", "rank": 32, "score": 64132 }, { "content": "Title: Trematosphaeriopsis Content: Trematosphaeriopsis is a genus of fungi in the class Dothideomycetes . The relationship of this taxon to other taxa within the class is unknown ( incertae sedis ) . A monotypic genus , it contains the single species Trematosphaeriopsis parmeliana .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trematosphaeriopsis", "rank": 33, "score": 63846 }, { "content": "Title: Trethewey Content: Trethewey ( Tredhewi ) is a hamlet in west Cornwall , England , United Kingdom . It forms part of St Levan civil parish . The village includes a Wesleyan chapel and schoolroom , built in 1868 . Trethewey lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) . Almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation , with the same status and protection as a National Park . The first records of the name may be preserved in the `` Calendar of inquisitions post mortem and other analogous documents preserved in the Public Record Office ( 1904 ) `` which contains a probate inquiry as to the birthdate of 11 September 1296 and the birthplace of Treguwal of Roger Bloyou , although it may be the name of a different or extinct village .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trethewey", "rank": 34, "score": 63369 }, { "content": "Title: Trenbolone enanthate Content: Trenbolone enanthate ( nickname Trenabol ) , or trenbolone heptanoate , also known as 19-nor-δ9 ,11 - testosterone 17β-enanthate or as 19-norandrost-4 ,9,11 - trien-17β-ol-3-one 17β-enanthate , is a synthetic , injected anabolic-androgenic steroid ( AAS ) and derivative of 19-nortestosterone ( nandrolone ) that was never marketed . It is the C17β enanthate ester and a long-acting prodrug of trenbolone ( 19-nor-δ9 ,11 - testosterone ) . Trenbolone enanthate is used in scientific research and has been sold on the internet black market as a designer steroid for bodybuilders .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trenbolone_enanthate", "rank": 35, "score": 63058 }, { "content": "Title: Telecommunications Research Establishment Content: The Telecommunications Research Establishment ( TRE ) was the main United Kingdom research and development organization for radio navigation , radar , infra-red detection for heat seeking missiles , and related work for the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) during World War II and the years that followed . The name was changed to Radar Research Establishment in 1953 . This article covers the precursor organizations and the Telecommunications Research Establishment up to the time of the name change . The later work at the site is described in the separate article about RRE .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Telecommunications_Research_Establishment", "rank": 36, "score": 63057 }, { "content": "Title: El Tren de los Momentos: En Vivo Desde Buenos Aires Content: El Tren De Los Momentos : En Vivo Desde Buenos Aires is the third live album by Spanish singer-songwriter Alejandro Sanz . It was recorded during the concert offered in front of 45,000 people in the River Plate Stadium on March 23 , 2007 . The album , released in digipack format , contains a CD with a selection of 10 tracks of the concert and a DVD of two hours .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "El_Tren_de_los_Momentos:_En_Vivo_Desde_Buenos_Aires", "rank": 37, "score": 63040 }, { "content": "Title: Āśraddhya Content: Āśraddhya ( Sanskrit ; Tibetan phonetic : trel mepa ) is a Buddhist term that is translated as `` lack of faith '' , `` lack of trust '' , etc. . In the Mahayana tradition , āśraddhya is defined as a mental factor that is characterized by a lack of trust , and lack of interest in , or desire for , wholesome things . Āśraddhya is identified as : One of the twenty secondary unwholesome factors within the Mahayana Abhidharma teachings", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Āśraddhya", "rank": 38, "score": 62940 }, { "content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "North_Report", "rank": 39, "score": 62784 }, { "content": "Title: Trenbolone hexahydrobenzylcarbonate Content: Trenbolone hexahydrobenzylcarbonate ( brand name Parabolan , Hexabolan ) , or trenbolone cyclohexylmethylcarbonate , also known as estra-4 ,9,11 - trien-17β-ol-3-one 17β-cyclohexylmethylcarbonate , is a synthetic anabolic-androgenic steroid ( AAS ) of the 19-nortestosterone group and an androgen ester -- specifically , the 17β-hexahydrobenzylcarbonate ester of trenbolone -- which was marketed in France for human clinical use but has since been discontinued . It was introduced in France in 1980 and voluntarily discontinued by its manufacturer in 1997 . It acts as a long-acting prodrug of trenbolone when administered via intramuscular injection .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trenbolone_hexahydrobenzylcarbonate", "rank": 40, "score": 62598 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 41, "score": 62381 }, { "content": "Title: Treachery on the High Seas Content: Treachery on the High Seas is a 1936 British comedy crime film directed by Emil E. Reinert and starring Bebe Daniels , Ben Lyon and Charles Farrell . It is based on the play Murder in the Stalls by Maurice Messenger . On a luxury liner some jewel thieves plan a major snatch . It is also known as Not Wanted on Voyage .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Treachery_on_the_High_Seas", "rank": 42, "score": 62374 }, { "content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Leipzig_Declaration", "rank": 43, "score": 62338 }, { "content": "Title: Trenbolone Content: Trenbolone ( INN , BAN ) , also known as trienolone or trienbolone , as well as 19-nor-δ9 ,11 - testosterone , Δ9 ,11 - nandrolone , or estra-4 ,9,11 - trien-17β-ol-3-one , is an anabolic-androgenic steroid ( AAS ) of the 19-nortestosterone group . It is used in veterinary medicine in livestock to increase muscle growth and appetite . Trenbolone is used in the form of ester prodrugs , including trenbolone acetate ( brand names Revalor ( in combination with estradiol ) , Finaplix , Finajet ) and trenbolone hexahydrobenzylcarbonate ( Parabolan , Hexabolan ) . Although it is not available as a prescription medication for humans , trenbolone enanthate ( RU-1697 ) is sometimes sold under the nickname Trenabol .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trenbolone", "rank": 44, "score": 62321 }, { "content": "Title: Euskotren Trena Content: Euskotren Trena , formerly known just as Euskotren is a commuter , inter-city and urban transit train operating company that operates local and inter-city passenger services in the provinces of Biscay and Gipuzkoa , in the Basque Country , Spain . It is one of the four commercial brands under which Basque Railways operates , as a public company managed by the Basque Government . The entire 181.1 km network uses narrow gauge rail tracks which have been owned by the Basque Government since their transferral from the Spanish government ; the rail tracks and stations were part of the Feve network until its transferral . Euskotren Trena also operates the Donostia/San Sebastián metro under the brand Metro Donostialdea . Euskotren Trena operates the railway services and networks , while Euskotren Tranbia operates the tram networks , Euskotren Autobusa the bus services and Euskotren Kargo the freight rail services . Since 2006 Euskotren Trena has been the commercial brand for the operator of the railway network in the Basque Country , which is Eusko Trenbideak , while the network itself is owned by the public entity Euskal Trenbide Sarea . In 2012 the commercial brand was changed from simply Euskotren to Euskotren Trena , adding the Basque word trena .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Euskotren_Trena", "rank": 45, "score": 61769 }, { "content": "Title: Henryka Łazowertówna Content: Henryka Łazowertówna ( -LSB- ` xɛnˈrɨka waˌzɔvɛrˈtuvna -RSB- ; in full Henryka Wanda Łazowertówna ) ; also Henryka Lazowert , or incorrectly Lazawert , ( June 19 , 1909 , Warsaw -- August 1942 , Treblinka extermination camp ) was a Polish lyric poet . While in general deeply personal in nature and of great emotive intensity , her poetry is not devoid of social concerns and patriotic overtones . She is considered one of the eminent Polish authors of Jewish descent . To the reading public she is best known as the author of the famous poem `` Mały szmugler '' ( The Little Smuggler ) , written in the Warsaw Ghetto c. 1941 and first published posthumously in 1947 . The poem deals with the subject of a child struggling single-handedly to keep his family alive in the Ghetto by smuggling provisions from the `` Aryan '' side at the risk of his own life . A poem begins with the stanza also known from an adaptive translation provided by Richard C. Lukas . It reads as follows : The original text of the poem , together with translations in English and in Hebrew , is today inscribed on the Memorial to the Child Victims of the Holocaust ( Pomnik Pamięci Dzieci in Warsaw ) , serving as the epitaph for the million children murdered in the Holocaust .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Henryka_Łazowertówna", "rank": 46, "score": 61761 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 47, "score": 61530 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Mars Content: The climate of Mars has been an issue of scientific curiosity for centuries , in part because Mars is the only terrestrial planet whose surface can be directly observed in detail from the Earth with help from a telescope . Although Mars is smaller than the Earth , at 11 % of Earth 's mass , and 50 % farther from the Sun than the Earth , its climate has important similarities , such as the polar ice caps , seasonal changes and the observable presence of weather patterns . It has attracted sustained study from planetologists and climatologists . While Mars 's climate has similarities to Earth 's , including periodic ice ages , there are also important differences , such as much lower thermal inertia . Mars ' atmosphere has a scale height of approximately 11 km , 60 % greater than that on Earth . The climate is of considerable relevance to the question of whether life is or was present on the planet . The climate briefly received more interest in the news due to NASA measurements indicating increased sublimation of the south polar icecap leading to some popular press speculation that Mars was undergoing a parallel bout of global warming , although Mars ' average temperature has actually cooled in recent decades . Mars has been studied by Earth-based instruments since the 17th century but it is only since the exploration of Mars began in the mid-1960s that close-range observation has been possible . Flyby and orbital spacecraft have provided data from above , while direct measurements of atmospheric conditions have been provided by a number of landers and rovers . Advanced Earth orbital instruments today continue to provide some useful `` big picture '' observations of relatively large weather phenomena . The first Martian flyby mission was Mariner 4 which arrived in 1965 . That quick two-day pass ( July 14 -- 15 , 1965 ) was limited and crude in terms of its contribution to the state of knowledge of Martian climate . Later Mariner missions ( Mariner 6 , and Mariner 7 ) filled in some of the gaps in basic climate information . Data-based climate studies started in earnest with the Viking program in 1975 and continues with such probes as the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter . This observational work has been complemented by a type of scientific computer simulation called the Mars general circulation model . Several different iterations of MGCM have led to an increased understanding of Mars as well as the limits of such models .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Climate_of_Mars", "rank": 48, "score": 61489 }, { "content": "Title: Tregidden Content: Tregidden ( Tregudyn ) is a house south of Manaccan in Cornwall , England , United Kingdom . A little further south is Tregidden Farm . Tregidden lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) . Almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation , with the same status and protection as a National Park .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Tregidden", "rank": 49, "score": 60744 }, { "content": "Title: Trelan Content: Trelan ( Trelann ) is a hamlet in the parish of St Keverne in Cornwall , England , United Kingdom , on the eastern borders of Goonhilly Downs . Trelan lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) . Almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation , with the same status and protection as a National Park . The manor of Trelan was recorded in the Domesday Book ( 1086 ) when it was held by Thurstan from Robert , Count of Mortain . There was 1 hide of land and land for 5 ploughs . There were 3 ploughs , 4 serfs , 2 villeins , 6 smallholders , 6 square leagues of pasture , 2 cattle and 40 sheep . The value of the manor was # 1-5s . though it had formerly been worth # 1-19s . There was also a land holding of 4 acres in Trelan which was held by Doda from the Count ; there were 15 sheep and 1 cow .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trelan", "rank": 50, "score": 60658 }, { "content": "Title: Eanbert of Lindisfarne Content: Eanbert of Lindisfarne ( died 854 ) was Bishop of Lindisfarne from 845 until 854 . He was the penultimate bishop to reside at Lindisfarne , which by this time was regularly being invaded by Vikings .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Eanbert_of_Lindisfarne", "rank": 51, "score": 60583 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Peter_Doran", "rank": 52, "score": 60238 }, { "content": "Title: Trewithian Content: Trewithian ( Trewydhyan ) is a hamlet near Portscatho in Cornwall , England . Trewithian lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) . Almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation , with the same status and protection as a National Park .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trewithian", "rank": 53, "score": 60216 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Turkey", "rank": 54, "score": 59977 }, { "content": "Title: Ross Gelbspan Content: Ross Gelbspan is a writer and environmentalist . He has written two books relating to global warming : The Heat Is On ( 1997 ) and Boiling Point ( 2004 ) . The Heat Is On received national attention when President Bill Clinton told the press he was reading it . Boiling Point was the subject of the lead review in the Sunday New York Times Book Review . That review was written by former Vice President Al Gore . Gelbspan maintains the website heatisonline.org , which he updates on a daily basis . Prior to his involvement in the climate issue , Gelbspan worked as an editor and reporter at a number of newspapers , including The Philadelphia Bulletin , The Washington Post and the Boston Globe . At the Globe , he conceived , directed and edited a series of articles that won a Pulitzer Prize in 1984 . Since becoming involved in the climate issue , Gelbspan has delivered a number of lectures , radio and television interviews and has published multiple articles on the subject . He is a regular contributor on DeSmogBlog . He has published op-ed articles in a number of major newspapers -- as well as articles in a number of other outlets including Harper 's , The Atlantic Monthly , The American Prospect , Sierra Magazine , The Nation , and many others . He has spoken in venues that include the World Economic Forum and the Boston Social Forum . His media interviews include , among others , appearances on Nightline , All Things Considered , Talk of the Nation , World News Tonight and other outlets .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Ross_Gelbspan", "rank": 55, "score": 59975 }, { "content": "Title: Jan Swerts Content: Jan Swerts ( 25 December 1820 , Antwerp - 11 August 1879 , Marienbad ) was a Belgian painter of historical subjects and portraits who worked on many publicly funded commissions . He played a major role in introducing German Romantic historical painting into Belgium . His fresco 's using oil paint heralded a revival of a colouristic style derived from Rubens and the Flemish Baroque combined with historical and psychological realism .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Jan_Swerts", "rank": 56, "score": 59854 }, { "content": "Title: Trewarthenick Content: Trewarthenick ( Trewedhenek ) is a hamlet in the civil parish of Tregoney in Cornwall , England , United Kingdom . Trewarthenick lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) . Almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation , with the same status and protection as a National Park . William Gregor , the discoverer of titanium , was born on the Trewarthenick Estate as was his brother Francis Gregor , MP for the County of Cornwall from 1790 to 1806 .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trewarthenick", "rank": 57, "score": 59801 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy", "rank": 58, "score": 59791 }, { "content": "Title: Tre Vänner Content: Tre Vänner Produktion AB is a Swedish production company that makes television programs , movies and commercials . The company was founded in 1995 by screenwriter Michael Hjorth , Johan Kindblom , and Tomas Tivemark . The owners are originally screenwriter and has created the series Svensson , Svensson , Cleo , and Mannen som log . The company has also produced several television episodes of several TV series , such as Världarnas bok , Poliser , and Ett gott parti , the films 7 miljonärer , Ett öga rött , Kid Svensk , and the series Det okända . Tre Vänner has also produced the 2010 film Easy Money , which is a film adaptation Jens Lapidus ' novel with the same name . They have also been advertising the grocery chain ICA and Swedbank . In addition , the company has also created a wholly owned production company , along with Camilla Läckberg produced ten 1.5-hour-long TV episodes named Fjällbackamorden . In 2013 , the company was bought by Svensk Filmindustri , and later merged to create the new studio SF Studios in 2016 .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Tre_Vänner", "rank": 59, "score": 59736 }, { "content": "Title: Trelights Content: Trelights ( Treleghrys ) is a hamlet in North Cornwall , England , United Kingdom and is situated in the civil parish of St Endellion , 5 mi north of the town of Wadebridge . Trelights lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) . Almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation , with the same status and protection as a National Park .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trelights", "rank": 60, "score": 59729 }, { "content": "Title: Trenarren Content: Trenarren ( Dinaran ) is a hamlet northeast of Pentewan in mid Cornwall , England , United Kingdom . A. L. Rowse the historian lived in his retirement in Trenarren House . Trenarren lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) . Almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation , with the same status and protection as a National Park .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trenarren", "rank": 61, "score": 59637 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 62, "score": 59430 }, { "content": "Title: Trenbolone acetate Content: Trenbolone acetate ( USAN , BANM ) ( brand names Revalor ( in combination with estradiol ) , Finaplix , Finajet ; former developmental code name RU-1697 ) , also known as 19-nor-δ9 ,11 - testosterone 17β-acetate or as 19-norandrost-4 ,9,11 - trien-17β-ol-3-one 17β-acetate , is a synthetic , injected anabolic-androgenic steroid ( AAS ) and derivative of 19-nortestosterone ( nandrolone ) that is used in veterinary medicine . It is the C17β acetate ester and a long-acting prodrug of trenbolone ( 19-nor-δ9 ,11 - testosterone ) .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trenbolone_acetate", "rank": 63, "score": 59374 }, { "content": "Title: Trelissick Garden Content: Trelissick Garden ( Lowarth Trelesyk ) is a garden in the ownership of the National Trust at Feock , near Truro , Cornwall , England , United Kingdom . Trelissick Garden lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) . Almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation , with the same status and protection as a National Park .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trelissick_Garden", "rank": 64, "score": 59197 }, { "content": "Title: Tre Simmons Content: Chester Simmons III ( born July 24 , 1982 ) , better known as Tre Simmons , is an American professional basketball player for Antibes Sharks of the LNB Pro A.", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Tre_Simmons", "rank": 65, "score": 59169 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea", "rank": 66, "score": 59133 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)", "rank": 67, "score": 59038 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 68, "score": 58959 }, { "content": "Title: Kington Hundred Content: Kington or Kineton was a historic hundred of the county of Warwickshire in England . The hundred covered the southern part of the county , and lay south of Warwick , between the River Avon on the west and the River Itchen on the east . It was formed in the 12th century out of four Domesday hundreds , these were : Tremelau , which contained the parishes of Atherstone-on-Stour , Barford , Butlers Marston , Chadshunt , Charlecote , Chesterton , Comberton , Compton Verney , Ettington , Gaydon , Halford , Lighthorne , Moreton Morrell , Newbold Pacey , the Pillertons , Tachbrook , and Wasperton . Honesberie , containing Avon Dassett , Burton Dassett , Fenny Compton , Farnborough , part of Mollington , Priors Hardwick , Priors Marston , Radway , Ratley , Shotteswell , Warmington , and Wormleighton . Fexhole , containing Brailes , Cherington , Compton Wynyates , Honington , Idlicote , Kineton , Lapworth , Oxhill , Packwood , Tanworth , Tysoe , Wellesbourne with Walton , and Whatcote . Berricestone , or Barcheston , containing Barcheston , Barton-on-the Heath , Burmington , part of Ilmington , Long Compton , Stretton-on-Fosse , Whichford , Whitchurch , and Wolford . None of these four Domesday hundreds occurs again outside the Survey , and by 1169 the ` sipesocha ' , or hundred , of Kington had taken their place . The hundred is said to have been granted by Henry II to Walter son of Thurstan de Charlecote , the ancestor of the Lucy family , to hold by a rent of 40s . During the reign of John it was taken into the king 's hands and farmed at 21 marks , in addition to which the issues of the court leet produced 61s . 4d. , sheriff 's aid # 10 , and ` wardpeni ' 8s . 8d . In 1227 Henry III inspected charters of Henry II and John confirming the hundred to William de Lucy and ordered that it should be restored to him . It had , however , come back to the Crown by 1236 , when its farm was accounted for by William de Lucy as sheriff . From this time it was farmed out to various persons : as in 1270 Richard de Hersey , who paid 100 s. more than the old rent , Thomas Blaunkfront in 1317 , John de Waltham in 1331 , Geoffrey Oede in 1335 , and Richard , Earl of Arundel , in 1356 . A valuation of the issues of the hundred in 1367 shows that it was farmed at # 8 ; the payments de certo of the vills amounted to # 7 19s . 8d. ; and those for ` warth ' to 6s . 5d . By the time of Dugdale ( c. 1645 ) the only vills doing suit to the hundred court were Shotteswell , Warmington , Stretton-on-Fosse , part of Wellesbourne , Oxhill , Avon Dassett , Mollington , Halford , Barton-on-the-Heath , Ratley , Farnborough , and Aylston . At this time the hundred was divided into the constabularies of Brailes , Kineton , Priors Marston , and Tanworth , each under a High Constable ; these were replaced in 1828 by the Petty Sessional divisions of Kineton , Long Compton , Mollington and Warwick . In the present century the four divisions have become Brailes , Kineton , Burton Dassett and Warwick . In 1844 the parish of Sutton-under-Brailes , which up to that time had been an isolated part of Gloucestershire entirely surrounded by Warwickshire , was transferred to this county . By the Transfer Order of 1931 the parishes of Clifford Chambers , Dorsington , Long Marston , Preston-on-Stour , Welford-on-Avon and Weston-on-Avon were transferred from Gloucestershire , and those of Alderminster , Shipston-on-Stour , Tidmington , and Tredington from Worcestershire . The history of these last four parishes has already been recorded in V.C.H. Worcester ; the others will be treated under Gloucestershire , to which county they belong historically , except Welford and Weston , of which large parts were always in Warwickshire . Similarly Mollington was from medieval times divided between Warwickshire and Oxfordshire , but since 1895 has been entirely in the latter county , under which its history will be dealt with .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Kington_Hundred", "rank": 69, "score": 58939 }, { "content": "Title: À la musique Content: À la musique is a vocal work by Emmanuel Chabrier for solo soprano , women 's chorus and orchestra ( or piano ) . The words are by poet and playwright Edmond Rostand . It was written as a ` house-warming ' gift for Jules `` Tergis '' Griset , industrialist and keen cellist ( member of the famous Geloso Quartet with Albert Géloso , Pierre Monteux and Bloch ) , to whom it is dedicated ( ` to inaugurate the house of a friend ' ) . It was first performed in November 1890 at Griset 's house ( then Place de Laborde , now 12 Place Henri-Bergson , Paris ) by the Société Chorale d'Amateurs Guillot de Sainbris with Chabrier at the piano . The first public performance was on 23 March 1891 with Mme Rachel-Pascaline Leroux-Ribeyre and the Colonne Orchestra conducted by Édouard Colonne at the Théâtre du Châtelet . It was also performed at the Concerts du Conservatoire on the 22 and 29 January 1893 with Éléonore Blanc ( who would create the role of Briséïs four years later ) as soloist , conducted by Paul Taffanel . The orchestral manuscript is now in the Bibliothèque nationale de France . The music ( marked Andantino , molto con affetto ) is in Chabrier 's tenderest , most lyrical vein , entirely free from any suggestion of eccentricity or pseudo-Wagnerian grandiloquence . Myers points out bold touches , such as when the altos , over a pedal f# in the orchestra reiterate for four long 9/8 bars the words ` musique adorable ' on the same note , while the soloist and other voices weave round them an expressive melodic figure starting on G natural . He adds `` its limpid and mellifluous accents are completely innocent of any of those undercurrents of irony , bravura or humorous exaggeration which have come to be accepted as the hallmarks of his very idiosyncratic style '' . À la musique was a favourite piece of Claude Debussy and was chosen by Désiré-Émile Inghelbrecht to open the concert he conducted to inaugurate the new Théâtre des Champs-Élysées on 2 April 1913 . Present at the rehearsal for this concert , Debussy asked the conductor to play it again -- just for the pleasure of hearing it . À la musique is scored for an orchestra consisting of 2 flutes , 2 oboes , 2 B flat clarinets , 2 bassoons ; 4 horns in F , 2 trumpets in F , 3 trombones ; timpani , triangle ; 2 harps , violins , violas , cellos and double basses .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "À_la_musique", "rank": 70, "score": 58910 }, { "content": "Title: Heat-not-burn tobacco product Content: A Heat-not-burn tobacco product ( HNB ) employs heating , rather than burning , of tobacco . As it starts to heat the tobacco , it generates an aerosol that contains nicotine . These products provide some of the behavioral aspects of smoking . There is no reliable evidence regarding a lowered risk or health benefits . While manufacturers claim they are safer than normal cigarettes , these claims are not supported as of 2016 . The products first came to market in 1988 , however were not a commercial success . The ubiquitousness of electronic cigarettes and growing dissatisfaction with not providing a throat-hit may present an opportunity for heat-not-burn tobacco products . These products are currently being introduced by large tobacco companies .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Heat-not-burn_tobacco_product", "rank": 71, "score": 58897 }, { "content": "Title: Trechus safranboluensis Content: Trechus safranboluensis is a species of ground beetle in the subfamily Trechinae . It was described by Donabauer in 2004 .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trechus_safranboluensis", "rank": 72, "score": 58842 }, { "content": "Title: Glenn Thomas Trewartha Content: Glenn Thomas Trewartha ( 1896 -- 1984 ) was an American geographer of Cornish American descent . He graduated from the University of Wisconsin -- Madison , with a Ph.D. in 1924 . He taught at the University of Wisconsin . He gave an address to the Association of American Geographers , `` A Case for Population Geography . '' He also wrote about climate , explaining that the atmosphere was like `` a pane of glass in a greenhouse ... thus maintaining surface temperatures considerably higher than they otherwise would be . ''", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Glenn_Thomas_Trewartha", "rank": 73, "score": 58784 }, { "content": "Title: Tregeseal Content: Tregeseal is a hamlet in a valley below the town of St Just , Cornwall , UK and is within the parish of St Just . Nearby is Tregeseal East stone circle . Tregeseal lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) ; almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation , with the same status and protection as a National Park .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Tregeseal", "rank": 74, "score": 58693 }, { "content": "Title: Trevelver Content: Trevelver is a hamlet in the parish of St Minver , Cornwall , England , United Kingdom . Trevelver lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) . Almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation , with the same status and protection as a National Park .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trevelver", "rank": 75, "score": 58511 }, { "content": "Title: Humbert (bishop of Würzburg) Content: Humbert or Hunbert ( died 9 March 842 ) was the bishop of Würzburg from 833 until his death . Although he was resident in Würzburg from 815 , Humbert seems to have been a suffragan bishop of the archdiocese of Mainz without a see of his own before he was appointed to succeed Wolfgar at Würzburg . Humbert was a friend and correspondent of Hraban Maur , whose biblical commentaries he greatly admired . He sent a large supply of parchment to Fulda Abbey to have copies made of some of Hraban 's books for his cathedral 's library . He also acquired biblical manuscripts and some commentaries by Bede .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Humbert_(bishop_of_Würzburg)", "rank": 76, "score": 58452 }, { "content": "Title: Municipality of Trebnje Content: The Municipality of Trebnje ( Občina Trebnje ) is a municipality in Slovenia in the traditional region of Lower Carniola . The seat of the municipality is the town of Trebnje . The municipality was established on 3 October 1994 . It was increased in size on 6 August 1998 , when the settlements of Kostanjevica and Ravne nad Šentrupertom were transferred to the municipality from the neighboring Municipality of Litija . It was then reduced in size on 13 June 2006 with the formation of the new municipalities of Mokronog-Trebelno and Šentrupert from the municipality 's territory .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Municipality_of_Trebnje", "rank": 77, "score": 58428 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 78, "score": 58385 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Cloud_feedback", "rank": 79, "score": 58366 }, { "content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)", "rank": 80, "score": 58304 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 81, "score": 58276 }, { "content": "Title: Trevarrick Content: Trevarrick ( Trevardhek ) is a hamlet in the parish of St Goran in Cornwall , England , United Kingdom . Trevarrick lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) . Almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation , with the same status and protection as a National Park .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trevarrick", "rank": 82, "score": 58183 }, { "content": "Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World", "rank": 83, "score": 58154 }, { "content": "Title: Fuerte de Lonquén Content: Fuerte de Lonquén ( Fort Lonquén ) was a fort built in 1602 by Governor Alonso de Ribera on the south bank of the Lonquén River nine kilometers from the Itata River . It was established to protect the grain fields and cattle of the local estancias that fed Ribera 's Spanish army on La Frontera . Years later a town was established at this point called Nombre de Jesús . By the late 19th century there was only a small village called Lonquén located on the site a few kilometers northwest of the town of Treguaco in the commune of that name in Ñuble Province of the Bío Bío Region of Chile .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Fuerte_de_Lonquén", "rank": 84, "score": 58037 }, { "content": "Title: Frank Wentz Content: Frank Wentz is the CEO and director of Remote Sensing Systems , a company he founded in 1974 . Remote Sensing Systems specializes in satellite microwave remote sensing research . Together with Carl Mears , he is best known for developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) one . From 1978 to 1982 Frank was a member of NASA 's SeaSat Experiment Team involved in the development of physically based retrieval methods for microwave scatterometers and radiometers . He has also investigated the effect of climate change on satellite-derived evaporation , precipitation and surface wind values . His findings are different from most climate change model predictions .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Frank_Wentz", "rank": 85, "score": 57761 }, { "content": "Title: Trego Hot Springs Content: Trego Hot Springs is located in the Black Rock Desert at the location of Trego , Nevada , a former station on the Western Pacific Railroad . The name `` Trego '' dates from the 1910s , just after the railroad was built . Previously , the springs had names like Hot Springs , Kyles Hot Springs ( 1864 ) , Butte Spring , and Butte Hot Spring . Today , Trego is known for its hot springs , which is a long ditch with a soft mud bottom . The springs are at the north end , near the railroad tracks , and the water flows south . Garside reports that the springs have a temperature of 187F . Unlike nearby Frog Springs at the Garrett Ranch , Trego is on public land .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trego_Hot_Springs", "rank": 86, "score": 57716 }, { "content": "Title: Te Lo Agradezco, Pero No Content: `` Te Lo Agradezco , Pero No '' ( Thank you , but no ) is a song recorded by Alejandro Sanz and Shakira , for the former artist 's eighth studio album El Tren de los Momentos ( 2006 ) . It was released as the second single from the album in December 2006 through Warner Music Latina . It was written by Sanz who also produced it along with Lulo Pérez . `` Te Lo Agradezco , Pero No '' is the second duet recorded by the two singers following `` La Tortura '' for Shakira 's album Fijación Oral Vol . 1 ( 2005 ) . The song came about after Shakira approached Sanz telling him that she wanted to collaborate on something different from her own material . Upon its release , `` Te Lo Agradezco , Pero No '' was perceived as an album highlight by several music critics . It earned the duo several awards and nominations including Song of the Year at the 2007 Premios Oye ! . The single was successful in Venezuela and on the US Latin music charts , where it topped the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Latin Pop Airplay charts . A music video for the song , directed by Jaume de Laiguana was filmed in Brooklyn and released on 11 January 2007 . It is a continuation of the clip for Sanz 's `` A la Primera Persona '' and it features the duo dancing together towards the end . Sanz performed the song live during his El Tren De Los Momentos Tour ( 2007-08 ) .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Te_Lo_Agradezco,_Pero_No", "rank": 87, "score": 57520 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 88, "score": 57449 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 89, "score": 57439 }, { "content": "Title: Trefor Goronwy Content: Trefor Goronwy is a vocalist , bass guitarist , guitarist , and percussionist . He joined This Heat , for their final European tour in 1982 , and continued to work with drummer Charles Hayward and soundman Stephen Rickard in the group Camberwell Now . He has also worked as a sound technician with groups such as Pere Ubu , Towering Inferno , David Thomas and Two Pale Boys , Spearmint , Momus and the Tuvan throat-singing ensemble Huun-Huur-Tu , whose first album he recorded in London . After several years spent in Russia , he has recently been working on recordings featuring Tuvan and Kazakh traditional instruments , particularly the igil and kobyz .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Trefor_Goronwy", "rank": 90, "score": 57386 }, { "content": "Title: Farnborough Rural District Content: Farnborough was a rural district in Warwickshire , England from 1894 to 1932 . It was formed from that part of the Banbury rural sanitary district which was in Warwickshire ( the rest , including part of the parish of Mollington historically in Warwickshire , becoming the Banbury Rural District in Oxfordshire , or the Middleton Cheney Rural District in Northamptonshire ) . It contained the parishes of Avon Dassett , Farnborough , Radway , Ratley and Upton , Shotteswell and Warmington . It was abolished under a County Review Order in 1932 , becoming part of the Southam Rural District .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Farnborough_Rural_District", "rank": 91, "score": 57381 }, { "content": "Title: C18H22O2 Content: The molecular formula C18H22O2 may refer to : 8,9-Dehydroestradiol Estrone , a hormone Hexestrol , an estrogen Trenbolone , a veterinary steroid drug", "qid": "2888", "docid": "C18H22O2", "rank": 92, "score": 57341 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 93, "score": 57289 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 94, "score": 57139 }, { "content": "Title: First moment of area Content: The first moment of area , sometimes misnamed as the first moment of inertia , is based in the mathematical construct moments in metric spaces , stating that the moment of area equals the summation of area times distance to an axis -LSB- Σ ( a × d ) -RSB- . It is a measure of the distribution of the area of a shape in relation to an axis . First moment of area is commonly used to determine the centroid of an area .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "First_moment_of_area", "rank": 95, "score": 57116 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 96, "score": 57065 }, { "content": "Title: List of second moments of area Content: The following is a list of second moments of area of some shapes . The second moment of area , also known as area moment of inertia , is a geometrical property of an area which reflects how its points are distributed with regard to an arbitrary axis . The unit of dimension of the second moment of area is length to fourth power , L4 , and should not be confused with the mass moment of inertia . If the piece is thin , however , the mass moment of inertia equals the area density times the area moment of inertia .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "List_of_second_moments_of_area", "rank": 97, "score": 56821 }, { "content": "Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007", "rank": 98, "score": 56770 }, { "content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason", "rank": 99, "score": 56618 }, { "content": "Title: Warming Land Content: Warming Land is a peninsula in far northern Greenland . Administratively it is a part of the Qaasuitsup municipality . It was named after Danish botanist and ecologist Eugen Warming ( 1841 -- 1924 ) .", "qid": "2888", "docid": "Warming_Land", "rank": 100, "score": 56502 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Subsurface currents Content: A subsurface current is an oceanic current that runs beneath surface currents . Examples include the Equatorial Undercurrents of the Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans , the California Undercurrent , and the Agulhas Undercurrent , the deep thermohaline circulation in the Atlantic , and bottom gravity currents near Antarctica . The forcing mechanisms vary for these different types of subsurface currents .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subsurface_currents", "rank": 1, "score": 116862 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic impacts on the oceans Content: Explosive volcanic eruptions affect the global climate mainly through injecting sulfur bearing gases into the stratosphere , which oxidize to form sulfate aerosols . Stratospheric sulfur aerosols spread around the globe by the atmospheric circulation , producing surface cooling by scattering solar radiation back to space . This cooling effect on the ocean surface usually lasts for several years as the lifetime of sulfate aerosols is about 2 -- 3 years . However , in the subsurface ocean the cooling signal may persist for a longer time and may have impacts on some decadal variabilities , such as the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation ( AMOC ) .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Volcanic_impacts_on_the_oceans", "rank": 2, "score": 107353 }, { "content": "Title: Subtropical Countercurrent Content: The subtropical countercurrent ( STCC ) is a narrow eastward ocean current in the central North Pacific Ocean ( 20 -- 30 ° N ) where the Sverdrup theory predicts a broad westward flow . It originates in the western North Pacific around 20 ° N , and flows eastward against the northeast trade winds and stretches northeastward to the north of Hawaii . It is accompanied by a subsurface temperature and density front called the subtropical front , in thermal wind relation with the STCC . Furthermore , the STCC maintains a sea surface temperature front during winter and spring . During April and May when the SST front is still strong , the seasonal warming makes the region conductive to atmospheric convection , and surface wind stress curls turn weakly positive along the front on the background of negative curls that drive the subtropical gyre . On the weather timescale , positive wind curls are related to low-pressure systems of a subsynoptic scale in space , energized by surface baroclinicity and latent heat release along the STF front . The SST front also anchors a meridional maximum in column-integrated water vapor , indicating a deep structure of the atmosphere response .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subtropical_Countercurrent", "rank": 3, "score": 105323 }, { "content": "Title: Aquifer thermal energy storage Content: Aquifer thermal energy storage ( ATES ) is the storage and recovery of thermal energy in the subsurface . ATES is applied to provide heating and cooling to buildings . Storage and recovery of thermal energy is achieved by extraction and injection of groundwater from aquifers using groundwater wells . Systems commonly operate in a seasonal mode . The groundwater that is extracted in summer , is used for cooling by transferring heat from the building to the groundwater by means of a heat exchanger . Subsequently , the heated groundwater is injected back into the aquifer , which creates a storage of heated groundwater . In wintertime , the flow direction is reversed such that the heated groundwater is extracted and can be used for heating ( often in combination with a heat pump ) . Therefore , operating an ATES system uses the subsurface as a temporal storage to buffer seasonal variations in heating and cooling demand . When replacing traditional fossil fuel dependent heating and cooling systems , ATES can serve as a cost-effective technology to reduce the primary energy consumption of a building and the associated CO2 emissions . In 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , many countries and regions have made targets for global climate protection . The European Union also set a target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , increase use of sustainable energy and improve energy efficiency . For this target , ATES can actually contribute significantly , as about 40 % of global energy consumption is done by buildings , and is mainly for heating and cooling . Therefore , the development of ATES has been paid a lot of attention and the number of ATES has increased dramatically , especially in Europe . For example , in the Netherlands , it was estimated that about 20,000 ATES systems could be achieved by 2020 . This can yield a CO2 emission reduction of about 11 % , for the target of the Netherlands . Besides the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Turkey , and Sweden are also increasing the application of ATES . ATES can be applied worldwide , as long as the climatic conditions and geohydrological conditions are right . As ATES systems cumulate in urban areas optimisation of subsurface space requires attention in areas with suitable conditions .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Aquifer_thermal_energy_storage", "rank": 4, "score": 101834 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-curtain effect Content: The zero-curtain effect occurs in cold ( particularly periglacial ) environments where the phase transition of water to ice is slowed down due to latent heat release . The effect is notably found in arctic and alpine permafrost sediments , and occurs where the air temperature falls below 0 ° C ( the freezing point of water ) followed by a rapid drop in soil temperature . Because of this effect , the lowering of temperature in moist , cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate . The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes , and latent heat is released . This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen , at which point temperatures can continue to fall . Therefore , for as long as water is available to the system ( for example , through cryosuction/capillary action ) the temperature of the sediment will remain at a constant temperature .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Zero-curtain_effect", "rank": 5, "score": 100800 }, { "content": "Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Ocean_heat_content", "rank": 6, "score": 97848 }, { "content": "Title: FEFLOW Content: FEFLOW ( Finite Element subsurface FLOW system ) is a computer program for simulating groundwater flow , mass transfer and heat transfer in porous media and fractured media . The program uses finite element analysis to solve the groundwater flow equation of both saturated and unsaturated conditions as well as mass and heat transport , including fluid density effects and chemical kinetics for multi-component reaction systems .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "FEFLOW", "rank": 7, "score": 97142 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal exploration Content: Geothermal exploration is the exploration of the subsurface in search of viable active geothermal regions with the goal of building a geothermal power plant , where hot fluids drive turbines to create electricity . Exploration methods include a broad range of disciplines including geology , geophysics , geochemistry and engineering . Geothermal regions with adequate heat flow to fuel power plants are found in rift zones , subduction zones and mantle plumes . Hot spots are characterized by four geothermal elements . An active region will have : Heat Source - Shallow magmatic body , decaying radioactive elements or ambient heat from high pressures Reservoir - Collection of hot rocks from which heat can be drawn Geothermal Fluid - Gas , vapor and water found within the reservoir Recharge Area - Area surrounding the reservoir that rehydrates the geothermal system . Exploration involves not only identifying hot geothermal bodies , but also low-density , cost effective regions to drill and already constituted plumbing systems inherent within the subsurface . This information allows for higher success rates in geothermal plant production as well as lower drilling costs . As much as 42 % of all expenses associated with geothermal energy production can be attributed to exploration . These costs are mostly from drilling operations necessary to confirm or deny viable geothermal regions . Some geothermal experts have gone to say that developments in exploration techniques and technologies have the potential to bring the greatest advancements within the industry .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Geothermal_exploration", "rank": 8, "score": 94797 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal subsidence Content: In geology and geophysics , thermal subsidence is a mechanism of subsidence in which conductive cooling of the mantle thickens the lithosphere and causes it to decrease in elevation . This is because of thermal contraction : as mantle material cools and becomes part of the mechanically rigid lithosphere , it becomes more dense than the surrounding material . Additional material added to the lithosphere thickens it and further causes a buoyant decrease in the elevation of the lithosphere . This creates accommodation space into which sediments can deposit , forming a sedimentary basin .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Thermal_subsidence", "rank": 9, "score": 92251 }, { "content": "Title: Subsurface (software) Content: Subsurface is a software for logging and planning scuba dives . It was initially designed and developed by Linus Torvalds and Dirk Hohndel in 2011 . Subsurface is free and open-source software distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License version 2 .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subsurface_(software)", "rank": 10, "score": 91672 }, { "content": "Title: Subaqueous volcano Content: A subaqueous volcano is a volcano formed beneath freshwater and never builds above lake level . They are commonly in the form of gently sloping tuff cones , although they can sometimes have an , such as White Horse Bluff in the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field of east-central British Columbia , Canada . Subaqueous volcanoes can be compared to subaerial volcanoes which are formed and erupt on land surface , or under the air . The major differences of volcanic eruptions are due to the effects of pressure , heat capacity or conductivity of water , the presence of steam and water rheology . The thermal conductivity of water is about 20 times that of air and steam has a thermal conductivity nearly 50 times that of water . Subaqueous volcanoes are most commonly formed in oceans , but can also form in lakes , rivers and subglacial lakes . In improving our understanding of subaqueous volcanoes , it is important to consider the differences between the characteristics of modern and ancient approaches to the study . Modern studies offer fresh and unaltered observances , can see and map surface features and the water depth is known in areas that allow observation . Ancient studies have had stratigraphic exposure to sections , are easier to work on , have more and better exposures and have an existing relationship to resources . Some geologists would restrict the term subaqueous pyroclastic flow deposits to volcaniclastic units that show characteristics of emplacement in a hot state deposited underwater -- however , this ca n't always be done because of the subsequent process of alteration/diagenesis such as active hot springs and associated hydrothermal alteration . Deposits from pyroclastic flows that interact with water and are transformed into water-supported mass flows are called subaqueous pyroclastic debris flow deposits by some geologists . On the other hand , processes that are associated with eruption , transportation and deposition are notably different because of the presence of water . Such differences that the presence of water entails is the ability to vaporize when in contact with water , a high density and resulting confining pressure , high viscosity relative to air and differences in the thermal conductivities/heat capacities in the air relative to water . Some understanding of subaqueous volcanoes can be inferred from knowledge of volcanic processes based on ancient successions . Subaqueous volcano deposits have been occurring in the south of Honshu , the largest island among Japan 's four principal islands . The four subaqueous volcanic deposits have been documented and are located throughout Japan offer significant evidence to study . Subaqueous volcanic deposits are associated with subaqueous sedimentary deposits and these deposits range from near shore , off-shore and abyssal mudstone deposits . Unfortunately , paleo-depth constraints for sedimentary strata are poor and subject to contradicting interpretations . However , the depth of emplacement can be conjectured with minor control of water depth . In determining the characteristics of pyroclastic flows in subaerial versus subaqueous deposits , it is commonly believed that water fluidized volcaniclastic flows become normally graded in terms of all components except for large , buoyant pumice blocks which settle to form large pumice layers . However , this phenomenon is usually seen as subaerial ignimbrite ( pumice rich pyroclastic flows ) deposits . Because of this , the characteristic is not considered clear evidence for the interpretation of the fluidizing agent ( hot gas or water ) and can therefore only be used in conjunction with other criteria . Characteristics can be sorted to infer subaqueous eruption or emplacement of silicic pyroclastic deposits . Larger pumice blocks rise for a more extended period of time ( minutes to hours ) in comparison to smaller pumice fragments because of gases trapped within vesicles and the very fine ash fragments may become entrained into the rising plume of gas and heated water because of the low density and weight . Therefore , subaqueous silicic pyroclastic eruptions may be diminished in the course size fraction as well as the very fine ash size fraction based on the buoyancy of the material in the water medium . These characteristics may be important in determining the style of subaqueous eruption and emplacement mechanism . The characteristics of texture , such as grain morphology and grain size abundances can also provide knowledge on the process of controlling the eruption style or transport/flow properties , whether turbulent or laminar . Seafloor exploration has discovered that more volcanic eruptions occur at the bottom of the sea than on land . However , the effects of ambient water and hydrostatic pressure on silicic volcanic eruptions in subaqueous settings are not entirely understood because deep marine eruptions are not directly observed and studied . Because of this , information of recent deep-water volcanic eruptions are still incomplete and limited . The conclusions of the studies of subaqueous volcanoes in Japan determine that clear evidence for eruption and/or emplacement of pyroclastic flows continue to be determined from the examination of these deposits although inferential evidence such as grain morphology , sorting and grading can be used to identify and document ancient subaqueous volcanic deposits . The University of California , Santa Barbara will continue to conduct further research which may be able to provide further information on styles of subaqueous volcanic eruptions and/or flow characteristics of volcanic deposits .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subaqueous_volcano", "rank": 11, "score": 90742 }, { "content": "Title: Subsurface flow Content: Subsurface flow , in hydrology , is the flow of water beneath earth 's surface as part of the water cycle . In the water cycle , when precipitation falls on the earth 's land , some of the water flows on the surface forming streams and rivers . The remaining water , through infiltration , penetrates the soil traveling underground , hydrating the vadose zone soil , recharging aquifers , with the excess flowing in subsurface runoff . In hydrogeology it is measured by the Groundwater flow equation .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subsurface_flow", "rank": 12, "score": 89656 }, { "content": "Title: Tidal heating Content: Tidal heating ( also known as tidal working or tidal flexing ) occurs through the tidal friction processes : orbital and rotational energy are dissipated as heat in either the surface ocean or interior of a planet or satellite . Io , a moon of Jupiter , is the most volcanically active body in the solar system , evidenced by active volcanos and no impact craters surviving on its surface . Io 's heating is a result of the tug between Jupiter and the other Galilean moons . The eccentricity of Io 's orbit ( a consequence of its participation in a Laplace resonance ) causes the height of Io 's tidal bulge to vary significantly ( by up to 100 m ) over the course of an orbit ; the friction from this tidal flexing then heats up its interior . A similar but weaker process is theorised to have melted the lower layers of the ice surrounding the rocky mantle of Jupiter 's next large moon , Europa . Saturn 's moon Enceladus is similarly thought to have a liquid water ocean beneath its icy crust . The water vapor geysers which eject material from Enceladus are thought to be powered by friction generated within this moon 's shifting ice crust . The total amount of tidal heating in a satellite that is spin-synchronous and has an eccentric orbit is given by : where , , and are respectively the satellite 's mean radius , mean orbital motion , and eccentricity . is the imaginary portion of the second order Love number which measures the efficiency of body dissipation within the satellite . This imaginary portion is a function of the satellite 's bulk shear modulus and viscosity . These in turn are dependent upon temperature and melting of the satellite 's interior .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Tidal_heating", "rank": 13, "score": 89103 }, { "content": "Title: Subsurface (album) Content: Subsurface is the seventh studio album by British progressive metal band Threshold . It is the last album to feature founding member and guitarist Nick Midson . The album was released in August 2004 , and received an Album of the Month award in several European music magazines . Songs on the album resume themes from earlier albums , including environmentalism and war , but also incorporating political themes .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subsurface_(album)", "rank": 14, "score": 89093 }, { "content": "Title: Deep chlorophyll maximum Content: A deep chlorophyll maximum ( DCM ) is a subsurface maximum in the concentration of chlorophyll in the ocean or a lake . A DCM is not always present -- sometimes there is more chlorophyll at the surface than at any greater depth -- but it is a common feature of most aquatic ecosystems . The depth , thickness , intensity , composition , and persistence of DCM 's vary widely .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Deep_chlorophyll_maximum", "rank": 15, "score": 87632 }, { "content": "Title: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean Content: The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean ( SHEBA ) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean , where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time . The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models , which scientists use to study global climate change .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Surface_Heat_Budget_of_the_Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 16, "score": 87618 }, { "content": "Title: Electrical resistance heating remediation Content: Electrical Resistance Heating ( ERH ) is an intensive in situ environmental remediation method that uses the flow of alternating current electricity to heat soil and groundwater and evaporate contaminants . Electric current is passed through a targeted soil volume between subsurface electrode elements . The resistance to electrical flow that exists in the soil causes the formation of heat ; resulting in an increase in temperature until the boiling point of water at depth is reached . After reaching this temperature , further energy input causes a phase change , forming steam and removing volatile contaminants . ERH is typically more cost effective when used for treating contaminant source areas ...", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Electrical_resistance_heating_remediation", "rank": 17, "score": 87528 }, { "content": "Title: Cromwell Current Content: The Cromwell Current ( also called Pacific Equatorial Undercurrent or just Equatorial Undercurrent ) is an eastward-flowing subsurface current that extends the length of the equator in the Pacific Ocean . The Cromwell Current was discovered in 1952 by Townsend Cromwell , a researcher with the Honolulu Laboratory . It is 250 miles ( 400 km ) wide and flows to the east . It is hidden 300 feet ( 100 m ) under the surface of the Pacific Ocean at the Equator and is relatively shallow compared to other ocean currents being only 100 feet from top to base . It is a powerful current with top velocities of up to 1.5 m/s . The current 's core coincides with the thermocline and its distance from the parallel Equatorial Counter Current is approximately 300 km . It has 1000 times the volume of Mississippi River and its length is 3500 miles ( 6000 km ) .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Cromwell_Current", "rank": 18, "score": 87459 }, { "content": "Title: Thalassogen Content: In astronomy , a thalassogen denotes a substance capable of forming a planetary ocean . Thalassogens are not necessarily life sustaining , although most interest has been in the context of extraterrestrial life . The term was coined by Isaac Asimov in his essay `` The Thalassogens '' , later published in his 1972 collection The Left Hand of the Electron . Elements making up thalassogens have to be relatively abundant , the substance must be chemically stable in its environment , and must remain liquid under the conditions found on some planets . Freitas gives the following table , noting that the liquid range typically increases with increasing pressure : The critical temperature and pressure represents the point where the distinction between gas and liquid vanishes , a possible upper limit for life ( although life in supercritical fluids has been discussed both in science and fiction , such as in Close to Critical by Hal Clement ) . Later authors have also suggested sulfuric acid , ethane , and water/ammonia mixtures as possible thalassogens . The discovery of possible subsurface oceans on moons such as Europa also extends the range of possible environments .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Thalassogen", "rank": 19, "score": 87304 }, { "content": "Title: Wind-induced surface heat exchange Content: The wind-induced surface heat exchange ( WISHE ) is a positive feedback mechanism between the ocean and atmosphere in which a stronger ocean-to-atmosphere heat flux results in a stronger atmospheric circulation , which results in a strong heat flux . It has been hypothesized that this is the mechanism by which low pressure areas in the tropics develop into tropical cyclones .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Wind-induced_surface_heat_exchange", "rank": 20, "score": 86905 }, { "content": "Title: THEO Content: THEO ( Testing the Habitability of Enceladus 's Ocean ) is a feasibility study for a New Frontiers class orbiter mission to Enceladus that would directly sample its south pole water plumes in order to study its internal habitability and to search for biosignatures . Specifically , it would take advantage of the direct sampling opportunities of a subsurface ocean . The study concept was produced by the 2015 Jet Propulsion Laboratory Planetary Science Summer School under the guidance of TeamX . The study has not yet been formally proposed for funding . The next NASA New Frontiers Program competition will start in 2017 .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "THEO", "rank": 21, "score": 86408 }, { "content": "Title: Float (oceanographic instrument platform) Content: A float ( not to be confused with a drifter ) is an oceanographic instrument platform used for making subsurface measurements in the ocean . Common sensors carried by floats include temperature , conductivity , and pressure ( from which salinity can be calculated ) , and , for acoustically tracked floats , a hydrophone , though a wide range of other sensors have been deployed on floats as well . Often , floats are treated as disposable , as the expense of recovering them from remote areas of the ocean is prohibitive ; when the batteries fail , a float ceases to function , and drifts at depth until it runs aground or floods and sinks . In other cases , floats are deployed for a short time and recovered .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Float_(oceanographic_instrument_platform)", "rank": 22, "score": 86314 }, { "content": "Title: Subsurface (disambiguation) Content: Subsurface may refer to : Bedrock , consolidated rock beneath a planet 's surface Subsurface ( album ) , 2004 album by British band Threshold Subsurface ( software ) , divelog software", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subsurface_(disambiguation)", "rank": 23, "score": 85525 }, { "content": "Title: Subsurface scattering Content: Subsurface scattering ( or SSS ) , also known as subsurface light transport ( SSLT ) , is a mechanism of light transport in which light penetrates the surface of a translucent object , is scattered by interacting with the material , and exits the surface at a different point . The light will generally penetrate the surface and be reflected a number of times at irregular angles inside the material , before passing back out of the material at an angle other than the angle it would have if it had been reflected directly off the surface . Subsurface scattering is important in 3D computer graphics , being necessary for the realistic rendering of materials such as marble , skin , leaves , wax and milk .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subsurface_scattering", "rank": 24, "score": 85255 }, { "content": "Title: District heating substation Content: thumb | right | A district heating substation in a residential neighborhood with a thermal capacity of 300 kW . Two components of the heat meter are visible : the metering electronics unit on the right ( white/blue box ) , and the ultrasonic flow meter in the center ( bronze tube ) . A district heating substation is a component in a district heating system that connects the main network to a building 's own heating system . The station normally has one , or more of the following parts : Heat exchanger - to split primary and secondary side of the system Control valve - to regulate the flow through the heat exchanger Differential pressure controller - to balance the network and improve working conditions of control valve Strainer - to remove particles that could block heat exchanger or control valve Shut off valve - to stop the flow on primary side in case of service or emergency Heat meter - to measure energy consumption and allocate costs Temperature controller - to control temperature on secondary side by regulating the flow on primary side Temperature sensor - to sense flow and return temperatures required for temperature control In addition , a district heating substation may also include : Pump Safety valve Manometer Non-return valve", "qid": "2890", "docid": "District_heating_substation", "rank": 25, "score": 85004 }, { "content": "Title: The Heat (Toni Braxton album) Content: The Heat is the third studio album by American recording artist Toni Braxton . Released in the United States on April 25 , 2000 by LaFace Records , the album marked Braxton 's departure from her ballads in favor of a more urban sound . Most of the songs ( including the nearly instrumental `` The Art of Love '' ) were written and produced by Braxton and her husband Keri Lewis ( a former member of Mint Condition ) , two ballads were penned by Diane Warren , and collaborations featured rappers Dr. Dre and Lisa `` Left Eye '' Lopes . The Heat opened at number two on the Billboard 200 chart selling 194,448 units in its first week . It was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on October 13 , 2000 , with sales of over 2.2 million copies within the U.S. Additionally , the album was nominated for Best R&B Album at the 2001 Grammy Awards , while lead single `` He Was n't Man Enough '' won for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance and was nominated for Best R&B Song .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "The_Heat_(Toni_Braxton_album)", "rank": 26, "score": 84174 }, { "content": "Title: Electro Thermal Dynamic Stripping Process Content: Electro Thermal Dynamic Stripping Process ( ET-DSP ) is a patented in situ thermal environmental remediation technology , created by McMillan-McGee Corporation , for cleaning contaminated sites . ET-DSP uses readily available three phase electric power to heat the subsurface with electrodes . Electrodes are placed at various depths and locations in the formation . Electric current to each electrode is controlled continuously by computer to uniformly heat the target contamination zone .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Electro_Thermal_Dynamic_Stripping_Process", "rank": 27, "score": 83625 }, { "content": "Title: Ridge push Content: Ridge push or sliding plate force is a proposed mechanism for plate motion in plate tectonics . Because mid-ocean ridges lie at a higher elevation than the rest of the ocean floor , gravity causes the ridge to push on the lithosphere that lies farther from the ridge . As molten magma rises at a mid-ocean ridge it heats the rocks around it . The heat expelled by the magma expands the lithosphere and asthenosphere at the ridge , pushing them above the surrounding ocean floor . As time passes , the heated rocks cool and their density increases . When this happens gravity pulls the weighty lithosphere away from the mid-ocean ridge , down the sloping asthenosphere , which , in turn , allows new molten magma to well up . This fresh magma will eventually become new lithosphere . The cooling rock exerts a force on spreading lithospheric plates , helping to drive their movements . The force is called ridge push . It can be calculated by the principle of isostasy , making a balance between the mid-ocean ridge and the old ocean floor . Notably , in such a calculation , the force depends only on the temperature of the asthenosphere at the ridge ( the same in all ` normal ' ridges , though higher at hotspots , and not on the spreading rate of the ridge . Another force , that for some plates exceeds ridge-push , is slab pull , where the weight of a subducting slab pulls the plate at the surface along .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Ridge_push", "rank": 28, "score": 83462 }, { "content": "Title: HEAT 1X Tycho Brahe Content: HEAT 1X Tycho Brahe was the first rocket and spacecraft combination built by Copenhagen Suborbitals , a Danish organization attempting to perform the first amateur suborbital manned spaceflight . The vehicle consisted of a motor named HEAT-1X and a spacecraft Tycho Brahe . Its launch location was a floating platform named Sputnik . The rocket was test launched twice : In 2010 a power shortage caused a valve to freeze shut , which prevented launch . In 2011 the rocket was successfully launched , reaching an altitude of 2.8 km before the engine was remotely shut off due to a wrong trajectory .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "HEAT_1X_Tycho_Brahe", "rank": 29, "score": 82885 }, { "content": "Title: Permafrost carbon cycle Content: The Permafrost Carbon Cycle is a sub-cycle of the larger global carbon cycle . Permafrost is defined as subsurface material that remains below 0o C ( 32o F ) for at least two consecutive years . Because permafrost soils remain frozen for long periods of time , they store large amounts of carbon and other nutrients within their frozen framework during that time . Permafrost represents a large carbon reservoir that is seldom considered when determining global terrestrial carbon reservoirs . Recent and ongoing scientific research however , is changing this view . The permafrost carbon cycle ( Arctic Carbon Cycle ) deals with the transfer of carbon from permafrost soils to terrestrial vegetation and microbes , to the atmosphere , back to vegetation , and finally back to permafrost soils through burial and sedimentation due to cryogenic processes . Some of this carbon is transferred to the ocean and other portions of the globe through the global carbon cycle . The cycle includes the exchange of carbon dioxide and methane between terrestrial components and the atmosphere , as well as the transfer of carbon between land and water as methane , dissolved organic carbon , dissolved inorganic carbon , particulate inorganic carbon and particulate organic carbon .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Permafrost_carbon_cycle", "rank": 30, "score": 82648 }, { "content": "Title: Hot Hot Heat Content: Hot Hot Heat is a Canadian indie rock band from Victoria , British Columbia , formed in 1999 . The band was signed by Seattle label Sub Pop in 2001 and released its first EP , Knock Knock Knock , and first full-length album , Make Up the Breakdown , the following year . The band has released three albums since , the most recent being Future Breeds in 2010 . Its style makes use of electronic and traditional instruments and has variously been categorized as dance-punk , post-punk revival , new wave , and art-punk . After five years of little activity , on March 13 , 2016 Hot Hot Heat announced new music in the form of a special 7 '' titled `` Nature of Things '' to be released for Record Store Day ( April 16 ) . Following on from this , on April 5 , the band announced via Twitter they would be releasing their fifth and final self-titled album on June 24 . New song `` Kid Who Stays in the Picture '' was premiered the same day .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Hot_Hot_Heat", "rank": 31, "score": 82450 }, { "content": "Title: Rimae Sirsalis Content: Rimae Sirsalis is a lunar rille . It is located at and is 426 km long . It was formed by extension of the surface , possibly due to dike propagation in the subsurface . Rimae Sirsalis cuts across highlands almost exclusively . It starts at the edge of Oceanus Procellarum near the modest crater Sirsalis from which it gets its name and proceeds directly away from the mare , eventually ending up among the cracks in the floor of the crater Darwin . Along the way it passes through craters , ranges of hills , and other small rilles . Sirsalis , Rimae Category : Volcanic landforms", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Rimae_Sirsalis", "rank": 32, "score": 82087 }, { "content": "Title: Mantle convection Content: Mantle convection is the slow creeping motion of Earth 's solid silicate mantle caused by convection currents carrying heat from the interior of the Earth to the surface . The Earth 's surface lithosphere , which rides atop the asthenosphere ( the two components of the upper mantle ) , is divided into a number of plates that are continuously being created and consumed at their opposite plate boundaries . Accretion occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a plate , associated with seafloor spreading . This hot added material cools down by conduction and convection of heat . At the consumption edges of the plate , the material has thermally contracted to become dense , and it sinks under its own weight in the process of subduction usually at an ocean trench . This subducted material sinks through the Earth 's interior . Some subducted material appears to reach the lower mantle , while in other regions , this material is impeded from sinking further , possibly due to a phase transition from spinel to silicate perovskite and magnesiowustite , an endothermic reaction . The subducted oceanic crust triggers volcanism , although the basic mechanisms are varied . Volcanism may occur due to processes that add buoyancy to partially melted mantle causing an upward flow due to a decrease in density of the partial melt . Secondary forms of convection that may result in surface volcanism are postulated to occur as a consequence of intraplate extension and mantle plumes . It is because the mantle can convect that the tectonic plates are able to move around the Earth 's surface . Mantle convection seems to have been much more active during the Hadean period , resulting in gravitational sorting of heavier molten iron , and nickel elements and sulphides in the core , and lighter silicate minerals in the mantle .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Mantle_convection", "rank": 33, "score": 81187 }, { "content": "Title: Subsurface dyke Content: A subsurface dyke is a barrier impermeable to water that is placed underground to control the groundwater flow in an aquifer , and to raise the water table .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subsurface_dyke", "rank": 34, "score": 80459 }, { "content": "Title: Underplating Content: Underplating is the accumulation of partial melts at the base of the crust where an ocean plate is subducting under continental crust . Underplating is the result of partial melts being produced in the mantle wedge above a subducting plate . The partial melting is induced by a lowering of the melting temperature , the solidus , by the input of water and other volatiles supplied by phase transitions in the subducting slab . When the buoyant partial melt rises upwards through the mantle , it will usually stall at the base of the crust and pond there . This is because the crust is usually less dense than the underplating magma , and this is the point at which the ascending magma reaches a level of neutral buoyancy . The evolving melt will remain here until it fractionates enough ( through MASH processes ) that the remaining melt is less dense than the surrounding rock ; the melt will then continue up into the crust , leaving behind the heavier mafic minerals which were crystallized during fractional crystallization . The assemblage of minerals remaining behind are typically mafic or ultramafic , and are responsible for the observed seismic anomaly which indicates underplated material .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Underplating", "rank": 35, "score": 80368 }, { "content": "Title: Subsurface utilities Content: Subsurface Utilities are the utility networks generally laid under the ground surface . These utilities include pipeline networks for water supply , sewage disposal , petrochemical liquid transmission , petrochemical gas transmission or cable networks for power transmission , telecom data transmission , any other data or signal transmission . The field of engineering dealing with the locating and mapping subsurface utilities is termed as Subsurface Utility Engineering ( SUE ) . Category : Construction terminology", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subsurface_utilities", "rank": 36, "score": 80274 }, { "content": "Title: Middle North Sea Group Content: The Middle North Sea Group ( abbreviation : NM ) is a group of geologic formations in the Dutch subsurface , part of the North Sea Supergroup . The three formations of this group form a thick sequence of sediments in the Dutch subsurface , they crop out in parts of the southern Netherlands . The Middle North Sea Group was deposited from the late Eocene to late Oligocene , between 37 and 23 million years ago . Its three formations are ( from old to young ) the Tongeren , Rupel and Veldhoven Formations . The Tongeren Formation has a continental to paralic facies , the other two consist mainly of shallow marine clays and sands .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Middle_North_Sea_Group", "rank": 37, "score": 79839 }, { "content": "Title: Upwelling Content: Upwelling is an oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind-driven motion of dense , cooler , and usually nutrient-rich water towards the ocean surface , replacing the warmer , usually nutrient-depleted surface water . The nutrient-rich upwelled water stimulates the growth and reproduction of primary producers such as phytoplankton . Due to the biomass of phytoplankton and presence of cool water in these regions , upwelling zones can be identified by cool sea surface temperatures ( SST ) and high concentrations of chlorophyll-a . The increased availability in upwelling regions results in high levels of primary productivity and thus fishery production . Approximately 25 % of the total global marine fish catches come from five upwellings that occupy only 5 % of the total ocean area . Upwellings that are driven by coastal currents or diverging open ocean have the greatest impact on nutrient-enriched waters and global fishery yields . __ TOC __", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Upwelling", "rank": 38, "score": 78812 }, { "content": "Title: Subsurface engineer Content: Subsurface engineers ( also known as Completion engineers ) are a subset within Petroleum Engineering and typically work closely with Drilling engineers . The job of a Subsurface Engineer is to effectively select equipment that will best suit the subsurface environment in order to best produce the hydrocarbon reserves . Once the hardware has been selected , a Subsurface Engineer will monitor and adjust the equipment to ensure the well and reservoir produces under ideal circumstances .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subsurface_engineer", "rank": 39, "score": 78639 }, { "content": "Title: Box Upfront Content: Box Upfront ( formerly Heat ) is a British music television channel owned by The Box Plus Network , a joint venture between Bauer Media Group and Channel Four Television Corporation . It launched on 3 July 2012 , and was originally based on the magazine of the same name . The channel replaced Q. The channel features daily celebrity gossip show Heat 's Huge News , as well as a 60-minute programme rounding up weeks stories , titled Heat 's Huge Week of News , which is produced by ITN . In addition , ITN Productions co-produces celebrity documentary series Real Stories with Box Television . Heat also features The Heat-Ometer , its pick of the 20 biggest music videos narrated by Heat editor , Lucie Cave . On 2 April 2013 , all Box Television channels went free-to-air on satellite , apart from 4Music which went free-to-view . As a result , the channels were removed from the Sky EPG in Ireland . However , Heat launched on Freesat on 29 April 2013 , alongside Magic , following the addition of four other Box Television channels on 15 April . On 25 May 2016 , the channel was rebranded as Box Upfront .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Box_Upfront", "rank": 40, "score": 78631 }, { "content": "Title: Lower North Sea Group Content: The Lower North Sea Group ( abbreviation : NL ) is a group of geologic formations in the subsurface of the Netherlands and adjacent parts of the North Sea . The group is part of the North Sea Supergroup and consists of two marine formations of early Paleogene age , the older Landen Formation and younger Dongen Formation . It is in most places stratigraphically on top of the Late Cretaceous Chalk Group and overlain by the late Paleogene Middle North Sea Group . The Lower North Sea Group crops out in a few spots in the south of the Netherlands but is mostly overlain by younger deposits . It can be found in the subsurface of most of the Netherlands .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Lower_North_Sea_Group", "rank": 41, "score": 78625 }, { "content": "Title: Water cycle Content: The water cycle , also known as the hydrological cycle or the hydrologic cycle , describes the continuous movement of water on , above and below the surface of the Earth . The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice , fresh water , saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables . The water moves from one reservoir to another , such as from river to ocean , or from the ocean to the atmosphere , by the physical processes of evaporation , condensation , precipitation , infiltration , surface runoff , and subsurface flow . In doing so , the water goes through different forms : liquid , solid ( ice ) and vapor . The water cycle involves the exchange of energy , which leads to temperature changes . For instance , when water evaporates , it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment . When it condenses , it releases energy and warms the environment . These heat exchanges influence climate . The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater . The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe . It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth , through processes including erosion and sedimentation . The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Water_cycle", "rank": 42, "score": 78517 }, { "content": "Title: Heat (professional wrestling) Content: In professional wrestling , heat refers to both crowd reaction and real-life animosity between those involved in the professional wrestling business . In terms of crowd reaction , heat is usually either cheers for a babyface or boos for a heel . The amount of heat a wrestler generates is often an accurate gauge of his popularity . Although the term can in some contexts refer to either positive or negative crowd reactions , `` heat '' can otherwise be used specifically to mean a negative crowd response ( booing etc. ) ; its opposite being a `` pop '' or positive reaction ( cheering , clapping , etc. ) . As heat typically refers to a negative reaction that a wrestling character gets from a crowd in a performance setting , it has also become slang for a negative reaction that a wrestler gets backstage from colleagues , management or both . Backstage heat can be garnered for both real and perceived slights and transgressions .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Heat_(professional_wrestling)", "rank": 43, "score": 77140 }, { "content": "Title: Enthalpy of sublimation Content: The enthalpy of sublimation , or heat of sublimation , is the heat required to change one mole of a substance from solid state to gaseous state at a given combination of temperature and pressure , usually standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) . The heat of sublimation is usually expressed in kJ/mol , although the less customary kJ/kg is also encountered .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Enthalpy_of_sublimation", "rank": 44, "score": 77080 }, { "content": "Title: Downwelling Content: Downwelling is the process of accumulation and sinking of higher density material beneath lower density material , such as cold or saline water beneath warmer or fresher water or cold air beneath warm air . It is the sinking limb of a convection cell . Upwelling is the opposite process and together these two forces are responsible in the oceans for the thermohaline circulation . The sinking of cold lithosphere at subduction zones is another example of downwelling in plate tectonics .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Downwelling", "rank": 45, "score": 77051 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal low Content: Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Thermal_low", "rank": 46, "score": 76931 }, { "content": "Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation", "rank": 47, "score": 76741 }, { "content": "Title: Global Census of Marine Life on Seamounts Content: Global Census of Marine Life on Seamounts ( commonly CenSeam ) is a global scientific initiative , launched in 2005 , that is designed to expand the knowledge base of marine life at seamounts . Seamounts are underwater mountains , not necessarily volcanic in origin , which often form subsurface archipelagoes and are found throughout the world 's ocean basins , with almost half in the Pacific . There are estimated to be as many as 100,000 seamounts at least one kilometer in height , and more if lower rises are included . However , they have not been explored very much -- in fact , only about half of one percent have been sampled -- and almost every expedition to a seamount discovers new species and new information . There is evidence that seamounts can host concentrations of biologic diversity , each with its own unique local ecosystem ; they seem to affect oceanic currents , resulting among other things in local concentration of plankton which in turn attracts species that graze on it , and indeed are probably a significant overall factor in biogeography of the oceans . They also may serve as way stations in the migration of whales and other pelagic species . Despite being poorly studied , they are heavily targeted by commercial fishing , including dredging . In addition they are of interest to potential seabed mining . The overall goal of CenSeam is `` to determine the role of seamounts in the biogeography , biodiversity , productivity , and evolution of marine organisms , and to evaluate the effects of human exploitation on seamounts . '' To this effect , the group organizes and contributes to various research efforts about seamount biodiversity . Specifically , the project aims to act as a standardized scaffold for future studies and samplings , citing inefficiency and incompatibility between individual research efforts in the past . To give a scale of their mission , there are an estimated 100,000 seamounts in the ocean , but only 350 of them have been sampled , and only about 100 sampled thoroughly . Although sampling all 100,000 seamounts is infeasible , major seamounts can be sampled in such a way . CenSeam is a subdivision of the Census of Marine Life program . Organisationally , the components of CenSeam consist of a secretariat ( Malcolm Clark , Mireille Consalvey , Ashley Rowden and Karen Stocks ) which is hosted by the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research in Wellington , New Zealand ; an international steering committee ; a taxonomic advisory panel ; and two working groups , Data Analysis and Standardisation . In 2008 CenSeam began collaborating with the International Seabed Authority to study effects of seabed mining on seamount ecosystems .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Global_Census_of_Marine_Life_on_Seamounts", "rank": 48, "score": 76259 }, { "content": "Title: The Blob (Pacific Ocean) Content: The Blob is the name given to a large mass of relatively warm water in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of North America . It was first detected in late 2013 and continued to spread throughout 2014 and 2015 . Sea surface temperature indicated that The Blob persisted into 2016 , but was thought to have dissipated later that year . By September 2016 , `` The Blob '' resurfaced and made itself known to meteorologists . This warm water mass is unusual in ocean conditions and is considered to have a role in the formation of the unusual weather conditions felt in the Pacific Coast . The warm waters of the Blob are nutrient poor and have adversely affected marine life .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "The_Blob_(Pacific_Ocean)", "rank": 49, "score": 76039 }, { "content": "Title: Marine layer Content: A marine layer is an air mass which develops over the surface of a large body of water such as the ocean or large lake in the presence of a temperature inversion . The inversion itself is usually initiated by the cooling effect of the water on the surface layer of an otherwise warm air mass . As it cools , the surface air becomes denser than the warmer air above it , and thus becomes trapped below it . The layer may thicken through turbulence generated within the developing marine layer itself . It may also thicken if the warmer air above it is lifted by an approaching area of low pressure . The layer will also gradually increase its humidity by evaporation of the ocean or lake surface , as well as by the effect of cooling itself . Fog will form within a marine layer where the humidity is high enough and cooling sufficient to produce condensation . Stratus and stratocumulus will also form at the top of a marine layer in the presence of the same conditions there . In the case of coastal California , the offshore marine layer is typically propelled inland by a pressure gradient which develops as a result of intense heating inland , blanketing coastal communities in cooler air which , if saturated , also contains fog . The fog lingers until the heat of the sun becomes strong enough to evaporate it , often lasting into the afternoon during the `` June gloom '' period . An approaching frontal system or trough can also drive the marine layer onshore . A marine layer will disperse and break up in the presence of instability , such as may be caused by the passage of a frontal system or trough , or any upper air turbulence that reaches the surface . A marine layer can also be driven away by sufficiently strong winds . It is not unusual to hear media weather reporters discuss the marine layer as if it were synonymous with the fog or stratus it may contain , but this is erroneous . In fact , a marine layer can exist with virtually no cloudiness of any kind , although it usually does contain some . The marine layer is a medium within which clouds may form under the right conditions ; it is not the layers of clouds themselves .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Marine_layer", "rank": 50, "score": 75948 }, { "content": "Title: Maldegem Formation Content: The Maldegem Formation ( Formatie van Maldegem old name : Kallo Complex ) is a geologic formation in the Belgian subsurface . The formation consists of alternating marine clay and sand strata , deposited during the late Eocene . The Maldegem Formation crops out in the provinces of East-Flanders and West-Flanders and in the area between the Zenne and Dender rivers . In the northern parts of Flanders it forms an up to 50 meters thick sequence in the subsurface . Further south and to the east ( in the Campine of Antwerpen ) the formation pinches out and can be only a few meters in thickness .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Maldegem_Formation", "rank": 51, "score": 75891 }, { "content": "Title: Rupel Formation Content: The Rupel Formation ( abbreviation : RU ) is a geologic formation in the subsurface of the Netherlands that consists of Oligocene marine sands and clays . The Rupel Formation is part of the Middle North Sea Group and correlates exactly with the Belgian Rupel Group .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Rupel_Formation", "rank": 52, "score": 75743 }, { "content": "Title: Subsurface lithoautotrophic microbial ecosystem Content: Subsurface lithoautotrophic microbial ecosystems , or `` SLIMEs '' ( also abbreviated `` SLMEs '' or `` SLiMEs '' ) , are defined by Edward O. Wilson as `` unique assemblages of bacteria and fungi that occupy pores in the interlocking mineral grains of igneous rock beneath Earth 's surface . ''", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subsurface_lithoautotrophic_microbial_ecosystem", "rank": 53, "score": 75733 }, { "content": "Title: Ocean thermal energy conversion Content: Ocean thermal energy conversion ( OTEC ) uses the temperature difference between cooler deep and warmer shallow or surface seawaters to run a heat engine and produce useful work , usually in the form of electricity . OTEC is a base load electricity generation system . Among ocean energy sources , OTEC is one of the continuously available renewable energy resources that could contribute to base-load power supply . The resource potential for OTEC is considered to be much larger than for other ocean energy forms -LSB- World Energy Council , 2000 -RSB- . Up to 88,000 TWh/yr of power could be generated from OTEC without affecting the ocean 's thermal structure -LSB- Pelc and Fujita , 2002 -RSB- . Systems may be either closed-cycle or open-cycle . Closed-cycle OTEC uses working fluids that are typically thought of as refrigerants such as ammonia or R-134a . These fluids have low boiling points , and are therefore suitable for powering the system 's generator to generate electricity . The most commonly used heat cycle for OTEC to date is the Rankine cycle , using a low-pressure turbine . Open-cycle engines use vapour from the seawater itself as the working fluid . OTEC can also supply quantities of cold water as a by-product . This can be used for air conditioning and refrigeration and the nutrient-rich deep ocean water can feed biological technologies . Another by-product is fresh water distilled from the sea . OTEC theory was first developed in the 1880s and the first bench size demonstration model was constructed in 1926 . Currently the world 's only operating OTEC plant is in Japan , overseen by Saga University .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion", "rank": 54, "score": 75479 }, { "content": "Title: Undercurrent Content: An undercurrent is a subsurface current , a water current which flows beneath and usually independently of surface currents . Undercurrent may also refer to :", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Undercurrent", "rank": 55, "score": 75302 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal Content: A thermal column ( or thermal ) is a column of rising air in the lower altitudes of Earth 's atmosphere , a form of atmospheric updraft . Thermals are created by the uneven heating of Earth 's surface from solar radiation , and are an example of convection , specifically atmospheric convection . The Sun warms the ground , which in turn warms the air directly above it .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Thermal", "rank": 56, "score": 75264 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal reservoir Content: A thermal reservoir , a short-form of thermal energy reservoir , or thermal bath is a thermodynamic system with a heat capacity that is large enough that when it is in thermal contact with another system of interest or its environment , its temperature remains effectively constant . It is an effectively infinite pool of thermal energy at a given , constant temperature . The temperature of the reservoir does not change when heat is added or extracted because of the infinite heat capacity . As it can act as a source and sink of heat , it is often also referred to as a heat reservoir or heat bath . Lakes , oceans and rivers often serve as thermal reservoirs in geophysical processes , such as the weather . In atmospheric science , large air masses in the atmosphere often function as thermal reservoirs . The microcanonical partition sum of a heat bath of temperature has the property where is Boltzmann 's constant . It thus changes by the same factor when a given amount of energy is added . The exponential factor in this expression can be identified with the reciprocal of the Boltzmann factor .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Thermal_reservoir", "rank": 57, "score": 75253 }, { "content": "Title: Richard P. Von Herzen Content: Richard P. Von Herzen ( 1930 -- 2016 ) was an Earth scientist at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution who pioneered studies of heat flowing from the seafloor . He won the 1998 Maurice Ewing Medal .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Richard_P._Von_Herzen", "rank": 58, "score": 75082 }, { "content": "Title: Kouloura Content: A kouloura , or kouloures ( Greek plural koulourai ) is a circular subsurface pit with stone walls found in certain settlements within Ancient Crete , including Phaistos , Knossos , and Mallia . According on stratigraphy , the kouloura were all constructed around MM II ( 1850 -- 1750 BC ) .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Kouloura", "rank": 59, "score": 74858 }, { "content": "Title: Subantarctic Mode Water Content: Subantarctic mode water ( SAMW ) is an important water mass in the Earth 's oceans . It is formed near the Subantarctic Front on the northern flank of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current . The surface density of Subantarctic Mode Water ranges between about 1026.0 and 1027.0 kg/m3 and the core of this water mass is often identified as a region of particularly low stratification . Another important facet of SAMW is that silicate ( an important nutrient for diatoms ) is depleted relative to nitrate . This depletion can be tracked over much of the globe , suggesting that SAMW helps set the blend of nutrients delivered to low-latitude ocean ecosystems , and thus determines the balance of species within these ecosystems . SAMW is a very homogenous layer that forms north of the Subantarctic Front and is also referred to as a pycnostad . Its uniformity can be attributed to convective overturning that also serves to ventilate it resulting in the high dissolved oxygen value of > 6ml/l . It has slightly less dissolved oxygen than the surface water layer above it , but greater dissolved oxygen than the water masses below it . It has some variability in temperature , salinity and density in the Pacific Ocean . From west to east , the density increases from 1026.9 kg/m ³ to 1027.1 kg/m ³ , the temperature decreases from 8.5 ° C to 5.5 ° C , and the salinity decreases from 34.62 ppt to 34.25 ppt ( psu ) In the region where the Peru-Chile Undercurrent flows above the SAMW , the SAMW can be distinguished as having locally-characteristic low phosphorus , silicate and other nutrient concentrations in comparison . It moves by the transference of heat energy via the Subtropical anticyclonic gyre and retains its individuality as differentiated with the less-salty Antarctic Intermediate Water below it and the more highly oxygenated surface water above it . The oxygen maximum portion of SAMW sinks at 28 ˚S to 700m and lifts back to 500m around 15 ˚S after oxygen levels decreased . SAMW acts as an oxygenator for mid oceanic depths in the Southern oceans . Near the surface it picks up atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide and then sinks , or subducts near the Indian Ocean , contributing to the Indian subtropical gyre and cooling and contributing to the Antarctic Circumpolar Current ( ACC ) .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subantarctic_Mode_Water", "rank": 60, "score": 74663 }, { "content": "Title: Isosurface Content: An isosurface is a three-dimensional analog of an isoline . It is a surface that represents points of a constant value ( e.g. pressure , temperature , velocity , density ) within a volume of space ; in other words , it is a level set of a continuous function whose domain is 3D-space .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Isosurface", "rank": 61, "score": 74656 }, { "content": "Title: In situ thermal desorption Content: In situ thermal desorption ( ISTD ) is an intensive thermally enhanced environmental remediation technology that uses thermal conductive heating ( TCH ) elements to directly transfer heat to environmental media . The ISTD/TCH process can be applied at low ( < 100 ° C ) , moderate ( ~ 100 ° C ) and higher ( > 100 ° C ) temperature levels to accomplish the remediation of a wide variety of contaminants , both above and below the water table . ISTD/TCH is the only major in situ thermal remediation ( ISTR ) technology capable of achieving subsurface target treatment temperatures above the boiling point of water and is effective at virtually any depth in almost any media . TCH works in tight soils , clay layers , and soils with wide heterogeneity in permeability or moisture content that are impacted by a broad range of volatile and semi-volatile organic contaminants .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "In_situ_thermal_desorption", "rank": 62, "score": 74573 }, { "content": "Title: Subsurface utility engineering Content: Subsurface Utility Engineering ( SUE ) is a branch of engineering practice that involves managing certain risks associated with utility mapping at appropriate quality levels , utility coordination , utility relocation design and coordination , utility condition assessment , communication of utility data to concerned parties , utility relocation cost estimates , implementation of utility accommodation policies , and utility design .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subsurface_utility_engineering", "rank": 63, "score": 74543 }, { "content": "Title: Halothermal circulation Content: The term halothermal circulation refers to the part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and evaporation . The adjective halothermal derives from halo - referring to salt content and thermo - referring to temperature , factors which together determine the density of sea water . Halothermal circulation is driven primarily by salinity changes and secondarily by temperature changes ( as opposed to the thermohaline mode in modern oceans ) . The generation of high salinity surface waters at low latitudes , which were therefore of higher density and thus sank , is thought to have been the dominant ocean circulation driver during greenhouse climates such as the Cretaceous . Similar dynamics operate today in the Mediterranean . The formation of bottom waters by halothermal dynamics is considered to be one to two orders of magnitude weaker than in thermohaline systems .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Halothermal_circulation", "rank": 64, "score": 74530 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental Sample Processor Content: The Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute 's ( MBARI 's ) -RSB- Environmental Sample Processor ( ESP ) is a `` lab in a can '' designed for autonomous deployment . The ESP -- provides on-site ( in situ ) collection and analysis of water samples from the subsurface ocean . The instrument is an electromechanical/fluidic system designed to collect discrete water samples , concentrate microorganisms or particles , and automate application of molecular probes which identify microorganisms and their gene products . The ESP also archives samples so that further analyses may be done after the instrument is recovered .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Environmental_Sample_Processor", "rank": 65, "score": 74362 }, { "content": "Title: Thermohaline circulation Content: Thermohaline circulation ( THC ) is a part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes . The adjective thermohaline derives from thermo - referring to temperature and referring to salt content , factors which together determine the density of sea water . Wind-driven surface currents ( such as the Gulf Stream ) travel polewards from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean , cooling en route , and eventually sinking at high latitudes ( forming North Atlantic Deep Water ) . This dense water then flows into the ocean basins . While the bulk of it upwells in the Southern Ocean , the oldest waters ( with a transit time of around 1000 years ) upwell in the North Pacific . Extensive mixing therefore takes place between the ocean basins , reducing differences between them and making the Earth 's oceans a global system . On their journey , the water masses transport both energy ( in the form of heat ) and matter ( solids , dissolved substances and gases ) around the globe . As such , the state of the circulation has a large impact on the climate of the Earth . The thermohaline circulation is sometimes called the ocean conveyor belt , the great ocean conveyor , or the global conveyor belt . On occasion , it is used to refer to the meridional overturning circulation ( often abbreviated as MOC ) . The term MOC is more accurate and well defined , as it is difficult to separate the part of the circulation which is driven by temperature and salinity alone as opposed to other factors such as the wind and tidal forces . Moreover , temperature and salinity gradients can also lead to circulation effects that are not included in the MOC itself .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Thermohaline_circulation", "rank": 66, "score": 74194 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Hypercane", "rank": 67, "score": 73963 }, { "content": "Title: Tongeren Group Content: The Tongeren Group is a lithostratigraphic unit ( a sequence of rock strata ) in the subsurface of Belgium . It consists of shallow marine , epicontinental and/or continental clays and sands from the late Eocene to early Oligocene epochs ( between 37 and 30 million years old ) . The Belgian Tongeren Group correlates with the Dutch Tongeren Formation . The name was introduced by André Hubert Dumont in 1849 .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Tongeren_Group", "rank": 68, "score": 73766 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal equator Content: The thermal equator ( also known as `` the heat equator '' ) is a belt encircling the Earth , defined by the set of locations having the highest mean annual temperature at each longitude around the globe . Because local temperatures are sensitive to the geography of a region , mountain ranges and ocean currents ensure that smooth temperature gradients ( such as might be found if the Earth were uniform in composition and devoid of surface irregularities ) are impossible , the location of the thermal equator is not identical to that of the geographic Equator . The term is less frequently used to describe the belt of maximum temperatures surrounding the globe which migrates roughly between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn . This region is known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone where the Earth orbits the Sun . This zone is the result of trade winds from the northern and southern part of the hemisphere eventually joining together . Still another definition states that the thermal equator is the latitude at which insolation is identical throughout the year . This is not the same as the astronomical equator because the Earth reaches perihelion ( the minimum distance from the Sun in its orbit ) in early January and is at aphelion ( maximum distance ) in early July . Therefore , insolation is somewhat higher at 0 ° latitude in January than in July even though the height of the Sun ( at noon ) and the length of day ( from sunrise to sunset ) is essentially the same . At a few degrees north of the equator the perihelion/aphelion factor is balanced by the fact that the angle of the Sun is slightly more direct , and the days are slightly longer , at the time of the summer solstice for the Northern Hemisphere ( most commonly on June 21 ) , making the level of insolation virtually the same in both `` summer '' and `` winter . ''", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Thermal_equator", "rank": 69, "score": 73453 }, { "content": "Title: Indonesian Throughflow Content: The Indonesian throughflow ( ITF ) is an ocean current with importance for global climate since it provides a low-latitude pathway for warm , fresh water to move from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean and this serves as the upper branch of the global heat conveyor belt . Higher ocean surface topography in the western Pacific than in the Indian Ocean drives upper thermocline water from the North Pacific through the western route of the Makassar Strait to either directly exit through the Lombok Strait or flow eastward into the Banda Sea . Weaker flow of saltier and denser South Pacific water passes over the Lifamatola Passage into the Banda Sea , where these water masses are mixed due to tidal effects , Ekman pumping , and heat and fresh water flux at the ocean surface . From the Banda Sea the ITF exits Timor , Ombai , and Lombok passages . The location and topography of the channels that make up the ITF are shown in the Figure . Lombok Strait is 300m deep and roughly 35 km wide and the currents vary between 0.286 m/s ( 0.6 mi/hr ) eastward to 0.67 m/s westward and average 0.25 m/s westward . Currents in Ombai vary between 0.12 m/s eastward to 0.16 m/s westward , averaging 0.11 m/s westward and are funneled within the 1250m deep and 35 km wide passage . Timor passage , which is 1890 m deep by 160 km wide , is the widest of the exit pathways and averages only 0.02 m/s . From 2004 -- 2006 , 11 moorings were deployed across the entrance and exit regions of the ITF and were positioned to accurately measure each passage 's contribution as part of the International Nusantara Stratification and Transport ( INSTANT ) program . Flow in through Makassar ( 11.6 Sv , 1 Sv = 106 m ³ / s ) and Lifamatola ( 1.1 Sv ) sums to 12.7 Sv . Total outflow transport corresponds to 15.0 Sv ( varying from 10.7 to 18.7 Sv ) and is made up of Lombok ( 2.6 Sv ) , Ombai ( 4.9 Sv ) and Timor ( 7.5 Sv ) contributions . Heat Transport of the Indonesian Throughflow is 1.087 PW ( 1 PW = 1015 Watt ) . Circulation and transport within the Indonesian Seas varies along with large-scale monsoon flow . During June to August , southeasterlies of the southwest monsoon predominate over Indonesia and drive strong Ekman divergence ( southwestward flow in the Southern Hemisphere thus increasing ITF to 15 Sv ) whereas from December to February , Northwest Monsoon westerlies serve to directly reduce the ITF . During monsoon transitions , strong westerly winds in the eastern Indian Ocean force equatorial downwelling Kelvin waves ( eastward moving , eastward flow ) that propagate through the Indonesian passages as coastally trapped Kelvin waves and serve to reduce the ITF flow with a minimum in April of 9 Sv . Another way to think about it is that downwelling on the Indian Ocean side increases sea level and so reduces the normal Pacific-to-Indian pressure head reducing the flow . Global-scale , ocean waves such as equatorial/coastal Kelvin and Rossby waves drive interannual variation of the ITF with an amplitude of roughly + / -3 Sv . Western-central Pacific westerly winds from El Nino force westward moving-equatorial Rossby waves and eastward currents that hit eastern New Guinea and propagate around the west coast as coastal Kelvin waves and down through the ITF along the west Australia Shelf coast serving to reduce the ITF . Upwelling ( i.e. reduced sea level ) associated with Rossby waves on the Pacific side reduces the Pacific-to-Indian pressure gradient and reduces the ITF . Interannual variability of Indian Ocean westerlies act in the same manner as the seasonal equatorial Kelvin waves to reduce the normal westward ITF flow as well . An important feature of the Indonesian Throughflow is that because the water in the western equatorial Pacific Ocean has a higher temperature and lower salinity than the water in the Indian Ocean , the Throughflow transports large amounts of relatively warm and fresh water to the Indian Ocean . When the Indonesian Throughflow ( through Lombok Strait , Ombai and the Timor Passages ) enters the Indian Ocean it is advected towards Africa within the Indian South Equatorial Current . There it eventually exits the Indian Ocean with the Agulhas Current around South Africa into the Atlantic Ocean . So the Indonesian Throughflow transports a significant amount of Pacific Ocean heat into the southwest Indian Ocean , which is approximately 10000 km away from the Lombok Strait .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Indonesian_Throughflow", "rank": 70, "score": 73338 }, { "content": "Title: Paratropical subsea Content: A Paratropical subsea is a high-latitude body of water within a paratropical province and one in which the temperature regularly falls below 20 degrees Celsius ( 68 Fahrenheit ) but does not fall below 10 C. ( 50 F. ) and is considered sub-tropical . These are distributed equally north and south of eutropical subseas . Paratropical subseas are absent of corals and well-developed carbonate beds and seagrass yet contain a mixture of Tethys Ocean lineages of the Eocene as well as Boreal and anti-Boreal ( Southern Hemisphere ) taxa . This marine environment supports a single species of a few mollusks found in eutropical subseas . Brittle stars , Turridae , Cassis , Euspira , and the rock snails Muricidae thrive found in paratropical subseas ,", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Paratropical_subsea", "rank": 71, "score": 73295 }, { "content": "Title: Bishop Subbasin Content: The Bishop Subbasin is an aquifer that resides between two subsurface structures of the Tassajara Formation in the northern extremity of the Amador Valley . This aquifer is a sub-unit of the Livermore-Amador Groundwater Basin . The Bishop Subbasin is associated with the locale of San Ramon , California in Contra Costa County . The Bishop Subbasin along with the Mocho Subbasin is one of the aquifers in the Livermore Valley that has been studied the most heavily for benefits of injection of reclaimed reverse osmosis waters .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Bishop_Subbasin", "rank": 72, "score": 73277 }, { "content": "Title: Thermochronology Content: Thermochronology is the study of the thermal evolution of a region of a planet . Thermochronologists use radiometric dating along with the closure temperatures that represent the temperature of the mineral being studied at the time given by the date recorded , to understand the thermal history of a specific rock , mineral , or geologic unit . It is a subfield within geology , and is closely associated with geochronology . A typical thermochronological study will involve the dates of a number of rock samples from different areas in a region , often from a vertical transect along a steep canyon , cliff face , or slope . These samples are then dated . With some knowledge of the subsurface thermal structure , these dates are translated into depths and times at which that particular sample was at the mineral 's closure temperature . If the rock is today at the surface , this process gives the exhumation rate of the rock . Common isotopic systems used for thermochronology include fission track dating in zircon and apatite , potassium-argon and argon-argon dating in apatite , uranium-thorium-helium dating in zircon and apatite , and 4He/3He dating .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Thermochronology", "rank": 73, "score": 73224 }, { "content": "Title: Aalter Formation Content: The Aalter Formation ( Formatie van Aalter , abbreviation : Aa ; named after the town of Aalter in East-Flanders ) is a geologic formation in the subsurface of northwest Belgium . The formation consists of marine clay and sand , deposited in the shallow sea that covered northern and central Belgium in the Eocene epoch . The Aalter Formation crops out in the provinces of East - and West-Flanders and forms a maximally 30 meters thick layer in the subsurface . To the east , the formation wedges out and becomes thinner . Due to this wedging out , the formation does not occur anymore in the province of Antwerpen . The base of the formation consists of glauconiferous clayey sand alternating with organic rich ( humus and peat ) layers ( the Aalterbrugge Member ) . On top of this is a sequence of clay , sand and sandstone layers , rich in fossils ( the Beernem Member ) . The top of the formation consists of fossil rich , glauconiferous fine sand ( the Oedelem Member ) . The Aalter Formation was formed during the late Ypresian to early Lutetian ages , giving it an age of around 48 million years . It is part of the Zenne Group and is covered by the Brussel Formation . If the Brussel Formation is absent , the Lede Formation can be found on top of the Aalter Formation . Both are like the Aalter Formation part of the Zenne Group . Stratigraphically below the Aalter Formation are deposits of the Gentbrugge Formation ( late Ypresian marine clays and sands ) .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Aalter_Formation", "rank": 74, "score": 73200 }, { "content": "Title: Heers Formation Content: The Heers Formation ( Formatie van Heers Formation de Heers abbreviation : Hs ) is a geologic formation in the subsurface of Belgium . The formation consists of sand and marl and was deposited in the shallow sea that covered Belgium during the middle to late Selandian age of the Paleocene epoch . The formation is subdivided into two members : at the base green , glauconiferous sand ( Orp Member ) , on top calcareous clay and marl in which plant fossils have been found ( Gelinden Member ) . This sequence formed during a marine transgression . The Orp Member represents a near coastal marine environment , the Gelinden Member formed in shallow marine circumstances but further from the land . The Heers Formation occurs in the subsurface of the northern and eastern parts of Flanders . In Limburg it reaches its maximal thickness at about 60 meters . The Heers Formation is stratigraphically on top of Cretaceous and early Paleocene deposits , such as the Opglabbeek Formation or the Houthem Formation . The Heers Formation is almost everywhere overlain by the Hannut Formation ( clay , sand and limestone from the late Paleocene ) . The Orp and Gelinden members are also recognized in the Netherlands ( north of Belgium ) . Dutch stratigraphers see them as part of the Landen Formation .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Heers_Formation", "rank": 75, "score": 73053 }, { "content": "Title: Subsurface textile irrigation Content: Subsurface Textile Irrigation ( SSTI ) is a technology designed specifically for subsurface irrigation in all soil textures from desert sands to heavy clays . Use of SSTI will significantly reduce the usage of water , fertilizer and herbicide . It will lower on-going operational costs and , if maintained properly , will last for decades . By delivering water and nutrients directly to the root zone , plants are healthier and have a far greater yield . It is the only irrigation system that can safely use recycled water or treated water without expensive `` polishing '' treatment because water never reaches the surface . A typical subsurface textile irrigation system has an impermeable base layer ( usually polyethylene or polypropylene ) , a drip line running along that base , a layer of geotextile on top of the drip line and , finally , a narrow impermeable layer on top of the geotextile ( see diagram ) . Unlike standard drip irrigation , the spacing of emitters in the drip pipe is not critical as the geotextile moves the water along the fabric up to 2m from the dripper . SSTI is installed 15 -- 20 cm below the surface for residential/commercial applications and 30 -- 50 cm for agricultural applications .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subsurface_textile_irrigation", "rank": 76, "score": 73051 }, { "content": "Title: Hawaiian Trough Content: The Hawaiian Trough , otherwise known as the Hawaiian Deep , is a moat-like depression of the seafloor surrounding the Hawaiian Islands . The weight from the Volcanic Island chain depresses the plastic Lithosphere that is already weakened by the underlying thermal hotspot , causing subsidence to occur . The location with the greatest rate of subsidence is directly above the hotspot with a rate of about 2.5 millimeters per year . The Hawaiian Trough is about 5500 meters deep . The subsiding lithosphere is balanced out and through the concept of isostasy a part of the crust surrounding the trough is levered upwards creating the Hawaiian Arch . The Hawaiian Arch extends about 200 meters above the surrounding ocean floor , and contains tilted coral reefs .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Hawaiian_Trough", "rank": 77, "score": 72933 }, { "content": "Title: Ieper Group Content: The Ieper Group ( Ieper Groep Groupe d'Ypres ) is a group of rock strata in the subsurface of northwest Belgium . The group is subdivided into three marine formations , all formed during the Ypresian , a single age of the geologic timescale ( 55 to 49 million years ago , the oldest age of the Eocene epoch ) . Both age and group are named after the West-Flemish town of Ypres , for which the Dutch name is `` Ieper '' . The three formations of the Ieper Group are : The Kortrijk Formation , predominantly consisting of marine clay . It occurs in the west and north of Belgium . The Tielt Formation , consisting of fine sand and found in the subsurface of western and central Belgium . The Gentbrugge Formation , consisting of an alternation of clay , silt and fine sand . It crops out in East - and West-Flanders . The Ieper Group lies stratigraphically on top of the Landen Group ( upper Paleocene ) and below the Zenne Group ( like the Ieper Group early Eocene in age ) . Unlike the Zenne Group , the Ieper Group can also occur in more southern parts of Belgium , for example in the Mons Basin .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Ieper_Group", "rank": 78, "score": 72885 }, { "content": "Title: Subatlantic Content: The Subatlantic is the current climatic age of the Holocene epoch . It started at about 2,500 years BP and is still ongoing . Its average temperatures were slightly lower than during the preceding Subboreal and Atlantic . During its course the temperature underwent several oscillations which had a strong influence on fauna and flora and thus indirectly on the evolution of human civilizations . With intensifying industrialisation , human society started to stress the natural climatic cycles with increased greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subatlantic", "rank": 79, "score": 72858 }, { "content": "Title: Germanic Trias Content: The Germanic Trias Supergroup ( Germanische Trias-Supergruppe ) is a lithostratigraphic unit ( a sequence of rock strata ) in the subsurface of large parts of western and central Europe ( north of the Alps ) and the North Sea . Almost all of the Germanic Trias was deposited during the Triassic period and consists of three clearly different units : Buntsandstein , Muschelkalk and Keuper , that gave the period its name ( Triassic means `` threefold '' ) . In the past the names of these three units were also used as units in the geologic timescale , but in modern literature they only have a lithostratigraphic meaning .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Germanic_Trias", "rank": 80, "score": 72782 }, { "content": "Title: Ocean acidification Content: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean . Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level . While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins . Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Ocean_acidification", "rank": 81, "score": 72273 }, { "content": "Title: Cryovolcano Content: A cryovolcano ( colloquially known as an ice volcano ) is a theoretical type of volcano that erupts volatiles such as water , ammonia or methane , instead of molten rock . Collectively referred to as cryomagma or ice-volcanic melt , these substances are usually liquids and can form plumes , but can also be in vapour form . After eruption , cryomagma is expected to condense to a solid form when exposed to the very low surrounding temperature . Cryovolcanoes may potentially form on icy moons and other objects with abundant water past the Solar System 's snow line ( such as Pluto ) . A number of features have been identified as possible cryovolcanoes on Pluto , Titan and Ceres . In addition , although they are not known to form volcanoes , ice geysers have been observed on Enceladus and potentially Triton . One potential energy source on some solar system bodies for melting ices and producing cryovolcanoes is tidal friction . It has also been suggested that translucent deposits of frozen materials could create a subsurface greenhouse effect that would accumulate the required heat . Signs of past warming of the Kuiper belt object Quaoar have led scientists to speculate that it exhibited cryovolcanism in the past . Radioactive decay could provide the energy necessary for such activity , as cryovolcanoes can emit water mixed with ammonia , which would melt at − 95 ° C and create an extremely cold liquid that would flow out of the volcano .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Cryovolcano", "rank": 82, "score": 71992 }, { "content": "Title: Tongeren Formation Content: The Tongeren Formation ( Formatie van Tongeren abbreviation : TO ) is a geologic formation in the subsurface of the Netherlands . The formation consists of shallow marine , epicontinental and continental sediments , predominantly clay and sand from the late Eocene and early Oligocene epochs ( between 37 and 30 million years old ) . The Tongeren Formation is part of the Middle North Sea Group and correlates with the Tongeren Group from Belgian stratigraphy . The name was introduced by Belgian geologist André Hubert Dumont in 1849 .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Tongeren_Formation", "rank": 83, "score": 71824 }, { "content": "Title: Subbaramiah Minakshisundaram Content: Subbaramiah Minakshisundaram ( 12 October 1913 , Trichur -- 13 August 1968 , Kerala ) was an Indian mathematician who worked on heat kernels and parabolic partial differential equations and introduced the Minakshisundaram -- Pleijel zeta function .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subbaramiah_Minakshisundaram", "rank": 84, "score": 71770 }, { "content": "Title: Dupin hypersurface Content: In differential geometry , a Dupin hypersurface is a submanifold in a space form , whose principal curvatures have globally constant multiplicities .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Dupin_hypersurface", "rank": 85, "score": 71751 }, { "content": "Title: Veldhoven Formation Content: The Veldhoven Formation ( Formatie van Veldhoven abbreviation : VE ) is a geologic formation in the subsurface of the Netherlands . The formation consists of an alternation of marine clay and sand from the Oligocene epoch .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Veldhoven_Formation", "rank": 86, "score": 71412 }, { "content": "Title: Pneumatic fracturing Content: Pneumatic fracturing is a method that has become very popular in the last ten years used to remediate contaminated sites . The method consists of injecting gas into a contaminated subsurface at a pressure higher than that of the gases that are present . By doing this fractures `` spider-web '' throughout the subsurface so that pumps may be placed in the ground to suck out the contaminated water through these cracks . Substrates may also be injected into the soil through the cracks to further the remediation of the soil and ground water . The clean-up technique was developed and patented through the research of various professors at the New Jersey Institute of Technology in 1996 with hopes of cleaning up various United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) Superfund sites which are some of the most heavily contaminated sites in the country . The patent is held by John R. Schuring , PhD and PE , professor of civil and environmental engineering at the New Jersey Institute of Technology . This method has been adopted by environmental contractors all over the country since it has been patented .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Pneumatic_fracturing", "rank": 87, "score": 71302 }, { "content": "Title: Equatorial wave Content: Equatorial waves are ocean waves trapped close to the equator , meaning that they decay rapidly away from the equator , but can propagate in the longitudinal and vertical directions . Wave trapping is the result of the Earth 's rotation and its spherical shape which combine to cause the magnitude of the Coriolis force to increase rapidly away from the equator . Equatorial waves are present in both the tropical atmosphere and ocean and play an important role in the evolution of many climate phenomena such as El Niño . Many physical processes may excite equatorial waves including , in the case of the atmosphere , diabatic heat release associated with cloud formation , and in the case of the ocean , anomalous changes in the strength or direction of the trade winds . Equatorial waves may be separated into a series of subclasses depending on their fundamental dynamics ( which also influences their typical periods and speeds and directions of propagation ) . At shortest periods are the equatorial gravity waves while the longest periods are associated with the equatorial Rossby waves . In addition to these two extreme subclasses , there are two special subclasses of equatorial waves known as the mixed Rossby-gravity wave ( also known as the Yanai wave ) and the equatorial Kelvin wave . The latter two share the characteristics that they can have any period and also that they may carry energy only in an eastward ( never westward ) direction . The remainder of this article discusses the relationship between the period of these waves , their wavelength in the zonal ( east-west ) direction and their speeds for a simplified ocean .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Equatorial_wave", "rank": 88, "score": 71188 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrothermal vents and seamounts of the Azores Content: The hydrothermal vents and seamounts of the Azores ( fontes hidrotermais e montes submarinos dos Açores ) are a series of Atlantic seamounts and hydrothermal vents that are part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge system , giving rise to the archipelago and bathymetric region of the Azores . These geological structures , formed from masses of basalt ( typical of mid-ocean regions ) , are of a geomorphological interest due to their rich deposits of ore . In addition it fosters a rich ecosystem of diverse subaquatic plant and animal life . There are food chains within this environment , for example , that are purely chemosynthetic , and do not need sunlight for photosynthesis .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Hydrothermal_vents_and_seamounts_of_the_Azores", "rank": 89, "score": 70945 }, { "content": "Title: Breda Formation Content: The Breda Formation ( Formatie van Breda abbreviation : BR ) is a geologic formation in the subsurface of the Netherlands . The formation consists of marine glauconiferous sands and clays that were deposited during the Miocene epoch . Although the formation is not very rich in fossils , sometimes bones of fishes , shells and shark teeth are found .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Breda_Formation", "rank": 90, "score": 70874 }, { "content": "Title: North Atlantic Deep Water Content: North Atlantic Deep Water ( NADW ) is a deep water mass formed in the North Atlantic Ocean . Thermohaline circulation of the world 's oceans involves the flow of warm surface waters from the southern hemisphere into the North Atlantic . Water flowing northward becomes modified through evaporation and mixing with other water masses , leading to increased salinity . When this water reaches the North Atlantic it cools and sinks through convection , due to its decreased temperature and increased salinity resulting in increased density . NADW is the outflow of this thick deep layer , which can be detected by its high salinity , high oxygen content , nutrient minima , and chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) . CFCs are anthropogenic substances that enter the surface of the ocean from gas exchange with the atmosphere . This distinct composition allows its path to be traced as it mixes with Circumpolar Deep Water ( CDW ) , which in turn fills the deep Indian Ocean and part of the South Pacific . NADW and its formation is essential to the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation ( AMOC ) , which is responsible for transporting large amounts of water , heat , salt , carbon , nutrients and other substances from the Tropical Atlantic to the Mid and High Latitude Atlantic . In the conveyor belt model of thermohaline circulation of the world 's oceans , the sinking of NADW pulls the waters of the North Atlantic drift northward ; however , this is almost certainly an oversimplification of the actual relationship between NADW formation and the strength of the Gulf Stream/North Atlantic drift . NADW has a temperature of 2-4 ° C with a salinity of 34.9-35 .0 psu found at a depth between 1500 and 4000m .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "North_Atlantic_Deep_Water", "rank": 91, "score": 70820 }, { "content": "Title: Back-arc basin Content: Back-arc basins are geologic basins , submarine features associated with island arcs and subduction zones . They are found at some convergent plate boundaries , presently concentrated in the western Pacific Ocean . Most of them result from tensional forces caused by oceanic trench rollback ( the oceanic trench is wandering in the seafloor direction ) and the collapse of the edge of the continent . The arc crust is under extension or rifting as a result of the sinking of the subducting slab . Back-arc basins were initially a surprising result for plate tectonics theorists , who expected convergent boundaries to be zones of compression , rather than major extension . However , they are now recognized as consistent with this model in explaining how the interior of Earth loses heat .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Back-arc_basin", "rank": 92, "score": 70732 }, { "content": "Title: Brussel Formation Content: The Brussel Formation ( Formatie van Brussel Formation de Bruxelles abbreviation : Br ) is a geologic formation in the subsurface of central Belgium . The formation is named after the Belgian capital , Brussels . It consists of shallow marine sandstone and calcareous sands , deposited in the sea that covered Belgium 45 million years ago , in the Eocene . The Brussel Formation crops out in Walloon Brabant and the north of the provinces of Namur and Hainaut . It is normally about 30 metres in thickness . In Flemish Brabant and Antwerpen the formation can be found in the subsurface . The Brussel Formation is subdivided into five members : the Archennes Member ( conglomerates ) , the Bois de la Houssière Member ( quartzites ) , the Chaumont-Gistoux Member ( glauconiferous quartzites ) , the Diegem Member ( glauconiferous quartzite ) and the Neerijse Member ( glauconiferous calcareous sand ) . The formation consists either of cross-bedded non-calcareous sands alternating with thin beds of marl and clay or calcareous fine sands with traces of bioturbation . The formation was formed during the early Lutetian age ( about 46 million years ago ) and is part of the Zenne Group . Stratigraphically on top of the Brussel Formation is the Lede Formation ( also part of the Zenne Group ) , or when this formation is absent the Maldegem Formation ( Bartonian ) or Tongeren Group ( Priabonian to Rupelian ) . The Brussel Formation is normally lying stratigraphically on top of the Aalter Formation ( part of the Zenne Group ) or deposits of the Ieper Group .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Brussel_Formation", "rank": 93, "score": 70417 }, { "content": "Title: Subsidence (atmosphere) Content: Subsidence in the Earth 's atmosphere is most commonly caused by low temperatures : as air cools , it becomes denser and moves towards the ground , just as warm air becomes less dense and moves upwards . Cool subsiding air is subject to adiabatic warming which tends to cause the evaporation of any clouds that might be present . Subsidence generally causes high barometric pressure as more air moves into the same space : the polar highs are areas of almost constant subsidence , as are the horse latitudes , and these areas of subsidence are the sources of much of the world 's prevailing wind . Subsidence also causes many smaller-scale weather phenomena , such as morning fog . An extreme form of subsidence is a downburst , which can result in damage similar to that produced by a tornado . A milder form of subsidence is referred to as downdraft . Category : Atmosphere Category : Basic meteorological concepts and phenomena", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Subsidence_(atmosphere)", "rank": 94, "score": 70136 }, { "content": "Title: Voort Formation Content: The Voort Formation or Voort Member ( Formatie van Voort or Laagpakket van Voort abbreviation in Belgium : Vo or in the Netherlands : VEVO ) is a stratigraphic unit in the subsurface of north Belgium and the south of the Netherlands . The unit has the status of a formation in Belgium but is seen as a member of the Veldhoven Formation in the Netherlands . The Voort Formation consists of shallow marine sands with a late Oligocene age ( Chattian stage , about 25 million years old ) .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Voort_Formation", "rank": 95, "score": 70023 }, { "content": "Title: Capillary fringe Content: The capillary fringe is the subsurface layer in which groundwater seeps up from a water table by capillary action to fill pores . Pores at the base of the capillary fringe are filled with water due to tension saturation . This saturated portion of the capillary fringe is less than total capillary rise because of the presence of a mix in pore size . If pore size is small and relatively uniform , it is possible that soils can be completely saturated with water for several feet above the water table . Alternately , the saturated portion will extend only a few inches above the water table when pore size is large . Capillary action supports a vadose zone above the saturated base within which water content decreases with distance above the water table . In soils with a wide range in pore size , the unsaturated zone can be several times thicker than the saturated zone . Some workers restrict their definition of the capillary fringe only to the tension-saturated base portion and exclude it wholly from the vadose zone . This is more common among workers addressing solute transport and water flow . Others define the capillary fringe as including both the tension-saturated and unsaturated portions . This is the preferred definition among workers dealing with the remediation of salt affected soils as well as those dealing with the vapor phase of soil processes and bioremediation . It is not uncommon to see the capillary fringe treated as a boundary condition separating the water table from the unsaturated zone , without defining it as a significant part of either . Also it is the space between the surface layer and the aquifer .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Capillary_fringe", "rank": 96, "score": 69941 }, { "content": "Title: Holy Roller (album) Content: Holy Roller is a retrospective compilation by The Reverend Horton Heat that was released by Sub Pop in April 1999 , shortly after the band left Interscope Records amidst the label mergers of the late 1990s .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Holy_Roller_(album)", "rank": 97, "score": 69838 }, { "content": "Title: Keuper Content: The Keuper is a lithostratigraphic unit ( a sequence of rock strata ) in the subsurface of large parts of west and central Europe . The Keuper consists of dolostone , shales or claystones and evaporites that were deposited during the Middle and Late Triassic epochs ( about ) . The Keuper lies on top of the Muschelkalk and under the predominantly Lower Jurassic Lias or other Early Jurassic strata . The Keuper together with the Muschelkalk and the Buntsandstein , all 3 , form the Germanic Trias Group , a characteristic sequence of rock strata that gave the Triassic its name .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Keuper", "rank": 98, "score": 69747 }, { "content": "Title: Ocean dynamics Content: Ocean dynamics define and describe the motion of water within the oceans . Ocean temperature and motion fields can be separated into three distinct layers : mixed ( surface ) layer , upper ocean ( above the thermocline ) , and deep ocean . Ocean dynamics has traditionally been investigated by sampling from instruments in situ . The mixed layer is nearest to the surface and can vary in thickness from 10 to 500 meters . This layer has properties such as temperature , salinity and dissolved oxygen which are uniform with depth reflecting a history of active turbulence ( the atmosphere has an analogous planetary boundary layer ) . Turbulence is high in the mixed layer . However , it becomes zero at the base of the mixed layer . Turbulence again increases below the base of the mixed layer due to shear instabilities . At extratropical latitudes this layer is deepest in late winter as a result of surface cooling and winter storms and quite shallow in summer . Its dynamics is governed by turbulent mixing as well as Ekman pumping , exchanges with the overlying atmosphere , and horizontal advection . The upper ocean , characterized by warm temperatures and active motion , varies in depth from 100 m or less in the tropics and eastern oceans to in excess of 800 meters in the western subtropical oceans . This layer exchanges properties such as heat and freshwater with the atmosphere on timescales of a few years . Below the mixed layer the upper ocean is generally governed by the hydrostatic and geostrophic relationships . Exceptions include the deep tropics and coastal regions . The deep ocean is both cold and dark with generally weak velocities ( although limited areas of the deep ocean are known to have significant recirculations ) . The deep ocean is supplied with water from the upper ocean in only a few limited geographical regions : the subpolar North Atlantic and several sinking regions around the Antarctic . Because of the weak supply of water to the deep ocean the average residence time of water in the deep ocean is measured in hundreds of years . In this layer as well the hydrostatic and geostrophic relationships are generally valid and mixing is generally quite weak .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "Ocean_dynamics", "rank": 99, "score": 69731 }, { "content": "Title: HEAT (software) Content: HEAT is a commercial IT Service Management Unified Endpoint Management software suite for IT , HR , Facilities , Customer Service and other enterprise functions to simplify and automate their business processes to improve service quality , while managing and securing endpoints to proactively detect and protect against threats to business continuity . HEAT Software ( headquartered in Milpitas , Calif ) is actually merged from two companies . FrontRange and Lumension , jointly announced that the companies will merge to create HEAT Software on Feb. 12 , 2015 .", "qid": "2890", "docid": "HEAT_(software)", "rank": 100, "score": 69719 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: ICESat Content: ICESat ( Ice , Cloud , and land Elevation Satellite ) , part of NASA 's Earth Observing System , was a satellite mission for measuring ice sheet mass balance , cloud and aerosol heights , as well as land topography and vegetation characteristics . ICESat was launched 13 January 2003 on a Delta II rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California into a near-circular , near-polar orbit with an altitude of approximately 600 km . It operated for seven years before being retired in February 2010 , after its scientific payload shut down and scientists were unable to restart it . The ICESat mission was designed to provide elevation data needed to determine ice sheet mass balance as well as cloud property information , especially for stratospheric clouds common over polar areas . It provides topography and vegetation data around the globe , in addition to the polar-specific coverage over the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets . The satellite was found useful in assessing important forest characteristics , including tree density .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "ICESat", "rank": 1, "score": 122433 }, { "content": "Title: Hans Wuthrich (icemaker) Content: Hans R. Wuthrich is a top curling ice technician from Canada . He has been making ice for the last 15 years for major events around the world such as the Brier and World Curling Championships . Wuthrich was the recipient of the 2003 Canadian Curling Association 's ` Award of Achievement ' for his significant contributions in the development of new pebble heads and ice scraper technology . He lives in Gimli , Manitoba . On June 11 , 2007 , the World Curling Federation announced that Wuthrich was appointed as the technician in charge of the curling sheets at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada . Dave Merklinger , of New Westminster , was his assistant . Wuthrich also was the technician in charge of the ice at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi , Russia", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Hans_Wuthrich_(icemaker)", "rank": 2, "score": 101937 }, { "content": "Title: Aufeis Content: Aufeis , , ( German for `` ice on top '' ) is a sheet-like mass of layered ice that forms from successive flows of ground water during freezing temperatures . This form of ice is also called overflow , icings , or the Russian term , naled . The term was first used in 1859 by A. T. von Middendorff following his observations of the phenomenon in northern Siberia .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Aufeis", "rank": 3, "score": 101408 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Cream (Raekwon song) Content: `` Ice Cream '' , released in 1995 , is the third solo single by Wu-Tang Clan rapper Raekwon , from his debut studio album Only Built 4 Cuban Linx ... ( 1995 ) . The song features Method Man in the intro , chorus and outro , Ghostface Killah in the first verse , and Cappadonna in the third , though none of them are officially credited on the single . The B-side of the single is `` Incarcerated Scarfaces '' and was featured in the soundtrack of the video game Grand Theft Auto : Liberty City Stories ( 2005 ) . Both songs were included on the compilation album The RZA Hits ( 1999 ) . Lauryn Hill later sampled `` Ice Cream '' on her song `` I Used to Love Him '' , from her album The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill . The Game later remixed `` Ice Cream '' with his `` Ca n't Understand '' freestyle in 2004 .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Ice_Cream_(Raekwon_song)", "rank": 4, "score": 100035 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-sheet model Content: In climate modelling , Ice-sheet models use numerical methods to simulate the evolution , dynamics and thermodynamics of ice sheets , such as the Greenland ice sheet , the Antarctic ice sheet or the large ice sheets on the northern hemisphere during the last glacial period . They are used for a variety of purposes , from studies of the glaciation of Earth over glacial -- interglacial cycles in the past to projections of ice-sheet decay under future global warming conditions .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Ice-sheet_model", "rank": 5, "score": 98157 }, { "content": "Title: Mass balance Content: A mass balance , also called a material balance , is an application of conservation of mass to the analysis of physical systems . By accounting for material entering and leaving a system , mass flows can be identified which might have been unknown , or difficult to measure without this technique . The exact conservation law used in the analysis of the system depends on the context of the problem , but all revolve around mass conservation , i.e. that matter can not disappear or be created spontaneously . Therefore , mass balances are used widely in engineering and environmental analyses . For example , mass balance theory is used to design chemical reactors , to analyse alternative processes to produce chemicals , as well as to model pollution dispersion and other processes of physical systems . Closely related and complementary analysis techniques include the population balance , energy balance and the somewhat more complex entropy balance . These techniques are required for thorough design and analysis of systems such as the refrigeration cycle . In environmental monitoring the term budget calculations is used to describe mass balance equations where they are used to evaluate the monitoring data ( comparing input and output , etc. ) In biology the dynamic energy budget theory for metabolic organisation makes explicit use of mass and energy balances .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Mass_balance", "rank": 6, "score": 97842 }, { "content": "Title: Wendell Tangborn Content: Wendell Tangborn ( born 1927 ) is an American glaciologist specializing in glacier mass balance measurements since 1960 , chiefly within the states of Washington and Alaska of the Pacific Northwest . His streamflow forecasting model implements a split-sample calibration approach which greatly improves its accuracy , and eliminates the need for manual measurements such as snow surveys . This model has been utilized by hydroelectric utilities for over thirty years to forecast Columbia River runoff . His PTAA glacier balance model requires only routine weather observations and has been successfully applied to calculate the mass balance of glaciers throughout the world , including the Himalayas . Tangborn is currently working on a project based on the PTAAGMB model to study and provide glacier mass balances for 150 or more glaciers around the world , The PTAAGMB Project ( http://ptaagmb.com ) . He is also making an effort to provide the PTAAGMB model technologies to other glaciologists and scientists , to help promote understanding and awareness of what is happening to the world 's glaciers , and to help provide data that could demonstrate links between climate change and human activities . Tangborn 's water-balance model , reveals that glaciers store a significant amount of liquid water internally . This has contributed to a current consensus that liquid water in glaciers is a critical element for predicting and understanding the disintegration of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets . In addition , he wrote the children 's book , Glaciers , as illustrated by Marc Simont , which introduces children to how and where glaciers form , how they move , and how they shape the land . Wendell is the brother of Army Silver Star recipient , Virgil John Tangborn .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Wendell_Tangborn", "rank": 7, "score": 97764 }, { "content": "Title: Iceane Content: Iceane is a saturated polycyclic hydrocarbon with formula C12H18 . It has a cage-like molecular structure , whose carbon skeleton can be viewed as three fused cyclohexane rings in the boat conformation ; or as two such rings in the chair conformation , connected by three parallel ( axial ) bonds . The name `` iceane '' was proposed by the chemist Louis Fieser about a decade before the compound was first prepared . He was carrying out studies on the arrangement of water molecules in ice , when it occurred to him that there could exist a stable hydrocarbon with the above structure . It is also referred to as wurtzitane , due to its similarity to the wurtzite crystal structure ; however , the name `` iceane '' has precedence .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Iceane", "rank": 8, "score": 96931 }, { "content": "Title: Ice sheet Content: An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2 , thus also known as continental glacier . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland ; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America , the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America . Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers . Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap . An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery . Although the surface is cold , the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat . In places , melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly . This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet -- these are ice streams . The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms . The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a small ice cap ( maybe several ) in the early Oligocene , but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene , when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica . The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene , but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation . This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Ice_sheet", "rank": 9, "score": 95515 }, { "content": "Title: Wu Nan Content: Wu Nan ( ; born December 9 , 1991 in Beijing ) is a Chinese ice dancer . His partner is Zhang Yiyi .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Wu_Nan", "rank": 10, "score": 92994 }, { "content": "Title: Wu Si-hsuan Content: Wu Si-Hsüan ( ; born January 10 , 1988 in Taiwan ) , better known in Japan as was the leader of the now disbanded Hello ! Project group Ice Creamusume . She was announced as a winner of the Taiwan Hello ! Project New Star Auditions on September 20 , 2008 along with the other members of Ice Creamusume . In 2007 , Hello ! Project producer Tsunku announced his plans to start a Taiwanese audition to find new talents to help the company 's expansion into Asia outside Japan . The winners would become a part of a new Hello ! Project group . There were six winners , including Wu Si-hsuan , were formed into the group Ice Creamusume . Singing in both Taiwanese and Japanese , the group debuted in 2009 with their mini-album 1st Best ! , released in January . She took part in Taiwanese singing contest One Million Star . Fellow Hello ! Project ex-member Li Chun took part in this competition earlier .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Wu_Si-hsuan", "rank": 11, "score": 92245 }, { "content": "Title: The Lex Diamond Story Content: The Lex Diamond Story is the third studio album by American hip hop recording artist and Wu-Tang Clan-member Raekwon , released December 16 , 2003 on his Ice H2O label through Universal Records . The album features contributions from Wu-Tang members Ghostface Killah , Method Man , Masta Killa , Inspectah Deck , and Cappadonna , with production by several hip hop producers , including Emile and DJ Khalil .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "The_Lex_Diamond_Story", "rank": 12, "score": 92164 }, { "content": "Title: Wu's method of characteristic set Content: Wenjun Wu 's method is an algorithm for solving multivariate polynomial equations introduced in the late 1970s by the Chinese mathematician Wen-Tsun Wu . This method is based on the mathematical concept of characteristic set introduced in the late 1940s by J.F. Ritt . It is fully independent of the Gröbner basis method , introduced by Bruno Buchberger ( 1965 ) , even if Gröbner bases may be used to compute characteristic sets . Wu 's method is powerful for mechanical theorem proving in elementary geometry , and provides a complete decision process for certain classes of problem . It has been used in research in his laboratory ( KLMM , Key Laboratory of Mathematics Mechanization in Chinese Academy of Science ) and around the world . The main trends of research on Wu 's method concern systems of polynomial equations of positive dimension and differential algebra where Ritt 's results have been made effective . Wu 's method has been applied in various scientific fields , like biology , computer vision , robot kinematics and especially automatic proofs in geometry", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Wu's_method_of_characteristic_set", "rank": 13, "score": 90452 }, { "content": "Title: ICESat-2 Content: ICESat-2 ( Ice , Cloud , and land Elevation Satellite 2 ) , part of NASA 's Earth Observing System , is a planned satellite mission for measuring ice sheet elevation , sea ice freeboard as well as land topography and vegetation characteristics . ICESat-2 is a planned follow-on to the ICESat mission . It will be launched in 2018 from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California into a near-circular , near-polar orbit with an altitude of approximately 496 km . It is being designed to operate for 3 years , and will carry enough propellant for 7 years . The ICESat-2 mission is designed to provide elevation data needed to determine ice sheet mass balance as well as vegetation canopy information . It will provide topography measurements of cities , lakes and reservoirs , oceans and land surfaces around the globe , in addition to the polar-specific coverage . The ICESat-2 project is being managed by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center . The sole instrument is being designed and built by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center , and the bus is being provided by Orbital ATK . The satellite will launch on a Delta II rocket provided by United Launch Alliance .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "ICESat-2", "rank": 14, "score": 89487 }, { "content": "Title: King Oscar Glacier Content: King Oscar Glacier ( Kong Oscar Gletscher ) is one of several glaciers that drain the north-western part of the Greenland Ice Sheet into Melville Bay . As part of a comprehensive survey of Greenland 's glaciers that was published in 2006 , scientists documented that the mass balance -- the sum of gains through snow accumulation and losses through iceberg calving and melting -- of Kong Oscar and Greenland 's other north-western glaciers was strongly negative between 1996 and 2005 : they lost more ice than they gained . The pattern was similar to the ice sheet as a whole , which has been losing ice mass at an accelerating pace in the past decade .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "King_Oscar_Glacier", "rank": 15, "score": 89445 }, { "content": "Title: Shaolin vs. Wu-Tang Content: Shaolin vs. Wu-Tang is the fifth studio album by American rapper and Wu-Tang Clan-member Raekwon , released March 7 , 2011 , on Ice H20 and EMI Records . Guests for the album include Black Thought , Busta Rhymes , Ghostface Killah , GZA , Inspectah Deck , Lloyd Banks , Method Man , Nas , and Rick Ross , among others . The album debuted at number 12 on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling 29,000 copies in its first week . It produced three singles , `` Butter Knives '' , the title track and `` Rock n Roll '' . Upon its release , Shaolin vs. Wu-Tang received positive reviews from most music critics , who complimented Raekwon 's performance and commended him for his musical direction .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Shaolin_vs._Wu-Tang", "rank": 16, "score": 85913 }, { "content": "Title: Glacier ice accumulation Content: Glacier ice accumulation occurs through accumulation of snow and other frozen precipitation , as well as through other means including rime ice ( freezing of water vapor on the glacier surface ) , avalanching from hanging glaciers on cliffs and mountainsides above , and re-freezing of glacier meltwater as superimposed ice . Accumulation is one element in the glacier mass balance formula , with ablation counteracting . With successive years in which accumulation exceeds ablation , then a glacier will experience positive mass balance , and its terminus will advance .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Glacier_ice_accumulation", "rank": 17, "score": 85078 }, { "content": "Title: Wulff construction Content: The Wulff construction is a method to determine the equilibrium shape of a droplet or crystal of fixed volume inside a separate phase ( usually its saturated solution or vapor ) . Energy minimization arguments are used to show that certain crystal planes are preferred over others , giving the crystal its shape .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Wulff_construction", "rank": 18, "score": 84989 }, { "content": "Title: National Balancing Point (UK) Content: The National Balancing Point , commonly referred to as the NBP , is a virtual trading location for the sale and purchase and exchange of UK natural gas . It is the pricing and delivery point for the ICE Futures Europe ( IntercontinentalExchange ) natural gas futures contract . It is the 2nd most liquid gas trading point in Europe and is a major influence on the price that domestic consumers pay for their gas at home . Gas at the NBP trades in pence per therm . It is similar in concept to the Henry Hub in the United States -- but differs in that it is not an actual physical location .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "National_Balancing_Point_(UK)", "rank": 19, "score": 84876 }, { "content": "Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Glacier_mass_balance", "rank": 20, "score": 84623 }, { "content": "Title: Eight-vertex model Content: In statistical mechanics , the eight-vertex model is a generalisation of the ice-type ( six-vertex ) models ; it was discussed by Sutherland , and Fan & Wu , and solved by Baxter in the zero-field case .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Eight-vertex_model", "rank": 21, "score": 84317 }, { "content": "Title: Wulfgar (Forgotten Realms) Content: Wulfgar , son of Beornegar , is the barbarian hero of Icewind Dale in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting , and one of the Companions of the Hall along with Drizzt Do'Urden , Catti-brie , Regis the halfling , and Bruenor Battlehammer . He is the creation of R.A. Salvatore . Wulfgar was originally planned to be the protagonist of the Salvatore 's first series ( Icewind Dale trilogy ) , which was initially to be set in Moonshae islands . As soon as the background was changed to Icewind Dale , Drizzt Do'Urden was invented as Wulfgar 's sidekick , and succeeded him as the protagonist in following novels . Wulfgar returned to the major role in The Spine of the World novel . He also appears in Baldur 's Gate II : Shadows of Amn computer role-playing game as minor NPC .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Wulfgar_(Forgotten_Realms)", "rank": 22, "score": 83800 }, { "content": "Title: Ice cap Content: An ice cap is an ice mass that covers less than 50,000 km ² of land area ( usually covering a highland area ) . Larger ice masses covering more than 50,000 km ² are termed ice sheets . Ice caps are not constrained by topographical features ( i.e. , they will lie over the top of mountains ) . By contrast , ice masses of similar size that are constrained by topographical features are known as ice fields . The dome of an ice cap is usually centred on the highest point of a massif . Ice flows away from this high point ( the ice divide ) towards the ice cap 's periphery . Ice caps have significant effects on the geomorphology of the area they occupy . Plastic moulding , gouging and other glacial erosional features become present upon the glacier 's retreat . Many lakes , such as the Great Lakes in North America , as well as numerous valleys have been formed by glacial action over hundreds of thousands of years . On Earth , there are about 30 million km ³ of total ice mass . The average temperature of an ice mass ranges between − 20 ° C and − 30 ° C . The core of an ice cap exhibits a constant temperature that ranges between − 15 ° C and − 20 ° C. A high-latitude region covered in ice , though strictly not an ice cap ( since they exceed the maximum area specified in the definition above ) , are called polar ice caps ; the usage of this designation is widespread in the mass media and arguably recognized by experts . Vatnajökull is an example of an ice cap in Iceland .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Ice_cap", "rank": 23, "score": 83638 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet", "rank": 24, "score": 83488 }, { "content": "Title: WUE Content: WUE , or Water Usage Effectiveness , is a sustainability metric created by The Green Grid in 2011 to attempt to measure the amount of water used by datacenters to cool their IT assets . To calculate simple WUE , a data center manager divides the annual site water usage in liters by the IT equipment energy usage in kilowatt hours ( Kwh ) . Water usage includes water used for cooling , regulating humidity and producing electricity on-site . More complex WUE calculations are available from The Green Grid website .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "WUE", "rank": 25, "score": 83177 }, { "content": "Title: Wubi method Content: The Wubizixing input method , often abbreviated to simply Wubi or Wubi Xing , is a Chinese character input method primarily for inputting simplified Chinese and traditional Chinese text on a computer . Wubi should not be confused with the Wubihua method , which is a different input method that shares the categorization into five stroke types with Wubi . The method is also known as Wang Ma , named after the inventor Wang Yongmin . There are three Wubi versions that are considered to be standard : Wubi 86 , Wubi 98 , Wubi 18030 and Wubi New-century ( the 3rd-generation Version ) . The latter three can also be used to input traditional Chinese text , albeit in a more limited way . Wubi 86 is the most widely known and used shape-based Input Method for full letter keyboards in Mainland China . If it is frequently needed to input traditional Chinese characters as well , other input methods like CangJie or ZhengMa may be better suited to the task , and it is also much more likely to find them on the computer one needs to use . The Wubi method is based on the structure of characters rather than their pronunciation , making it possible to input characters even when the user does not know the pronunciation , as well as not being too closely linked to any particular spoken variety of Chinese . It is also extremely efficient : every character can be written with at most 4 keystrokes . In practice , most characters can be written with fewer . There are reports of experienced typists reaching 160 characters per minute with Wubi . What this means in the context of Chinese is not entirely the same as it is for English , but it is true that Wubi is extremely fast when used by an experienced typist . The main reason for this is that , unlike with traditional phonetic input methods , one does not have to spend time selecting the desired character from a list of homophonic possibilities : virtually all characters have a unique representation . As its name suggests , the keyboard is divided into five regions . The Chinese character 笔 ( bǐ ) , when used in the context of writing Chinese characters , refers to the brush strokes used in Chinese calligraphy . Each region is assigned a certain type of stroke . Region 1 : horizontal Region 2 : vertical Region 3 : downwards right-to-left Region 4 : dot strokes or downwards left-to-right strokes Region 5 : hook A major drawback to learning Wubi is its steeper learning curve , since as a more complex system it takes longer to acquire as a skill . Memorization and practice are key factors for proficient usage . In this article , the following convention will be used : character will always mean Chinese character , whereas letter , key and keystroke will always refer to the keys on keyboard .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Wubi_method", "rank": 26, "score": 82525 }, { "content": "Title: Wüst Inlet Content: Wüst Inlet is an ice-filled inlet , from 2-5 nmi wide , indenting the east side of Merz Peninsula between Cape Christmas and Old Mans Head , along the east coast of Palmer Land . The inlet was photographed from the air in 1940 by members of the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) . During 1947 the inlet was photographed from the air by members of the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition ( RARE ) , who in conjunction with the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey ( FIDS ) charted it from the ground . Named by the FIDS for Professor Georg Wüst , a German oceanographer .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Wüst_Inlet", "rank": 27, "score": 82511 }, { "content": "Title: Weighing scale Content: Weighing scales ( or weigh scales or scales ) are devices to measure weight or calculate mass . Spring balances or spring scales measure weight ( force ) by balancing the force due to gravity against the force on a spring , whereas a balance or pair of scales using a balance beam compares masses by balancing the weight due to the mass of an object against the weight of a known mass or masses . Either type can be calibrated to read in units of force such as newtons , or in units of mass such as kilograms , but the balance or pair of scales using a traditional balance beam to compare masses will read correctly for mass even if moved to a place with a different ( non-zero ) gravitational field strength ( but would then not read correctly if calibrated in units of force ) , while the spring balance would read correctly in force in a different gravitational field strength ( but would not read correctly if calibrated in units of mass ) . Scales and balances are widely used in commerce , as many products are sold and packaged by weight . Very accurate balances , called analytical balances , are used in scientific fields such as chemistry .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Weighing_scale", "rank": 28, "score": 81464 }, { "content": "Title: Ampere balance Content: The ampere balance ( also current balance or Kelvin balance ) is an electromechanical apparatus used for the precise measurement of the SI unit of electric current , the ampere . It was invented by William Thomson , 1st Baron Kelvin . The current to be measured is passed in series through two coils of wire , one of which is attached to one arm of a sensitive balance . The magnetic force between the two coils is measured by the amount of weight needed on the other arm of the balance to keep it in equilibrium . This is used to calculate the magnitude of the current . The main weakness of the ampere balance is that the calculation of the current involves the dimensions of the coils . So the accuracy of the current measurement is limited by the accuracy with which the coils can be measured , and their mechanical rigidity . A more complicated version of an Ampere balance , called the watt balance , that removes this source of inaccuracy by a calibration step was invented by B. P. Kibble in 1975 . This experimental device is being developed at government metrology laboratories worldwide with the goal of providing a more accurate definition of the kilogram , the world 's standard of mass . In this application , the watt balance will function in the reverse sense to the Ampere balance : it will be used to weigh the International Prototype Kilogram , defining the kilogram in terms of an electric current and a voltage . Since voltage and current themselves are already defined in terms of fundamental physical constants like Planck 's constant and the speed of light , this will create a new definition of the kilogram in terms of these fundamental constants . This may be a more stable definition than the current one , which is based on the physical prototype kilogram which is vulnerable to damage and deterioration over the years .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Ampere_balance", "rank": 29, "score": 81275 }, { "content": "Title: Ice rules Content: In chemistry , ice rules are basic principles that govern arrangement of atoms in water ice . They are also known as Bernal -- Fowler rules , after British physicists John Desmond Bernal and Ralph H. Fowler who first described them in 1933 . The rules state each oxygen is covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms , and that the oxygen atom in each water molecule forms two hydrogen bonds with other oxygens , so that there is precisely one hydrogen between each pair of oxygen atoms . In other words , in ordinary Ih ice , every oxygen is bonded to the total of four hydrogens , two of these bonds are strong and two of them are much weaker . Every hydrogen is bonded to two oxygens , strongly to one and weakly to the other . The resulting configuration is geometrically a periodic lattice . The distribution of bonds on this lattice is represented by a directed-graph ( arrows ) and can be either ordered or disordered . In 1935 , Linus Pauling used the ice rules to calculate the residual entropy ( zero temperature entropy ) of ice Ih . For this ( and other ) reasons the rules are sometimes mis-attributed and referred to as `` Pauling 's ice rules '' ( not to be confused with Pauling 's rules for ionic crystals ) . A nice figure of the resulting structure can be found in Hamann .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Ice_rules", "rank": 30, "score": 80552 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 31, "score": 80517 }, { "content": "Title: Immobilarity Content: Immobilarity is the second studio album by American rapper and Wu-Tang Clan-member Raekwon , as a follow-up to Only Built 4 Cuban Linx ... . It was released in November 1999 on Loud Records , and peaked in the Top 10 of the US album charts . The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on December 20 , 1999 . Unlike the first album , it has no production input from the RZA and no guest features from Ghostface Killah . However , the album does feature Method Man and Masta Killa . Raekwon has stated that the title is an acronym for I Move More Officially by Implementing Loyalty and Respect in the Youth . The album features affiliates American Cream Team , who would later become Ice Water .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Immobilarity", "rank": 32, "score": 80438 }, { "content": "Title: East Antarctic Ice Sheet Content: The East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) is one of two large ice sheets in Antarctica , and the largest on the entire planet . The EAIS lies between 45 ° west and 168 ° east longitudinally . The EAIS is considerably larger in area and mass than the West Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) . It is separated from the WAIS by the Transantarctic Mountains . The EAIS rests upon a large land mass , contrary to that of the WAIS , which rests mainly on bedrock below sea level . The EAIS is also home to the thickest ice on the frozen white continent , at 15,700 ft ( 4,800 m ) . More well known , however , is that the EAIS is home to the geographic South Pole as well as of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet", "rank": 33, "score": 79930 }, { "content": "Title: Frank Pattyn Content: Frank Jean-Marie Léon Pattyn is a Belgian glaciologist and professor at the Université libre de Bruxelles . He is best known for developing ice-sheet models and leading model intercomparisons .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Frank_Pattyn", "rank": 34, "score": 79748 }, { "content": "Title: Hsien Wu Content: Hsien Wu ( ; 24 November 1893 -- 8 August 1959 ) was a Chinese protein scientist . He was the first to propose that protein denaturation was a purely conformational change , i.e. , corresponded to protein unfolding and not to some chemical alteration of the protein . This crucial idea was popularized later by Linus Pauling and Alfred Mirsky . Wu was born in Fuzhou , Fujian , China . He studied at MIT ( undergraduate ) , and then trained at Harvard University ( graduate ) under Otto Folin , developing the first assay for blood sugar ( Folin-Wu method ) . Wu then returned to China to a position at Peking Union Medical College , becoming head of the biochemistry department in 1924 at age 30 . Wu left China in 1947 to reside in the United States . Wu 's son , Ray J. Wu , became the Liberty Hyde Bailey Professor of Molecular Genetics and Biology at Cornell University , and was active in studying transgenic plants , particularly rice .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Hsien_Wu", "rank": 35, "score": 79316 }, { "content": "Title: Resonance method of ice destruction Content: The Resonance method of ice destruction means breaking sheet-ice which has formed over a body of water by causing the ice and water to oscillate up and down until the ice suffers sufficient mechanical fatigue to cause a fracture .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Resonance_method_of_ice_destruction", "rank": 36, "score": 79173 }, { "content": "Title: Watt balance Content: A watt balance is an experimental electromechanical weight measuring instrument that measures the weight of a test object very precisely by the strength of an electric current and a voltage . It is being developed as a metrological instrument that may one day provide a definition of the kilogram unit of mass based on electronic units , a so-called `` electronic '' or `` electrical '' kilogram . The name watt balance comes from the fact that the weight of the test mass is proportional to the product of the current and the voltage , which is measured in units of watts . In 2016 , metrologists agreed to rename watt balances as Kibble balances , in honor of and following the death of , their inventor Bryan Kibble earlier that year .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Watt_balance", "rank": 37, "score": 78762 }, { "content": "Title: Georg Wüst Content: Georg Adolf Otto Wüst ( * 15 June 1890 in Posen , Germany ( now Poznan , Poland ) ; † 8 November 1977 in Erlangen , Germany ) was a German oceanographer . His pioneering work on the Atlantic Ocean provided a new view of the motions of water masses between the northern and southern hemispheres and the first evidence of the concentration of water mass spreading in western boundary currents .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Georg_Wüst", "rank": 38, "score": 78426 }, { "content": "Title: Würm glaciation Content: The Würm glaciation ( Würm-Kaltzeit or Würm-Glazial or Würm stage , colloquially often also Würmeiszeit oder Würmzeit ; c.f. ice age ) , in the literature usually just referred to as the Würm , often spelt `` Wurm '' , is the name given to the last glacial period in the Alpine region . It is the youngest of the major glaciations of the region that extended beyond the Alps themselves . It is , like most of the other ice ages of the Pleistocene epoch , named after a river , the Würm in Bavaria , a tributary of the Amper . The Würm ice age can be dated to the time about 115,000 to 11,700 years ago , the sources differing depending on whether the long transition phases between the glacials and interglacials ( warmer periods ) are allocated to one or other of these periods . The average annual temperatures during the Würm ice age in the Alpine Foreland were below − 3 ° C ( today +7 ° C ) . This has been determined from changes in the vegetation ( pollen analysis ) as well as differences in the facies .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Würm_glaciation", "rank": 39, "score": 78258 }, { "content": "Title: Triple beam balance Content: Triple beam balance is an instrument used to measure mass very precisely . The device has reading error of + / - 0.05 gram . The name refers to the three beams including the middle beam which is the largest size , the front beam which is the medium size , and the far beam which is the smallest size . The difference in size of the beams indicate the difference in weights and reading scale that each beam carry . The reading scale can be enumerated that the middle beam reads in 100 gram increments , the front beam can read from 0 to 10 grams , and the far beam can read in 10 gram increments . The triple beam balance can be used to measure mass directly from the objects , find mass by difference for liquid , and measure out a substance .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Triple_beam_balance", "rank": 40, "score": 78016 }, { "content": "Title: Storglaciären Content: Storglaciären ( Swedish for The Grand Glacier ) is a glacier in Tarfala Valley in the Scandinavian Alps of Kiruna Municipality , Sweden . The glacier is classified as polythermal having both cold and warm bottom temperatures . It was on Storglaciären that the first glacier mass balance research program began ( immediately after World War II ) , which continues to the present day ; this is the longest continuous study of its type in the world . Storglaciären has had a cumulative negative mass balance of -17 m between 1946 -- 2006 . The program began monitoring the Rabots Glaciär in 1982 , Riukojietna in 1985 , and Mårmaglaciären in 1988 . All three of these glaciers have had a strong negative mass balance since monitoring began . For the purpose of studying Storglaciären and nearby glaciers , Stockholm University operates the Tarfala research station in the Kebnekaise region of northern Sweden .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Storglaciären", "rank": 41, "score": 77765 }, { "content": "Title: Lieb's square ice constant Content: Lieb 's square ice constant is a mathematical constant used in the field of combinatorics to quantify the number of Eulerian orientations of grid graphs . It was introduced by Elliott H. Lieb in 1967 .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Lieb's_square_ice_constant", "rank": 42, "score": 77691 }, { "content": "Title: Fay and Wu's H Content: Fay and Wu 's H is a statistical test created by and named after two researchers Justin Fay and Chung-I Wu . The purpose of the test is to distinguish between a DNA sequence evolving randomly ( `` neutrally '' ) and one evolving under positive selection . This test is an advancement over Tajima 's D , which is used to differentiate neutrally evolving sequences from those evolving non-randomly ( through directional selection or balancing selection , demographic expansion or contraction or genetic hitchhiking ) . Fay and Wu 's H is frequently used to identify sequences which have experienced selective sweeps in their evolutionary history .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Fay_and_Wu's_H", "rank": 43, "score": 77657 }, { "content": "Title: IceMole Content: IceMole is an autonomous ice research probe , incorporating a new type of ice-melting tip for the exploration of polar regions , glaciers , ice sheets , and extraterrestrial regions , developed by a team from the FH Aachen , a Fachhochschule ( University of Applied Sciences ) in Aachen , Germany . The advantage over previous probes is that the IceMole can change its direction and can be recovered after being used . A driving ice screw allows the probe to drill through soil layers and other contaminations in the ice .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "IceMole", "rank": 44, "score": 77592 }, { "content": "Title: Sauerbrey equation Content: The Sauerbrey equation was developed by M. Sauerbrey from Tiefenort , Germany , in 1959 , as a method for correlating changes in the oscillation frequency of a piezoelectric crystal with the mass deposited on it . He simultaneously developed a method for measuring the characteristic frequency and its changes by using the crystal as the frequency determining component of an oscillator circuit . His method continues to be used as the primary tool in quartz crystal microbalance experiments for conversion of frequency to mass and is valid in nearly all applications . The equation is derived by treating the deposited mass as though it were an extension of the thickness of the underlying quartz . Because of this , the mass to frequency correlation ( as determined by Sauerbrey 's equation ) is largely independent of electrode geometry . This has the benefit of allowing mass determination without calibration , making the set-up desirable from a cost and time investment standpoint . The Sauerbrey equation is defined as : . Equation 1 -- Sauerbrey 's equation -- Resonant frequency ( Hz ) -- Frequency change ( Hz ) -- Mass change ( g ) -- Piezoelectrically active crystal area ( Area between electrodes , cm2 ) -- Density of quartz ( = 2.648 g/cm3 ) -- Shear modulus of quartz for AT-cut crystal ( = 2.947 x1011 g · cm − 1 · s − 2 ) Because the film is treated as an extension of thickness , Sauerbrey 's equation only applies to systems in which the following three conditions are met : the deposited mass must be rigid , the deposited mass must be distributed evenly and the frequency change < 0.02 . If the change in frequency is greater than 2 % , that is , > 0.02 , the Z-match method must be used to determine the change in mass . The formula for the Z-match method is : Equation 2 -- Z-match method -- Frequency of loaded crystal ( Hz ) -- Frequency of unloaded crystal , i.e. Resonant frequency ( Hz ) -- Frequency constant for AT-cut quartz crystal ( 1.668 x1013Hz · Å ) -- Mass change ( g ) -- Piezoelectrically active crystal area ( Area between electrodes , cm2 ) -- Density of quartz ( = 2.648 g/cm3 ) -- Z-Factor of film material -- Density of the film ( Varies : units are g/cm3 ) -- Shear modulus of quartz ( = 2.947 x1011 g · cm − 1 · s − 2 ) -- Shear modulus of film ( Varies : units are g · cm − 1 · s − 2 )", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Sauerbrey_equation", "rank": 45, "score": 77297 }, { "content": "Title: Chien-Shiung Wu Content: Chien-Shiung Wu ( ; May 31 , 1912 -- February 16 , 1997 ) was a Chinese-American experimental physicist who made significant contributions in the field of nuclear physics . Wu worked on the Manhattan Project , where she helped develop the process for separating uranium metal into uranium-235 and uranium-238 isotopes by gaseous diffusion . She is best known for conducting the Wu experiment , which contradicted the hypothetical law of conservation of parity . This discovery resulted in her colleagues Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen-Ning Yang winning the 1957 Nobel Prize in physics , and also earned Wu the inaugural Wolf Prize in Physics in 1978 . Her expertise in experimental physics evoked comparisons to Marie Curie . Her nicknames include `` the First Lady of Physics '' , `` the Chinese Madame Curie '' , and the `` Queen of Nuclear Research '' .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Chien-Shiung_Wu", "rank": 46, "score": 77286 }, { "content": "Title: Interactive Connectivity Establishment Content: Interactive Connectivity Establishment ( ICE ) is a technique used in computer networking to find ways for two computers to talk to each other as directly as possible in peer-to-peer networking . This is most commonly used for interactive media such as Voice over Internet Protocol ( VoIP ) , peer-to-peer communications , video , and instant messaging . In such applications , you want to avoid communicating through a central server ( which would slow down communication , and be expensive ) , but direct communication between client applications on the Internet is very tricky due to network address translators ( NATs ) , firewalls , and other network barriers . ICE is developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force MMUSIC working group and is published as RFC 5245 , which has obsoleted RFC 4091 .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Interactive_Connectivity_Establishment", "rank": 47, "score": 77266 }, { "content": "Title: Catherine Ritz Content: Catherine Ritz is a French Antarctic researcher , best known for her work on ice sheets and their impact on sea level rise .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Catherine_Ritz", "rank": 48, "score": 76903 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland Ice Sheet Project Content: The Greenland Ice Sheet Project ( GISP ) was a decade-long project to drill ice cores in Greenland that involved scientists and funding agencies from Denmark , Switzerland and the United States . Besides the U.S. National Science Foundation ( NSF ) , funding was provided by the Swiss National Science Foundation and the Danish Commission for Scientific Research in Greenland . The ice cores provide a proxy archive of temperature and atmospheric constituents that help to understand past climate variations . The preliminary GISP field work started in 1971 at Dye 3 , where a 372 meter deep , 10.2 cm diameter core was recovered . After this , annual field expeditions were carried out to drill intermediate depth cores at various locations on the ice sheet . The first was a 398 m core at Milcent and another was a 405 m core at the Crete station in 1974 . After working out various logistical and engineering problems related to the development of a more sophisticated drilling rig , drilling to bedrock at Dye 3 began in the summer of 1979 using a new Danish electro-mechanical ice drill . In the first year , an 18 cm diameter hole was drilled and cased to a depth of 80 m. Coring continued for two more seasons , and on August 10 , 1981 , bedrock was reached at a depth of 2037 m . The Dye 3 site was a compromise : glaciologically , a higher site on the ice divide with smooth bedrock would have been better ; logistically , such a site would have been too remote .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Greenland_Ice_Sheet_Project", "rank": 49, "score": 76680 }, { "content": "Title: Wu experiment Content: The Wu experiment was a nuclear physics experiment conducted in 1956 by the Chinese American physicist Chien-Shiung Wu in collaboration with the Low Temperature Group of the US National Bureau of Standards . The experiment 's purpose was to establish whether or not conservation of parity ( P-conservation ) , which was previously established in the electromagnetic and strong interactions , also applied to weak interactions . If P-conservation were true , a mirrored version of the world ( where left is right and right is left ) would behave as the mirror image of the current world . If P-conservation were violated , then it would be possible to distinguish between a mirrored version of the world and the mirror image of the current world . The experiment established that conservation of parity was violated ( P-violation ) by the weak interaction . This result was not expected by the physics community , which had previously regarded parity as a conserved quantity . Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen-Ning Yang , the theoretical physicists who originated the idea of parity nonconservation and proposed the experiment , received the 1957 Nobel Prize in physics for this result .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Wu_experiment", "rank": 50, "score": 76373 }, { "content": "Title: Warrior Ice Arena Content: Warrior Arena is an ice hockey arena and practice facility in Brighton , Boston , Massachusetts . The arena sits 600 and is part of a larger mixed-use development being constructed by New Balance at Boston Landing that includes the headquarters of New Balance and that will also include shops , a hotel and the practice facility of the Boston Bruins . The arena has naming rights from the New Balance owned Warrior Sports which is the brand New Balance uses for their hockey products . Warrior Arena is the home arena of the Boston Pride of the National Women 's Hockey League and the practice facility of the Boston Bruins of the National Hockey League who moved in from the Bright-Landry Hockey Center and Ristuccia Ice Arena respectively . Public transit to the facility will be via the future MBTA Boston Landing station , a new station to be built on the MBTA Commuter Rail system 's existing Framingham/Worcester Line . Groundbreaking took place in December 2014 , with the completed facility hosting its grand opening on September 8th , 2016 .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Warrior_Ice_Arena", "rank": 51, "score": 76059 }, { "content": "Title: Wunda (crater) Content: Wunda is a large crater on the surface of Uranus ' moon Umbriel . It is 131 km in diameter and is located near the equator of Umbriel . The crater is named after Wunda , a dark spirit of Australian aboriginal mythology . Wunda has a prominent albedo feature on its floor , which takes the shape of a ring of bright material at least 10 km in radial width . The reason for its brightness , which stands out from the very dark composition of the moon as a whole , is unknown . It may be a deposit of carbon dioxide ice .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Wunda_(crater)", "rank": 52, "score": 75911 }, { "content": "Title: Zhang Yiyi Content: Zhang Yiyi ( ; born September 2 , 1993 in Beijing ) is a Chinese ice dancer . Her partner is Wu Nan .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Zhang_Yiyi", "rank": 53, "score": 75803 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-sheet dynamics Content: Ice sheet dynamics describe the motion within large bodies of ice , such those currently on Greenland and Antarctica . Ice motion is dominated by the movement of glaciers , whose gravity-driven activity is controlled by two main variable factors : the temperature and strength of their bases . A number of processes alter these two factors , resulting in cyclic surges of activity interspersed with longer periods of inactivity , on both hourly and centennial time scales . Ice-sheet dynamics are of interest in modelling future sea level rise . __ TOC __", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Ice-sheet_dynamics", "rank": 54, "score": 75775 }, { "content": "Title: Material balance planning Content: Material balances are a method of economic planning where material supplies are accounted for in natural units ( as opposed to using monetary accounting ) and used to balance the supply of available inputs with targeted outputs . Material balancing involves taking a survey of the available inputs and raw materials in an economy and then using a balance sheet to balance the inputs with output targets specified by industry to achieve a balance between supply and demand . This balance is used to formulate a plan for resource allocation and investment in a national economy . The method of material balances is contrasted with the method of input-output planning developed by Wassily Leontief .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Material_balance_planning", "rank": 55, "score": 75707 }, { "content": "Title: Wang Yun-wu Content: Wang Yun-wu was born 1888 in Shanghai and was a famous Chinese scholar of history and political science , he was also a politician and invented Shih Chiao Hao Ma , a method of Chinese lexicography also sometimes referred to as the Four Corner Method .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Wang_Yun-wu", "rank": 56, "score": 75389 }, { "content": "Title: C. F. Jeff Wu Content: Chien-Fu Jeff Wu ( born 1949 ) is the Coca-Cola Chair in Engineering Statistics and Professor in the H. Milton Stewart School of Industrial and Systems Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology . He is known for his work on the convergence of the EM algorithm , resampling methods such as the bootstrap and jackknife , and industrial statistics , including design of experiments , and robust parameter design ( Taguchi methods ) . Born in Taiwan , Wu earned a B.Sc . in Mathematics from National Taiwan University in 1971 , and a Ph.D. in Statistics from University of California , Berkeley in 1976 . He has been a faculty member at the University of Wisconsin , Madison ( 1977-1988 ) , the University of Waterloo ( 1988-1993 ; GM-NSERC chair in quality and productivity ) , the University of Michigan ( 1995-2003 ; chair of Department of Statistics 1995-98 ; H.C. Carver professor of statistics , 1997-2003 ) and currently the Georgia Institute of Technology . He has supervised 46 Ph.D. students and published around 170 peer-reviewed articles and two books . He has received several awards , including the COPSS Presidents ' Award in 1987 , the Shewhart Medal in 2008 , the COPSS R. A. Fisher Lectureship in 2011 , and the Deming Lecturer Award in 2012 . He gave the inaugural Akaike Memorial Lecture in 2016 . He has been elected as a fellow of the American Statistical Association , the Institute of Mathematical Statistics , the American Society for Quality and the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences . In 2000 he was elected as a member of Academia Sinica . In 2004 , he was elected as a member of the National Academy of Engineering . He received the Shewhart Medal of the American Society for Quality and an honorary degree from the University of Waterloo in 2008 . In November 1997 , he gave the inaugural lecture entitled `` Statistics = Data Science ? '' for his appointment to the H. C. Carver Professorship at the University of Michigan . He popularized the term `` data science '' and advocated that statistics be renamed data science and statisticians data scientists . Later , he presented his lecture entitled `` Statistics = Data Science ? '' as the first of his 1998 P.C. Mahalanobis Memorial Lectures . These lectures honor Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis , an Indian scientist and statistician and founder of the Indian Statistical Institute . In Mile , Yunnan , China , a conference was held in July 2014 celebrating Professor Wu 's 65th birthday . In 2014 he gave the Bradley Lecture at the University of Georgia .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "C._F._Jeff_Wu", "rank": 57, "score": 75131 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland ice sheet Content: The Greenland ice sheet ( Grønlands indlandsis , Sermersuaq ) is a vast body of ice covering 1710000 km ² , roughly 80 % of the surface of Greenland . It is the second largest ice body in the world , after the Antarctic ice sheet . The ice sheet is almost 2400 km long in a north-south direction , and its greatest width is 1100 km at a latitude of 77 ° N , near its northern margin . The mean altitude of the ice is 2135 m . The thickness is generally more than 2 km and over 3 km at its thickest point . It is not the only ice mass of Greenland -- isolated glaciers and small ice caps cover between 76000 and around the periphery . If the entire 2850000 km3 of ice were to melt , it would lead to a global sea level rise of 7.2 m . The Greenland Ice Sheet is sometimes referred to under the term inland ice , or its Danish equivalent , indlandsis . It is also sometimes referred to as an ice cap .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Greenland_ice_sheet", "rank": 58, "score": 75072 }, { "content": "Title: Joseph Adhémar Content: Joseph Alphonse Adhémar ( 1797 -- 1862 ) was a French mathematician . He was the first to suggest that ice ages were controlled by astronomical forces in his 1842 book Revolutions of the Sea . The Earth 's orbit is elliptical , with the Sun at one focus ; lines drawn through the summer and winter solstice ; and the spring and autumn equinox ; intersect with the sun at right angles . The Earth is closest to the Sun ( perihelion ) near the northern hemisphere winter solstice . The earth moves faster through its orbit when closer to the sun . Hence , the period from the northern hemisphere 's autumn equinox to winter and spring is shorter by around seven days than the period from spring to summer to autumn ; the reverse is true in the southern hemisphere . Hence , northern hemisphere winter is shorter . Because of this , Adhemar reasoned that because the southern hemisphere had more hours of darkness in winter , it must be cooling , and attributed the Antarctic ice sheet to this . Adhemar knew of the 22,000 year cycle of precession of the equinoxes , and theorised that the ice ages occurred in this cycle . One immediate objection to the theory was that the total insolation during a year does not vary at all during the precessional cycle , only its seasonal distribution . Another was that the timing was wrong ; however this could not be tested by observations available at the time . Adhemar 's theory was further developed , first by James Croll and later by Milutin Milanković . Adhemar predicted the Antarctic ice sheet and theorised about its thickness by comparing the depths of the Arctic and circum-Antarctic oceans . Finding the Antarctic oceans deeper ( the measurements he used may not have been fully representative ) and attributing this to the gravitational attraction of the Antarctic ice sheet , he postulated a truly enormous ice sheet approximately 90 km thick .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Joseph_Adhémar", "rank": 59, "score": 74858 }, { "content": "Title: Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio Content: The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio ( ICER ) is a statistic used in cost-effectiveness analysis to summarise the cost-effectiveness of a health care intervention . It is defined by the difference in cost between two possible interventions , divided by the difference in their effect . It represents the average incremental cost associated with 1 additional unit of the measure of effect . The ICER can be estimated as : , where and are the cost and effect in the intervention group and where and are the cost and effect in the control care group . Costs are usually described in monetary units , while effects can be measured in terms of health status or another outcome of interest . A common application of the ICER is in cost-utility analysis , in which case the ICER is synonymous with the cost per quality-adjusted life year ( QALY ) gained .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Incremental_cost-effectiveness_ratio", "rank": 60, "score": 74657 }, { "content": "Title: Faraday's ice pail experiment Content: Faraday 's ice pail experiment is a simple electrostatics experiment performed in 1843 by British scientist Michael Faraday that demonstrates the effect of electrostatic induction on a conducting container . For a container , Faraday used a metal pail made to hold ice , which gave the experiment its name . The experiment shows that an electric charge enclosed inside a conducting shell induces an equal charge on the shell , and that in an electrically conducting body , the charge resides entirely on the surface . It also demonstrates the principles behind electromagnetic shielding such as employed in the Faraday cage . The ice pail experiment was the first precise quantitative experiment on electrostatic charge . It is still used today in lecture demonstrations and physics laboratory courses to teach the principles of electrostatics .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Faraday's_ice_pail_experiment", "rank": 61, "score": 74503 }, { "content": "Title: Wunneburger Rock Content: Wunneburger Rock is an isolated rock outcrop in Maunee Ice Piedmont , lower Kohler Glacier , on the Walgreen Coast , Marie Byrd Land . Mapped by United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos , 1959-66 . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) after Henry E. Wunneburger , U.S. Navy , cook with the Byrd Station winter party , 1966 . Category : Rock formations of Marie Byrd Land", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Wunneburger_Rock", "rank": 62, "score": 74139 }, { "content": "Title: Eötvös experiment Content: The Eötvös experiment was a famous physics experiment that measured the correlation between inertial mass and gravitational mass , demonstrating that the two were one and the same , something that had long been suspected but never demonstrated with the same accuracy . The earliest experiments were done by Isaac Newton ( 1642 -- 1727 ) and improved upon by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel ( 1784 -- 1846 ) . A much more accurate experiment using a torsion balance was carried out by Loránd Eötvös starting around 1885 , with further improvements in a lengthy run between 1906 and 1909 . Eötvös 's team followed this with a series of similar but more accurate experiments , as well as experiments with different types of materials and in different locations around the Earth , all of which demonstrated the same equivalence in mass . In turn , these experiments led to the modern understanding of the equivalence principle encoded in general relativity , which states that the gravitational and inertial masses are the same . It is sufficient for the inertial mass to be proportional to the gravitational mass . Any multiplicative constant will be absorbed in the definition of the unit of force .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Eötvös_experiment", "rank": 63, "score": 74127 }, { "content": "Title: InterCityExperimental Content: The Intercity Experimental , later renamed ICE V , was an experimental train developed by the Deutsche Bundesbahn for research into high-speed rail in Germany . It is the predecessor of all Intercity-Express trains of the Deutsche Bahn .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "InterCityExperimental", "rank": 64, "score": 73915 }, { "content": "Title: Inertial balance Content: An inertial balance is a device that allows the measurement of inertial mass ( as opposed to gravitational mass for a regular balance ) that can be operated in the microgravity environment of space where weight is negligible ( e.g. in the International Space Station . ) The principle of operation is based on a vibrating spring-mass system . The frequency of vibration will depend on the unknown mass , being higher for lower mass . The object to be measured is placed in the inertial balance , and a spring mechanism starts the oscillation . The time needed to complete a given number of cycles is measured . Knowing the characteristic spring constant and damping coefficient of the spring system , the mass of the object can be computed according to the harmonic oscillator model .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Inertial_balance", "rank": 65, "score": 73437 }, { "content": "Title: Askaryan Radio Array Content: The Askaryan Radio Array ( ARA ) is a new detector designed to detect a few GZK neutrinos a year . It measures the enhanced radio-frequency radiation emitted during the interaction of the neutrino in Antarctic ice sheet . The detection is based on the Askaryan effect , an idea by Gurgen Askaryan This detection technique is also being used by the Antarctic Impulse Transient Antenna ( ANITA ) and the Radio Ice Cerenkov Experiment ( RICE ) detectors . The ARA experiment will be built around the IceCube experiment , and will cover an area of approximately 100 square kilometers . A 16-antenna prototype station , the `` ARA Testbed '' , of the ARA system was installed Jan 2011 and began operation allowing the ARA Collaboration to determine the estimated sensitivity of the array design : ARA-37 will cover 200 km2 with neutrino sensitivity of 1016 -- 1019 eV . Measurements of the radio background and ice attenuation length were reported .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Askaryan_Radio_Array", "rank": 66, "score": 73414 }, { "content": "Title: The Wurn Technique Content: The Wurn Technique is a physical therapy technique used as a form of alternative medicine that promoters assert can be used to treat pain , infertility , sexual dysfunction and adhesion-related conditions . The technique was developed by physical therapist Belinda Wurn and massage therapist Larry Wurn and is administered by therapists at their Clear Passage Physical Therapy clinics . The Wurn Technique was originally developed as a treatment used on Belinda Wurn for pain that developed after radiation therapy for cervical cancer . The Wurns investigated alternative methods to address her pain which included manual therapy techniques , and developed this technique and ultimately opened a group of clinics to provide this service . Preliminary studies done as pilot studies were published by the Wurns in 2004 . This technique has been deemed experimental/investigational by Aetna Insurance Company because it has deemed that two studies published in 2004 are inadequate evidence in the medical literature for its effectiveness .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "The_Wurn_Technique", "rank": 67, "score": 73312 }, { "content": "Title: Analytical balance Content: An analytical balance ( often called a `` lab balance '' ) is a class of balance designed to measure small mass in the sub-milligram range . The measuring pan of an analytical balance ( 0.1 mg or better ) is inside a transparent enclosure with doors so that dust does not collect and so any air currents in the room do not affect the balance 's operation . This enclosure is often called a draft shield . The use of a mechanically vented balance safety enclosure , which has uniquely designed acrylic airfoils , allows a smooth turbulence-free airflow that prevents balance fluctuation and the measure of mass down to 1 μg without fluctuations or loss of product . Also , the sample must be at room temperature to prevent natural convection from forming air currents inside the enclosure from causing an error in reading . Single pan mechanical substitution balance maintains consistent response throughout the useful capacity is achieved by maintaining a constant load on the balance beam , thus the fulcrum , by subtracting mass on the same side of the beam to which the sample is added . Electronic analytical scales measure the force needed to counter the mass being measured rather than using actual masses . As such they must have calibration adjustments made to compensate for gravitational differences . They use an electromagnet to generate a force to counter the sample being measured and outputs the result by measuring the force needed to achieve balance . Such measurement device is called electromagnetic force restoration sensor .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Analytical_balance", "rank": 68, "score": 73208 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-type model Content: In statistical mechanics , the ice-type models or six-vertex models are a family of vertex models for crystal lattices with hydrogen bonds . The first such model was introduced by Linus Pauling in 1935 to account for the residual entropy of water ice . Variants have been proposed as models of certain ferroelectric and antiferroelectric crystals . In 1967 , Elliott H. Lieb found the exact solution to a two-dimensional ice model known as `` square ice '' . The exact solution in three dimensions is only known for a special `` frozen '' state .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Ice-type_model", "rank": 69, "score": 73114 }, { "content": "Title: Radioglaciology Content: Radioglaciology is the study of glaciers and ice sheets using radar . It employs a geophysical method similar to ground-penetrating radar that operates at frequencies in the MF , HF and VHF portions of the radio spectrum . Radioglaciology is sometimes referred to as `` ice-penetrating radar '' or `` radio-echo sounding '' . Glaciers are well suited to investigation by radar because the imaginary part of the permittivity of ice is small relative to its real part ; this ratio is called the loss tangent . The conductivity of ice is small at radio frequencies , so its dielectric absorption is also small .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Radioglaciology", "rank": 70, "score": 72904 }, { "content": "Title: Sau Lan Wu Content: Sau Lan Wu ( Chinese : 吳秀蘭 ) is a Chinese American particle physicist and the Enrico Fermi Distinguished Professor of Physics at the University of Wisconsin-Madison . She made important contributions test for security towards the discovery of the J/psi particle , which provided experimental evidence for the existence of the charm quark , and the gluon , the vector boson of the strong force in the Standard Model of physics . Most notably , the team she worked in the European Organization for Nuclear Research ( CERN ) with the Large Hadron Collider ( LHC ) is part of the international effort in the discovery of a boson consistent with the Higgs boson , the so-called ` God Particle ' .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Sau_Lan_Wu", "rank": 71, "score": 72611 }, { "content": "Title: ICE (FPGA) Content: iCE is the brand name used for a family of low-power FPGAs produced by Lattice Semiconductor . Parts in the family are marketed with the `` world 's smallest FPGA '' tagline , and are intended for use in portable and battery-powered devices ( such as mobile phones ) , where they would be used to offload tasks from the device 's main processor or SoC . By doing so , the main processor and its peripherals can enter a low-power state or be powered off entirely , potentially increasing battery life . Lattice received the iCE brand as part of its 2011 acquisition of SiliconBlue Technologies .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "ICE_(FPGA)", "rank": 72, "score": 72577 }, { "content": "Title: Decisional balance sheet Content: A decisional balance sheet or decision balance sheet is a tabular method for representing the pros and cons of different choices and for helping someone decide what to do in a certain circumstance . It is often used in working with ambivalence in people who are engaged in behaviours that are harmful to their health ( for example , problematic substance use or excessive eating ) , as part of psychological approaches such as those based on the transtheoretical model of change , and in certain circumstances in motivational interviewing .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Decisional_balance_sheet", "rank": 73, "score": 72507 }, { "content": "Title: Wu-Massacre Content: Wu-Massacre is a collaboration studio album by American rappers and Wu-Tang Clan members Method Man , Ghostface Killah and Raekwon , released March 30 , 2010 on Def Jam Recordings . Production for the album was handled by several hip hop producers , including RZA , Allah Mathematics , Scram Jones , Emile , Ty Fyffe , BT and Digem Tracks Productions . The album debuted at number 12 on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling 37,900 copies in its first week . It charted modestly in international markets and produced four singles . Upon its release , Wu-Massacre received generally positive reviews from music critics . The album has sold 64,000 copies in the United States .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Wu-Massacre", "rank": 74, "score": 72441 }, { "content": "Title: GROVER Content: GROVER or Goddard Remotely Operated Vehicle for Exploration and Research is an Earth-bound autonomous student-designed rover developed by the Goddard Space Flight Center . With this solar-powered rover , scientists hope to get cheaper data about the Greenland ice sheet that lies in a rapidly warming region . The test drive started in Summit Camp in Greenland on a three kilometer thick ice sheet , which is the highest spot on the largest island of the World . The science team is led by the glaciologist Lora Koenig from NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , Md. . The test began on 3 May 2013 at temperatures as low as -30 ° C and is planned to continue till 8 June 2013 .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "GROVER", "rank": 75, "score": 72382 }, { "content": "Title: I-Chen Wu Content: I-Chen Wu is a Professor at Department of Computer Science , National Chiao Tung University . He received his B.S. in Electronic Engineering from National Taiwan University ( NTU ) , M.S. in Computer Science from NTU , and Ph.D. in Computer Science from Carnegie-Mellon University , in 1982 , 1984 and 1993 , respectively . Wu invented a new game , named Connect6 , a variation of the five-in-a-row game , and presented this game in the 11th Advances in Computer Games Conference ( ACG ' 11 ) in 2005 . The game-tree complexity of this game is quite high , close to Chinese Chess . Since presented in 2005 , Connect6 has been a tournament item in Computer Olympiad . He wrote a program , named NCTU6 , and won the gold in the tournament in 2006 . Up to date , there have been at least four game websites supporting this game , at least 10 web forums for this game ( in Traditional Chinese , Simplified Chinese , English , Spanish and multi-lingual ) , hundreds of thousands games played over the Internet , several Josekis ( opening moves ) and Tsumegos ( like puzzles ) developed , and one human Connect6 open tournament held in Summer 2006 . Wu also developed a game platform over Internet and actively participated in software development leading a team to major software components and framework in both clients and servers . In the client side , the team led by him developed a portable AWT/Swing architecture for Java game development , which has been used in some game companies including Sina Inc. , Hinet , and ThinkNewIdea Inc. , in Taiwan .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "I-Chen_Wu", "rank": 76, "score": 72321 }, { "content": "Title: Balance (accounting) Content: In banking and accountancy , the outstanding balance is the amount of money owed , ( or due ) , that remains in a deposit account . `` Balancing the books '' refers to the primary Balance sheet equation of A = L+OE , or Assets = Liabilities plus Owner 's Equity . The first `` balancing '' of books , or of the balance sheet financial statement in accounting is to check iterations ( test balances ) to be sure the equation above applies , and where Assets and Liabilities are unequal , to equalize them by debiting or crediting Owner 's Equity ( i.e. if assets exceed liabilities , equity is increased , if liabilities exceed assets , equity is decreased , both in the amount needed to balance the equation ) . In addition to the balance sheet , the other primary financial statement ( the P&L or Profit and Loss Statement ) also is balanced against the balance sheet , generally by use of a `` plug '' such as imputed interest . Category : Accounting terminology Category : Accounting journals and ledgers no : Balanse ( Økonomi )", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Balance_(accounting)", "rank": 77, "score": 72312 }, { "content": "Title: Theodore Y. Wu Content: Theodore Yaotsu Wu ( ; born 20 March 1924 ) is an American engineer . He is a Professor Emeritus of Engineering Science at the California Institute of Technology . His research contribution includes compressible fluid flow , free-streamline theory of cavities , jets and wakes , water waves and free-surface flows , mechanics of fish swimming and bird/insect flight , wind and ocean-current energy , and internal waves in the ocean .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Theodore_Y._Wu", "rank": 78, "score": 71944 }, { "content": "Title: The Dull Ice Flower Content: The Dull Ice Flower is a 1989 Taiwanese film based on the novel of the same title by Chung Chao-cheng . Dealing with education and other social issues in rural Taiwan in the deprived 1950s and early 1960s , the story was adapted into a screenplay by Wu Nien-jen .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "The_Dull_Ice_Flower", "rank": 79, "score": 71783 }, { "content": "Title: Ruqian Wu Content: Ruqian Wu from the University of California , Irvine , was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society , after they were nominated by their Division of Computational Physics in 2001 , for contributions to the understanding of magnetic , electronic , mechanical , chemical and optical properties of compounds , alloys , interfaces , thin films and surfaces using first-principles calculations and for development of the methods and codes for such components .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Ruqian_Wu", "rank": 80, "score": 71664 }, { "content": "Title: Imensazan Consultant Engineers Institute Content: The Imensazen Consultant Engineers Institute ( ICEI ) is a subsidiary of Khatam al-Anbia in Iran . It is blacklisted by the United States Department of the Treasury .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Imensazan_Consultant_Engineers_Institute", "rank": 81, "score": 71651 }, { "content": "Title: Ice (anime) Content: is a 2007 three-episode original video animation created by Yasushi Akimoto and directed by Makoto Kobayashi . It is set in the ruins of Tokyo in the near future , after an unspecified catastrophe has led to the death of all human males and many females . The small groups of women who survive face the impending extinction of humanity . There are suggestions that the disaster was caused by human interference with nature , possibly biological warfare experiments or genetic engineering . Many of the survivors blame men 's warlike nature and scientific arrogance for the catastrophe . However , even though men have perished , the women who remain are forced to use violence in the face of bioterrorism and other threats . While some accept their fate as the last generation of humans , others see biological engineering as a final hope for the survival of the species .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Ice_(anime)", "rank": 82, "score": 71639 }, { "content": "Title: Controlled combustion engine Content: Controlled combustion engine ( CCE ) is a term used by Revetec , an engine design company , to identify a type of experimental internal combustion engine ( ICE ) designed by Brad Howell-Smith . It uses two counter-rotating cams instead of a crankshaft . Pairs of cylinders oppose each other in a boxer flat engine or `` X '' arrangement .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Controlled_combustion_engine", "rank": 83, "score": 71550 }, { "content": "Title: 12th Soviet Antarctic Expedition Content: The Twelfth Soviet Antarctic Expedition was an expedition by the Soviet Union to Antarctica . During this expedition , a new method was used for measuring the thickness of the ice cap of Antarctica using radar . Glaciologists on the team surveyed the area around Mirny Station and measured the thickness of the glacier . The investigations discovered that the central part of the glacial cap in Eastern Antarctica is the largest and most ideal elevated plain in the world . Soviet geologists also did surveys of Queen Maud Land and Enderby Land where they found deposits of coal and iron ore .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "12th_Soviet_Antarctic_Expedition", "rank": 84, "score": 71407 }, { "content": "Title: Harmonic balance Content: Harmonic balance is a method used to calculate the steady-state response of nonlinear differential equations , and is mostly applied to nonlinear electrical circuits . It is a frequency domain method for calculating the steady state , as opposed to the various time-domain steady state methods . The name `` harmonic balance '' is descriptive of the method , which starts with Kirchhoff 's Current Law written in the frequency domain and a chosen number of harmonics . A sinusoidal signal applied to a nonlinear component in a system will generate harmonics of the fundamental frequency . Effectively the method assumes the solution can be represented by a linear combination of sinusoids , then balances current and voltage sinusoids to satisfy Kirchhoff 's law . The method is commonly used to simulate circuits which include nonlinear elements , and is most applicable to systems with feedback in which limit cycles occur . Microwave circuits were the original application for harmonic balance methods in electrical engineering . Microwave circuits were well-suited because , historically , microwave circuits consist of many linear components which can be directly represented in the frequency domain , plus a few nonlinear components . System sizes were typically small . For more general circuits , the method was considered impractical for all but these very small circuits until the mid-1990s , when Krylov subspace methods were applied to the problem . The application of preconditioned Krylov subspace methods allowed much larger systems to be solved , both in size of circuit and in numbers of harmonics . This made practical the present-day use of harmonic balance methods to analyze radio-frequency integrated circuits ( RFICs ) .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Harmonic_balance", "rank": 85, "score": 71373 }, { "content": "Title: Wu Zhen Content: Wu Zhen ( 1280-1354 C.E. ) was a painter born in Jiaxing , Zhejiang Province , during the Yuan dynasty of China , one of the so-called Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty . He followed the Dong Yuan school of painting . Following along with trends of the time , Wu 's works tended less toward naturalism ( i.e. painting exactly what the eye sees ) and more toward abstraction , focusing on dynamic balance of elements , and personifying nature . His painting The Central Mountain , dated 1336 , is perhaps his greatest work and shows his style very clearly . It is a symmetrical image , with one large mountain in its center and others to each side . The mountains have rounded tops , and in fact all of Wu 's lines in this painting are smooth , curved and flowing . The painting is a reinterpretation of traditional landscape paintings as it brings abstract style and brushwork to landscape , primarily to create a work focused on balance .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Wu_Zhen", "rank": 86, "score": 71316 }, { "content": "Title: Ice divide Content: An ice divide is the boundary on an ice sheet , ice cap or glacier separating opposing flow directions of ice , analogous to a water divide . Such ice divides are important for geochronology investigations using ice cores , because such coring is typically made on top of a dome of an ice sheet to avoid interference caused by horizontal ice movement . Ice divides are used for looking at what the atmosphere was like in history . The ice is very accurate because instead of shifting horizontally like normal ice , it moves vertically downward with time trapping gases into its layers . Scientist find these ice divides and take ice cores from them , which are typically long cylinder poles of ice , and evaluate them . Once they have these ice cores , they are able to look through it and find elements that the snow and ice carried down with it during that time period such as sulfate , nitrate , and other ions . These ice cores are important in determining how our atmosphere has changed for the better or worse , and how we can fix it such as the greenhouse effect which discovered when scientist found how much more greenhouse gasses was in our atmosphere than there was in the past . Scientists from around the United States came together to find the perfect ice divide in order to go the furthest into the past . They formed the WAIS project . This project is funded by the United States National Foundation , and is run by scientists from many organizations such as National Ice Core Laboratory , Ice Drilling Design and Operations ( IDDO ) , and over fifty Universities . The WAIS project is located in West Antarctica , and the goal is to look into the past 100,000 years . WAIS is better than other ice divides because of the amount of snow it gets . This large amount of snow causes there to be a very small off-set from the ages of the ice to the air and gases trapped inside . This gives the scientists to give much more precise predictions of what the atmosphere was like in history . If the WAIS project is a success it will educate scientists around the world how the atmosphere of Earth has changed completely over 100,000 years .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Ice_divide", "rank": 87, "score": 71191 }, { "content": "Title: Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm Content: thumb | 336px | Demonstration of Xiaolin Wu 's algorithm Xiaolin Wu 's line algorithm is an algorithm for line antialiasing , which was presented in the article An Efficient Antialiasing Technique in the July 1991 issue of Computer Graphics , as well as in the article Fast Antialiasing in the June 1992 issue of Dr. Dobb 's Journal . Bresenham 's algorithm draws lines extremely quickly , but it does not perform anti-aliasing . In addition , it can not handle any cases where the line endpoints do not lie exactly on integer points of the pixel grid . A naive approach to anti-aliasing the line would take an extremely long time . Wu 's algorithm is comparatively fast , but is still slower than Bresenham 's algorithm . The algorithm consists of drawing pairs of pixels straddling the line , each coloured according to its distance from the line . Pixels at the line ends are handled separately . Lines less than one pixel long are handled as a special case . An extension to the algorithm for circle drawing was presented by Xiaolin Wu in the book Graphics Gems II . Just like the line drawing algorithm is a replacement for Bresenham 's line drawing algorithm , the circle drawing algorithm is a replacement for Bresenham 's circle drawing algorithm .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Xiaolin_Wu's_line_algorithm", "rank": 88, "score": 71031 }, { "content": "Title: The Icewind Dale Trilogy Content: The Icewind Dale Trilogy is a trilogy of novels written by science fiction and fantasy author R.A. Salvatore . The trilogy contains three books : The Crystal Shard , Streams of Silver , and The Halfling 's Gem and tells the tale of ranger Drizzt Do'Urden the drow ( or dark elf ) , Wulfgar the barbarian warrior , Regis the halfling , dwarf king Bruenor , and Bruenor 's adopted human daughter Catti-brie . It is the first of Salvatore 's Forgotten Realms novels , describing the events that created some of the best-known characters in that world . The final book of this series , The Halfling 's Gem , appeared in the New York Times Best seller list . A prequel trilogy , The Dark Elf Trilogy , followed as did several subsequent sequel series such as Legacy of the Drow and Paths of Darkness .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "The_Icewind_Dale_Trilogy", "rank": 89, "score": 70952 }, { "content": "Title: Ice (Dukaj novel) Content: Ice ( Lód ) is a Janusz A. Zajdel , European Union Prize for Literature and Kościelski awards-winning novel written in 2007 by the Polish science fiction writer Jacek Dukaj , published in Poland by Wydawnictwo Literackie . The novel mixes alternate history with science fiction elements , in particular , with alternative physics and logic . English language rights to Ice have been acquired by London-based publisher Head of Zeus . The publication date will be announced once the novel is translated .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Ice_(Dukaj_novel)", "rank": 90, "score": 70897 }, { "content": "Title: Project Iceworm Content: Project Iceworm was the code name for a top secret United States Army program during the Cold War to build a network of mobile nuclear missile launch sites under the Greenland ice sheet . The ultimate objective of placing medium-range missiles under the ice -- close enough to strike targets within the Soviet Union -- was kept secret from the Danish government . To study the feasibility of working under the ice , a highly publicized `` cover '' project , known as Camp Century , was launched in 1960 . Unsteady ice conditions within the ice sheet caused the project to be canceled in 1966 .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Project_Iceworm", "rank": 91, "score": 70807 }, { "content": "Title: Balance sheet Content: In financial accounting , a balance sheet or statement of financial position is a summary of the financial balances of an individual or organisation , whether it be a sole proprietorship , a business partnership , a corporation , private limited company or other organization such as Government or not-for-profit entity . Assets , liabilities and ownership equity are listed as of a specific date , such as the end of its financial year . A balance sheet is often described as a `` snapshot of a company 's financial condition '' . Of the four basic financial statements , the balance sheet is the only statement which applies to a single point in time of a business ' calendar year . A standard company balance sheet has two sides : assets , on the left and financing , which itself has two parts , liabilities and ownership equity , on the right . The main categories of assets are usually listed first , and typically in order of liquidity . Assets are followed by the liabilities . The difference between the assets and the liabilities is known as equity or the net assets or the net worth or capital of the company and according to the accounting equation , net worth must equal assets minus liabilities . Another way to look at the balance sheet equation is that total assets equals liabilities plus owner 's equity . Looking at the equation in this way shows how assets were financed : either by borrowing money ( liability ) or by using the owner 's money ( owner 's or shareholders ' equity ) . Balance sheets are usually presented with assets in one section and liabilities and net worth in the other section with the two sections `` balancing '' . A business operating entirely in cash can measure its profits by withdrawing the entire bank balance at the end of the period , plus any cash in hand . However , many businesses are not paid immediately ; they build up inventories of goods and they acquire buildings and equipment . In other words : businesses have assets and so they can not , even if they want to , immediately turn these into cash at the end of each period . Often , these businesses owe money to suppliers and to tax authorities , and the proprietors do not withdraw all their original capital and profits at the end of each period . In other words , businesses also have liabilities .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Balance_sheet", "rank": 92, "score": 70764 }, { "content": "Title: Digital ICE Content: Digital ICE or Digital Image Correction and Enhancement is a set of technologies related to producing an altered image in a variety of frequency spectra . The objective of these technologies is to render an image more usable by Fourier or other filtering techniques . These technologies were most actively advanced in the 1960s and early 1970s in the fields of strategic reconnaissance and medical electronics . The term Digital ICE initially applied specifically to a proprietary technology developed by Kodak 's Austin Development Center , formerly Applied Science Fiction ( ASF ) , that automatically removes surface defects , such as dust and scratches , from scanned images .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Digital_ICE", "rank": 93, "score": 70679 }, { "content": "Title: Raymond Effect Content: Raymond Effect is a flow effect in ice sheets , occurring at flow divides , which gives rise to disturbances in the stratigraphy , showing unusual arches or anticlines called Raymond Arches . The stratigraphy is detected by radio-echo sounding . The Raymond effect arises from the unusual flow properties of ice . It is of importance because it provides field evidence for the flow properties of ice . In addition , it permits dating of changes in ice flow and the establishment of changes in ice thickness . The effect was first predicted by Charles F. Raymond . Ice viscosity is stress-dependent , and in zones where the ( deviatoric ) stresses are low , the viscosity becomes very high . Near the base of ice-sheets , stress is proportional to the surface slope , at least when averaged over a suitable horizontal distance . At the flow divide , the surface slope is zero , implying that near the base of the ice-sheet , the viscosity increases . This diverts ice flow laterally , and is the cause of the characteristic anticlines , which are in effect draped over the high viscosity area .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Raymond_Effect", "rank": 94, "score": 70591 }, { "content": "Title: Ice resurfacer Content: An ice resurfacer is a vehicle or hand-pushed device used to clean and smooth the surface of an ice sheet , usually in an ice rink . The two major North American manufacturers are Resurfice Corporation , which sells Olympia-brand machines , and Frank J. Zamboni & Company and other brands include the Okay Elektra , an electric ice resurfacer made in Canada in the province of Quebec . The first ice resurfacer was pioneered and developed by American inventor and engineer Frank Zamboni in 1949 in the city of Paramount , California . Zamboni -LSB- zæmˈboʊni -RSB- is an internationally registered trademark .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Ice_resurfacer", "rank": 95, "score": 70513 }, { "content": "Title: Laramie Potts Content: Laramie Potts is an American scientist at Ohio State University who identified the Wilkes Land mass concentration in Antarctica in collaboration with Ralph von Frese . He is from South Africa . He currently ( December 2010 ) teaches geomatics ( surveying ) at the New Jersey Institute of Technology . Potts is a Post-Doctoral Researcher in Civil and Environmental Engineering and Geodetic Science . He and von Frese used gravity measurements by NASA 's GRACE satellites to identify a 200-mile ( 300 km ) wide mass concentration . This mass anomaly is centered within a larger ring-like structure visible in radar images of the land surface beneath the Antarctic ice cap . This combination led these researchers to speculate that it may be the result of a large impact event .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Laramie_Potts", "rank": 96, "score": 70508 }, { "content": "Title: Roberval balance Content: The Roberval balance is a weighing scale presented to the French Academy of Sciences by the French mathematician Gilles Personne de Roberval in 1669 . In this scale , two identical horizontal beams are attached , one directly above the other , to a vertical column , which is attached to a stable base . On each side , both horizontal beams are attached to a vertical beam . The six attachment points are pivots . Two horizontal plates , suitable for placing objects to be weighed , are fixed to the top of the two vertical beams . An arrow on the lower horizontal beam ( and perpendicular to it ) and a mark on the vertical column may be added to aid in leveling the scale . The object to be weighed is placed on one plate , and calibrated masses are added to and subtracted from the other plate until level is reached . The mass of the object is equal to the mass of the calibrated masses regardless of where on the plates items are placed . Since the vertical beams are always vertical , and the weighing platforms always horizontal , the potential energy lost by a weight as its platform goes down a certain distance will always be the same , so it makes no difference where the weight is placed . For maximum accuracy , Roberval balances require that their top fulcrum be placed on the line between the left and right pivot so that tipping will not result in the net transfer of weight to either the left or right side of the scale : a fulcrum placed below the idea pivot point will tend to cause a net shift in the direction of any downward-moving vertical column ( in a kind of positive feedback loop ) ; likewise , a fulcrum placed above this point will tend to level out the arms of the balance rather than respond to small changes in weight ( in a negative feedback loop ) . The vertical column supporting a plate with an offset weight must be in axial compression and flexure . Here the axial compression is carried by the bearing at the top beam in most balance scales , the lower beam just being supported horizontally at midpoint by the body of the scales by a simple peg-in-slot arrangement , so it effectively hangs beneath the top beam and stops the platforms from rotating . The flexural force in the column ( a.k.a. bending moment ) is taken by a pair of equal and opposite forces in the horizontal beams . So if the offset weight is towards the outside of the platform , further from the centre of the scales , the top beam will be in axial tension and the bottom beam will be in axial compression . These tensions and compressions are carried by horizontal reactions from the central supports , the other side of the scales is not affected at all , nor is the balance of the scales .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Roberval_balance", "rank": 97, "score": 70497 }, { "content": "Title: Radical 85 Content: Radical 85 meaning `` water '' is one of 35 of the 214 Kangxi radicals that are composed of 4 strokes . Its left-hand form , 氵 , is closely related to Radical 15 , 冫 bīng ( also known as 两点水 liǎng diǎn shuǐ ) , meaning `` ice '' , from which it differs by the addition of just one stroke . In the Kangxi Dictionary there are 1,595 characters ( out of 40,000 ) to be found under this radical . In the Chinese Wu Xing ( `` Five Phases '' ) , 水 represents the element Water . In Taoist cosmology , 水 ( Water ) is the nature component of the Ba gua diagram 坎 Kǎn .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Radical_85", "rank": 98, "score": 70436 }, { "content": "Title: Iris Challenge Evaluation Content: The Iris Challenge Evaluation ( ICE ) were a series of events conducted and managed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology for projects on technology development and evaluation for iris recognition . The ICE 2006 was the first large-scale , open , independent technology evaluation for iris recognition . The primary goals of the ICE projects were to promote the development and advancement of iris recognition technology and assess its state-of-the-art capability . The ICE projects were open to academia , industry and research institutes .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Iris_Challenge_Evaluation", "rank": 99, "score": 70294 }, { "content": "Title: Wang Fan Content: Wang Fan ( 228 -- 266 ) , courtesy name Yongyuan , was an official and astronomer of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period . He was from Lujiang ( southwest of present-day Lujiang County , Anhui ) . He was proficient in mathematics and astronomy . He calculated the distance from the Sun to the Earth , but his geometric model was not correct . In addition , he give the numerical value of π as 142 / 45 = 3.155 ... , not as accurate as the contemporary mathematician Liu Hui achieved . He was executed by Sun Hao , whom he was unable to respect .", "qid": "2891", "docid": "Wang_Fan", "rank": 100, "score": 70284 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 1, "score": 211543 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 2, "score": 201470 }, { "content": "Title: Konrad Steffen Content: Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Konrad_Steffen", "rank": 3, "score": 196493 }, { "content": "Title: Glacial earthquake Content: Glacial earthquakes are earthquakes as large as magnitude 5.1 that occur in glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one kilometer per year . The number of glacial earthquakes in Greenland shows a peak every year in July , August and September , and the number is increasing over time . In a study using data from January 1993 through October 2005 , more events were detected every year since 2002 , and twice as many events were recorded in 2005 as there were in any other year . This increase in the numbers of glacial earthquakes in Greenland may be a response to global warming . Seismic waves are also generated by the Whillans Ice Stream , a large , fast-moving river of ice pouring from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet into the Ross Ice Shelf . Two bursts of seismic waves are released every day , each one equivalent to a magnitude 7 earthquake , and are seemingly related to the tidal action of the Ross Sea . During each event a 96 by 193 kilometer ( 60 by 120 mile ) region of the glacier moves as much as .67 meters ( 2.2 feet ) over about 25 minutes , remains still for 12 hours , then moves another half-meter . The seismic waves are recorded at seismographs around Antarctica , and even as far away as Australia , a distance of more than 6,400 kilometers . Because the motion takes place of such a long period of time 10 to 25 minutes , it can not be felt by scientists standing on the moving glacier . It is not known if these events are related to global warming .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Glacial_earthquake", "rank": 4, "score": 190683 }, { "content": "Title: Ice sheet Content: An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2 , thus also known as continental glacier . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland ; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America , the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America . Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers . Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap . An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery . Although the surface is cold , the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat . In places , melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly . This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet -- these are ice streams . The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms . The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a small ice cap ( maybe several ) in the early Oligocene , but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene , when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica . The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene , but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation . This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Ice_sheet", "rank": 5, "score": 178316 }, { "content": "Title: King Oscar Glacier Content: King Oscar Glacier ( Kong Oscar Gletscher ) is one of several glaciers that drain the north-western part of the Greenland Ice Sheet into Melville Bay . As part of a comprehensive survey of Greenland 's glaciers that was published in 2006 , scientists documented that the mass balance -- the sum of gains through snow accumulation and losses through iceberg calving and melting -- of Kong Oscar and Greenland 's other north-western glaciers was strongly negative between 1996 and 2005 : they lost more ice than they gained . The pattern was similar to the ice sheet as a whole , which has been losing ice mass at an accelerating pace in the past decade .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "King_Oscar_Glacier", "rank": 6, "score": 173935 }, { "content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Abrupt_climate_change", "rank": 7, "score": 173161 }, { "content": "Title: Extreme Ice Survey Content: The Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) , based in Boulder , Colorado , uses time-lapse photography , conventional photography and video to document the effects of global warming on glacial ice . It is the most wide-ranging glacier study ever conducted using ground-based , real-time photography . Starting in 2007 the EIS team installed as many as 43 time-lapse cameras at a time at 18 glaciers in Greenland , Iceland , Alaska , Canada , the Nepalese Himalaya ( where cameras were installed at Mount Everest in 2010 ) , and the Rocky Mountains of the U.S. . The cameras shoot year-round , every half hour of daylight . The team supplements the time-lapse record by occasionally repeating shots at fixed locations in Iceland , Bolivia , the Canadian province of British Columbia and the French and Swiss Alps . Collected images are being used for scientific evidence and as part of a global outreach campaign aimed at educating the public about the effects of climate change . EIS imagery has appeared in time-lapse videos displayed in the terminal at Denver International Airport ; in media productions such as the 2009 NOVA Extreme Ice documentary on PBS ; and is the focus of the feature-length film Chasing Ice , directed by Jeff Orlowski , which premiered at the Sundance film festival in Utah on January 23 , 2012 . Major findings were published in 2012 in Ice : Portraits of the World 's Vanishing Glaciers by James Balog ( Rizzoli Publishing ) .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Extreme_Ice_Survey", "rank": 8, "score": 173080 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 9, "score": 172695 }, { "content": "Title: Julie Palais Content: Julie Michelle Palais ( * September 2 , 1956 in Massachusetts ) is an award-winning polar glaciologist who has made great contributions to climate change research studying volcanic fallout in ice cores from both Greenland and Antarctica . Since 1990 , she has played a pivotal role working at the National Science Foundation as Program Director of the Antarctic Glaciology Program in the Division of Polar Programs . Both the Palais Glacier and Palais Bluff in Antarctica were named in her honor . She has made twenty-eight trips to Antarctica and three trips to Greenland , and was the co-recipient of the Explorer Club 's Lowell Thomas Award .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Julie_Palais", "rank": 10, "score": 170313 }, { "content": "Title: Heard Island glaciers Content: The Heard Island glaciers covered 79 percent of Heard Island itself , in 1947 , covering 288 km2 ; by 1988 , this had decreased by 11 percent to 257 km2 . The glaciers fall under the Antarctic Environmental Gradient , which spans 30 degrees of latitude and includes a range of macro-climatic zones from cool temperate islands to the frigid and arid Antarctic continent . Glaciers extend from 2745 m to sea level , with ice up to 150 m deep.The geologic movement of the glaciers can appear fast-flowing due to the steep slope and high precipitation , and are particularly sensitive to climatic fluctuations . Measurements between 1947 and 1980 show glacial retreat , particularly on the eastern flanks , is correlated with changes in weather patterns . A 29 % reduction in area of the Brown Glacier from 1947-2003 was observed . The volcano Big Ben , from which all the glaciers drain , has shown no sign of changing geothermal output to cause the melting ; a 1 degree Celsius warming has occurred over the same time period . Glaciologists continue to study the Brown Glacier , detailing surveys of the glacier 's snout and surface , which determine if glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated . Measurements on the mass balance of the glacier , as well as more detailed ice thickness measurements using a portable radar echo sounder , were undertaken . Monitoring of climatic conditions continues , with emphasis on the impact of Foehn winds on glacier mass balance . An expedition by scientists from the Australian Antarctic Division recently visited the volcanic island in 2009 , observing glaciers that had retreated 50 metres in three years . Repairs were made to an automatic weather station established in November 2000 . Glaciologist Dr. Ian Allison cites that the latest aerial surveys that show continuous rapid melt and that satellite imagery shows the island double in size due to volcanic activity .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Heard_Island_glaciers", "rank": 11, "score": 170013 }, { "content": "Title: Mittivakkat Glacier Content: The Mittivakkat Glacier is located in southeast Greenland , and is part of the largest ice field on Ammassalik Island . This glacier has been in retreat ( negative net mass balance ) throughout most of recorded history ( 1898 -- 2008 ) . Reindeer bones were recovered from the retreating glacier in 2005 , and dated to about 1200-1300 AD .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Mittivakkat_Glacier", "rank": 12, "score": 169204 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland ice sheet Content: The Greenland ice sheet ( Grønlands indlandsis , Sermersuaq ) is a vast body of ice covering 1710000 km ² , roughly 80 % of the surface of Greenland . It is the second largest ice body in the world , after the Antarctic ice sheet . The ice sheet is almost 2400 km long in a north-south direction , and its greatest width is 1100 km at a latitude of 77 ° N , near its northern margin . The mean altitude of the ice is 2135 m . The thickness is generally more than 2 km and over 3 km at its thickest point . It is not the only ice mass of Greenland -- isolated glaciers and small ice caps cover between 76000 and around the periphery . If the entire 2850000 km3 of ice were to melt , it would lead to a global sea level rise of 7.2 m . The Greenland Ice Sheet is sometimes referred to under the term inland ice , or its Danish equivalent , indlandsis . It is also sometimes referred to as an ice cap .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Greenland_ice_sheet", "rank": 13, "score": 167170 }, { "content": "Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Glacier_mass_balance", "rank": 14, "score": 165519 }, { "content": "Title: Uunartoq Qeqertaq Content: Uunartoq Qeqertaq , Greenlandic for `` The Warming Island '' , is an island off the east central coast of Greenland , 550 km north of the Arctic Circle . It became recognised as an island only in September 2005 , by US explorer Dennis Schmitt . It was attached to the mainland of Liverpool Land by glacial ice even in 2002 , when the ice shelves began retreating rapidly in this area , so that by 2005 it was no longer attached to the mainland . Members of the scientific community believe this newly discovered island is a direct result of global warming . The island has three large peninsulas , and thus resembles the letter W , or the Chinese character 山 .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Uunartoq_Qeqertaq", "rank": 15, "score": 165468 }, { "content": "Title: Ice shelf Content: An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters . In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica . Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss . Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf . The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica . The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Ice_shelf", "rank": 16, "score": 164414 }, { "content": "Title: European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica Content: The European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica ( EPICA ) is a multinational European project for deep ice core drilling in Antarctica . Its main objective is to obtain full documentation of the climatic and atmospheric record archived in Antarctic ice by drilling and analyzing two ice cores and comparing these with their Greenland counterparts ( GRIP and GISP ) . Evaluation of these records will provide information about the natural climate variability and mechanisms of rapid climatic changes during the last glacial epoch . The European Science Foundation EPICA Programme ( 1996 -- 2005 ) provides co-ordination for EPICA drilling activities at Dome Concordia and Kohnen Station , which are supported by the European Commission and by national contributions from Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . Deep drilling took place at two sites in Antarctica : Concordia Station at Dome C and Kohnen Station . In 2008 the project received the Descartes Prize for Research .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "European_Project_for_Ice_Coring_in_Antarctica", "rank": 17, "score": 164225 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Peter_Doran", "rank": 18, "score": 164189 }, { "content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850", "rank": 19, "score": 163536 }, { "content": "Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Ice_cap_climate", "rank": 20, "score": 163455 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet", "rank": 21, "score": 160179 }, { "content": "Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Quaternary_glaciation", "rank": 22, "score": 158702 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal", "rank": 23, "score": 158559 }, { "content": "Title: Dakshin Gangotri Glacier Content: The Dakshin Gangotri Glacier is a small tongue of the polar continental ice sheet impinging on the Schirmacher Oasis of central Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . It was discovered by the Second Indian Expedition to Antarctica in 1983 , and named for India 's first Antarctic research station . Since then its snout , and the area around it , has been regularly monitored and it has become a valuable site for tracking the impact of global warming through changes in the movement of the Antarctic ice sheet . The site is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area ( ASPA ) No. 163 .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Dakshin_Gangotri_Glacier", "rank": 24, "score": 158439 }, { "content": "Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system", "rank": 25, "score": 158071 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment", "rank": 26, "score": 154588 }, { "content": "Title: Chasing Ice Content: Chasing Ice is a 2012 documentary film about the efforts of nature photographer James Balog and his Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) to publicize the effects of climate change , directed by Jeff Orlowski . It was released in the United States on November 16 , 2012 . The documentary includes scenes from a glacier calving event that took place at Jakobshavn Glacier in Greenland , lasting 75 minutes , the longest such event ever captured on film . Two EIS videographers waited several weeks in a small tent overlooking the glacier , and were finally able to witness 7.4 km3 of ice crashing off the glacier . `` The calving of a massive glacier believed to have produced the ice that sank the Titanic is like watching a city break apart . ''", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Chasing_Ice", "rank": 27, "score": 154294 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic methane emissions Content: Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas . The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits . Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Arctic_methane_emissions", "rank": 28, "score": 153780 }, { "content": "Title: Pine Island Glacier Content: Pine Island Glacier ( PIG ) is a large ice stream glacier , and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica , responsible for about 25 % of Antarctica 's ice loss . The glacier ice streams flow west-northwest along the south side of the Hudson Mountains into Pine Island Bay , Amundsen Sea , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and United States Navy ( USN ) air photos , 1960 -- 66 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in association with Pine Island Bay . The area drained by Pine Island Glacier comprises about 10 % of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Satellite measurements have shown that the Pine Island Glacier Basin has a greater net contribution of ice to the sea than any other ice drainage basin in the world and this has increased due to recent acceleration of the ice stream . The ice stream is extremely remote , with the nearest continually occupied research station at Rothera , nearly 1300 km away . The area is not claimed by any nations and the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any new claims while it is in force .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Pine_Island_Glacier", "rank": 29, "score": 151461 }, { "content": "Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe", "rank": 30, "score": 150713 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-sheet model Content: In climate modelling , Ice-sheet models use numerical methods to simulate the evolution , dynamics and thermodynamics of ice sheets , such as the Greenland ice sheet , the Antarctic ice sheet or the large ice sheets on the northern hemisphere during the last glacial period . They are used for a variety of purposes , from studies of the glaciation of Earth over glacial -- interglacial cycles in the past to projections of ice-sheet decay under future global warming conditions .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Ice-sheet_model", "rank": 31, "score": 150231 }, { "content": "Title: ANDRILL Content: ANDRILL ( ANtarctic DRILLing Project ) is a scientific drilling project in Antarctica gathering information about past periods of global warming and cooling . The project involves scientists from Germany , Italy , New Zealand , and the United States . At two sites in 2006 and 2007 , ANDRILL team members drilled through ice , seawater , sediment and rock to a depth over more than 1,200 m and recovered a virtually continuous core record from the present to nearly 20 million years ago . The project is based at McMurdo Station in Antarctica . In studying the cores , ANDRILL scientists from various disciplines are gathering detailed information about past periods of global warming and cooling . A major goal of the project is to significantly improve the understanding of Antarctica 's impact on the world 's oceans currents and the atmosphere by reconstructing the behavior of Antarctic sea-ice , ice-shelves , glaciers and sea currents over tens of millions of years . Initial results imply rapid changes and dramatically different climates at various times on the southernmost continent.Quirin Scheirmeier , `` Sediment cores reveal Antarctica 's warmer past , '' Nature News , April 24 , 2008 . The $ 30 million project has achieved its operational goal of retrieving a continuous core record of the last 17 million years , filling crucial gaps left by previous drilling projects . Making use of knowledge gained through prior Antarctic drilling projects , ANDRILL employed novel techniques to reach record depths at its two drilling sites . Among the innovations deployed were a hot-water drilling system that allowed for easier ice-boring and a flexible drill pipe that could accommodate tidal oscillations and strong currents . On December 16 , 2006 , ANDRILL broke the previous record of 999.1 m set in 2000 by the Ocean Drilling Program 's drill ship , the Joides Resolution . The Antarctic-record 1285 m of core ANDRILL went on to recover represents geologic time to about 13 million years ago . In 2007 , drilling at the Southern McMurdo Sound , ANDRILL scientists recovered another 1138 meters ( 3733.6 ft ) of core . One goal in 2006 was to look at a period of around 3 to 5 million years ago in the Pliocene , which scientists know to be warmer . The team 's sedimentologists identified more than 60 cycles in which ice sheets or glaciers advanced and retreated across McMurdo Sound .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "ANDRILL", "rank": 32, "score": 149662 }, { "content": "Title: Kendrick Taylor Content: Kendrick Cashman Taylor , Jr. is a climate change researcher working with ice cores in Greenland and Antarctica . While a Research Professor at the Desert Research Institute in Reno , Nevada , he was the Chief Scientist for the Siple Dome and WAIS Divide ice core projects in Antarctica . He has also done work on near shore clarity at Lake Tahoe and teaching World Vision how to use geophysics to find favorable locations for shallow water wells in West Africa . His ResearcherID is A-3469-2016 and ORCID is 0000-0001-8535-1261 . Kendrick Cashman Taylor , Sr. ( 1922 -- 1995 ) was an engineer who specialized in vacuum metallurgy , especially related to depositing thin films on mylar . He is listed as the inventor on the follow U.S.A. patents : US3185565 , US3314826 , US3278331 , US3326177 , US3601179 , US3215423 , US3330900 , US3180633 , US3554268 , US3235243 .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Kendrick_Taylor", "rank": 33, "score": 149301 }, { "content": "Title: Ice calving Content: Ice calving , also known as glacier calving or iceberg calving , is the breaking of ice chunks from the edge of a glacier . It is a form of ice ablation or ice disruption and is normally caused by the glacier expanding . It is the sudden release and breaking away of a mass of ice from a glacier , iceberg , ice front , ice shelf , or crevasse . The ice that breaks away can be classified as an iceberg , but may also be a growler , bergy bit , or a crevasse wall breakaway . Calving of glaciers is often accompanied by a loud cracking or booming sound before blocks of ice up to 60 m high break loose and crash into the water . The entry of the ice into the water causes large , and often hazardous waves . The waves formed in locations like Johns Hopkins Glacier can be so large that boats can not approach closer than 3 km . These events have become major tourist attractions in locations such as Alaska . Many glaciers terminate at oceans or freshwater lakes which results naturally with the calving of large numbers of icebergs . Calving of Greenland 's glaciers produce 12,000 to 15,000 icebergs each year alone . Calving of ice shelves is usually preceded by a rift . These events are not often observed . Etymologically , calving is cognatic with calving as in bearing a calf .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Ice_calving", "rank": 34, "score": 148637 }, { "content": "Title: Ice core Content: An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet , most commonly from the polar ice caps of Antarctica , Greenland or from high mountain glaciers elsewhere . As the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow , lower layers are older than upper , and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years . The properties of the ice and the recrystallized inclusions within the ice can then be used to reconstruct a climatic record over the age range of the core , normally through isotopic analysis . This enables the reconstruction of local temperature records and the history of atmospheric composition . Ice cores contain an abundance of information about climate . Inclusions in the snow of each year remain in the ice , such as wind-blown dust , ash , pollen , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . The length of the record depends on the depth of the ice core and varies from a few years up to 800 kyr ( 800,000 years ) for the EPICA core . The time resolution ( i.e. the shortest time period which can be accurately distinguished ) depends on the amount of annual snowfall , and reduces with depth as the ice compacts under the weight of layers accumulating on top of it . Upper layers of ice in a core correspond to a single year or sometimes a single season . Deeper into the ice the layers thin and annual layers become indistinguishable . An ice core from the right site can be used to reconstruct an uninterrupted and detailed climate record extending over hundreds of thousands of years , providing information on a wide variety of aspects of climate at each point in time . It is the simultaneity of these properties recorded in the ice that makes ice cores such a powerful tool in paleoclimate research .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Ice_core", "rank": 35, "score": 148519 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback", "rank": 36, "score": 147980 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Antarctica", "rank": 37, "score": 147907 }, { "content": "Title: Jøkulkyrkja Mountain Content: Jøkulkyrkja Mountain ( `` the Glacier Church '' ) , also known as Massiv Yakova Gakkelya , is a broad , ice-topped mountain with several radial rock spurs , standing east of Lunde Glacier in the Mühlig-Hofmann Mountains of Queen Maud Land , East Antarctica . At 3148 m elevation , it is the highest elevation in Queen Maud Land , and also the highest elevation within the claims of Norway . The mountain is located on the Princess Astrid Coast of the Norwegian Antarctic Territory . Håhellerskarvet ( `` shark cave mountain '' ) , 2910 m , is located to the southwest ; the two peaks are separated by the 25-mile-long Lunde Glacier , which flows to the northwest .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Jøkulkyrkja_Mountain", "rank": 38, "score": 147657 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-sheet dynamics Content: Ice sheet dynamics describe the motion within large bodies of ice , such those currently on Greenland and Antarctica . Ice motion is dominated by the movement of glaciers , whose gravity-driven activity is controlled by two main variable factors : the temperature and strength of their bases . A number of processes alter these two factors , resulting in cyclic surges of activity interspersed with longer periods of inactivity , on both hourly and centennial time scales . Ice-sheet dynamics are of interest in modelling future sea level rise . __ TOC __", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Ice-sheet_dynamics", "rank": 39, "score": 147232 }, { "content": "Title: North Ice Content: North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "North_Ice", "rank": 40, "score": 146877 }, { "content": "Title: Fahnestock Glacier Content: Fahnestock Glacier is a glacier about 30 nmi long draining to the Sulzberger Ice Shelf . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Mark A. Fahnestock , a faculty member of the University of New Hampshire , who was a field and theoretical researcher in Greenland and in the West Antarctic Ice Stream area from the 1980s onwards .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Fahnestock_Glacier", "rank": 41, "score": 146784 }, { "content": "Title: Hans Tausen Iskappe Content: Hans Tausen Iskappe is an ice cap in northern Greenland . It is about 75 km from north to south and 50 km from east to west and sits on a 1000 m high plateau . Ice cores show it is around 3500 -- 4000 years old . It formed since the Holocene climatic optimum of 6000-8000 BP . It is the source of many glaciers , including Ymer Gletscher , Lurgletscher and the Tjalfe Gletscher . It is a well studied ice cap , and is important to understanding the last Climactic Optimum . ( Holocene climatic optimum )", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Hans_Tausen_Iskappe", "rank": 42, "score": 146367 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland ice core project Content: The Greenland Ice Core Project ( GRIP ) was a multinational European research project , organized through the European Science Foundation . Funding came from 8 nations ( Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Iceland , Italy , Switzerland , and United Kingdom ) , and from the European Union . The project ran from 1989 to 1995 , with drilling seasons from 1990 to 1992 . GRIP successfully drilled a 3029-metre ice core to the bed of the Greenland ice sheet at Summit , Central Greenland from 1989 to 1992 at . Studies of isotopes and various atmospheric constituents in the core have revealed a detailed record of climatic variations reaching more than 100,000 years back in time . The results indicate that Holocene climate has been remarkably stable and have confirmed the occurrence of rapid climatic variation during the last ice age ( the Wisconsin ) . Delta-O-18 variations observed in the core part believed to date from the Eemian Stage have not been confirmed by other records including the NGRIP core and are now believed not to represent climate events : the interglacial climate of Eemian Stage appears to have been as stable as the Holocene .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Greenland_ice_core_project", "rank": 43, "score": 145167 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 44, "score": 145102 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment", "rank": 45, "score": 144888 }, { "content": "Title: Zachariae Isstrom Content: Zachariae Isstrom ( Zachariæ Isstrøm Isstrøm being the Danish word for ice stream ) is a large glacier located in King Frederick VIII Land , northeast Greenland .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Zachariae_Isstrom", "rank": 46, "score": 144388 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Antarctic_sea_ice", "rank": 47, "score": 143863 }, { "content": "Title: Joughin Glacier Content: Joughin Glacier is a glacier east of the Watson Peaks , flowing southeast into Wright Inlet on the Lassiter Coast . Named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2008 after Ian Joughin , an electrical engineer who pioneered the use of interferometric synthetic aperture radar to estimate surface motion and topography of ice sheets both in Antarctica and Greenland . He has used remote sensing , field work , and modeling to study ice dynamics since the early 1990s .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Joughin_Glacier", "rank": 48, "score": 143752 }, { "content": "Title: Poverty in the Arctic Content: The Arctic is a vast polar region comprising the northern most parts of Canada , Norway , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Sweden , Finland , the United States ( Alaska ) , Iceland and Russia . In recent years , the Arctic has been at the forefront of political and social issues . Several matters have risen surrounding the issues of poverty and global warming and their effects on indigenous people in this region . Indigenous people in the Arctic statistically fall below their nation 's poverty line . Indigenous populations that were once largely self-sufficient and relatively food secure in the Arctic 's harsh environment are today struggling to sustain themselves as a result of poverty and also the impacts of climate change . Currently , they are facing an overwhelming amount of issues in relation to poverty including cultural loss , high rates of chronic illness and chronic disease , mental health disorders , lack of basic health needs and housing shortages . In Canada 's arctic region , for example , infant mortality rate is 3.5 times higher than the national rate while life expectancy is 12 years lower . In Greenland , life expectancy is 70 years for women and 65 years for men whereas in Denmark life expectancy for women is 80.59 and 75.8 for men . Specifically , in the territory of Nunavut , unemployment rates range from 15 to 72 % . In 2010 , 9.9 % of Alaskan households fell below their respective poverty thresholds .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Poverty_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 49, "score": 143004 }, { "content": "Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Ice_age", "rank": 50, "score": 142722 }, { "content": "Title: Echelmeyer Ice Stream Content: The Echelmeyer Ice Stream , formerly known as Ice Stream F , is a glaciological feature of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . It is an ice stream flowing west to the Shirase Coast to the north of the MacAyeal Ice Stream , and is one of several major ice streams draining from Marie Byrd Land into the Ross Ice Shelf . The ice streams were investigated and mapped by U.S. Antarctic Research Program personnel in a number of field seasons from 1983 -- 84 and originally named Ice Stream A , B , C , etc. , according to their position from south to north . The name was changed from Ice Stream F by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2002 to honor Dr. Keith A. Echelmeyer of the Geophysical Institute , University of Alaska , Fairbanks , who studied the flow of Marie Byrd Land ice streams , 1992 -- 93 and 1994 -- 95 , as well as the fast flow of surging glaciers in Alaska and Greenland . Dr. Echelmeyer was a student of Barclay Kamb for whom Kamb Ice Stream is named .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Echelmeyer_Ice_Stream", "rank": 51, "score": 142250 }, { "content": "Title: Jakobshavn Glacier Content: Jakobshavn Glacier , also known as Sermeq Kujalleq ( in Greenlandic ) and the Jakobshavn Isbræ ( in Danish ) , is a large outlet glacier in West Greenland . It is located near the Greenlandic town of Ilulissat ( Jakobshavn ) and ends at the sea in the Ilulissat Icefjord . Jakobshavn Glacier drains 6.5 % of the Greenland ice sheet and produces around 10 % of all Greenland icebergs . Some 35 billion tonnes of icebergs calve off and pass out of the fjord every year . Icebergs breaking from the glacier are often so large ( up to a kilometer in height ) that they are too tall to float down the fjord and lie stuck on the bottom of its shallower areas , sometimes for years , until they are broken up by the force of the glacier and icebergs further up the fjord . Studied for over 250 years , Jakobshavn Glacier has helped develop our understanding of climate change and icecap glaciology . Ilulissat Icefjord ( Ilulissat Kangerlua ) was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004 .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Jakobshavn_Glacier", "rank": 52, "score": 141772 }, { "content": "Title: West Greenland Current Content: The West Greenland Current is a weak cold water current that flows to the north along the west coast of Greenland . The current results from the movement of water flowing around the southernmost point of Greenland caused by the East Greenland Current . According to Lloyd et al. , 2007 , the WGC is a WARM current connected to a broader scale North Atlantic climate via the combined influences of Atlantic water from the Irminger Current ( IC ) and polar water from the East Greenland Current . Paleoclimatology records derived from foraminifera abundance show that periodic influxes of warm subsurface temperatures and near-bottom temperatures occurred throughout the Late Holocene epoch , particularly during the Holocene climatic optimum . The increased flow from the nearby East Greenland Current was associated with increased glacial iceberg calving from the large Jakobshavn Isbrae glacial outlet within the western Greenland Ice Sheet , causing rapid melting and destabilization events . Following the Neoglaciation , the Jakobshavn outlet formed a floating ice tongue around 2000 years before present .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "West_Greenland_Current", "rank": 53, "score": 141448 }, { "content": "Title: Jøkulfallet Content: Jøkulfallet is a steep ice slope on the north side of Jokulkyrkja Mountain in the Mühlig-Hofmann Mountains of Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . It was plotted from surveys and air photos by the Sixth Norwegian Antarctic Expedition ( 1956 -- 60 ) and named Jøkulfallet ( the glacier fall ) .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Jøkulfallet", "rank": 54, "score": 141199 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 55, "score": 141197 }, { "content": "Title: Hutchinson Glacier Content: The Hutchinson Glacier ( Hutchinson Gletscher ) is a large active glacier on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet . This glacier was named after American aviator George R. Hutchinson who crash-landed and was stranded in the area in 1932 during an attempted around-the-world flight with his family and was rescued and brought to Ammasalik by a fishing trawler .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Hutchinson_Glacier", "rank": 56, "score": 140837 }, { "content": "Title: Ice and the Sky Content: Ice and the Sky ( La Glace et le ciel , also known as Antarctica : Ice and Sky ) is a 2015 French documentary film directed by Luc Jacquet about the work of Claude Lorius , who began studying Antarctic ice in 1957 , and , in 1965 , was the first scientist to be concerned about global warming . The film was selected to close the 2015 Cannes Film Festival .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Ice_and_the_Sky", "rank": 57, "score": 140476 }, { "content": "Title: Harald Moltke Glacier Content: The Harald Moltke Glacier is located in the far northwest of Greenland , to the north of the Thule Air Base . It is one of four large glaciers which feeds the Wolstenholme Fjord ( sometimes referred to as `` the world 's largest ice machine '' ) . The other glaciers are the Salisbury Glacier , the Chamberlin Glacier , and the Knud Rasmussen Glacier . The Harald Moltke Glacier is over 5 km in length and is approximately 1500 m in width .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Harald_Moltke_Glacier", "rank": 58, "score": 140085 }, { "content": "Title: Nioghalvfjerdsbrae Content: Nioghalvfjerdsbrae , sometimes referred to as `` 79 N Glacier '' , is a large glacier located in northeast Greenland . It drains an area of 103,314 km2 of the Greenland Ice Sheet with a flux ( quantity of ice moved from the land to the sea ) of 14.3 km3 per year , as measured for 1996 .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Nioghalvfjerdsbrae", "rank": 59, "score": 139961 }, { "content": "Title: Waltershausen Glacier Content: Waltershausen Glacier ( Waltershausen Gletscher ) is one of the major glaciers in Greenland . It has its terminus on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet . This glacier was named after German geologist Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen by the Second German North Polar Expedition led by Carl Koldewey that first surveyed and partially explored the Kaiser Franz Joseph Fjord in 1869 -- 70 .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Waltershausen_Glacier", "rank": 60, "score": 139788 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Ocean Conference Content: The inaugural Arctic Ocean Conference was held in Ilulissat , Greenland May 27 -- May 29 , 2008 . Five countries , Canada , Denmark , Norway , Russia and the United States , discussed key issues relating to the Arctic Ocean . The meeting was significant because of its plans for environmental regulation , maritime security , mineral exploration , polar oil oversight , and transportation . Before the conclusion of the conference , the attendees announced the Ilulissat Declaration . The conference was the first ever held at the ministerial level that included the five regional powers . It came at the invitation of Per Stig Møller , Denmark 's Foreign Minister , and Hans Enoksen , Greenlandic Premier in 2007 after several territorial disputes in the Arctic . States Møller , `` We must continue to fulfill our obligations in the Arctic area until the UN decides who will have the right to the sea and the resources in the region . We must agree on the rules and what to do if climate changes make more shipping possible . '' `` We need to send a common political signal to both our own populations and the rest of the world that the five coastal states will address the opportunities and challenges in a responsible manner . '' Ilulissat 's melting glacier was an appropriate backdrop for the landmark conference . The key ministry level attendees were : Canada : Gary Lunn , Canadian Minister for Nature Resources Denmark : Per Stig Møller ; Hans Enoksen Norway : Jonas Gahr Støre , Norwegian Minister for Foreign Affairs Russia : Sergey Lavrov , Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs United States : John D. Negroponte , Deputy Secretary of State", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Arctic_Ocean_Conference", "rank": 61, "score": 139343 }, { "content": "Title: Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica Content: The Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica is a research program consisting of two overland traverses of East Antarctica : the first from the Norwegian Troll Station to the South Pole in the 2007/2008 season ; and a return traverse via a different route in 2008/2009 . The main research focus of the program is climate change , the stated goals being to : Investigate climate variability in Dronning Maud Land of East Antarctica on time scales of years to a thousand years . Establish spatial and temporal variability in snow accumulation over this area of Antarctica to understand its impact on sea level . Investigate the impact of atmospheric and oceanic variability on the chemical composition of firn and ice in the region . Revisit areas and sites first explored by traverses in the 1960s , for detection of possible changes and to establish benchmark data sets for future research efforts . The program is part of Trans-Antarctic Scientific Traverse Expeditions -- Ice Divide of East Antarctica ( TASTE-IDEA ) , and the International Partners in Ice Coring Sciences ( IPICS ) , both of which have ISCU-WMO endorsement for the International Polar Year 2007-2009 .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Norwegian-U.S._Scientific_Traverse_of_East_Antarctica", "rank": 62, "score": 139099 }, { "content": "Title: Knud Rasmussen Glacier Content: The Knud Rasmussen Glacier is located in the far northwest of Greenland , to the north of the Thule Air Base . It is one of four large glaciers which feeds the Wolstenholme Fjord ( sometimes referred to as `` the world 's largest ice machine '' ) . The other glaciers are the Salisbury Glacier , the Chamberlin Glacier , and the Harald Moltke Glacier . The Knud Rasmussen Glacier is over 3 km in length and is approximately 900 m in width .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Knud_Rasmussen_Glacier", "rank": 63, "score": 138734 }, { "content": "Title: Polar see-saw Content: The polar see-saw ( also : Bipolar seesaw ) is the phenomenon that temperature changes in the northern and southern hemispheres may be out of phase . The theory ( or hypothesis ) states that large changes , f.e. when the glaciers are intensely growing or depleting , in the formation of ocean bottom water in both poles take a long time to exert their effect in the other hemisphere . Estimates of the period of delay vary , one typical estimate is 1500 years . This is usually studied in the context of ice-cores taken from Antarctica and Greenland .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Polar_see-saw", "rank": 64, "score": 138632 }, { "content": "Title: Dye 3 Content: Dye 3 is an ice core site and previously part of the Distant Early Warning ( DEW ) line , located at ( , 2480 masl ) in Greenland . As a DEW line base , it was disbanded in years 1990/1991 . An ice core is a core sample from the accumulation of snow and ice that has re-crystallized and trapped air bubbles over many years . The composition of these ice cores , especially the presence of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes , provides a picture of the climate at the time . Ice cores contain an abundance of climate information . Inclusions in the snow , such as wind-blown dust , ash , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances , remain in the ice . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . Typical ice cores are removed from an ice sheet such as the ice cap internal to Greenland . Greenland is , by area , the world 's largest island . The Greenland ice sheet covers about 1.71 million km2 and contains about 2.6 million km3 of ice .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Dye_3", "rank": 65, "score": 138521 }, { "content": "Title: Petermann Glacier Content: Petermann Glacier is a large glacier located in North-West Greenland to the east of Nares Strait . It connects the Greenland ice sheet to the Arctic Ocean near 81 degrees north latitude . It is named after the German cartographer August Heinrich Petermann", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Petermann_Glacier", "rank": 66, "score": 136912 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 67, "score": 136906 }, { "content": "Title: GROVER Content: GROVER or Goddard Remotely Operated Vehicle for Exploration and Research is an Earth-bound autonomous student-designed rover developed by the Goddard Space Flight Center . With this solar-powered rover , scientists hope to get cheaper data about the Greenland ice sheet that lies in a rapidly warming region . The test drive started in Summit Camp in Greenland on a three kilometer thick ice sheet , which is the highest spot on the largest island of the World . The science team is led by the glaciologist Lora Koenig from NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , Md. . The test began on 3 May 2013 at temperatures as low as -30 ° C and is planned to continue till 8 June 2013 .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "GROVER", "rank": 68, "score": 136379 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Content: The Arctic ( -LSB- ˈɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth . The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean , adjacent seas , and parts of Alaska ( United States ) , Canada , Finland , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Iceland , Norway , Russia and Sweden . Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover , with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places . The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems . For example , the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions . In recent years , Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming . Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice , zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds , land animals , plants and human societies . Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Arctic", "rank": 69, "score": 136279 }, { "content": "Title: K.J.V. Steenstrup Glacier Content: K.J.V. Steenstrup Glacier is one of the major glaciers in King Christian IX Land , by the eastern coast of Greenland , Sermersooq municipality . This ice formation includes two nearly parallel glaciers , the Northern K.J.V. Steenstrup Glacier ( K.I.V. Steenstrups Nordre Bræ ) and the Southern K.J.V. Steenstrup Glacier ( K.I.V. Steenstrups Søndre Bræ ) . These glaciers were named after Danish geologist and explorer of Greenland K. J. V. Steenstrup ( 1842 - 1913 ) .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "K.J.V._Steenstrup_Glacier", "rank": 70, "score": 136035 }, { "content": "Title: Upsala Glacier Content: The Upsala Glacier is a large valley glacier in Argentina 's Los Glaciares National Park . It flows from the Southern Patagonian Ice Field , feeding the nearby Perito Moreno Glacier . The glacier terminus is at Lago Argentino . The Upsala Glacier is well known for its rapid retreat , which many see as evidence for global warming . The name comes from the old spelling with one p of Uppsala University , which sponsored the first glaciological studies in the area . The University is located in Uppsala , Sweden . The glacier showed almost continual recession up until 1999 . The acceleration in ice motion during the two decades preceding 1999 may have been augmented by the release of backstress when the glacier retreated beyond the islands in Brazo Upsala . Another period of even faster retreat started in 2008 .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Upsala_Glacier", "rank": 71, "score": 135657 }, { "content": "Title: Jutulstraumen Glacier Content: Jutulstraumen Glacier is a large glacier in Queen Maud Land , Antarctica , about 120 nmi long , draining northward to the Fimbul Ice Shelf between the Kirwan Escarpment , Borg Massif and Ahlmann Ridge on the west and the Sverdrup Mountains on the east . It was mapped by Norwegian cartographers from surveys and air photos by the Norwegian -- British -- Swedish Antarctic Expedition ( 1949 -- 52 ) and air photos by the Norwegian expedition ( 1958 -- 59 ) and named Jutulstraumen ( the giant 's stream ) . More specifically jutulen are troll-like figures from Norwegian folk tales . The ice stream reaches speeds of around 4 metres per day near the coast where it is heavily crevassed .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Jutulstraumen_Glacier", "rank": 72, "score": 135463 }, { "content": "Title: Kuivinen Ridge Content: Kuivinen Ridge is a transverse ridge extending southwest-northeast across the Saint Johns Range between an unnamed glacier and the Ringer Glacier in Victoria Land . The ridge is 5 nmi long and rises to 1750 m at Lanyon Peak . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2005 after ice coring specialist Karl C. Kuivinen , University of Nebraska-Lincoln ( UNL ) , 1974-2003 ; Field Operations Manager , Ross Ice Shelf Project Management Office , UNL , for the 1974-1978 season ; Director , Polar Ice Coring Office , UNL , 1979-1989 and 1994-2001 ; 15 summer field seasons in Antarctica , between 1968 and 2000 ; and 24 summer field seasons in Greenland and Alaska between 1974-99 .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Kuivinen_Ridge", "rank": 73, "score": 135111 }, { "content": "Title: Ferrigno Ice Stream Content: Ferrigno Ice Stream is an ice Stream more than 15 nmi long flowing into Eltanin Bay southwest of Wirth Peninsula , Antarctica . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Jane G. Ferrigno of the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) . Ferrigno has been a specialist for some decades from the 1970s in the use of satellite imagery for glacier studies and map compilation , co-leader of the USGS team that compiled the 1:5,000,000 - scale radiometer maps of Antarctica , and task leader of the team that is compiling 25 glaciological and coastal-change maps of Antarctica . Beneath the glacier lies the Ferrigno Rift , a rift valley some 1.5 km deep , 10 km wide , and at least 100 km long . The rift valley was discovered using ice-penetrating radar during a survey of the glacier in 2010 by a team from the British Antarctic Survey and the University of Aberdeen investigating ice-melt on the glacier that had been measured using satellites . The ice-filled rift valley is connected to the ocean and is believed to impact ice loss on the West Antarctic Ice Sheet .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Ferrigno_Ice_Stream", "rank": 74, "score": 134947 }, { "content": "Title: Bredebrae Content: Bredebrae ( Bredebræ `` Broad Glacier '' ) , sometimes also known as `` Brede Glacier '' , is a large glacier in northeastern Greenland . It has its terminus on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Bredebrae", "rank": 75, "score": 134591 }, { "content": "Title: Axel Heiberg Glacier Content: The Axel Heiberg Glacier in Antarctica is a valley glacier , 48 km long , descending from the high elevations of the Antarctic Plateau into the Ross Ice Shelf ( nearly at sea level ) between the Herbert Range and Mount Don Pedro Christophersen in the Queen Maud Mountains . This huge glacier was discovered in November 1911 by the Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen , and named by him for Axel Heiberg , a Norwegian businessman and patron of science who contributed to numerous Norwegian polar expeditions . Amundsen used this glacier as his route up onto the polar plateau during his successful expedition to the South Pole . Unlike the big `` outlet '' glaciers such as the Beardmore , Shackleton and Liv , the Axel Heiberg is in effect an alpine glacier , cut off from the Plateau by a dolerite rim and fed entirely from the uncharacteristically heavy snow falling within its own catchment . It falls over 9,000 ft in only 20 mi , most of it over just 7 mi .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Axel_Heiberg_Glacier", "rank": 76, "score": 134558 }, { "content": "Title: South Ice Content: South Ice was a British support base 560 km from the South Pole at 82 ° 05 'S , 30 ° 00 ' W in Edith Ronne Land , Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year , established by Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition , where three men overwintered during the Antarctic winter of 1957 . In the same winter , men overwintered for the first time at the South Pole . The name of the station contrasts to North Ice which was a British research station in Greenland .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "South_Ice", "rank": 77, "score": 134419 }, { "content": "Title: Frederikshaab Glacier Content: Frederikshaab Glacier is a glacier on the southwest coast of Greenland in the Sermersooq municipality . It flows from Greenland 's ice sheet and at its mouth melts into various ponds and channels that empty into Davis Strait . The nearest major town is Paamiut , roughly 110 km to the south , although some smaller settlements are closer . Category : Glaciers of Greenland", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Frederikshaab_Glacier", "rank": 78, "score": 133965 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 79, "score": 133507 }, { "content": "Title: Akuliarutsip Sermerssua Content: Akuliarutsip Sermerssua , also known as Nordenskiold Glacier , ( Nordenskiöld Gletscher ) , is a large glacier located on the east coast of Greenland .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Akuliarutsip_Sermerssua", "rank": 80, "score": 133371 }, { "content": "Title: Wordie Glacier Content: Wordie Glacier ( Wordie Gletscher ) is a glacier in northeastern Greenland . It has its terminus on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet . This glacier was named after Scottish polar explorer James Wordie ( 1890 -- 1962 ) by the 1926 -- 27 expedition led by Lauge Koch .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Wordie_Glacier", "rank": 81, "score": 133290 }, { "content": "Title: Sermitsiaq Glacier Content: Sermitsiaq Glacier is a tidewater glacier in the Qeqqata municipality in western Greenland . It drains Maniitsoq ice cap into two fjords flowing towards Davis Strait : Kangaamiut Kangerluarsuat Fjord in the north , and the longer Kangerlussuatsiaq Fjord in the south .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Sermitsiaq_Glacier", "rank": 82, "score": 132890 }, { "content": "Title: Storstrommen (Greenland) Content: Storstrommen ( Storstrømmen `` Large Stream '' ) , is one of the major glaciers in northeastern Greenland . It was named Storstrømmen because of its size by the ill-fated 1906 -- 08 Denmark Expedition ( Danmark-Ekspeditionen ) led by Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Storstrommen_(Greenland)", "rank": 83, "score": 132597 }, { "content": "Title: Russell Glacier (Greenland) Content: Russell Glacier ( Russells Gletscher ) is a glacier in the Qeqqata municipality in central-western Greenland . It flows from the Greenland ice sheet ( Sermersuaq ) in the western direction . The front of the glacier is located 25 km east of Kangerlussuaq . It is active , advancing 25 m every year , and due to easy approach it remains a popular tourist target .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Russell_Glacier_(Greenland)", "rank": 84, "score": 132247 }, { "content": "Title: Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Content: Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf is an ice shelf about 250 miles ( 400 km ) long on the coast of Queen Maud Land , extending from Cape Norvegia in the north to Lyddan Island and Stancomb-Wills Glacier in the south . Parts of the ice shelf were sighted by William Speirs Bruce in 1904 , Ernest Shackleton in 1915 , and Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen in 1930 . Most of it was photographed from the air in 1951-52 by the Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition ( NBSAE ) and delineated from these photos . Additional delineation of the southern and landward margins of the feature was accomplished from air photos taken , by USN Operation Deep Freeze from 1967 to 1969 . The feature was named by Norway for Capt. Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen , who explored the area in the late 1920s and early 1930s .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Riiser-Larsen_Ice_Shelf", "rank": 85, "score": 132048 }, { "content": "Title: Robert Bindschadler Content: Dr. Robert Bindschadler is a senior fellow at NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center and has been an active field researcher in the Antarctic for over 25 years . He is a past president of the International Glaciological Society , chairs the West Antarctic Ice Sheet Initiative , is an editor for the Journal of Glaciology and has led 14 expeditions to Antarctica and has participated in numerous other expeditions around the world including Greenland . He has also testified before Congress and has briefed the U.S. vice president concerning ice-sheet stability and is often quoted or featured in the media . He was born in Pittsburgh and received a B.S. in astronomy and physics in 1971 from the University of Michigan and earned his Ph.D in Geophysics from the University of Washington in 1978 and did post doctoral work in Switzerland prior to working at NASA . His work revolves around the dynamics of glaciers and ice sheets using remote sensing technology . He has developed applications used to measure ice velocity and elevation using radar imagery which monitors the melting of ice sheets and detects changes in the volume of ice-sheets using radar altimetry . He has received numerous awards including Exceptional scientific achievement by NASA in 1994 as well as the Goddard Senior fellow in 2000 .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Robert_Bindschadler", "rank": 86, "score": 131781 }, { "content": "Title: Eismitte Content: Eismitte , in English also called Mid-Ice , was the site of an Arctic expedition in the interior of Greenland that took place from July 1930 through August 1931 , and claimed the life of noted German scientist Alfred Wegener . The name `` Eismitte '' means Ice-Center in German , and the campsite was located 402 km from the coast at an estimated altitude of 3,000 meters ( 9,843 feet ) . The coldest temperature recorded during the expedition was − 64.9 ° C ( − 85 ° F ) , while the warmest temperature noted was − 2.8 ° C ( 27 ° F ) . For the 12-month period beginning September 1 , 1930 and ending August 31 , 1931 , the warmest month , July , had a mean monthly temperature of − 12.2 ° C ( 10 ° F ) , while the coldest month , February , averaged − 47.2 ° C ( − 53 ° F ) . Over the same period a total of 110 millimeters ( 4.33 inches ) of water-equivalent precipitation was recorded , with most of it , rather surprisingly , being received in winter . At the latitude of the camp , the sun does not set between May 13 and July 30 each year , and does not rise between November 23 and January 20 .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Eismitte", "rank": 87, "score": 131748 }, { "content": "Title: Massam Glacier Content: Massam Glacier is a glacier , 11 nmi long , flowing north between the Waldron Spurs and Longhorn Spurs to enter the Ross Ice Shelf , Antarctica , just east of the mouth of Shackleton Glacier . It was named by the Southern Party of the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition ( 1963 -- 64 ) for D. Massam , a member of that party .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Massam_Glacier", "rank": 88, "score": 131686 }, { "content": "Title: Priddy Glacier Content: Priddy Glacier is a glacier , 2 nautical miles ( 3.7 km ) long , on the west side of Esser Hill , flowing northwest to join Hobbs Glacier , on Scott Coast , Victoria Land . Named in 1992 by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) after Allan R. Priddy of Holmes and Narver , Inc. , who experienced one winter above 76 in Greenland and one below 76 at McMurdo Station , as well as several summer seasons in Antarctica from 1969-91 . He was construction foreman at four geological field camps and for four summer seasons at South Pole Station , and was a key crew member in the building of both Siple I and Siple II Stations . Category : Glaciers of Victoria Land Category : Scott Coast", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Priddy_Glacier", "rank": 89, "score": 131683 }, { "content": "Title: Lower Curtis Glacier Content: Lower Curtis Glacier is in North Cascades National Park in the U.S. state of Washington . Named for photographer Asahel Curtis , the glacier is in a cirque on the western slopes of Mount Shuksan . Lower Curtis Glacier is rapidly retreating and has a negative mass balance , meaning that the rate of snow and ice that is falling in the accumulation zone is less than that which is lost each year in the ablation zone . Between 1908 and 1984 , the glacier experienced a loss of thickness by 45 meters ( 147 ft ) . Between 1984 and 2002 , the glacier lost another 6 meters ( 19 ft ) in thickness . Lower Curtis Glacier also lost 28 % of its surface area between the end of the little ice age ( around 1850 ) and 1950 . Between the years 1951 and 1979 , the glacier actually lengthened by 245 meters ( 800 ft ) but has retreated 184 m ( 600 ft ) since 1985 , partly due to the tongue of the glacier being on a steep precipice which may have increased the loss of ice at the termini .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Lower_Curtis_Glacier", "rank": 90, "score": 131648 }, { "content": "Title: Kangerlussuaq Glacier Content: Kangerlussuaq Glacier ( Kangerlussuaq , meaning ` large fjord ' ; old spelling Kangerdlugssuaq ) is the largest glacier on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet . It flows into the head of the Kangerlussuaq Fjord , the second largest fjord in East Greenland .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Kangerlussuaq_Glacier", "rank": 91, "score": 131569 }, { "content": "Title: Flora and fauna of Greenland Content: Although the bulk of its area is covered by ice caps inhospitable to most forms of life , Greenland 's terrain and waters support a wide variety of plant and animal species . The northeastern part of the country is the world 's largest national park . The flora and fauna of Greenland are strongly susceptible to changes associated with climate change . The image galleries below link to information related to the flora and fauna of Greenland , including Latin taxonomy , Danish translations , and links to articles in the Danish Wikipedia , which can be helpful when searching for more information .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Flora_and_fauna_of_Greenland", "rank": 92, "score": 131473 }, { "content": "Title: Williams Ice Stream Content: Williams Ice Stream is an ice stream about fifteen miles ( 24 km ) long flowing into Venable Ice Shelf just east of Fletcher Peninsula . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) after Richard S. Williams , Jr. , senior research geologist , United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , Woods Hole , Massachusetts , authority in aerial and satellite investigations of geomorphic processes and the fluctuations of glaciers on a global basis , particularly in Iceland and Antarctica ; project leader of the team that is compiling 25 Glaciological and Coastal-Change Maps of Antarctica , and that compiled the 1:5,000,000 - scale Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer maps of Antarctica .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Williams_Ice_Stream", "rank": 93, "score": 131044 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland Content: Greenland ( -LSB- ˈɡriːnlənd -RSB- Kalaallit Nunaat -LSB- kaˈlaːɬit ˈnunaːt -RSB- Grønland -LSB- ˈɡ̊ʁɶnˌlanˀ -RSB- ) is an autonomous constituent country within the Kingdom of Denmark between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans , east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago . Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America , Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe ( specifically Norway and Denmark , the colonial powers , as well as the nearby island of Iceland ) for more than a millennium . The majority of its residents are Inuit , whose ancestors began migrating from the Canadian mainland in the 13th century , gradually settling across the island . Greenland is the world 's largest island ( Australia , although larger , is generally considered to be a continental landmass rather than an island ) . Three-quarters of Greenland is covered by the only permanent ice sheet outside Antarctica . With a population of about 56,480 ( 2013 ) , it is the least densely populated country in the world . The Arctic Umiaq Line ferry acts as a lifeline for western Greenland , connecting the various cities and settlements . Greenland has been inhabited off and on for at least the last 4,500 years by Arctic peoples whose forebears migrated there from what is now Canada . Norsemen settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century , and Inuit peoples arrived in the 13th century . The Norse colonies disappeared in the late 15th century . Soon after their demise , beginning in 1499 , the Portuguese briefly explored and claimed the island , naming it Terra do Lavrador ( later applied to Labrador in Canada ) . In the early 18th century , Scandinavian explorers reached Greenland again . To strengthen trading and power , Denmark-Norway affirmed sovereignty over the island . Denmark -- Norway claimed Greenland for centuries . Greenland was settled by Vikings ( of Norwegian origin ) more than a thousand years ago , who had previously settled Iceland to escape persecution from the King of Norway and his central government . Vikings set sail from Greenland and Iceland , encountering North America nearly 500 years before Columbus reached the Caribbean islands . They attempted to colonize land . Though under continuous influence of Norway and Norwegians , Greenland was not formally under the Norwegian crown until 1262 . The Kingdom of Norway was extensive and a military power until the mid-14th century . Norway was dramatically hit with a larger death toll than Denmark by the Black Death , forcing Norway to accept a union in which the central government , university and other fundamental institutions were located in Copenhagen . Thus , the two kingdoms ' resources were directed at creating Copenhagen . Norway became the weaker part and lost sovereignty over Greenland in 1814 when the union was dissolved . Greenland became a Danish colony in 1814 , and was made a part of the Danish Realm in 1953 under the Constitution of Denmark . In 1973 , Greenland joined the European Economic Community with Denmark . However , in a referendum in 1982 , a majority of the population voted for Greenland to withdraw from the EEC which was effected in 1985 . Greenland contains the world 's largest and most northernly national park , Northeast Greenland National Park ( Kalaallit Nunaanni nuna eqqissisimatitaq ) . Established in 1974 and expanded to its present size in 1988 , it protects 972001 km2 of the interior and northeastern coast of Greenland and is bigger than all but twenty-nine countries in the world . Greenland is divided into four municipalities - Sermersooq , Kujalleq , Qaasuitsup , and Qeqqata . In 1979 , Denmark had granted home rule to Greenland , and in 2008 , Greenlanders voted in favour of the Self-Government Act , which transferred more power from the Danish royal government to the local Greenlandic government . Under the new structure , in effect since 21 June 2009 , Greenland can gradually assume responsibility for policing , judicial system , company law , accounting , and auditing ; mineral resource activities ; aviation ; law of legal capacity , family law and succession law ; aliens and border controls ; the working environment ; and financial regulation and supervision , while the Danish government retains control of foreign affairs and defence . It also retains control of monetary policy , providing an initial annual subsidy of DKK 3.4 billion , which is planned to diminish gradually over time . Greenland expects to grow its economy based on increased income from the extraction of natural resources . The capital , Nuuk , held the 2016 Arctic Winter Games . At 70 % , Greenland has one of the highest shares of renewable energy in the world , mostly coming from hydropower .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Greenland", "rank": 94, "score": 131036 }, { "content": "Title: Salisbury Glacier Content: The Salisbury Glacier is located in the far northwest of Greenland , to the north of the Thule Air Base . It is one of four large glaciers which feeds the Wolstenholme Fjord ( sometimes referred to as `` the world 's largest ice machine '' ) . The other glaciers are the Chamberlin Glacier , the Knud Rasmussen Glacier , and the Harald Moltke Glacier . The Salisbury Glacier is over 3 km in length and is approximately 450 m in width .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Salisbury_Glacier", "rank": 95, "score": 131009 }, { "content": "Title: Christian IV Glacier Content: Christian IV Glacier ( Christian IV Gletscher or Kong Christian den IV 's Gletscher ) is a large glacier on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet . It is named after King Christian IV of Denmark ( 1577 -- 1648 ) . Administratively this glacier is part of the Sermersooq Municipality . The area surrounding Christian IV Glacier is uninhabited .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Christian_IV_Glacier", "rank": 96, "score": 130783 }, { "content": "Title: Helheim Glacier Content: Helheim Glacier is one of Greenland 's largest outlet glaciers and is named after the world of the dead in Norse Mythology . It feeds the waters of the Helheim Fjord , a branch of the Sermilik ( Egede og Rothes Fjord ) system , where there are a number of other glaciers calving and discharging at rapid rates such as the Midgard Glacier .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Helheim_Glacier", "rank": 97, "score": 130619 }, { "content": "Title: West Antarctic Ice Sheet Content: The Western Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) is the segment of the continental ice sheet that covers West ( or Lesser ) Antarctica , the portion of Antarctica on the side of the Transantarctic Mountains which lies in the Western Hemisphere . The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet , meaning that its bed lies well below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves . The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf , the Ronne Ice Shelf , and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea . It is estimated that the volume of the Antarctic ice sheet is about 25.4 million km3 ( 6.1 million cu mi ) , and the WAIS contains just under 10 % of this , or 2.2 million km3 ( 530,000 cu mi ) . The weight of the ice has caused the underlying rock to sink by between 0.5 and 1 kilometres ( 0.31 -- 0.62 mi ) in a process known as isostatic depression . Under the force of its own weight , the ice sheet deforms and flows . The interior ice flows slowly over rough bedrock . In some circumstances , ice can flow faster in ice streams , separated by slow-flowing ice ridges . The inter-stream ridges are frozen to the bed while the bed beneath the ice streams consists of water-saturated sediments . Many of these sediments were deposited before the ice sheet occupied the region , when much of West Antarctica was covered by the ocean . The rapid ice-stream flow is a non-linear process still not fully understood ; streams can start and stop for unclear reasons . When ice reaches the coast , it either calves or continues to flow outward onto the water . The result is a large , floating ice shelf affixed to the continent .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet", "rank": 98, "score": 130602 }, { "content": "Title: List of glaciers in the Antarctic Content: There are many glaciers in the Antarctic . This set of lists does not include ice sheets , ice caps or ice fields , such as the Antarctic ice sheet , but includes glacial features that are defined by their flow , rather than general bodies of ice . The lists include outlet glaciers , valley glaciers , cirque glaciers , tidewater glaciers and ice streams . Ice streams are a type of glacier and many of them have `` glacier '' in their name , e.g. Pine Island Glacier . Ice shelves are listed separately in the List of Antarctic ice shelves . For the purposes of these lists , the Antarctic is defined as any latitude further south than 60 ° ( the continental limit according to the Antarctic Treaty System ) .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "List_of_glaciers_in_the_Antarctic", "rank": 99, "score": 130549 }, { "content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .", "qid": "2894", "docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory", "rank": 100, "score": 130497 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Gravimeter Content: A gravimeter is an instrument used in gravimetry for measuring the local gravitational field of the Earth . A gravimeter is a type of accelerometer , specialized for measuring the constant downward acceleration of gravity , which varies by about 0.5 % over the surface of the Earth . Though the essential principle of design is the same as in other accelerometers , gravimeters are typically designed to be much more sensitive in order to measure very tiny fractional changes within the Earth 's gravity of 1 g , caused by nearby geologic structures or the shape of the Earth and by temporal tidal variations . This sensitivity means that gravimeters are susceptible to extraneous vibrations including noise that tend to cause oscillatory accelerations . In practice this is counteracted by integral vibration isolation and signal processing . The constraints on temporal resolution are usually less for gravimeters , so that resolution can be increased by processing the output with a longer time constant . Gravimeters display their measurements in units of gals ( cm/s2 ) , instead of more common units of acceleration . Gravimeters are used for petroleum and mineral prospecting , seismology , geodesy , geophysical surveys and other geophysical research , and for metrology . There are two types of gravimeters : relative and absolute . Absolute gravimeters measure the local gravity in absolute units , gals . Relative gravimeters compare the value of gravity at one point with another . They must be calibrated at a location where the gravity is known accurately , and then transported to the location where the gravity is to be measured . They measure the ratio of the gravity at the two points .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravimeter", "rank": 1, "score": 188116 }, { "content": "Title: Gravimetry Content: Gravimetry is the measurement of the strength of a gravitational field . Gravimetry may be used when either the magnitude of gravitational field or the properties of matter responsible for its creation are of interest .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravimetry", "rank": 2, "score": 183296 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity gradiometry Content: Gravity gradiometry is the study and measurement of variations in the acceleration due to gravity . The gravity gradient is the spatial rate of change of gravitational acceleration . Gravity gradiometry is used by oil and mineral prospectors to measure the density of the subsurface , effectively the rate of change of rock properties . From this information it is possible to build a picture of subsurface anomalies which can then be used to more accurately target oil , gas and mineral deposits . It is also used to image water column density , when locating submerged objects , or determining water depth ( bathymetry ) . Physical scientists use gravimeters to determine the exact size and shape of the earth and they contribute to the gravity compensations applied to inertial navigation systems .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravity_gradiometry", "rank": 3, "score": 168289 }, { "content": "Title: James E. Faller Content: Dr. James E. Faller is an American physicist and inventor who specializes in the field of Gravity . He conceived the Lunar Laser Ranging Program , that shoots high powered laser beams at special retroreflectors placed on the Moon by Apollo program Astronauts . He invented a Gravity Motion Sensor , called the Absolute Gravimeter that is so sensitive to mass , that it can detect a person walking around it , by his mass . His work has been featured in many books and magazines like National Geographic . In 2001 his Gravity Detector device was featured on the Science Channel on Head Rush and was used to debunk Anti-gravity devices that were for sale on the market . All devices they tested did not produce Gravity or Anti-Gravity . His research interests include geophysics , experimental relativity , fundamental constants , and precision measurement experiments designed to look for possible invalidations of accepted physical laws at some extreme of magnitude . He is currently working on a new measurement of G , the Newtonian constant of gravitation . He currently works for the National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "James_E._Faller", "rank": 4, "score": 143110 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Content: The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment ( GRACE ) , a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center , has been making detailed measurements of Earth 's gravity field anomalies since its launch in March 2002 . By measuring gravity anomalies , GRACE shows how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time . Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth 's ocean , geology , and climate . GRACE is a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas , Austin ; NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , Calif. ; the German Space Agency and Germany 's National Research Center for Geosciences , Potsdam . The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP program . The principal investigator is Dr. Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research , and the co-principal investigator is Dr. Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum ( GFZ ) Potsdam . The GRACE satellites were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome , Russia on a Rockot ( SS-19 + Breeze upper stage ) launch vehicle , on 17 March 2002 . The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89 ° . The satellites are separated by approximately 200 km along their orbit track . GRACE has far exceeded its designed five-year lifespan . the GRACE spacecrafts orbit has decayed by 150 km , and is continuing to decay at 30 km/year . Its successor , GRACE Follow-On , is expected to launch in 2017/18", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment", "rank": 5, "score": 141793 }, { "content": "Title: Gravitometer Content: Gravitometer may refer to : Gravimeter , an instrument for measuring the local gravitational field Hydrometer , referred to in pipeline work as a gravitometer Category : Gravimetry", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravitometer", "rank": 6, "score": 140032 }, { "content": "Title: Gravimetric analysis Content: Gravimetric analysis describes a set of methods used in analytical chemistry for the quantitative determination of an analyte ( the ion being analyzed ) based on its mass . The principle behind this type of analysis is that once an ion 's mass has been determined as a unique compound , that known measurement can then be used to determine the same analyte 's mass in a mixture , as long as the relative quantities of the other constituents are known . The four main types of this method of analysis are precipitation , volitilization , electro-analytical and miscellaneous physical method . The methods involve changing the phase of the analyte in order to separate it in its pure form from the original mixture and are quantitative measurements .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravimetric_analysis", "rank": 7, "score": 137861 }, { "content": "Title: Kater's pendulum Content: A Kater 's pendulum is a reversible freeswinging pendulum invented by British physicist and army captain Henry Kater in 1817 for use as a gravimeter instrument to measure the local acceleration of gravity . Its advantage is that , unlike previous pendulum gravimeters , the pendulum 's centre of gravity and center of oscillation do not have to be determined , allowing greater accuracy . For about a century , until the 1930s , Kater 's pendulum and its various refinements remained the standard method for measuring the strength of the Earth 's gravity during geodetic surveys . It is now used only for demonstrating pendulum principles .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Kater's_pendulum", "rank": 8, "score": 134420 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity Probe B Content: Gravity Probe B ( GP-B ) was a satellite-based mission which launched on 20 April 2004 on a Delta II rocket . The spaceflight phase lasted until 2005 ; its aim was to measure spacetime curvature near Earth , and thereby the stress -- energy tensor ( which is related to the distribution and the motion of matter in space ) in and near Earth . This provided a test of general relativity , gravitomagnetism and related models . The principal investigator was Francis Everitt . Initial results confirmed the expected geodetic effect to an accuracy of about 1 % . The expected frame-dragging effect was similar in magnitude to the current noise level ( the noise being dominated by initially unmodeled effects due to nonuniform coatings on the gyroscopes ) . Work continued to model and account for these sources of error , thus permitting extraction of the frame-dragging signal . By August 2008 , the frame-dragging effect had been confirmed to within 15 % of the expected result , and the December 2008 NASA report indicated that the geodetic effect was confirmed to better than 0.5 % . In an article published in the journal Physical Review Letters in 2011 , the authors reported analysis of the data from all four gyroscopes results in a geodetic drift rate of and a frame-dragging drift rate of , in good agreement with the general relativity predictions of and , respectively .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravity_Probe_B", "rank": 9, "score": 132912 }, { "content": "Title: Mario Schenberg (Gravitational Wave Detector) Content: The Mario Schenberg ( Gravitational Wave Detector , Antenna , or Brazilian Graviton Project ) is a spherical , resonant-mass , gravitational wave detector run by the Physics Institute of the University of Sao Paulo , named after Mário Schenberg . Similar to the Dutch-run MiniGRAIL , the 1.15 ton , 65 cm diameter spherical test mass is suspended in a cryogenic vacuum enclosure , kept at 20 mK ; and the sensors ( transducers ) for this detector/antenna are developed at the National Institute for Space Research ( INPE ) , in Sao Jose ' dos Campos , Brazil .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Mario_Schenberg_(Gravitational_Wave_Detector)", "rank": 10, "score": 130656 }, { "content": "Title: Gravitic density meter Content: A Gravitic density meter is a type of density meter used in multiple industries to measure the density of a slurry flowing through a pipe line . It consists of a flexible rubber hose that deflects when weight is flowing through the hose . A displacement measurement device , usually a high precision laser or load cell , is used to measure how much change has occurred in the system . By calculating the change of deflection of the hose , a gravitic density meter can be used to find the real time , continuous density . Gravitic density meters do not measure the specific gravity directly . The specific gravity is calculated after the density has been measured .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravitic_density_meter", "rank": 11, "score": 130306 }, { "content": "Title: History of general relativity Content: General relativity ( GR ) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Albert Einstein between 1907 and 1915 , with contributions by many others after 1915 . According to general relativity , the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and time by those masses . Before the advent of general relativity , Newton 's law of universal gravitation had been accepted for more than two hundred years as a valid description of the gravitational force between masses , even though Newton himself did not regard the theory as the final word on the nature of gravity . Within a century of Newton 's formulation , careful astronomical observation revealed unexplainable variations between the theory and the observations . Under Newton 's model , gravity was the result of an attractive force between massive objects . Although even Newton was bothered by the unknown nature of that force , the basic framework was extremely successful at describing motion . However , experiments and observations show that Einstein 's description accounts for several effects that are unexplained by Newton 's law , such as minute anomalies in the orbits of Mercury and other planets . General relativity also predicts novel effects of gravity , such as gravitational waves , gravitational lensing and an effect of gravity on time known as gravitational time dilation . Many of these predictions have been confirmed by experiment or observation , while others are the subject of ongoing research . General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics . It provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes , regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape . Their strong gravity is thought to be responsible for the intense radiation emitted by certain types of astronomical objects ( such as active galactic nuclei or microquasars ) . General relativity is also part of the framework of the standard Big Bang model of cosmology .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "History_of_general_relativity", "rank": 12, "score": 128043 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer Content: The Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer ( GOCE ) was the first of ESA 's Living Planet Programme satellites intended to map in unprecedented detail the Earth 's gravity field . The spacecraft 's primary instrumentation was a highly sensitive gravity gradiometer consisting of three pairs of accelerometers which measured gravitational gradients along three orthogonal axes . GOCE mapped the deep structure of the Earth 's mantle and probed hazardous volcanic regions . It brought new insight into ocean behaviour ; this in particular , was a major driver for the mission . By combining the gravity data with information about sea surface height gathered by other satellite altimeters , scientists were able to track the direction and speed of geostrophic ocean currents . The low orbit and high accuracy of the system greatly improved the known accuracy and spatial resolution of the geoid ( the theoretical surface of equal gravitational potential on the Earth ) . The satellite 's unique arrow shape and fins helped keep GOCE stable as it flew through the upper thermosphere at an altitude of 255 km . Additionally , an ion propulsion system continuously compensated for the variable deceleration due to air drag without the vibration of a conventional chemically powered rocket engine , thus limiting the errors in gravity gradient measurements caused by non-gravitational forces and restoring the path of the craft as closely as possible to a purely inertial trajectory . After running out of propellant , the satellite began dropping out of orbit and made an uncontrolled reentry on 11 November 2013 .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravity_Field_and_Steady-State_Ocean_Circulation_Explorer", "rank": 13, "score": 127922 }, { "content": "Title: Thermogravimetry Content: Thermogravimetry ( also known by the acronym `` TG '' ; alternative spellings include thermo-gravimetry and thermogravimmetry ) is a branch of physical chemistry , materials research , and thermal analysis . It is based on continuous recording of mass changes of a sample of material , as a function of a combination of temperature with time , and additionally of pressure and gas composition .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Thermogravimetry", "rank": 14, "score": 127721 }, { "content": "Title: True mass Content: The term true mass is synonymous with the term mass , but is used in astronomy to differentiate the measured mass of a planet from the lower limit of mass usually obtained from radial velocity techniques . Methods used to determine the true mass of a planet include measuring the distance and period of one of its satellites , advanced astrometry techniques that use the motions of other planets in the same star system , combining radial velocity techniques with transit observations ( which indicate very low orbital inclinations ) , and combining radial velocity techniques with stellar parallax measurements ( which also determine orbital inclinations ) .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "True_mass", "rank": 15, "score": 126370 }, { "content": "Title: GRACE and GRACE-FO Content: The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) was a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR). Twin satellites took detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field anomalies from its launch in March 2002 to the end of its science mission in October 2017. The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On (GRACE-FO) is a continuation of the mission on near-identical hardware, launched in May 2018. By measuring gravity anomalies, GRACE showed how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time. Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth's ocean, geology, and climate. GRACE was a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas at Austin, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the German Aerospace Center and Germany's National Research Center for Geosciences, Potsdam. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory was responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP (Earth System Science Pathfinder) program. The principal investigator is Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research, and the co-principal investigator is Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Potsdam.The two GRACE satellites (GRACE-1 and GRACE-2) were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia, on a Rockot (SS-19 + Breeze upper stage) launch vehicle on 17 March 2002. The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89°. During normal operations, the satellites were separated by 220 km along their orbit track. This system was able to gather global coverage every 30 days. GRACE far exceeded its 5-year design lifespan, operating for 15 years until the decommissioning of GRACE-2 on 27 October 2017. Its successor, GRACE-FO, was successfully launched on 22 May 2018. In 2019, a glacier in West Antarctica was named after the GRACE mission.", "qid": "2895", "docid": "GRACE_and_GRACE-FO", "rank": 16, "score": 125760 }, { "content": "Title: Reverberation mapping Content: Reverberation mapping is an astrophysical technique for measuring the structure of the broad emission-line region ( BLR ) around a supermassive black hole at the center of an active galaxy , and thus estimating the hole 's mass . It is considered a `` primary '' mass estimation technique , i.e. , the mass is measured directly from the motion that its gravitational force induces in the nearby gas . The black hole mass is measured from the formula In this formula , ΔV is the RMS velocity of gas moving near the black hole in the broad emission-line region , measured from the Doppler broadening of the gaseous emission lines ; RBLR is the radius of the broad-line region ; G is the constant of gravitation ; and f is a poorly known `` form factor '' that depends on the shape of the BLR . The biggest difficulty with applying this formula is the measurement of RBLR . One standard technique is based on the fact that the emission-line fluxes vary strongly in response to changes in the continuum , i.e. , the light from the accretion disk near the black hole ( `` reverberation '' ) . Furthermore , the emission-line response is found to be delayed with respect to changes in the continuum . Assuming that the delay is due to light travel times , the size of the broad emission-line region can be measured . Only a small handful of AGN ( less than 40 ) have been accurately `` mapped '' in this way . An alternative approach is to use an empirical correlation between RBLR and the continuum luminosity . Another uncertainty is the value of f . In principle , the response of the BLR to variations in the continuum could be used to map out the three-dimensional structure of the BLR . In practice , the amount and quality of data required to carry out such a deconvolution is prohibitive . Until about 2004 , f was estimated ab initio based on simple models for the structure of the BLR . More recently , the value of f has been determined so as to bring the M-sigma relation for active galaxies into the best possible agreement with the M -- sigma relation for quiescent galaxies . When f is determined in this way , reverberation mapping becomes a `` secondary '' , rather than `` primary , '' mass estimation technique .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Reverberation_mapping", "rank": 17, "score": 123351 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-drag satellite Content: Zero-drag satellites or equivalently `` drag-free satellites '' are satellites where the payload follows a geodesic path through space only affected by gravity and not by non-gravitational forces such as drag of the residual atmosphere , light pressure and solar wind . A zero-drag satellite has two parts , an outer shell and an inner mass called the proof mass . The proof mass floats freely inside the outer shell , while the distance between the outer shell and the proof mass is constantly measured . When a change in the distance between the outer shell and the proof mass is detected , it means that the outer shell has been influenced by non-gravitational forces and moved relative to the proof mass . Thrusters on the outer shell will then reposition the outer shell relative to the proof mass so that its distance is the same as before the external influence changed it . The outer shell thus protects the proof mass from nearly all interactions with the outside that can cause acceleration , except those mediated by gravity , and by following the proof mass , the outer shell ( which is to say , the rest of the spacecraft , carrying instruments , etc. ) itself follows a geodesic path . One way to think about a zero-drag satellite is to see the shell/proof mass setup as being an accelerometer , measuring the acceleration of the outer shell . The input from the accelerometer is then used to control the satellites thruster to exactly compensate for the measured acceleration , ensuring that over time the satellite has zero acceleration . Since the proof mass is floating free within the outer shell , neither the initial drag nor the thruster 's compensation for it is experienced by the proof mass .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Zero-drag_satellite", "rank": 18, "score": 121620 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity Content: Gravity , or gravitation , is a natural phenomenon by which all things with mass are brought toward ( or gravitate toward ) one another , including planets , stars and galaxies . Since energy and mass are equivalent , all forms of energy , including light , also cause gravitation and are under the influence of it . On Earth , gravity gives weight to physical objects and causes the ocean tides . The gravitational attraction of the original gaseous matter present in the Universe caused it to begin coalescing , forming starsand the stars to group together into galaxiesso gravity is responsible for many of the large scale structures in the Universe . Gravity has an infinite range , although its effects become increasingly weaker on farther objects . Gravity is most accurately described by the general theory of relativity ( proposed by Albert Einstein in 1915 ) which describes gravity not as a force , but as a consequence of the curvature of spacetime caused by the uneven distribution of mass/energy . The most extreme example of this curvature of spacetime is a black hole , from which nothing can escape once past its event horizon , not even light . More gravity results in gravitational time dilation , where time lapses more slowly at a lower ( stronger ) gravitational potential . However , for most applications , gravity is well approximated by Newton 's law of universal gravitation , which describes gravity as a force which causes any two bodies to be attracted to each other , with the force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them . Gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental interactions of nature . The gravitational attraction is approximately 1038 times weaker than the strong force , 1036 times weaker than the electromagnetic force and 1029 times weaker than the weak force . As a consequence , gravity has a negligible influence on the behavior of subatomic particles , and plays no role in determining the internal properties of everyday matter ( but see quantum gravity ) . On the other hand , gravity is the dominant interaction at the macroscopic scale , and is the cause of the formation , shape and trajectory ( orbit ) of astronomical bodies . It is responsible for various phenomena observed on Earth and throughout the Universe ; for example , it causes the Earth and the other planets to orbit the Sun , the Moon to orbit the Earth , the formation of tides , the formation and evolution of the Solar System , stars and galaxies . The earliest instance of gravity in the Universe , possibly in the form of quantum gravity , supergravity or a gravitational singularity , along with ordinary space and time , developed during the Planck epoch ( up to 10 − 43 seconds after the birth of the Universe ) , possibly from a primeval state , such as a false vacuum , quantum vacuum or virtual particle , in a currently unknown manner . For this reason , in part , pursuit of a theory of everything , the merging of the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics ( or quantum field theory ) into quantum gravity , has become an area of research .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravity", "rank": 19, "score": 119316 }, { "content": "Title: ICESat Content: ICESat ( Ice , Cloud , and land Elevation Satellite ) , part of NASA 's Earth Observing System , was a satellite mission for measuring ice sheet mass balance , cloud and aerosol heights , as well as land topography and vegetation characteristics . ICESat was launched 13 January 2003 on a Delta II rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California into a near-circular , near-polar orbit with an altitude of approximately 600 km . It operated for seven years before being retired in February 2010 , after its scientific payload shut down and scientists were unable to restart it . The ICESat mission was designed to provide elevation data needed to determine ice sheet mass balance as well as cloud property information , especially for stratospheric clouds common over polar areas . It provides topography and vegetation data around the globe , in addition to the polar-specific coverage over the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets . The satellite was found useful in assessing important forest characteristics , including tree density .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "ICESat", "rank": 20, "score": 118858 }, { "content": "Title: GRB 050509B Content: GRB 050509B was a gamma ray burst ( GRB ) observed by the NASA Swift satellite on May 9 , 2005 . It was the first short duration GRB for which an accurate positional measurement was made , accurate enough to locate it near to an elliptical galaxy lying at a redshift of 0.225 . The significance of this finding is that it lends support to the theory that short bursts are formed during the catastrophic merger of two neutron stars , or a neutron star and a black hole . The orbital decay ( via gravitational radiation ) of stellar binaries consisting of these exotic compact objects is believed to take hundreds of millions of years , hence gamma ray bursts produced this way would be expected to be located in old ( misleadingly called `` early type '' ) galaxies . In contrast , long-duration gamma ray bursts , which are believed to result from the collapse of a single massive star , are expected to be located preferentially in young galaxies .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "GRB_050509B", "rank": 21, "score": 118777 }, { "content": "Title: Laser Interferometer Space Antenna Content: The Laser Interferometer Space Antenna ( LISA ) , is a proposed European Space Agency mission designed to detect and accurately measure gravitational waves -- tiny ripples in the fabric of space-time -- from astronomical sources . LISA would be the first dedicated space-based gravitational wave detector . It aims to measure gravitational waves directly by using laser interferometry . The LISA concept has a constellation of three spacecraft , arranged in an equilateral triangle with million-kilometre arms ( 2.5 million km ) flying along an Earth-like heliocentric orbit . The distance between the satellites is precisely monitored to detect a passing gravitational wave . The LISA project started out as a joint effort between the United States space agency NASA and the European Space Agency ESA . However , in 2011 , NASA announced that it would be unable to continue its LISA partnership with the European Space Agency due to funding limitations . A scaled down design initially known as the New Gravitational-wave Observatory ( NGO ) was proposed for ESA 's Cosmic Vision L1 mission selection . In 2013 , ESA selected ` The Gravitational Universe'as the theme for its L3 mission in the early 2030s . whereby it committed to launch a space based gravitational wave observatory . In January 2017 , LISA was proposed as the candidate mission . A LISA-like mission is designed to directly observe gravitational waves , which are distortions of space-time travelling at the speed of light . Passing gravitational waves alternately squeeze and stretch objects by a tiny amount . Gravitational waves are caused by energetic events in the universe and , unlike any other radiation , can pass unhindered by intervening mass . Launching LISA will add a new sense to scientists ' perception of the universe and enable them to listen to a world that is invisible in normal light . Potential sources for signals are merging massive black holes at the centre of galaxies , massive black holes orbited by small compact objects , known as extreme mass ratio inspirals , binaries of compact stars in our Galaxy , and possibly other sources of cosmological origin , such as the very early phase of the Big Bang , and speculative astrophysical objects like cosmic strings and domain boundaries .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Laser_Interferometer_Space_Antenna", "rank": 22, "score": 118073 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity (software) Content: Gravity ( ver . 2.01 ) is a software program designed by Steve Safarik to simulate the motions of planetary bodies in space . Users can create solar systems of up to 16 bodies . Mass , Density , Initial position , and Initial velocity can be varied by user input . The bodies are then plotted as they move according to the laws of gravitation . Simulation settings may saved as files with the extension '' . GRV ''", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravity_(software)", "rank": 23, "score": 117812 }, { "content": "Title: Full-sky Astrometric Mapping Explorer Content: Full-sky Astrometric Mapping Explorer ( or FAME ) was a proposed astrometric satellite designed to determine with unprecedented accuracy the positions , distances , and motions of 40 million stars within our galactic neighborhood ( distances by stellar parallax possible ) . This database was to allow astronomers to accurately determine the distance to all of the stars on this side of the Milky Way galaxy , detect large planets and planetary systems around stars within 1,000 light years of the Sun , and measure the amount of dark matter in the galaxy from its influence on stellar motions . It was to be a collaborative effort between the United States Naval Observatory ( USNO ) and several other institutions . FAME would have measured stellar positions to less than 50 microarcseconds . The NASA MIDEX mission was scheduled for launch in 2004 . In January 2002 , however , NASA abruptly cancelled this mission , mainly due to concerns about its price tag which grew from $ 160 million to $ 220 million . This would have been an improvement over the High Precision Parallax Collecting Satellite ( Hipparcos ) which operated 1989-1993 and produced various star catalogs . Astrometric parallax measurements form part of the cosmic distance ladder , and can also be measured by other Space telescopes such as Hubble ( HST ) or ground-based telescopes to varying degrees of precision . Compared to the FAME accuracy of 50 microarcseconds , the Gaia mission is planning 10 microarcseconds accuracy , for mapping stellar parallax up to a distance of tens of thousands of light-years from Earth .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Full-sky_Astrometric_Mapping_Explorer", "rank": 24, "score": 117510 }, { "content": "Title: Hipparcos Content: Hipparcos was a scientific satellite of the European Space Agency ( ESA ) , launched in 1989 and operated until 1993 . It was the first space experiment devoted to precision astrometry , the accurate measurement of the positions of celestial objects on the sky . This permitted the accurate determination of proper motions and parallaxes of stars , allowing a determination of their distance and tangential velocity . When combined with radial velocity measurements from spectroscopy , this pinpointed all six quantities needed to determine the motion of stars . The resulting Hipparcos Catalogue , a high-precision catalogue of more than 118,200 stars , was published in 1997 . The lower-precision Tycho Catalogue of more than a million stars was published at the same time , while the enhanced Tycho-2 Catalogue of 2.5 million stars was published in 2000 . Hipparcos follow-up mission , Gaia , was launched in 2013 . The word `` Hipparcos '' is an acronym for High precision parallax collecting satellite and also a reference to the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea , who is noted for applications of trigonometry to astronomy and his discovery of the precession of the equinoxes .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Hipparcos", "rank": 25, "score": 117210 }, { "content": "Title: Inclinometer Content: A clinometer or inclinometer is an instrument for measuring angles of slope ( or tilt ) , elevation or depression of an object with respect to gravity . It is also known as a tilt meter , tilt indicator , slope alert , slope gauge , gradient meter , gradiometer , level gauge , level meter , declinometer , and pitch & roll indicator . Clinometers measure both inclines ( positive slopes , as seen by an observer looking upwards ) and declines ( negative slopes , as seen by an observer looking downward ) using three different units of measure : degrees , percent , and topo ( see Grade ( slope ) #Nomenclature for details ) . Astrolabes are inclinometers that were used for navigation and locating astronomical objects from ancient times to the Renaissance . In aircraft , the `` ball '' in turn coordinators or turn and bank indicators is sometimes referred to as an inclinometer .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Inclinometer", "rank": 26, "score": 116956 }, { "content": "Title: Planetary mass Content: Planetary mass is a measure of the mass of a planet-like object . Within the Solar System , planets are usually measured in the astronomical system of units , where the unit of mass is the solar mass , the mass of the Sun . In the study of extrasolar planets , the unit of measure is typically the mass of Jupiter for large gas giant planets , and the mass of Earth for smaller rocky terrestrial planets . The mass of a planet within the Solar System is an adjusted parameter in the preparation of ephemerides . There are three variations of how planetary mass can be calculated : If the planet has natural satellites , its mass can be calculated using Newton 's law of universal gravitation to derive a generalization of Kepler 's third law that includes the mass of the planet and its moon . This permitted an early measurement of Jupiter 's mass , as measured in units of the solar mass . The mass of a planet can be inferred from its effect on the orbits of other planets . In 1931-1948 flawed applications of this method led to incorrect calculations of the mass of Pluto . Data from influence collected from the orbits of space probes can be used . Examples include Voyager probes to the outer planets and the MESSENGER spacecraft to Mercury . Also , numerous other methods can give reasonable approximations . For instance , potential dwarf planet , known as Varuna , rotates very quickly upon its axis , as does the dwarf planet Haumea . Haumea , for example , has to be very dense in order to not rip apart due to its rotation . Through some calculations , one could place a limit on the object 's density . Thus , if the object 's size is known , a limit on the mass can be determined . See the links in the aforementioned articles for more details on this .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Planetary_mass", "rank": 27, "score": 116852 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite geodesy Content: Satellite geodesy is geodesy by means of artificial satellites -- the measurement of the form and dimensions of Earth , the location of objects on its surface and the figure of the Earth 's gravity field by means of artificial satellite techniques . It belongs to the broader field of space geodesy . Traditional astronomical geodesy is not commonly considered a part of satellite geodesy , although there is considerable overlap between the techniques . The main goals of satellite geodesy are : Determination of the figure of the Earth , positioning , and navigation ( geometric satellite geodesy ) Determination of geoid , Earth 's gravity field and its temporal variations ( dynamical satellite geodesy ) Measurement of geodynamical phenomena , such as crustal dynamics and polar motion Satellite geodetic data and methods can be applied to diverse fields such as navigation , hydrography , oceanography and geophysics . Satellite geodesy relies heavily on orbital mechanics .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Satellite_geodesy", "rank": 28, "score": 116662 }, { "content": "Title: Gravit Content: Gravit is a free and open source gravity simulator distributed under the GNU General Public License . The program is available for all major operating systems , including Linux and other Unix-like systems , Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. Gravit uses the Barnes -- Hut algorithm to simulate the n-body problem .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravit", "rank": 29, "score": 116277 }, { "content": "Title: CLARREO Content: CLARREO ( Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory ) is a high-priority NASA decadal survey mission , originally selected as such by the National Research Council in 2007 . The CLARREO mission is intended to provide a metrology laboratory in orbit to accurately quantify and attribute Earth 's climate change ( see List of climate research satellites ) . If launched at the earliest opportunity , CLARREO 's observations could be used to detect the largest of climate trends above natural variability by the year 2039 . Then it may go on to further test , validate , and improve prediction by climate models . The mission also might provide the first orbiting radiometers with enough accuracy to serve as reference calibration standards that can fine-tune other spaceborne sensors and climate research , making climate trends apparent in their data sets within a 30-year time frame . Due to funding cuts in announced for the 2012 budget , the CLARREO mission was significantly scaled back , while remaining spaceborne projects were eyed to fill the gap . In the President 's FY16 budget request , CLARREO was provided $ 76.9 M to demonstrate essential measurement technologies of the CLARREO Tier 1 Decadal Survey mission . That funding will potentially support the flight of two instruments , Reflected Solar ( RS ) and Infrared ( IR ) spectrometers , hosted on the International Space Station in FY 2019 .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "CLARREO", "rank": 30, "score": 115884 }, { "content": "Title: Radiometry Content: Radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring electromagnetic radiation , including visible light . Radiometric techniques in optics characterize the distribution of the radiation 's power in space , as opposed to photometric techniques , which characterize the light 's interaction with the human eye . Radiometry is distinct from quantum techniques such as photon counting . The use of radiometers to determine the temperature of objects and gasses by measuring radiation flux is called pyrometry . Handheld pyrometer devices are often marketed as infrared thermometers . Radiometry is important in astronomy , especially radio astronomy , and plays a significant role in Earth remote sensing . The measurement techniques categorized as radiometry in optics are called photometry in some astronomical applications , contrary to the optics usage of the term . Spectroradiometry is the measurement of absolute radiometric quantities in narrow bands of wavelength .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Radiometry", "rank": 31, "score": 115712 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity (disambiguation) Content: Gravity , or gravitation , is the mass-proportionate force of attraction among matter . Gravity may also refer to :", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravity_(disambiguation)", "rank": 32, "score": 115651 }, { "content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide", "rank": 33, "score": 115148 }, { "content": "Title: Gravitation of the Moon Content: right | thumb | 300px | Radial gravity anomaly at the surface of the Moon in Gal ( acceleration ) The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Moon is about 1.625 m/s2 , about 16.6 % that on Earth 's surface or 0.16 . Over the entire surface , the variation in gravitational acceleration is about 0.0253 m/s2 ( 1.6 % of the acceleration due to gravity ) . Because weight is directly dependent upon gravitational acceleration , things on the Moon will weigh only 16.6 % of what they weigh on the Earth . The gravitational field of the Moon has been measured by tracking the radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft . The principle used depends on the Doppler effect , whereby the line-of-sight spacecraft acceleration can be measured by small shifts in frequency of the radio signal , and the measurement of the distance from the spacecraft to a station on Earth . Since the gravitational field of the Moon affects the orbit of a spacecraft , one can use these tracking data to detect gravity anomalies . However , because of the Moon 's synchronous rotation it is not possible to track spacecraft from Earth much beyond the limbs of the Moon , so until the recent GRAIL mission the far-side gravity field was not accurately known . right | thumb | 300px | Gravity acceleration at the surface of the Moon in m/s2 . Near side on the left , far side on the right . Map from Lunar Gravity Model 2011 . A major feature of the Moon 's gravitational field is the presence of mascons , which are large positive gravity anomalies associated with some of the giant impact basins . These anomalies significantly influence the orbit of spacecraft around the Moon , and an accurate gravitational model is necessary in the planning of both manned and unmanned missions . They were initially discovered by the analysis of Lunar Orbiter tracking data : navigation tests prior to the Apollo program showed positioning errors much larger than mission specifications . Mascons are in part due to the presence of dense mare basaltic lava flows that fill some of the impact basins . However , lava flows by themselves can not fully explain the gravitational variations , and uplift of the crust-mantle interface is required as well . Based on Lunar Prospector gravitational models , it has been suggested that some mascons exist that do not show evidence for mare basaltic volcanism . The huge expanse of mare basaltic volcanism associated with Oceanus Procellarum does not cause a positive gravity anomaly . The center of gravity of the Moon does not coincide exactly with its geometric center , but is displaced toward the Earth by about 2 kilometers .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravitation_of_the_Moon", "rank": 34, "score": 114908 }, { "content": "Title: Introduction to general relativity Content: General relativity is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Albert Einstein between 1907 and 1915 . According to general relativity , the observed gravitational effect between masses results from their warping of spacetime . By the beginning of the 20th century , Newton 's law of universal gravitation had been accepted for more than two hundred years as a valid description of the gravitational force between masses . In Newton 's model , gravity is the result of an attractive force between massive objects . Although even Newton was troubled by the unknown nature of that force , the basic framework was extremely successful at describing motion . Experiments and observations show that Einstein 's description of gravitation accounts for several effects that are unexplained by Newton 's law , such as minute anomalies in the orbits of Mercury and other planets . General relativity also predicts novel effects of gravity , such as gravitational waves , gravitational lensing and an effect of gravity on time known as gravitational time dilation . Many of these predictions have been confirmed by experiment or observation , most recently gravitational waves . General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics . It provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes , regions of space where the gravitational effect is so strong that even light can not escape . Their strong gravity is thought to be responsible for the intense radiation emitted by certain types of astronomical objects ( such as active galactic nuclei or microquasars ) . General relativity is also part of the framework of the standard Big Bang model of cosmology . Although general relativity is not the only relativistic theory of gravity , it is the simplest such theory that is consistent with the experimental data . Nevertheless , a number of open questions remain , the most fundamental of which is how general relativity can be reconciled with the laws of quantum physics to produce a complete and self-consistent theory of quantum gravity .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Introduction_to_general_relativity", "rank": 35, "score": 114630 }, { "content": "Title: Democratic principle Content: In the context of General Relativity , the democratic principle allows quick , order-of-magnitude calculations for the strength of gravitomagnetic effects such as frame-dragging . While the principle is fairly intuitive , it does not have a rigorous mathematical definition . John Wheeler ( 1990 ) on the practical application of Mach 's principle to experiment ( pp.232-233 ) : `` It is not necessary to enter into the mathematics of the theory to state its simple consequence ... Each mass has an `` inertia-contributing '' power , a voting power , equal to its mass , there , divided by the distance from there to here . '' According to the general principle of relativity , rotation is a relative property , and a state of motion that a satellite senses as being `` absolutely non-rotating '' is a local state , dictated partly by the relative rotation of the background stars , but also partly by the rotation of the body that the satellite orbits . Applying the democratic principle , we can calculate the influence of these two rotations on the satellite by calculating the relative contributions of these two collections of massenergy to the background gravitational field strength at the satellite 's location , and then weighting their contributions on the satellite 's `` sense of rotation '' accordingly .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Democratic_principle", "rank": 36, "score": 114320 }, { "content": "Title: Geophysical signal analysis Content: Geophysical signal analysis is concerned with the detection and a subsequent processing of signals . Any signal which is varying conveys valuable information . Hence to understand the information embedded in such signals , we need to ` detect ' and ` extract data ' from such quantities . Geophysical signals are of extreme importance to us as they are information bearing signals which carry data related to petroleum deposits beneath the surface and seismic data . Analysis of geophysical signals also offers us a qualitative insight into the possibility of occurrence of a natural calamity such as earthquakes or volcanic eruptions . Gravitational and magnetic fields are detected using extremely sensitive gravitometers and magnetometers respectively . The gravitational field changes are measured using devices such as atom interferometers . A superconducting quantum interference device ( SQUID ) is an extremely sensitive device which measures minute changes in the magnetic field . After detection , the data from these signals is extracted by performing spectral analysis , filtering and beamforming techniques . These techniques can be used in oil exploration to estimate the position of underground objects , harnessing geothermal energy .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Geophysical_signal_analysis", "rank": 37, "score": 114121 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite laser ranging Content: In satellite laser ranging ( SLR ) a global network of observation stations measures the round trip time of flight of ultrashort pulses of light to satellites equipped with retroreflectors . This provides instantaneous range measurements of millimeter level precision which can be accumulated to provide accurate measurement of orbits and a host of important scientific data . Satellite laser ranging is a proven geodetic technique with significant potential for important contributions to scientific studies of the earth/atmosphere/ocean system . It is the most accurate technique currently available to determine the geocentric position of an Earth satellite , allowing for the precise calibration of radar altimeters and separation of long-term instrumentation drift from secular changes in ocean topography . Its ability to measure the variations over time in Earth 's gravity field and to monitor motion of the station network with respect to the geocenter , together with the capability to monitor vertical motion in an absolute system , makes it unique for modeling and evaluating long-term climate change by : providing a reference system for post-glacial rebound , sea level and ice volume change determining the temporal mass redistribution of the solid earth , ocean , and atmosphere system monitoring the response of the atmosphere to seasonal variations in solar heating . SLR provides a unique capability for verification of the predictions of the theory of general relativity , such as the frame-dragging effect . SLR stations form an important part of the international network of space geodetic observatories , which include VLBI , GPS , DORIS and PRARE systems . On several critical missions , SLR has provided failsafe redundancy when other radiometric tracking systems have failed .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Satellite_laser_ranging", "rank": 38, "score": 113932 }, { "content": "Title: Astrometry Content: Astrometry is the branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies . The information obtained by astrometric measurements provides information on the kinematics and physical origin of the Solar System and our galaxy , the Milky Way .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Astrometry", "rank": 39, "score": 113458 }, { "content": "Title: Thermogravimetric analysis Content: Thermogravimetric analysis or thermal gravimetric analysis ( TGA ) is a method of thermal analysis in which changes in physical and chemical properties of materials are measured as a function of increasing temperature ( with constant heating rate ) , or as a function of time ( with constant temperature and/or constant mass loss ) . TGA can provide information about physical phenomena , such as second-order phase transitions , including vaporization , sublimation , absorption and desorption . Likewise , TGA can provide information about chemical phenomena including chemisorptions , desolvation ( especially dehydration ) , decomposition , and solid-gas reactions ( e.g. , oxidation or reduction ) . TGA is commonly used to determine selected characteristics of materials that exhibit either mass loss or gain due to decomposition , oxidation , or loss of volatiles ( such as moisture ) . Common applications of TGA are ( 1 ) materials characterization through analysis of characteristic decomposition patterns , ( 2 ) studies of degradation mechanisms and reaction kinetics , ( 3 ) determination of organic content in a sample , and ( 4 ) determination of inorganic ( e.g. ash ) content in a sample , which may be useful for corroborating predicted material structures or simply used as a chemical analysis . It is an especially useful technique for the study of polymeric materials , including thermoplastics , thermosets , elastomers , composites , plastic films , fibers , coatings and paints . Discussion of the TGA apparatus , methods , and trace analysis will be elaborated upon below . Thermal stability , oxidation , and combustion , all of which are possible interpretations of TGA traces , will also be discussed .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Thermogravimetric_analysis", "rank": 40, "score": 113297 }, { "content": "Title: DODGE (satellite) Content: DODGE ( Department of Defense Gravity Experiment ) was a satellite whose primary purpose was to conduct experiments in gravity-gradient stabilization at near-geosynchronous altitudes . Its secondary objectives included measuring the Earth 's magnetic field , and taking pictures of the entire Earth 's disk in both black-and-white and color . It was launched atop a Titan IIIC rocket on July 1st , 1967 and operated for over three years . DODGE carried ten knobbed booms oriented along three different axes , that could be independently extended and retracted by ground command . DODGE first achieved successful stabilization 12 days after launch , and took one of the first color pictures of the complete Earth disk .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "DODGE_(satellite)", "rank": 41, "score": 112510 }, { "content": "Title: Conrad Observatory Content: The Conrad Observatory is an underground geophysical research facility of the Central Institution for Meteorology and Geodynamics ( ZAMG ) in Austria . The basic task of the observatory is monitoring relevant physical parameters that are of decisive importance for our understanding of processes on and below earth . At the Conrad Observatory , seismic activities ( seismology ) , variations in gravitational acceleration and mass changes ( gravimetry ) , magnetic field variations , geodetic parameters , atmospheric waves , as well as meteorological data are continuously monitored . The Conrad Observatory comprises two main sectors : ( 1 ) The seismic-gravimetric observatory ( SGO ) that has been opened in 2002 . ( 2 ) The geomagnetic observatory ( GMO ) is currently under construction , which is expected to be finished by the end of 2012 .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Conrad_Observatory", "rank": 42, "score": 112323 }, { "content": "Title: Gravitational time dilation Content: Gravitational time dilation is a form of time dilation , an actual difference of elapsed time between two events as measured by observers situated at varying distances from a gravitating mass . The weaker the gravitational potential ( the farther the clock is from the source of gravitation ) , the faster time passes . Albert Einstein originally predicted this effect in his theory of relativity and it has since been confirmed by tests of general relativity . This has been demonstrated by noting that atomic clocks at differing altitudes ( and thus different gravitational potential ) will eventually show different times . The effects detected in such Earth-bound experiments are extremely small , with differences being measured in nanoseconds . Relative to the earth 's age in billion of years , the earth 's core is effectively 2.5 years younger than the surface leading to a paradox of alignment with the celestial sphere due to the rotation of the earth . Demonstrating larger effects would require greater distances from the Earth or a larger gravitational source . Gravitational time dilation was first described by Albert Einstein in 1907 as a consequence of special relativity in accelerated frames of reference . In general relativity , it is considered to be a difference in the passage of proper time at different positions as described by a metric tensor of spacetime . The existence of gravitational time dilation was first confirmed directly by the Pound -- Rebka experiment in 1959 .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravitational_time_dilation", "rank": 43, "score": 112070 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity assist Content: In orbital mechanics and aerospace engineering , a gravitational slingshot , gravity assist maneuver , or swing-by is the use of the relative movement ( e.g. orbit around the Sun ) and gravity of a planet or other astronomical object to alter the path and speed of a spacecraft , typically to save propellant , time , and expense . Gravity assistance can be used to accelerate a spacecraft , that is , to increase or decrease its speed or redirect its path . The `` assist '' is provided by the motion of the gravitating body as it pulls on the spacecraft . It was used by interplanetary probes from Mariner 10 onwards , including the two Voyager probes ' notable flybys of Jupiter and Saturn .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravity_assist", "rank": 44, "score": 111096 }, { "content": "Title: Massive gravity Content: In theoretical physics , massive gravity is a theory of gravity that modifies general relativity by endowing the graviton with a nonzero mass . In the classical theory , this means that gravitational waves obey a massive wave equation and hence travel at speeds below the speed of light . Massive gravity has a long and winding history , dating back to the 1930s when Wolfgang Pauli and Markus Fierz first developed a theory of a massive spin-2 field propagating on a flat spacetime background . It was later realized in the 1970s that theories of a massive graviton suffered from dangerous pathologies , including a ghost mode and a discontinuity with general relativity in the limit where the graviton mass goes to zero . While solutions to these problems had existed for some time in three spacetime dimensions , they were not solved in four dimensions and higher until the work of Claudia de Rham , Gregory Gabadadze , and Andrew Tolley in 2010 . The fact that general relativity is modified at large distances in massive gravity provides a possible explanation for the accelerated expansion of the Universe that does not require any dark energy . Massive gravity and its extensions , such as bimetric gravity , can yield cosmological solutions which do in fact display late-time acceleration in agreement with observations . In February 2016 , scientists reporting the discovery of gravitational waves stated that `` assuming a modified dispersion relation for gravitational waves , our observations constrain the Compton wavelength of the graviton to be λg > 1013 km , which could be interpreted as a bound on the graviton mass mg < 1.2 × 10 − 22 eV/c2 . ''", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Massive_gravity", "rank": 45, "score": 110773 }, { "content": "Title: STEP (satellite) Content: The Satellite Test of the Equivalence Principle ( STEP ) is a proposed space science experiment to test the equivalence principle of general relativity . The experiment is thought to be sensitive enough to test Einstein 's theory of gravity and other theories . The basic configuration is that of a drag-free satellite where an outer shell around an inner test mass is used to block solar wind , atmospheric drag , the Earth 's magnetic field and other effects which might disturb the motion of a freely-falling inner object . It is designed for an expected sensitivity of one part in 1018 . `` Research on the STEP accelerometers began in 1971 at Stanford University , and has been supported since 1977 with NASA funding . STEP has been studied twice by ESA at the Phase-A level and has led two other space agencies ( CNES and ASI ) to study projects aimed at testing the Equivalence Principle in space . STEP is currently undergoing a Phase A study for NASA 's office of Space Science Small Explorer program . ''", "qid": "2895", "docid": "STEP_(satellite)", "rank": 46, "score": 110577 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment", "rank": 47, "score": 110508 }, { "content": "Title: Bimetric gravity Content: Bimetric gravity or bigravity refers to a class of modified mathematical theories of gravity ( or gravitation ) in which two metric tensors are used instead of one . The second metric may be introduced at high energies , with the implication that the speed of light could be energy-dependent . If the two metrics are dynamical and interact then there will be two graviton modes , one massive and one massless , and thus bimetric theories are closely related to massive gravity . There are several different bimetric theories , such as those attributed to Nathan Rosen ( 1909 -- 1995 ) or Mordehai Milgrom with Modified Newtonian Dynamics ( MOND ) . More recently , developments in massive gravity have also led to new consistent theories of bimetric gravity . Though none has been shown to account for physical observations more accurately or more consistently than the theory of general relativity , Rosen 's theory has been shown to be inconsistent with observations of the Hulse -- Taylor binary pulsar . Some of these theories lead to cosmic acceleration at late times and are therefore alternatives to dark energy .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Bimetric_gravity", "rank": 48, "score": 110290 }, { "content": "Title: Graviton Content: In speculative theories of quantum gravity , the graviton is a hypothetical elementary particle that mediates the force of gravitation in the framework of quantum field theory . If it exists , the graviton is expected to be massless ( because the gravitational force appears to have unlimited range ) and must be a spin-2 boson . A spin-2 particle is also known as a tensor boson , compared with a spin-0 scalar boson and spin-1 vector boson . The spin follows from the fact that the source of gravitation is the stress -- energy tensor , a second-order tensor ( compared with electromagnetism 's spin-1 photon , the source of which is the four-current , a first-order tensor ) . Additionally , it can be shown that any massless spin-2 field would give rise to a force indistinguishable from gravitation , because a massless spin-2 field would couple to the stress -- energy tensor in the same way that gravitational interactions do . As the graviton is hypothetical , its discovery would unite quantum theory with gravity . This result suggests that , if a massless spin-2 particle is discovered , it must be the graviton . There is no complete theory of gravitons due to an outstanding mathematical problem with renormalization . This problem has been a major motivation for models beyond quantum field theory , such as string theory . The fundamental reason that gravitons have proved harder to model than other bosons such as photons , is that other types of bosons do not interact with other bosons of their own type . For example , photons do not interact with photons . Photons carry the electromagnetic force , but are not charged themselves and do not interact via this force . Photons have ( relativistic ) mass and interact with gravity , but not with their own forces . Like photons , gravitons also carry mass , but unlike photons and gluons , they carry the gravitational force which interacts with this mass . As well as gravitons having to thus interact with other gravitons , quantum mechanics means they must also interact with themselves , via virtual particles . Understanding these interactions of gravitons ' own mass with their own force is a qualitatively different kind of problem from modelling other types of bosons and is what leads to the renormalization issues .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Graviton", "rank": 49, "score": 110217 }, { "content": "Title: Ultra-Fast Flash Observatory Pathfinder Content: The Ultra-Fast Flash Observatory ( UFFO ) Pathfinder is a space observatory measuring prompt emission of gamma-ray bursts ( GRB ) both in optical/UV and in X-ray range down to sub-second timescales for the first time . Instead of turning the whole satellite towards GRB location like the Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission mission ( that takes about 100 seconds ) , UFFO employs a slewing mirror telescope approach - the optical path of the telescope is changed by rotation of motorized mirror within ~ 1 second after burst was detected . UFFO was launched April 28 , 2016 on board the Mikhailo Lomonosov satellite during the first launch from the new Russian Vostochny Cosmodrome .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Ultra-Fast_Flash_Observatory_Pathfinder", "rank": 50, "score": 110062 }, { "content": "Title: The Swift UVOT Photometric System Content: In astronomical photometry , the Ultraviolet and Optical Telescope ( UVOT ) on the Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission observes astronomical objects in its 17-by-17 arc minute field of view through one of several filters or grisms . The seven filters , which are similar to those on the XMM-Newton-OM instrument , cover the near-ultraviolet and optical range . The brightness of an object observed in the three optical filters , called u , b , and v , can be converted into the more common Morgan-Johnson ( see the UBV photometric system ) magnitudes . The three ultraviolet filters probe a spectral region that is not observable from the ground . Although the main mission is to chase gamma-ray bursts as soon as they occur , many other transient celestial sources and other objects in the field of view are being measured . The filters , not being like any other Photometric system in use from the ground or in space , give unique photometric measurements . Their response has been defined as the UVOT photometric system , as outlined by .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "The_Swift_UVOT_Photometric_System", "rank": 51, "score": 109787 }, { "content": "Title: Gravitomagnetic time delay Content: In according to general relativity , a branch of physics , a massive spinning body endowed with angular momentum S will alter the space-time fabric around it in such a way that several effects on moving test particles and propagating electromagnetic waves occur . In particular , the direction of motion with respect to the sense of rotation of the central body is relevant because co-and counter-propagating waves carry a `` gravitomagnetic '' time delay ΔtGM which could be , in principle , be measured if S is known . On the contrary , if the validity of general relativity is assumed , it is possible to use ΔtGM to measure S . Such effect must not be confused with the much larger Shapiro time delay ΔtGE induced by the `` gravitoelectric '' Schwarzschild-like component of the gravitational field of a planet of mass M considered non-rotating . Unlike the small ΔtGM , the Shapiro time delay has been accurately measured in several radar-ranging experiments with solar system interplanetary spacecraft .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravitomagnetic_time_delay", "rank": 52, "score": 109753 }, { "content": "Title: General relativity Content: General relativity ( GR , also known as the general theory of relativity or GTR ) is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the current description of gravitation in modern physics . General relativity is considered as the most beautiful of all existing physical theories . General relativity generalizes special relativity and Newton 's law of universal gravitation , providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time , or spacetime . In particular , the is directly related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter and radiation are present . The relation is specified by the Einstein field equations , a system of partial differential equations . Some predictions of general relativity differ significantly from those of classical physics , especially concerning the passage of time , the geometry of space , the motion of bodies in free fall , and the propagation of light . Examples of such differences include gravitational time dilation , gravitational lensing , the gravitational redshift of light , and the gravitational time delay . The predictions of general relativity have been confirmed in all observations and experiments to date . Although general relativity is not the only relativistic theory of gravity , it is the simplest theory that is consistent with experimental data . However , unanswered questions remain , the most fundamental being how general relativity can be reconciled with the laws of quantum physics to produce a complete and self-consistent theory of quantum gravity . Einstein 's theory has important astrophysical implications . For example , it implies the existence of black holes -- regions of space in which space and time are distorted in such a way that nothing , not even light , can escape -- as an end-state for massive stars . There is ample evidence that the intense radiation emitted by certain kinds of astronomical objects is due to black holes ; for example , microquasars and active galactic nuclei result from the presence of stellar black holes and supermassive black holes , respectively . The bending of light by gravity can lead to the phenomenon of gravitational lensing , in which multiple images of the same distant astronomical object are visible in the sky . General relativity also predicts the existence of gravitational waves , which have since been observed directly by physics collaboration LIGO . In addition , general relativity is the basis of current cosmological models of a consistently expanding universe .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "General_relativity", "rank": 53, "score": 109277 }, { "content": "Title: ICESat-2 Content: ICESat-2 ( Ice , Cloud , and land Elevation Satellite 2 ) , part of NASA 's Earth Observing System , is a planned satellite mission for measuring ice sheet elevation , sea ice freeboard as well as land topography and vegetation characteristics . ICESat-2 is a planned follow-on to the ICESat mission . It will be launched in 2018 from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California into a near-circular , near-polar orbit with an altitude of approximately 496 km . It is being designed to operate for 3 years , and will carry enough propellant for 7 years . The ICESat-2 mission is designed to provide elevation data needed to determine ice sheet mass balance as well as vegetation canopy information . It will provide topography measurements of cities , lakes and reservoirs , oceans and land surfaces around the globe , in addition to the polar-specific coverage . The ICESat-2 project is being managed by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center . The sole instrument is being designed and built by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center , and the bus is being provided by Orbital ATK . The satellite will launch on a Delta II rocket provided by United Launch Alliance .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "ICESat-2", "rank": 54, "score": 109174 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Satellite_temperature_measurements", "rank": 55, "score": 109070 }, { "content": "Title: Gamma Ray Spectrometer Content: Gamma Ray Spectrometer ( GRS ) is a gamma-ray spectrometer on the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft , a space probe orbiting the planet Mars since 2001 . Part of the United States ' NASA 's Mars Surveyor Program , it returns geological data about Mars ' surface such as identifying elements and the location of water . It is managed by the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory at the University of Arizona in the United States . This instrument mapped the distribution of water in the surface . .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gamma_Ray_Spectrometer", "rank": 56, "score": 108985 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite surface salinity Content: Satellite surface salinity refers to measurements of surface salinity made by remote sensing satellites . The radiative properties of the ocean surface are exploited in order to estimate the salinity of the water 's surface layer . The depth of the water column that a satellite surface salinity measurement is sensitive to depends on the frequency ( or wavelength ) of the radiance that is being measured . For instance , the optical depth for seawater at the 1.413 GHz microwave frequency , used for the Aquarius mission , is about 1 -- 2 cm .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Satellite_surface_salinity", "rank": 57, "score": 108394 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity Probe A Content: Gravity Probe A ( GP-A ) was a space-based experiment to test the equivalence principle , a feature of Einstein 's theory of relativity . It was performed jointly by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration . The experiment sent a hydrogen maser , a highly accurate frequency standard , into space to measure with high precision the rate at which time passes in a weaker gravitational field . Masses cause distortions in spacetime , which leads to the effects of length contraction and time dilation , both predicted results of Albert Einstein 's Theory of General Relativity . Because of the bending of spacetime , an observer on Earth ( in a lower gravitational potential ) should measure a different rate at which time passes than an observer that is sufficiently high up in Earth 's atmosphere ( at higher gravitational potential ) . This effect is known as gravitational time dilation . The experiment was a test of a major fallout of Einstein 's General Relativity , the Equivalence Principle . The equivalence principle states that a reference frame in a uniform gravitational field is indistinguishable from a reference frame that is under uniform acceleration . Further , the equivalence principle predicts that phenomenon of different time flow rates , present in a uniformly accelerating reference frame , will also be present in a stationary reference frame that is in a uniform gravitational field . The probe was launched on June 18 , 1976 from the NASA-Wallops Flight Center in Wallops Island , Virginia . The probe was carried via a Scout rocket , and attained a height of 10,000 km ( 6,200 mi ) , while remaining in space for 1 hour and 55 minutes , as intended . It returned to Earth by splashing down into the Atlantic Ocean .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravity_Probe_A", "rank": 58, "score": 107877 }, { "content": "Title: GRB 090429B Content: GRB 090429B was a gamma-ray burst first detected on 29 April , 2009 , by the Burst Alert Telescope aboard the Swift satellite . The burst triggered a standard burst-response observation sequence , which started at 106 s after the burst . The X-ray telescope aboard the satellite identified an uncatalogued fading source . No optical or UV counterpart was seen in the UV -- optical telescope . Around 2.5 hours after the burst trigger , a series of observations was carried out from Gemini North , which detected a bright object in the infrared part of the spectrum . No evidence of a host galaxy was found either by Gemini North or by HST . Though this burst was detected in 2009 , it was not until May 2011 that its distance estimate was announced . The burst had a photometric redshift of z = 9.4 , which would make it the most distant GRB known , although the error bar on this estimate was large , providing a lower limit of z > 7 . The amount of energy , released in the burst , was estimated as 3.5 × 1052 erg . For a comparison , the Sun 's luminosity is 3.8 × 1033 erg/s . On 2009 April 29 , a five-second-long burst of gamma rays from the constellation Canes Venatici triggered the Burst Alert Telescope on NASA 's Swift satellite .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "GRB_090429B", "rank": 59, "score": 107755 }, { "content": "Title: Gravitation (disambiguation) Content: Gravitation is the mass-proportionate force of attraction among matter . Gravitation may also refer to : Newton 's law of universal gravitation , the classical theory of gravitation General relativity , the theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein Gravitation ( book ) , a reference book about Einstein 's theory of general relativity Gravitation ( film ) , a 1968 Yugoslav film Gravitation ( M. C. Escher ) , a mixed-media work by M. C. Escher Gravitation ( manga ) , a Yaoi/shonen-ai manga by Maki Murakami , and related media", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravitation_(disambiguation)", "rank": 60, "score": 107519 }, { "content": "Title: Gravitation (M. C. Escher) Content: Gravitation ( also known as Gravity ) is a mixed media work by the Dutch artist M. C. Escher completed in June 1952 . It was first printed as a black-and-white lithograph and then coloured by hand in watercolour . It depicts a nonconvex regular polyhedron known as the small stellated dodecahedron . Each facet of the figure has a trapezoidal doorway . Out of these doorways protrude the heads and legs of twelve turtles without shells , who are using the object as a common shell . The turtles are in six coloured pairs ( red , orange , yellow , magenta , green and indigo ) with each turtle directly opposite its counterpart .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravitation_(M._C._Escher)", "rank": 61, "score": 107438 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity-gradient stabilization Content: Gravity-gradient stabilization ( a.k.a. `` tidal stabilization '' ) is a method of stabilizing artificial satellites or space tethers in a fixed orientation using only the orbited body 's mass distribution and gravitational field . The main advantage over using active stabilization with propellants , gyroscopes or reaction wheels is the low use of power and resources . The idea is to use the Earth 's gravitational field and tidal forces to keep the spacecraft aligned in the desired orientation . The gravity of the Earth decreases according to the inverse-square law , and by extending the long axis perpendicular to the orbit , the `` lower '' part of the orbiting structure will be more attracted to the Earth . The effect is that the satellite will tend to align its axis of maximum moment of inertia vertically . The first experimental attempt to use the technique on a human spaceflight was performed on September 13 , 1966 , on the US Gemini 11 mission , by attaching the Gemini spacecraft to its Agena target vehicle by a 100 ft tether . The attempt was a failure , as insufficient gradient was produced to keep the tether taut . The technique was first successfully used in a near-geosynchronous orbit on the Department of Defense Gravity Experiment ( DODGE ) satellite in July 1967 . It was first used for low Earth orbit and tested unsuccessfully for geosynchronous orbit in the Applications Technology Satellites ATS-2 , ATS-4 and ATS-5 from 1966 until 1969 . Long Duration Exposure Facility ( LDEF ) used this method for 3-axis stabilization ; yaw about the vertical axis was stabilized . An example of gravity-gradient stabilization was attempted during NASA 's TSS-1 mission in July , 1992 . The project failed because of tether deployment problems . In 1996 another mission , TSS-1R , was attempted but failed when the tether broke . Just prior to tether separation , the tension on the tether was about 65 N ( 14.6 lbs ) .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravity-gradient_stabilization", "rank": 62, "score": 107309 }, { "content": "Title: Gamma-Ray Burst Optical/Near-Infrared Detector Content: The Gamma-Ray Burst Optical/Near-Infrared Detector ( GROND ) is an imaging instrument used to investigate Gamma-Ray Burst afterglows and for doing follow-up observations on exoplanets using transit photometry . It is operated at the 2.2-metre MPG/ESO telescope at ESO 's La Silla Observatory in the southern part of the Atacama desert , about 600 kilometres north of Santiago de Chile and at an altitude of 2,400 metres .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gamma-Ray_Burst_Optical/Near-Infrared_Detector", "rank": 63, "score": 107288 }, { "content": "Title: Schiehallion experiment Content: The Schiehallion experiment was an 18th-century experiment to determine the mean density of the Earth . Funded by a grant from the Royal Society , it was conducted in the summer of 1774 around the Scottish mountain of Schiehallion , Perthshire . The experiment involved measuring the tiny deflection of a pendulum due to the gravitational attraction of a nearby mountain . Schiehallion was considered the ideal location after a search for candidate mountains , thanks to its isolation and almost symmetrical shape . One of the triggers for the experiment were anomalies noted during the survey of the Mason -- Dixon Line . The experiment had previously been considered , but rejected , by Isaac Newton as a practical demonstration of his theory of gravitation . However , a team of scientists , notably Nevil Maskelyne , the Astronomer Royal , was convinced that the effect would be detectable and undertook to conduct the experiment . The deflection angle depended on the relative densities and volumes of the Earth and the mountain : if the density and volume of Schiehallion could be ascertained , then so could the density of the Earth . Once this was known , then this would in turn yield approximate values for those of the other planets , their moons , and the Sun , previously known only in terms of their relative ratios . As an additional benefit , the concept of contour lines , devised to simplify the process of surveying the mountain , later became a standard technique in cartography .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Schiehallion_experiment", "rank": 64, "score": 107018 }, { "content": "Title: Gravitational-wave observatory Content: A gravitational-wave observatory ( or gravitational-wave detector ) is any device designed to measure gravitational waves , tiny distortions of spacetime that were first predicted by Einstein in 1916 . Gravitational waves are perturbations in the theoretical curvature of spacetime caused by accelerated masses . The existence of gravitational radiation is a specific prediction of general relativity , but is a feature of all theories of gravity that obey special relativity . Since the 1960s , gravitational-wave detectors have been built and constantly improved . The present-day generation of resonant mass antennas and laser interferometers has reached the necessary sensitivity to detect gravitational waves from sources in the Milky Way . Gravitational-wave observatories are the primary tool of gravitational-wave astronomy . A number of experiments have provided indirect evidence , notably the observation of binary pulsars , the orbits of which evolve precisely matching the predictions of energy loss through general relativistic gravitational-wave emission . The 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for this work . In February 2016 , the Advanced LIGO team announced that they had detected gravitational waves from a black hole merger .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravitational-wave_observatory", "rank": 65, "score": 106643 }, { "content": "Title: Atom interferometer Content: An atom interferometer is an interferometer which uses the wave character of atoms . Similar to optical interferometers , atom interferometers measure the difference in phase between atomic matter waves along different paths . Atom interferometers have many uses in fundamental physics including measurements of the gravitational constant , the fine-structure constant , the universality of free fall , and have been proposed as a method to detect gravitational waves . They also have applied uses as accelerometers , rotation sensors , and gravity gradiometers .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Atom_interferometer", "rank": 66, "score": 106153 }, { "content": "Title: Aerial survey Content: Aerial survey is a method of collecting geomatics or other imagery by using aeroplanes , helicopters , UAVs , balloons or other aerial methods . Typical types of data collected are aerial photography , LiDAR , remote sensing ( using various visible and invisible bands of the electromagnetic spectrum , such as infrared , gamma , or ultraviolet ) and also geophysical data ( such as aeromagnetic surveys and gravity . It can also refer to the chart or map made by analysing a region from the air . Aerial survey should be distinguished from satellite imagery technologies because of its better resolution , quality and atmospheric conditions . Today , aerial survey is sometimes recognized as a synonym for aerophotogrammetry , part of photogrammetry where the camera is placed in the air . Measurements on aerial images are provided by photogrammetric technologies and methods . Aerial surveys can provide information on many things not visible from the ground .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Aerial_survey", "rank": 67, "score": 106135 }, { "content": "Title: SBUV/2 Content: The Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Radiometer , or SBUV/2 , is a series of operational remote sensors on NOAA weather satellites in Sun-synchronous orbits which have been providing global measurements of stratospheric total ozone , as well as ozone profiles , since March 1985 . The SBUV/2 instruments were developed from the SBUV experiment flown on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft which improved on the design of the original BUV instrument on Nimbus-4 . These are nadir viewing radiometric instruments operating at mid to near UV wavelengths . SBUV/2 data sets overlap with data from SBUV and TOMS instruments on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft . These extensive data sets ( January 1979 to the present ) measure the density and vertical distribution of ozone in the Earth 's atmosphere from six to 30 miles . SBUV/2 looks down at the Earth 's atmosphere and the reflected sunlight at wavelengths characteristic of ozone . The SBUV/2 wavelength `` channels '' range from 252 nanometer ( nm ) to 340 nm . Ozone is measured as a ratio of sunlight incident on the atmosphere to the amount of sunlight scattered back into space . From this information , the total ozone between the instrument and the ground can be calculated . The SBUV/2 measures solar irradiance and Earth radiance ( backscattered solar energy ) in the near ultraviolet spectrum ( 160 to 400 nm ) . The SBUV is capable of determining the global ozone concentration in the stratosphere to an absolute accuracy of 1 percent ; the vertical distribution of atmospheric ozone to an absolute accuracy of 5 percent ; the long-term solar spectral irradiance from 160 to 400 nm Photochemical process and the influence of `` trace '' constituents on the ozone layer . The Ball Aerospace-built SBUV/2 helped to discover the ozone hole over Antarctica in 1987 , and continues to monitor this phenomenon . Atmospheric ozone absorbs the sun 's ultraviolet rays , which are believed to cause gene mutations , skin cancer , and cataracts in humans . Ultraviolet rays may also damage crops and aquatic ecosystems . The first SBUV/2 instrument was launched on NOAA-9 in December 1984 and the last instrument in this series was launched in February 2009 aboard the NOAA-19 spacecraft .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "SBUV/2", "rank": 68, "score": 106006 }, { "content": "Title: Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment Content: The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment ( SAGE ) is a series of remote sensing satellite instruments used to study the chemical composition of earth 's atmosphere . Specifically , SAGE has been used to study the Earth 's ozone layer and aerosols at the troposphere through the stratosphere . The SAGE instruments use solar occultation measurement technique to determine chemical concentrations in the atmosphere . Solar occultation measurement technique measures sunlight through the atmosphere and ratios that measurement with a sunlight measurement without atmospheric attenuation . This is achieved by observing sunrises and sunsets during a satellite orbit . Physically , the SAGE instruments measure ultraviolet/visible energy and this is converted via algorithms to determine chemical concentrations . SAGE data has been used to study the atmospheres aerosols , ozone , water vapor , and other trace gases .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Stratospheric_Aerosol_and_Gas_Experiment", "rank": 69, "score": 105879 }, { "content": "Title: History of gravitational theory Content: In physics , theories of gravitation postulate mechanisms of interaction governing the movements of bodies with mass . There have been numerous theories of gravitation since ancient times .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "History_of_gravitational_theory", "rank": 70, "score": 105764 }, { "content": "Title: Barycentric celestial reference system Content: The Barycentric celestial reference system ( BCRS ) is a coordinate system used in astrometry to specify the location and motions of astronomical objects . It was created in 2000 by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) to be the global standard reference system for objects located outside the gravitational vicinity of Earth : planets , moons , and other Solar System bodies , stars and other objects in the Milky Way galaxy , and extra-galactic objects . The Geocentric Celestial Reference System ( GCRS ) , also created by the IAU in 2000 , is a similar standard coordinate system used to specify the location and motions of near-earth objects , such as satellites . These systems make it easier for scientists and engineers to compile , share , compare , and convert accurate measurements worldwide , by establishing standards both of measure and of methodology , and providing a consistent framework of operations . The focus of the BCRS is on astronomy : exploration of the Solar System and the universe . The BCRS is the system currently used for expressing positional data in astronomical references , such as the Hipparcos star catalog . The focus of the GCRS is somewhat more on the navigation of Earth satellites and the geophysical applications they support . The proper functioning of the Global Positioning System ( GPS ) is directly dependent upon the accuracy of satellite measurements as supported by the GCRS .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Barycentric_celestial_reference_system", "rank": 71, "score": 105659 }, { "content": "Title: Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer Content: Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer or TES is a satellite instrument designed to measure the state of the earth 's troposphere . It is an infrared Fourier Transform spectrometer and provides key data for studying tropospheric chemistry , troposphere-biosphere interaction , and troposphere-stratosphere exchanges . TES is built for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , California Institute of Technology in Pasadena , California . It was successfully launched into polar orbit aboard NASA 's third Earth Observing Systems spacecraft ( EOS-Aura ) at 10:02 UTC on July 15 , 2004 .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Tropospheric_Emission_Spectrometer", "rank": 72, "score": 105505 }, { "content": "Title: Inertial measurement unit Content: An inertial measurement unit ( IMU ) is an electronic device that measures and reports a body 's specific force , angular rate , and sometimes the magnetic field surrounding the body , using a combination of accelerometers and gyroscopes , sometimes also magnetometers . IMUs are typically used to maneuver aircraft , including unmanned aerial vehicles ( UAVs ) , among many others , and spacecraft , including satellites and landers . Recent developments allow for the production of IMU-enabled GPS devices . An IMU allows a GPS receiver to work when GPS-signals are unavailable , such as in tunnels , inside buildings , or when electronic interference is present . A wireless IMU is known as a WIMU .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Inertial_measurement_unit", "rank": 73, "score": 105374 }, { "content": "Title: Self-gravitation Content: Self-gravity is the gravitational force exerted on a body , or a group of bodies , by the body ( ies ) that allows it/them to be held together . Self-gravity ( self-gravitation ) has important effects in the fields of astronomy , physics , seismology , geology , and oceanography . Self-gravity has important impacts in regard to the physical behavior on large scale ( planet size or larger ) objects , such as the oceans on Earth or the rings of Saturn . The equation to calculate the effects of self-gravitation were made exact by Lynden-Bell for the purpose of giving an exact description of models for rotating flattened globular clusters , which was a crucial step in understanding how clusters of stars interact with each other . Self-gravity deals with large-scale observations in fields outside of astronomy as well . Self-gravity does not typically appear as the central focus of scientific research , but understanding it and being able to include its effects mathematically increases the accuracy of models and understanding large-scale systems .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Self-gravitation", "rank": 74, "score": 105264 }, { "content": "Title: Velocimetry Content: Velocimetry is the measurement of the velocity of fluids , as often used to solve fluid dynamics problems , or to study fluid networks , as well as in industrial and process control applications , or in the creation of new kinds of fluid flow sensors . Methods of velocimetry include particle image velocimetry and particle tracking velocimetry , Molecular tagging velocimetry , laser-based interferometry , ultrasonic Doppler methods , Doppler sensors , and new signal processing methodologies . Spatial reconstruction of fluid streamtubes using long exposure imaging of tracer can be applied for streamlines imaging velocimetry , high resolution frame rate free velocimetry of stationary flows . Temporal integration of velocimetric information can be used to totalize fluid flow . For measuring velocity and length on moving surfaces , laser surface velocimeters are used . In general , velocity measurements are made in the Lagrangian or Eulerian frames of reference ( see Lagrangian and Eulerian coordinates ) . Lagrangian methods assign a velocity to a volume of fluid at a given time , whereas Eulerian methods assign a velocity to a volume of the measurement domain at a given time . A classic example of the distinction is particle tracking velocimetry , where the idea is to find the velocity of individual flow tracer particles ( Lagrangian ) and particle image velocimetry , where the objective is to find the average velocity within a sub-region of the field of view ( Eulerian ) .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Velocimetry", "rank": 75, "score": 104913 }, { "content": "Title: SECOR Content: SECOR spacecraft are satellites used by the United States armed forces for geodesy measurements that precisely determined the locations of points on the Earth 's surface . Experiments with these spacecraft led to the Timation and GPS Navstar systems .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "SECOR", "rank": 76, "score": 104478 }, { "content": "Title: Gradiometer Content: A gradiometer measures the gradient ( numerical rate of change ) of a physical quantity , such as a magnetic field or gravity .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gradiometer", "rank": 77, "score": 104020 }, { "content": "Title: Photogrammetry Content: Photogrammetry is the science of making measurements from photographs , especially for recovering the exact positions of surface points . Photogrammetry is as old as modern photography , dating to the mid-19th century and in the simplest example , the distance between two points that lie on a plane parallel to the photographic image plane , can be determined by measuring their distance on the image , if the scale ( s ) of the image is known . Photogrammetric analysis may be applied to one photograph , or may use high-speed photography and remote sensing to detect , measure and record complex 2-D and 3-D motion fields by feeding measurements and imagery analysis into computational models in an attempt to successively estimate , with increasing accuracy , the actual , 3-D relative motions . From its beginning with the stereoplotters used to plot contour lines on topographic maps , it now has a very wide range of uses . ( See also sonar , radar , lidar , etc. ) .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Photogrammetry", "rank": 78, "score": 104019 }, { "content": "Title: Gaia (spacecraft) Content: Gaia is a space observatory of the European Space Agency ( ESA ) designed for astrometry : measuring the positions and distances of stars with unprecedented precision . The mission aims to construct the largest and most precise 3D space catalog ever made , totalling approximately 1 billion astronomical objects , mainly stars but also planets , comets , asteroids and quasars among others . The spacecraft will monitor each of its target objects about 70 times over a period of five years to study the precise position and motion of each target . The spacecraft has enough consumables to operate for approximately nine years , and its detectors are not degrading as fast as initially expected . The mission could therefore be extended . The Gaia targets represent approximately 1 % of the Milky Way population with all stars brighter than magnitude 20 in a broad photometric band that covers most of the visual range . Additionally , Gaia is expected to detect thousands to tens of thousands of Jupiter-sized exoplanets beyond the Solar System , 500,000 quasars and tens of thousands of new asteroids and comets within the Solar System . Gaia will create a precise three-dimensional map of astronomical objects throughout the Milky Way and map their motions , which encode the origin and subsequent evolution of the Milky Way . The spectrophotometric measurements will provide the detailed physical properties of all stars observed , characterizing their luminosity , effective temperature , gravity and elemental composition . This massive stellar census will provide the basic observational data to tackle a wide range of important questions related to the origin , structure , and evolutionary history of our galaxy . Successor to the Hipparcos mission , the telescope is part of ESA 's Horizon 2000 + long-term scientific program . Gaia was launched on 19 December 2013 by Arianespace using a Soyuz ST-B/Fregat-MT rocket flying from Kourou in French Guiana . The spacecraft currently operates in a Lissajous orbit around the Sun -- Earth L2 Lagrangian point .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gaia_(spacecraft)", "rank": 79, "score": 103780 }, { "content": "Title: Star transit Content: A star transit is the passage of a star across the field of view of a telescope eyepiece . The precise observation of star transits is the basis of many methods in astronomy and in geodesy . The measurements can be done in different ways : visually ( mostly up to 1990 ) : accuracy 0,1 '' to 2 '' ( depending on the instrument ) ; timing with digital clocks about 0,05 -- 0,2 seconds by CCD and other electro-optical sensors : as above , time often better semi automatic instruments : Photography or `` impersonal micrometer '' , ca. 2 times better than No. 1 by Scanning methods : Astrometry satellites like Hipparcos about 0,01 '' .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Star_transit", "rank": 80, "score": 103737 }, { "content": "Title: Dynamic method Content: The dynamic method is a procedure for the determination of the masses of asteroids . The procedure gets its name from its use of the Newtonian laws of the dynamics , or motion , of asteroids as they move around the Solar System . The procedure works by taking multiple position measurements to determine the gravitational deflection caused when two or more asteroids move past each other . The method relies on the fact that the large number of known asteroids means they will occasionally move past one another at very close distances . If at least one of the two interacting bodies is large enough , its gravitational influence on the other can reveal its mass . The accuracy of the determined mass is limited by the precision and timing of the appropriate astrometric observations being made to determine the gravitational deflection caused by a given interaction . Because the method relies on detecting the amount of gravitational deflection induced during an interaction , the procedure works best for objects which will produce a large deflection in their interactions with other objects . This means that the procedure works best for large objects , but it can also be effectively applied to objects which have repeated close interactions with each other such as when the two objects are in orbital resonance with one another . Regardless of the mass of the interacting objects , the amount of deflection will be greater if the objects approach nearer to each other and it will also be greater if the objects pass slowly , allowing more time for gravity to perturb the orbits of the two objects . For large enough asteroids this distance can be as large as ~ 0.1 AU , for less massive asteroids the conditions of the interaction would need to be correspondingly better .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Dynamic_method", "rank": 81, "score": 103481 }, { "content": "Title: AATSR Content: The Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer ( AATSR ) is one of the Announcement of Opportunity ( AO ) instruments on board the European Space Agency ( ESA ) 's Envisat satellite . This instrument is a multi-channel imaging radiometer with the principal objective of providing data concerning global Sea Surface Temperature ( SST ) to the high levels of accuracy and stability required for monitoring and carrying out research into the behaviour of the Earth 's climate . AATSR can measure Earth 's surface temperature to a precision of 0.3 K-change , for climate research . Among the secondary objectives of AATSR is the observation of environmental parameters such as aerosols , clouds , fires , gas flares , water content , biomass , and vegetal health and growth . AATSR is the successor of ATSR-1 and ATSR-2 , payloads of ERS-1 and ERS-2 .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "AATSR", "rank": 82, "score": 103480 }, { "content": "Title: K2-22b Content: K2-22b ( also known as EPIC 201637175 b ) is an exoplanet 734 ly from Earth , rapidly orbiting the red dwarf K2-22 with an orbital period of 9.145872 hours . It has a mass below 445 Me and a radius below 2.5 Re . The planet was not detected in the K2 photometry . K2 photometry reveals the presence of an anomalous light curve consistent with evaporation of dust from the planet . This dust forms a tail both ahead and behind the planet , similar to some comets in the Solar System . The evaporation of this dust requires a low surface gravity from the host planet , implying it is a low mass , `` Mars , Mercury , or even lunar sized bodies with surface gravities of 1/6 to 1/3 that of Earth are to be preferred . '' The exoplanet is a hot Jupiter , and it orbits its host star very closely . Its semi-major axis is among the smallest for hot Jupiters .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "K2-22b", "rank": 83, "score": 103450 }, { "content": "Title: Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer Content: The Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer ( MISR ) is a scientific instrument on the Terra satellite launched by NASA on December 18 , 1999 . This device is designed to measure the intensity of solar radiation reflected by the Earth system ( planetary surface and atmosphere ) in various directions and spectral bands ; it became operational in February 2000 . Data generated by this sensor have been proven useful in a variety of applications including atmospheric sciences , climatology and monitoring terrestrial processes . The MISR instrument consists of an innovative configuration of nine separate digital cameras that gather data in four different spectral bands of the solar spectrum . One camera points toward the nadir , while the others provide forward and aftward view angles at 26.1 ° , 45.6 ° , 60.0 ° , and 70.5 ° . As the instrument flies overhead , each region of the Earth 's surface is successively imaged by all nine cameras in each of four wavelengths ( blue , green , red , and near-infrared ) . The data gathered by MISR are useful in climatological studies concerning the disposition of the solar radiation flux in the Earth 's system . MISR is specifically designed to monitor the monthly , seasonal , and long-term trends of atmospheric aerosol particle concentrations including those formed by natural sources and by human activities , upper air winds and cloud cover , type , height , as well as the characterization of land surface properties , including the structure of vegetation canopies , the distribution of land cover types , or the properties of snow and ice fields , amongst many other biogeophysical variables .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Multi-angle_Imaging_SpectroRadiometer", "rank": 84, "score": 103376 }, { "content": "Title: Gravitational constant Content: The gravitational constant ( also known as `` universal gravitational constant '' , or as `` Newton 's constant '' ) , denoted by the letter , is an empirical physical constant involved in the calculation of gravitational effects in Sir Isaac Newton 's law of universal gravitation and in Albert Einstein 's general theory of relativity . Its measured value is", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravitational_constant", "rank": 85, "score": 103164 }, { "content": "Title: Spacecraft magnetometer Content: Spacecraft magnetometers are magnetometers used aboard spacecraft and satellites , mostly for scientific investigations , plus attitude sensing . Magnetometers are among the most widely used scientific instruments in exploratory and observation satellites . These instruments were instrumental in the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belts around Earth by Explorer 1 , and have detailed the magnetic fields of the Earth , Moon , Sun , Mars , Venus and other planets . There are ongoing missions using magnetometers , including attempts to define the shape and activity of Saturn 's core . The first spacecraft-borne magnetometer was placed on the Sputnik 3 spacecraft in 1958 and the most detailed magnetic observations of the Earth have been performed by the Magsat and Ørsted satellites . Magnetometers were taken to the Moon during the later Apollo missions . Many instruments have been used to measure the strength and direction of magnetic field lines around Earth and the solar system . Spacecraft magnetometers basically fall into three categories : fluxgate , search-coil and ionized gas magnetometers . The most accurate magnetometer complexes on spacecraft contain two separate instruments , with a helium ionized gas magnetometer used to calibrate the fluxgate instrument for more accurate readings . Many later magnetometers contain small ring-coils oriented at 90 ° in two dimensions relative to each other forming a triaxial framework for indicating direction of magnetic field .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Spacecraft_magnetometer", "rank": 86, "score": 103039 }, { "content": "Title: Graviscalar Content: In theoretical physics , a graviscalar ( also known as a radion ) is a hypothetical particle that emerges as an excitation of the metric tensor ( i.e. gravitational field ) but whose physical properties are virtually indistinguishable from a scalar in four dimensions , as shown in Kaluza -- Klein theory . The scalar field comes from a component of the metric tensor where the figure 5 labels an additional , fifth dimension . It can be thought of as a measure of the size of the extra dimension , with variations in the scalar field representing variations in the size of the extra dimensions . In models with multiple extra dimensions , there exist several such particles . In theories with extended supersymmetry , a graviscalar is usually a superpartner of the graviton that behaves as a particle with spin 0 . This concept is closely related to that of gauged Higgs models .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Graviscalar", "rank": 87, "score": 102749 }, { "content": "Title: Laramie Potts Content: Laramie Potts is an American scientist at Ohio State University who identified the Wilkes Land mass concentration in Antarctica in collaboration with Ralph von Frese . He is from South Africa . He currently ( December 2010 ) teaches geomatics ( surveying ) at the New Jersey Institute of Technology . Potts is a Post-Doctoral Researcher in Civil and Environmental Engineering and Geodetic Science . He and von Frese used gravity measurements by NASA 's GRACE satellites to identify a 200-mile ( 300 km ) wide mass concentration . This mass anomaly is centered within a larger ring-like structure visible in radar images of the land surface beneath the Antarctic ice cap . This combination led these researchers to speculate that it may be the result of a large impact event .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Laramie_Potts", "rank": 88, "score": 102739 }, { "content": "Title: Bhangmeter Content: A bhangmeter is a non-imaging radiometer installed on reconnaissance and navigation satellites to detect atmospheric nuclear detonations and determine the yield of the nuclear weapon . They are also installed on some armored fighting vehicles , in particular NBC reconnaissance vehicles , in order to help detect , localise and analyse tactical nuclear detonations . They are often used alongside pressure & sound sensors in this role in addition to standard radiation sensors . Some nuclear bunkers and military facilities may also be equipped with such sensors alongside seismic event detectors .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Bhangmeter", "rank": 89, "score": 102496 }, { "content": "Title: Dynamic vapor sorption Content: Dynamic vapor sorption ( DVS ) is a gravimetric technique that measures how quickly and how much of a solvent is absorbed by a sample : such as a dry powder absorbing water . It does this by varying the vapor concentration surrounding the sample and measuring the change in mass which this produces . Water vapor is most commonly used , but it is also possible to use a wide range of organic solvents . Dr Daryl Williams , founder of Surface Measurement Systems Ltd , invented Dynamic Vapor Sorption in 1991 and the first instrument was delivered to Pfizer UK in 1992 . DVS was originally developed to replace the time and labor-intensive desiccators and saturated salt solutions to measure water vapor sorption isotherms .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Dynamic_vapor_sorption", "rank": 90, "score": 102441 }, { "content": "Title: Stellar kinematics Content: In astronomy , stellar kinematics is the observational study or measurement of the kinematics or motions of stars through space . The subject of stellar kinematics encompasses the measurement of stellar velocities in the Milky Way and its satellites as well as the measurement of the internal kinematics of more distant galaxies . Measurement of the kinematics of stars in different subcomponents of the Milky Way including the thin disk , the thick disk , the bulge , and the stellar halo provides important information about the formation and evolutionary history of our Galaxy . Kinematic measurements can also identify exotic phenomena such as hypervelocity stars escaping from the Milky Way , which are interpreted as the result of gravitational encounters of binary stars with the supermassive black hole at the Galactic Center . Stellar kinematics is related to but distinct from the subject of stellar dynamics , which involves the theoretical study or modeling of the motions of stars under the influence of gravity . Stellar-dynamical models of systems such as galaxies or star clusters are often compared with or tested against stellar-kinematic data to study their evolutionary history and mass distributions , and to detect the presence of dark matter or supermassive black holes through their gravitational influence on stellar orbits .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Stellar_kinematics", "rank": 91, "score": 102401 }, { "content": "Title: MOPITT Content: MOPITT ( Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere ) is a payload scientific instrument launched into Earth orbit by NASA on board the Terra satellite in 1999 . It is designed to monitor changes in pollution patterns and its effect in the lower atmosphere of the Earth . The instrument was funded by the Space Science Division of the Canadian Space Agency .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "MOPITT", "rank": 92, "score": 102301 }, { "content": "Title: Gal (unit) Content: The gal ( symbol Gal ) , sometimes called galileo after Galileo Galilei , is a unit of acceleration used extensively in the science of gravimetry . The gal is defined as 1 centimeter per second squared ( 1 cm/s2 ) . The milligal ( mGal ) and microgal ( µGal ) refer respectively to one thousandth and one millionth of a gal . The gal is not part of the International System of Units ( known by its French-language initials `` SI '' ) . In 1978 the CIPM decided that it was permissible to use the gal `` with the SI until the CIPM considers that -LSB- its -RSB- use is no longer necessary '' . However , use of the gal is deprecated by ISO 80000-3 :2006 . The gal is a derived unit , defined in terms of the centimeter-gram-second ( CGS ) base unit of length , the centimeter , and the second , which is the base unit of time in both the CGS and the modern SI system . In SI base units , 1 Gal is equal to 0.01 m/s2 . The acceleration due to Earth 's gravity ( see Standard gravity ) at its surface is 976 to 983 Gal , the variation being due mainly to differences in latitude and elevation . Mountains and masses of lesser density within the Earth 's crust typically cause variations in gravitational acceleration of tens to hundreds of milligals ( mGal ) . The gravity gradient ( variation with height ) above Earth 's surface is about 3.1 µGal per centimeter of height , resulting in a maximal difference of about 2 Gal ( 0.02 m/s2 ) from the top of Mount Everest to sea level . Unless it is being used at the beginning of a sentence or in paragraph or section titles , the unit name gal is properly spelled with a lowercase g . As with the torr and its symbol , the unit name ( gal ) and its symbol ( Gal ) are spelled identically except that the latter is capitalized .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gal_(unit)", "rank": 93, "score": 102236 }, { "content": "Title: GRB 080913 Content: GRB 080913 was a gamma-ray burst ( GRB ) observed on September 13 , 2008 . The Swift Gamma-Ray Burst satellite made the detection , with follow-up and additional observations from ground-based observatories and instruments , including the Gamma-Ray Burst Optical/Near-Infrared Detector ( GROND ) and the Very Large Telescope . At 12.8 billion light-years and redshift of 6.7 , the burst was the most distant GRB observed until GRB 090423 on April 23 , 2009 . This stellar explosion occurred around 825 million years after the Big Bang .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "GRB_080913", "rank": 94, "score": 102054 }, { "content": "Title: Odin-OSIRIS Content: OSIRIS ( Optical Spectrograph and InfraRed Imager System ) is an instrument that measures vertical profiles of spectrally dispersed , limb scattered sunlight from the upper troposphere into the lower mesosphere . OSIRIS is one of two instruments on the Odin satellite , launched February , 2001 ( the other instrument being a sub-mm radiometer ) into a sun-synchronous , 6 pm/6 am local time orbit at 600 km . This restricts OSIRIS sunlit observations to the Northern hemisphere in May , June , July August and the Southern hemisphere in November , December , January and February . Global coverage from 82 ° S to 82 ° N occurs on the months adjoining the equinoxes . OSIRIS measurements began November , 2001 and continue to the present .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Odin-OSIRIS", "rank": 95, "score": 101706 }, { "content": "Title: Photometry (astronomy) Content: Photometry is a technique of astronomy concerned with measuring the flux , or intensity of an astronomical object 's electromagnetic radiation . When photometry is performed over broad wavelength bands of radiation , where not only the amount of radiation but also its spectral distribution is measured , the term spectrophotometry is used . The word is composed of the Greek affixes photo - ( `` light '' ) and - metry ( `` measure '' ) .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Photometry_(astronomy)", "rank": 96, "score": 101564 }, { "content": "Title: Center for Computational Relativity and Gravitation Content: The Center for Computational Relativity and Gravitation ( CCRG ) is a Research Center of the College of Science ( COS ) and a Research Center of Excellence at Rochester Institute of Technology ( RIT ) dedicated to research at the frontiers of numerical relativity and relativistic astrophysics , gravitational-wave physics , its connection to experiments and observations , and high-performance computation and scientific visualization . Faculty members currently include Hans-Peter Bischof , Joshua Faber , Manuela Campanelli ( Director ) , Carlos Lousto , David Merritt , John Whelan and Yosef Zlochower . Computing facilities in the CCRG include gravitySimulator , a 32-node computer that uses special-purpose GRAPE hardware to achieve speeds of 4Tflops in gravitational N-body calculations ; and NewHorizons , a 104-node Linux cluster with dual-processor ( dual-core ) per node and a total of 1.4 Tbytes of on-board memory . The mission of the CCRG is `` to promote excellence in research and education , and to advance discovery beyond the frontiers of current knowledge in key research areas of computational astrophysics , gravitational physics , high-performance computing and scientific visualization . ''", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Center_for_Computational_Relativity_and_Gravitation", "rank": 97, "score": 101558 }, { "content": "Title: Strainmeter Content: A strainmeter is an instrument used by geophysicists to measure the deformation of the Earth . Linear strainmeters measure the changes in the distance between two points , using either a solid piece of material ( over a short distance ) or a laser interferometer ( over a long distance , up to several hundred meters ) . The type using a solid length standard was invented by Benioff in 1932 , using an iron pipe ; later instruments used rods made of fused quartz . Modern instruments of this type can make measurements of length changes over very small distances , and are commonly placed in boreholes to measure small changes in the diameter of the borehole . Another type of borehole instrument detects changes in a volume filled with fluid ( such as silicone oil ) . The most common type is the dilatometer invented by Sacks and Evertson in the USA ( patent 3,635,076 ) ; a design that uses specially shaped volumes to measure the strain tensor has been developed by Sakata in Japan . All these types of strainmeters can measure deformation over frequencies from a few Hz to periods of days , months , and years . This allows them to measure signals at lower frequencies than can be detected with seismometers . Most strainmeter records show signals from the earth tides , and seismic waves from earthquakes . At longer periods , they can also record the gradual accumulation of stress ( physics ) caused by plate tectonics , the release of this stress in earthquakes , and rapid changes of stress following earthquakes . The most extensive network of strainmeters is installed in Japan ; it includes mostly quartz-bar instruments in tunnels and borehole strainmeters , with a few laser instruments . Starting in 2003 there has been a major effort ( the Plate Boundary Observatory ) to install many more strainmeters along the Pacific/North-America plate boundary in the United States . The aim is to install about 100 borehole strainmeters , primarily in Washington , Oregon and California , and five laser strainmeters , all in California .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Strainmeter", "rank": 98, "score": 101367 }, { "content": "Title: AURIGA Content: AURIGA ( Antenna Ultracriogenica Risonante per l'Indagine Gravitazionale Astronomica ) is an ultracryogenic resonant bar gravitational wave detector in Italy . It is at the Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro of the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare , near Padova . It is being used for research into gravitational waves and quantum gravity . When the oscillator gets hit with a burst of gravitational waves , it will excite the oscillator and it will vibrate for a time span longer than the duration of the gravitational wave burst . This allows for the extraction of the signal from the detector .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "AURIGA", "rank": 99, "score": 100980 }, { "content": "Title: Gravitation (book) Content: Gravitation is a physics book on Einstein 's theory of gravity , written by Charles W. Misner , Kip S. Thorne , and John Archibald Wheeler and originally published by W. H. Freeman and Company in 1973 . Owing to its prominence , it is frequently abbreviated MTW after its authors ' initials . The book , which has more than 1200 pages , resembles a large telephone book in size and shape . The cover illustration , drawn by Kenneth Gwin , is a line drawing of an apple with cuts in the skin to show geodesics . It contains 10 parts and 44 chapters , each beginning with a quotation . The bibliography has a long list of original sources and other notable books in the field . The level of the book is advanced , with the intended audience at the graduate-level and above .", "qid": "2895", "docid": "Gravitation_(book)", "rank": 100, "score": 100265 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Post-glacial rebound Content: Post-glacial rebound ( also called either isostatic rebound or crustal rebound ) is the rise of land masses that were depressed by the huge weight of ice sheets during the last glacial period , through a process known as isostatic depression . Post-glacial rebound and isostatic depression are different parts of a process known as either glacial isostasy , glacial isostatic adjustment , or glacioisostasy . Glacioisostasy is the solid Earth deformation associated with changes in ice mass distribution . The most obvious and direct effects of post-glacial rebound are readily apparent in parts of Northern Eurasia , Northern America , Patagonia , and Antarctica . However , through processes known as ocean siphoning and continental levering , the effects of post-glacial rebound on sea level are felt globally far from the locations of current and former ice sheets .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Post-glacial_rebound", "rank": 1, "score": 227599 }, { "content": "Title: Isostatic depression Content: Isostatic depression is the sinking of large parts of the Earth 's crust into the asthenosphere . The sinking is caused by a heavy weight placed on the Earth 's surface . Often this is caused by the heavy weight of glacial ice due to continental glaciation . This is a process in which permanent ice places pressure on the Earth 's crust , thereby depressing it with its weight . After continental glaciation has receded , it is common for isostatic rebound to occur .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Isostatic_depression", "rank": 2, "score": 171073 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level equation Content: The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Sea_level_equation", "rank": 3, "score": 133004 }, { "content": "Title: Isostasy Content: Isostasy ( Greek ἴσος `` equal '' , στάσις `` standstill '' ) is the state of gravitational equilibrium between Earth 's crust and mantle such that the crust `` floats '' at an elevation that depends on its thickness and density . This concept is invoked to explain how different topographic heights can exist at Earth 's surface . When a certain area of Earth 's crust reaches the state of isostasy , it is said to be in isostatic equilibrium . Isostasy does not upset equilibrium but instead restores it ( a negative feedback ) . It is generally accepted that Earth is a dynamic system that responds to loads in many different ways . However , isostasy provides an important ` view ' of the processes that are happening in areas that are experiencing vertical movement . Certain areas ( such as the Himalayas ) are not in isostatic equilibrium , which has forced researchers to identify other reasons to explain their topographic heights ( in the case of the Himalayas , which are still rising , by proposing that their elevation is being `` propped-up '' by the force of the impacting Indian plate ; the Basin and Range Province of the Western US is another example of a region not in isostatic equilibrium . ) Although originally defined in terms of continental crust and mantle , it has subsequently been interpreted in terms of lithosphere and asthenosphere , particularly with respect to oceanic island volcanoes such as the Hawaiian Islands . In the simplest example , isostasy is the principle of buoyancy wherein an object immersed in a fluid is buoyed with a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid . On a geological scale , isostasy can be observed where Earth 's strong crust or lithosphere exerts stress on the weaker mantle or asthenosphere , which , over geological time , flows laterally such that the load is accommodated by height adjustments . The general term ` isostasy ' was coined in the year 1889 by the American geologist Clarence Dutton .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Isostasy", "rank": 4, "score": 132945 }, { "content": "Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Quaternary_glaciation", "rank": 5, "score": 130376 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback", "rank": 6, "score": 128097 }, { "content": "Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Glacier_mass_balance", "rank": 7, "score": 122820 }, { "content": "Title: Glacial polish Content: Glacial polish is a characteristic of rock surfaces where glaciers have passed over bedrock , typically granite or other hard igneous or metamorphic rock . Moving ice will carry pebbles and sand grains removed from upper levels which in turn grind a smooth or grooved surface upon the underlying rock . The presence of such polish indicates that the glaciation was relatively recent ( in geologic time scale ) or was subsequently protected by deposition , as such polish will be subsequently lost due to weathering processes ( such as exfoliation ) .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Glacial_polish", "rank": 8, "score": 121887 }, { "content": "Title: Lithospheric flexure Content: The lithospheric flexure ( also called regional isostasy ) is the process by which the lithosphere ( rigid outer layer of the Earth ) bends under the action of forces such as the weight of a growing orogen or changes in ice thickness related to ( de ) glaciations . The lithosphere is a thin , outer , rigid layer of the Earth resting on the asthenosphere , a viscous layer that in geological time scales behaves as a viscous fluid . Thus , when loaded , the lithosphere progressively reaches an isostatic equilibrium , which is the name of the Archimedes principle applied to these geological settings . This phenomenon was first described in the late 19th century to explain the shorelines uplifted in Scandinavia due to the removal of large ice massed during the last glaciation . G. K. Gilbert used it to explain the uplifted shorelines of Lake Bonneville . The geometry of the lithospheric bending is often modeled adopting a pure elastic thin plate approach ( sometimes by fitting the gravity anomaly produced by that bending rather than more direct data of it ) . The thickness of such plate that best fits the observed lithospheric bending is called the equivalent elastic thickness of the lithosphere , and is related to the stiffness or rigidity of the lithosphere . These lithospheric bending calculations are typically performed following the Euler-Bernoulli bending formulation , or alternatively the Lagrange equation ( Love-Kirchhoff ) .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Lithospheric_flexure", "rank": 9, "score": 117531 }, { "content": "Title: Heard Island glaciers Content: The Heard Island glaciers covered 79 percent of Heard Island itself , in 1947 , covering 288 km2 ; by 1988 , this had decreased by 11 percent to 257 km2 . The glaciers fall under the Antarctic Environmental Gradient , which spans 30 degrees of latitude and includes a range of macro-climatic zones from cool temperate islands to the frigid and arid Antarctic continent . Glaciers extend from 2745 m to sea level , with ice up to 150 m deep.The geologic movement of the glaciers can appear fast-flowing due to the steep slope and high precipitation , and are particularly sensitive to climatic fluctuations . Measurements between 1947 and 1980 show glacial retreat , particularly on the eastern flanks , is correlated with changes in weather patterns . A 29 % reduction in area of the Brown Glacier from 1947-2003 was observed . The volcano Big Ben , from which all the glaciers drain , has shown no sign of changing geothermal output to cause the melting ; a 1 degree Celsius warming has occurred over the same time period . Glaciologists continue to study the Brown Glacier , detailing surveys of the glacier 's snout and surface , which determine if glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated . Measurements on the mass balance of the glacier , as well as more detailed ice thickness measurements using a portable radar echo sounder , were undertaken . Monitoring of climatic conditions continues , with emphasis on the impact of Foehn winds on glacier mass balance . An expedition by scientists from the Australian Antarctic Division recently visited the volcanic island in 2009 , observing glaciers that had retreated 50 metres in three years . Repairs were made to an automatic weather station established in November 2000 . Glaciologist Dr. Ian Allison cites that the latest aerial surveys that show continuous rapid melt and that satellite imagery shows the island double in size due to volcanic activity .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Heard_Island_glaciers", "rank": 10, "score": 116895 }, { "content": "Title: List of glaciers Content: A glacier ( -LSB- ˈɡleɪʃər -RSB- ) or ( -LSB- ˈɡlæsiə -RSB- ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight ; it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation ( melting and sublimation ) over many years , often centuries . Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight , creating crevasses , seracs , and other distinguishing features . Because glacial mass is affected by long-term climate changes , e.g. , precipitation , mean temperature , and cloud cover , glacial mass changes are considered among the most sensitive indicators of climate change .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "List_of_glaciers", "rank": 11, "score": 115935 }, { "content": "Title: Proglacial lake Content: In geology , a proglacial lake is a lake formed either by the damming action of a moraine or ice dam during the retreat of a melting glacier , or by meltwater trapped against an ice sheet due to isostatic depression of the crust around the ice . At the end of the last ice age approximately 10,000 years ago , large proglacial lakes were a widespread feature in the northern hemisphere . In some cases , such lakes gradually evaporated during the warming period after the Quaternary ice age . In other cases , such as Glacial Lake Missoula and Glacial Lake Wisconsin in the United States , the sudden rupturing of the supporting dam caused glacial lake outburst floods , the rapid and catastrophic release of dammed water resulting in the formation of gorges and other structures downstream from the former lake . Good examples of these structures can be found in the Channeled Scablands of eastern Washington , an area heavily eroded by the Missoula Floods . In Great Britain , Lake Lapworth , Lake Harrison and Lake Pickering were examples of proglacial lakes . Ironbridge Gorge in Shropshire and Hubbard 's Hills in Lincolnshire are examples of a glacial overspill channel created when the water of a proglacial lake rose high enough to breach the lowest point in the containing watershed . The receding glaciers of the tropical Andes have formed a number of proglacial lakes , especially in the Cordillera Blanca of Peru , where 70 % of all tropical glaciers are . Several such lakes have formed rapidly during the 20th century . These lakes may burst , creating a hazard for zones below . Many natural dams ( usually moraines ) containing the lake water have been reinforced with safety dams . Some 34 such dams have been built in the Cordillera Blanca to contain proglacial lakes . Several proglacial lakes have also formed in recent decades at the end of glaciers on the eastern side of New Zealand 's Southern Alps . The most accessible , Lake Tasman , hosts boat trips for tourists .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Proglacial_lake", "rank": 12, "score": 115194 }, { "content": "Title: Ice sheet Content: An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2 , thus also known as continental glacier . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland ; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America , the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America . Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers . Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap . An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery . Although the surface is cold , the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat . In places , melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly . This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet -- these are ice streams . The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms . The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a small ice cap ( maybe several ) in the early Oligocene , but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene , when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica . The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene , but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation . This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ice_sheet", "rank": 13, "score": 113994 }, { "content": "Title: Ablation zone Content: Ablation zone or ablation area refers to the low-altitude area of a glacier or ice sheet below firn with a net loss in ice mass due to melting , sublimation , evaporation , ice calving , aeolian processes like blowing snow , avalanche , and any other ablation . The equilibrium line altitude ( ELA ) or snow line separates the ablation zone from the higher-altitude accumulation zone . The ablation zone often contains meltwater features such as supraglacial lakes , englacial streams , and subglacial lakes . Sediments dropped in the ablation zone forming small mounds or hillocks are called kames . Kame and kettle hole topography is useful in identifying an ablation zone of a glacier . The seasonally melting glacier deposits much sediment at its fringes in the ablation area . Ablation constitutes a key part of the glacier mass balance . The amount of snow and ice gained in the accumulation zone and the amount of snow and ice lost in the ablation zone determine glacier mass balance . Often mass balance measurements are made in the ablation zone using snow stakes .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ablation_zone", "rank": 14, "score": 113497 }, { "content": "Title: Bonnor–Ebert mass Content: In astrophysics , the Bonnor -- Ebert mass is the largest mass that an isothermal gas sphere embedded in a pressurized medium can have while still remaining in hydrostatic equilibrium . Clouds of gas with masses greater than the Bonnor -- Ebert mass must inevitably undergo gravitational collapse to form much smaller and denser objects . As the gravitational collapse of an interstellar gas cloud is the first stage in the formation of a protostar , the Bonnor -- Ebert mass is an important quantity in the study of star formation . For a gas cloud embedded in a medium with a gas pressure , the Bonnor -- Ebert mass is given by where G is the gravitational constant and is the isothermal sound speed with as the molecular mass . Also the dimensionless constant is given by", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Bonnor–Ebert_mass", "rank": 15, "score": 113319 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-sheet dynamics Content: Ice sheet dynamics describe the motion within large bodies of ice , such those currently on Greenland and Antarctica . Ice motion is dominated by the movement of glaciers , whose gravity-driven activity is controlled by two main variable factors : the temperature and strength of their bases . A number of processes alter these two factors , resulting in cyclic surges of activity interspersed with longer periods of inactivity , on both hourly and centennial time scales . Ice-sheet dynamics are of interest in modelling future sea level rise . __ TOC __", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ice-sheet_dynamics", "rank": 16, "score": 113245 }, { "content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1A", "rank": 17, "score": 111937 }, { "content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850", "rank": 18, "score": 111450 }, { "content": "Title: Mass concentration (astronomy) Content: In astronomy and astrophysics , a mass concentration ( or mascon ) is a region of a planet or moon 's crust that contains a large positive gravitational anomaly . In general , the word `` mascon '' can be used as a noun to refer to an excess distribution of mass on or beneath the surface of an astronomical body ( with respect to some suitable average ) , such as is found around Hawaii on Earth . However , this term is most often used to describe a geologic structure that has a positive gravitational anomaly associated with a feature ( e.g. depressed basin ) that might otherwise have been expected to have a negative anomaly , such as the `` mascon basins '' on the Moon . Typical examples of mascon basins on the Moon are the Imbrium , Serenitatis , Crisium and Orientale impact basins , all of which exhibit significant topographic depressions and positive gravitational anomalies . Examples of mascon basins on Mars include the Argyre , Isidis , and Utopia basins . Theoretical considerations imply that a topographic low in isostatic equilibrium would exhibit a slight negative gravitational anomaly . Thus , the positive gravitational anomalies associated with these impact basins indicate that some form of positive density anomaly must exist within the crust or upper mantle that is currently supported by the lithosphere . One possibility is that these anomalies are due to dense mare basaltic lavas , which might reach up to 6 kilometers in thickness for the Moon . While these lavas certainly contribute to the observed gravitational anomalies , uplift of the crust-mantle interface is also required to account for their magnitude . Indeed , some mascon basins on the Moon do not appear to be associated with any signs of volcanic activity . Theoretical considerations in either case indicate that all the lunar mascons are super-isostatic ( that is , supported above their isostatic positions ) . The huge expanse of mare basaltic volcanism associated with Oceanus Procellarum does not possess a positive gravitational anomaly . Because of its mascons , the Moon has only four `` frozen orbit '' inclination zones where a lunar satellite can stay in a low orbit indefinitely . Lunar subsatellites were released on the last three Apollo manned lunar landing missions in 1971 and 1972 ; the subsatellite PFS-2 released from Apollo 16 was expected to stay in orbit for one and a half years , but lasted only 35 days before crashing into the lunar surface . It was only in 2001 that the mascons were mapped and the frozen orbits were discovered .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Mass_concentration_(astronomy)", "rank": 19, "score": 111119 }, { "content": "Title: Glacier ice accumulation Content: Glacier ice accumulation occurs through accumulation of snow and other frozen precipitation , as well as through other means including rime ice ( freezing of water vapor on the glacier surface ) , avalanching from hanging glaciers on cliffs and mountainsides above , and re-freezing of glacier meltwater as superimposed ice . Accumulation is one element in the glacier mass balance formula , with ablation counteracting . With successive years in which accumulation exceeds ablation , then a glacier will experience positive mass balance , and its terminus will advance .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Glacier_ice_accumulation", "rank": 20, "score": 111111 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity gradiometry Content: Gravity gradiometry is the study and measurement of variations in the acceleration due to gravity . The gravity gradient is the spatial rate of change of gravitational acceleration . Gravity gradiometry is used by oil and mineral prospectors to measure the density of the subsurface , effectively the rate of change of rock properties . From this information it is possible to build a picture of subsurface anomalies which can then be used to more accurately target oil , gas and mineral deposits . It is also used to image water column density , when locating submerged objects , or determining water depth ( bathymetry ) . Physical scientists use gravimeters to determine the exact size and shape of the earth and they contribute to the gravity compensations applied to inertial navigation systems .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Gravity_gradiometry", "rank": 21, "score": 108428 }, { "content": "Title: Isostatic Content: The terms isostatic may refer to : isostasy in geology gravitational equilibrium between the earth 's lithosphere and asthenosphere statically determinate structure in physics and engineering", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Isostatic", "rank": 22, "score": 108125 }, { "content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Past_sea_level", "rank": 23, "score": 107861 }, { "content": "Title: List of glaciers of Iceland Content: The glaciers and ice caps of Iceland cover 11.1 % of the land area of the country ( about 11,400 km ² out of the total area of 103,125 km ² ) and have a considerable impact on its landscape and meteorology . An ice cap is a mass of glacial ice that covers less than 50,000 km ² of land area covering a highland area and they feed outlet glaciers . Glaciers are also contributing to the Icelandic economy , with tourists flocking to the country to see glaciers on snowmobiles and on glacier hiking tours . Many Icelandic ice caps and glaciers lie above volcanoes , such as Grímsvötn and Bárðarbunga , which lie under the largest ice cap , Vatnajökull . The caldera of Grímsvötn is 100 km ² in area , and Bárðarbunga is 60 km ² . When volcanic activity occurs under the glacier , the resulting meltwater can lead to a sudden glacial lake outburst flood , known in Icelandic as jökulhlaup , but jökulhlaups are most often caused by accumulation of meltwater due to geothermal activity underneath the glacier . Such jökulhlaups have occasionally triggered volcanic eruptions through the sudden release of pressure . Iceland is losing ice due to climate change . Okjökull glacier in Borgarfjörður , West Iceland , has lost its glacier title and is now simply known as `` Ok '' . In order to fit the criteria glaciers need to be thick enough to sink and move under their own weight , which Ok is not . Ok is the first Icelandic glacier to lose its title . The Icelandic word for glacier is jökull #Icelandic .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "List_of_glaciers_of_Iceland", "rank": 24, "score": 107587 }, { "content": "Title: Lower Curtis Glacier Content: Lower Curtis Glacier is in North Cascades National Park in the U.S. state of Washington . Named for photographer Asahel Curtis , the glacier is in a cirque on the western slopes of Mount Shuksan . Lower Curtis Glacier is rapidly retreating and has a negative mass balance , meaning that the rate of snow and ice that is falling in the accumulation zone is less than that which is lost each year in the ablation zone . Between 1908 and 1984 , the glacier experienced a loss of thickness by 45 meters ( 147 ft ) . Between 1984 and 2002 , the glacier lost another 6 meters ( 19 ft ) in thickness . Lower Curtis Glacier also lost 28 % of its surface area between the end of the little ice age ( around 1850 ) and 1950 . Between the years 1951 and 1979 , the glacier actually lengthened by 245 meters ( 800 ft ) but has retreated 184 m ( 600 ft ) since 1985 , partly due to the tongue of the glacier being on a steep precipice which may have increased the loss of ice at the termini .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Lower_Curtis_Glacier", "rank": 25, "score": 107007 }, { "content": "Title: Ice shelf Content: An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters . In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica . Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss . Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf . The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica . The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ice_shelf", "rank": 26, "score": 106770 }, { "content": "Title: Ice cap Content: An ice cap is an ice mass that covers less than 50,000 km ² of land area ( usually covering a highland area ) . Larger ice masses covering more than 50,000 km ² are termed ice sheets . Ice caps are not constrained by topographical features ( i.e. , they will lie over the top of mountains ) . By contrast , ice masses of similar size that are constrained by topographical features are known as ice fields . The dome of an ice cap is usually centred on the highest point of a massif . Ice flows away from this high point ( the ice divide ) towards the ice cap 's periphery . Ice caps have significant effects on the geomorphology of the area they occupy . Plastic moulding , gouging and other glacial erosional features become present upon the glacier 's retreat . Many lakes , such as the Great Lakes in North America , as well as numerous valleys have been formed by glacial action over hundreds of thousands of years . On Earth , there are about 30 million km ³ of total ice mass . The average temperature of an ice mass ranges between − 20 ° C and − 30 ° C . The core of an ice cap exhibits a constant temperature that ranges between − 15 ° C and − 20 ° C. A high-latitude region covered in ice , though strictly not an ice cap ( since they exceed the maximum area specified in the definition above ) , are called polar ice caps ; the usage of this designation is widespread in the mass media and arguably recognized by experts . Vatnajökull is an example of an ice cap in Iceland .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ice_cap", "rank": 27, "score": 105922 }, { "content": "Title: Radioglaciology Content: Radioglaciology is the study of glaciers and ice sheets using radar . It employs a geophysical method similar to ground-penetrating radar that operates at frequencies in the MF , HF and VHF portions of the radio spectrum . Radioglaciology is sometimes referred to as `` ice-penetrating radar '' or `` radio-echo sounding '' . Glaciers are well suited to investigation by radar because the imaginary part of the permittivity of ice is small relative to its real part ; this ratio is called the loss tangent . The conductivity of ice is small at radio frequencies , so its dielectric absorption is also small .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Radioglaciology", "rank": 28, "score": 105860 }, { "content": "Title: West Antarctic Ice Sheet Content: The Western Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) is the segment of the continental ice sheet that covers West ( or Lesser ) Antarctica , the portion of Antarctica on the side of the Transantarctic Mountains which lies in the Western Hemisphere . The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet , meaning that its bed lies well below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves . The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf , the Ronne Ice Shelf , and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea . It is estimated that the volume of the Antarctic ice sheet is about 25.4 million km3 ( 6.1 million cu mi ) , and the WAIS contains just under 10 % of this , or 2.2 million km3 ( 530,000 cu mi ) . The weight of the ice has caused the underlying rock to sink by between 0.5 and 1 kilometres ( 0.31 -- 0.62 mi ) in a process known as isostatic depression . Under the force of its own weight , the ice sheet deforms and flows . The interior ice flows slowly over rough bedrock . In some circumstances , ice can flow faster in ice streams , separated by slow-flowing ice ridges . The inter-stream ridges are frozen to the bed while the bed beneath the ice streams consists of water-saturated sediments . Many of these sediments were deposited before the ice sheet occupied the region , when much of West Antarctica was covered by the ocean . The rapid ice-stream flow is a non-linear process still not fully understood ; streams can start and stop for unclear reasons . When ice reaches the coast , it either calves or continues to flow outward onto the water . The result is a large , floating ice shelf affixed to the continent .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet", "rank": 29, "score": 105856 }, { "content": "Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Marine_transgression", "rank": 30, "score": 105320 }, { "content": "Title: Blue ice (glacial) Content: __ NOTOC __ Blue ice occurs when snow falls on a glacier , is compressed , and becomes part of the glacier . Air bubbles are squeezed out and ice crystals enlarge , making the ice appear blue . Small amounts of regular ice appear to be white because of air bubbles inside them and also because small quantities of water appear to be colourless . In glaciers , the pressure causes the air bubbles to be squeezed out increasing the density of the created ice . Large quantities of water appear to be blue , as it absorbs other colours more efficiently than blue . Therefore , a large piece of compressed ice , or a glacier , would appear blue . The blue color is sometimes wrongly attributed to Rayleigh scattering which is responsible for the color of the sky . Rather , ice is blue for the same reason that large quantities of water are blue : it is a result of an overtone of an oxygen-hydrogen ( O-H ) bond stretch in water which absorbs light at the red end of the visible spectrum . In the case of oceans or lakes , some of the light , hitting the surface of water , is reflected back directly but most of it penetrates the surface interacting with its molecules . The water molecule can vibrate in different modes when light hits it . The red , orange , yellow , and green wavelengths of light are absorbed so that the remaining light is composed of the shorter wavelengths of blue and violet . This is the main reason why the ocean is blue . So , water owes its intrinsic blueness to selective absorption in the red part of its visible spectrum . The absorbed photons promote transitions to high overtone and combination states of the nuclear motions of the molecule , i.e. to highly excited vibrations . An example of blue ice was observed in Tasman Glacier , New Zealand in January 2011 .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Blue_ice_(glacial)", "rank": 31, "score": 104930 }, { "content": "Title: Glacial motion Content: Glacial motion is the motion of glaciers , which can be likened to rivers of ice . It has played an important role in sculpting many landscapes . Most lakes in the world occupy basins scoured out by glaciers . Glacial motion can be fast ( up to 30 m/day , observed on Jakobshavn Isbræ in Greenland ) or slow ( 0.5 m/year on small glaciers or in the center of ice sheets ) , but is typically around 1 metre/day .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Glacial_motion", "rank": 32, "score": 104877 }, { "content": "Title: Blaueis Content: The Blaueis ( `` blue ice '' ) is the northernmost glacier in the Alps and lies within the municipality of Ramsau in the Bavarian part of the Berchtesgaden Alps . The glacier lies on the exposed north-facing slopes in the upper Blaueis cirque , nestling between the rock faces of the Blaueisspitze ( 2480 m ) , Hochkalter ( 2607 m ) and Kleinkalter ( 2513 m ) , which ring the glacier in a horseshoe shape . Because of its relatively low elevation , the Blaueis has been particularly affected by glacial retreat which is common amongst Alpine glaciers . Since the mid-1980s , rocks in the middle of the Blaueis have become increasingly free of snow and the upper part of the glacier is now more or less completely separated from the lower field of what is now dead ice . The thickness of the ice as determined by ground-penetrating radar was only up to 13 feet in 2007 , and the average thickness of the ice was less than four metres ; giving a volume of around 0.4 million m ³ . This means that the remaining ice mass is smaller than the mass lost in the last decade of the 20th century . The base for ascents of the glacier is the Blaueis Hut at 1,680 m high in the Blaueis cirque below the glacier . The hut may be reached from Ramsau or Hintersee in just over three hours walking . Above the glacier , which in its upper section is up to 55 ° steep , is a climbing path to the Blaueis gap ( 2,400 m ) , from which there is an easy climb of grade II ( UIAA ) to the Hochkalter summit . The best time of the year is usually the second half of June , when snow still facilitates the climb and snow bridges often allow a simple crossing of the gully ( Randkluft ) below the saddle . In late summer and autumn , the gully is wide and often difficult to cross . At that time of the year there were sometimes fatal falls in the past caused by black ice . A popular climbing tour is the so-called Blaueisumrahmung ( Blaueis circuit ) . It runs without touching the glacier from the Blaueis Hut over the Schärtenspitze , Blaueisspitze , Hochkalter , Kleinkalter and Rotpalfen back to the start . The main difficulty is conquering the Blaueis north arête , which is at least a UIAA grade IV climb .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Blaueis", "rank": 33, "score": 104374 }, { "content": "Title: Glacialisaurus Content: Glacialisaurus is a genus of massospondylid sauropodomorph dinosaur . It lived during the Early Jurassic period in what is now central Transantarctic Mountains of Antarctica . It is known from the holotype FMNH PR1823 , a partial hind limb ( foot ) and from the referred material FMNH PR1822 , a left femur . It was discovered and collected in the tuffaceous siltstones and mudstones of the lower part of the Hanson Formation , in Mount Kirkpatrick . It was first named by Nathan Smith and Diego Pol in 2007 and the type species is Glacialisaurus hammeri . The generic name , Glacialisaurus , is derived from the Latin word glacialis , meaning `` icy '' or `` frozen '' , in reference to the Beardmore Glacier region in the Central Transantarctic Mountains , where the fossil remains were found . The specific name , G. hammeri , honors Dr. William R. Hammer of Augustana College , who made major contributions to both paleontology and Antarctic research . In their phylogenetic analysis of the relationships of Glacialisaurus , Smith and Pol found that it is a massospondylid , a non-eusauropod sauropodomorph more advanced than other forms such as Saturnalia and Plateosaurus . Features of its foot are similar to Lufengosaurus ( from the Early Jurassic of China ) , and the phylogenetic study suggests that Lufengosaurus may have been a close relative of Glacialisaurus , whereas other massospondylids such as Coloradisaurus and Massospondylus found to be more basal forms . Recent cladistic analyses by Yates ( 2007 ) , Yates et al. ( 2010 , 2011 ) and Novas et al. ( 2011 ) found the same results . The discovery of Glacialisaurus is important to the study of the early distribution of sauropod dinosaurs . The presence of this primitive sauropodomorph in the Hanson Formation ( which has also yielded remains attributed to true sauropods ) shows that both primitive and advanced members of this lineage existed side by side in the early Jurassic Period .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Glacialisaurus", "rank": 34, "score": 104301 }, { "content": "Title: King Oscar Glacier Content: King Oscar Glacier ( Kong Oscar Gletscher ) is one of several glaciers that drain the north-western part of the Greenland Ice Sheet into Melville Bay . As part of a comprehensive survey of Greenland 's glaciers that was published in 2006 , scientists documented that the mass balance -- the sum of gains through snow accumulation and losses through iceberg calving and melting -- of Kong Oscar and Greenland 's other north-western glaciers was strongly negative between 1996 and 2005 : they lost more ice than they gained . The pattern was similar to the ice sheet as a whole , which has been losing ice mass at an accelerating pace in the past decade .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "King_Oscar_Glacier", "rank": 35, "score": 104151 }, { "content": "Title: Welteislehre Content: Welteislehre ( WEL ; `` World Ice Theory '' or `` World Ice Doctrine '' ) , also known as Glazial-Kosmogonie ( Glacial Cosmogony ) , is a discredited cosmological concept proposed by Hanns Hörbiger , an Austrian engineer and inventor . Hörbiger did not arrive at his ideas through research , but said that he had received it in a `` vision '' in 1894 . According to his ideas , ice was the basic substance of all cosmic processes , and ice moons , ice planets , and the `` global ether '' ( also made of ice ) had determined the entire development of the universe .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Welteislehre", "rank": 36, "score": 103917 }, { "content": "Title: Cryoseism Content: A cryoseism , also known as an ice quake or a frost quake , is a seismic event that may be caused by a sudden cracking action in frozen soil or rock saturated with water or ice . As water drains into the ground , it may eventually freeze and expand under colder temperatures , putting stress on its surroundings . This stress builds up until relieved explosively in the form of a cryoseism . Another type of cryoseism is a non-tectonic seismic event caused by sudden glacial movements . This movement has been attributed to a veneer of water which may pool underneath a glacier sourced from surface ice melt . Hydraulic pressure of the liquid can act as a lubricant , allowing the glacier to suddenly shift position . This type of cryoseism can be very brief , or may last for several minutes . The requirements for a cryoseism to occur are numerous ; therefore , accurate predictions are not entirely possible and may constitute a factor in structural design and engineering when constructing in an area historically known for such events . Speculation has been made between global warming and the frequency of cryoseisms .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Cryoseism", "rank": 37, "score": 103463 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity of Mars Content: The gravity of Mars is a natural phenomenon, due to the law of gravity, or gravitation, by which all things with mass around the planet Mars are brought towards it. It is weaker than Earth's gravity due to the planet's smaller mass. The average gravitational acceleration on Mars is 3.72076 ms−2 (about 38% of that of Earth) and it varies laterally. In general, topography-controlled isostasy drives the short wavelength free-air gravity anomalies. At the same time, convective flow and finite strength of the mantle lead to long-wavelength planetary-scale free-air gravity anomalies over the entire planet. Variation in crustal thickness, magmatic and volcanic activities, impact-induced Moho-uplift, seasonal variation of polar ice caps, atmospheric mass variation and variation of porosity of the crust could also correlate to the lateral variations. Over the years models consisting of an increasing but limited number of spherical harmonics have been produced. Maps produced have included free-air gravity anomaly, Bouguer gravity anomaly, and crustal thickness. In some areas of Mars there is a correlation between gravity anomalies and topography. Given the known topography, higher resolution gravity field can be inferred. Tidal deformation of Mars by the Sun or Phobos can be measured by its gravity. This reveals how stiff the interior is, and shows that the core is partially liquid. The study of surface gravity of Mars can therefore yield information about different features and provide beneficial information for future landing projects.", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Gravity_of_Mars", "rank": 38, "score": 102684 }, { "content": "Title: Tectonic uplift Content: Tectonic uplift is the portion of the total geologic uplift of the mean Earth surface that is not attributable to an isostatic response to unloading . While isostatic response is important , an increase in the mean elevation of a region can only occur in response to tectonic processes of crustal thickening ( such as mountain building events ) , changes in the density distribution of the crust and underlying mantle , and flexural support due to the bending of rigid lithosphere . One should also take into consideration the effects of denudation ( processes that wear away the earth 's surface ) . Within the scope of this topic , uplift relates to denudation in that denudation brings buried rocks closer to the surface . This process can redistribute large loads from an elevated region to a topographically lower area as well -- thus promoting isostatic response in the region of denudation ( which can cause local bedrock uplift ) . The timing , magnitude , and rate of denudation can be estimated using pressure-temperature studies .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Tectonic_uplift", "rank": 39, "score": 102492 }, { "content": "Title: Wendell Tangborn Content: Wendell Tangborn ( born 1927 ) is an American glaciologist specializing in glacier mass balance measurements since 1960 , chiefly within the states of Washington and Alaska of the Pacific Northwest . His streamflow forecasting model implements a split-sample calibration approach which greatly improves its accuracy , and eliminates the need for manual measurements such as snow surveys . This model has been utilized by hydroelectric utilities for over thirty years to forecast Columbia River runoff . His PTAA glacier balance model requires only routine weather observations and has been successfully applied to calculate the mass balance of glaciers throughout the world , including the Himalayas . Tangborn is currently working on a project based on the PTAAGMB model to study and provide glacier mass balances for 150 or more glaciers around the world , The PTAAGMB Project ( http://ptaagmb.com ) . He is also making an effort to provide the PTAAGMB model technologies to other glaciologists and scientists , to help promote understanding and awareness of what is happening to the world 's glaciers , and to help provide data that could demonstrate links between climate change and human activities . Tangborn 's water-balance model , reveals that glaciers store a significant amount of liquid water internally . This has contributed to a current consensus that liquid water in glaciers is a critical element for predicting and understanding the disintegration of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets . In addition , he wrote the children 's book , Glaciers , as illustrated by Marc Simont , which introduces children to how and where glaciers form , how they move , and how they shape the land . Wendell is the brother of Army Silver Star recipient , Virgil John Tangborn .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Wendell_Tangborn", "rank": 40, "score": 102212 }, { "content": "Title: Outer trench swell Content: The outer trench swell , outer trench high , or outer rise is a subtle ridge on the seafloor near an oceanic trench , where a descending plate begins to flex and fault in preparation for its descent into the mantle at a subduction zone . The lithosphere is bent upwards by plate stresses , and is not in isostatic equilibrium ( distinguish from the `` outer ridge '' of a forearc ) . Typically , the gravity field over the outer swell is about 50 mGal ( 0.5 mm/s ² ) higher than expected from isostasy , while gravity over the trench is about 200 mGal ( 2 mm/s ² ) less than that expected from isostatic considerations . The bending of the plate is associated with tension in the upper 20 km , and shallow earthquakes , caused by tensional failure induced by the downward bending of the oceanic plate are common ; about 20 extensional outer rise earthquakes with magnitude 5 or greater occur annually . Most tension axes are perpendicular to the trench , independent of the direction of relative motion between the two plates , indicating that failure is controlled by bending stresses in the plate . Plate bending also causes deeper ( down to 50 km ) earthquakes due to compression . The wavelength and amplitude of this flexure can be used to constrain the state of stress across the plate boundary . The width of the outer rise is directly related to the flexural rigidity of the lithosphere . The thickness of the elastic lithosphere varies between 20 and 30 km for most trench profiles . Faulting related to plate bending and stair-stepping of the descending slab into the trench may allow seawater to infiltrate deep into the crust and perhaps upper mantle . This may lead to large scale formation of serpentinite in the upper mantle of the downgoing plate ( Ranero et al. , 2003 ) . Faulting of the downgoing plate results in a horst and graben structure that allows sediment that reaches the trench to be deposited in graben and carried downward . This faulting also breaks up seamounts as they approach the trench . The principal mechanism of frontal erosion may reflect combined effects of seamount tunneling , mass wasting and transport to the trench , deposition in a graben on the downgoing plate , and descent into the mantle . Outer trench swells are geoscientific frontiers and much remains to be learned about them . Recent volcanoes have been discovered on ~ 135-million-year-old Pacific Plate east of Japan ( Hirano et al. , 2006 ) . These small alkalic volcanoes are small percent melts of asthenosphere that exploit bending-related lithospheric faults to reach the seafloor . Hirano et al. , ( 2006 ) proposed that these small volcanoes erupted along lithospheric fractures in response to plate flexure during subduction . If bending-related faulting and serpentinization is an important process beneath outer trench swells , there are probably also abundant low-temperature hydrothermal vents on the swells , similar to those of the Lost City ( hydrothermal field ) .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Outer_trench_swell", "rank": 41, "score": 101997 }, { "content": "Title: Plucking (glaciation) Content: Plucking , also referred to as quarrying , is a glacial phenomenon that is responsible for the erosion and transportation of individual pieces of bedrock , especially large `` joint blocks '' . This occurs in a type of glacier called a `` valley glacier '' . As a glacier moves down a valley , friction causes the basal ice of the glacier to melt and infiltrate joints ( cracks ) in the bedrock . The freezing and thawing action of the ice enlarges , widens , or causes further cracks in the bedrock as it changes volume across the ice/water phase transition ( a form of hydraulic wedging ) , gradually loosening the rock between the joints . This produces large pieces of rock called joint blocks . Eventually these joint blocks come loose and become trapped in the glacier . In this way , plucking has been linked to regelation . Rocks of all sizes can become trapped in the bottom of the glacier . Joint blocks up to three meters have been `` plucked '' and transported . These entrained rock fragments can also cause abrasion along the subsequent bedrock and walls . Plucking also leads to chatter marks , wedge shaped indentations left on the bedrock or other rock surfaces . Glacial plucking both exploits pre-existing fractures in the bedrock and requires continued fracturing to maintain the cycle of erosion . Glacial plucking is most significant where the rock surface is well jointed or fractured or where it contains exposed bed planes , as this allows meltwater and clasts to penetrate more easily . Plucking of bedrock also occurs in steep upland rivers , and shares a number of similarities with glacial examples . In such cases , the loosening and detachment of blocks appears to result from a combination of ( 1 ) chemical and physical weathering along joints , ( 2 ) hydraulic wedging driven by smaller rock fragments getting into existing cracks , ( 3 ) crack propagation from stresses caused by impacts of large clasts already in transport by the river , and possibly ( 4 ) crack propagation driven by flexing resulting from pressure variation in the overlying water during floods . Loosened blocks are then carried away by fast flowing water during large floods , though the entrainment is believed to be significantly less efficient than the equivalent ability of ice to carry away blocks under glaciers .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Plucking_(glaciation)", "rank": 42, "score": 100569 }, { "content": "Title: Kame delta Content: A kame delta ( or ice-contact delta , morainic delta ) is a glacial landform formed by a stream of melt water flowing through or around a glacier and depositing material , known as kame ( stratified sequence of sediments ) deposits . Upon entering a proglacial lake at the end ( terminus ) of a glacier , the river/stream deposit these sediments . This landform can be observed after the glacier has melted and the delta 's asymmetrical triangular shape is visible . Once the glacier melts , the edges of the delta may subside as ice under it melts . Glacial till is deposited on the lateral sides of the delta , as the glacier melts .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Kame_delta", "rank": 43, "score": 100557 }, { "content": "Title: Subglacial channel Content: A subglacial meltwater channel is a channel beneath an ice mass , such as ice sheets and valley glaciers , roughly parallel to the main ice flow direction . These meltwater channels can have different sizes , ranging from very small channels of a metre deep and wide to big valleys which can be up to a kilometre wide . The dimensions of these channels are regulated by several factors : water temperature , meltwater volume , debris content in the water , ice wall closure rates ( governed by the ice thickness ) and squeezing of fluidized sediment . In the glaciological literature three forms of sub glacial melt water channels are commonly mentioned . The first type of channel is the R-channel after Hans Röthlisberger who initiated work on water pressures in tubes under glaciers . These are semi-circular channels cut upward into the ice . The balance between channel enlargement by viscous heating and closure by ice deformation when the channels are water-filled reflects their size and water pressure . The second type mentioned are H-channels , after Roger Hooke . These channels are similar to R channels , cut upward into the ice that tends to follow the local bed slope but are broad and flatter than R channels . Such channels form where water flows at atmospheric pressure beneath thin ice and on steep downglacier bedslopes . The final type , the N-channel ( after John Nye ) , are those incised into bedrock , perhaps suggesting long-term channel stability under some glaciers .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Subglacial_channel", "rank": 44, "score": 100516 }, { "content": "Title: Névé Content: Névé -LSB- neɪˈveɪ -RSB- is a young , granular type of snow which has been partially melted , refrozen and compacted , yet precedes the form of ice . This type of snow is associated with glacier formation through the process of nivation . Névé that survives a full season of ablation turns into firn , which is both older and slightly denser . Firn eventually becomes glacial ice -- the long-lived , compacted ice that glaciers are composed of . Glacier formation can take days to years depending on freeze-thaw factors . Névé is annually observed in skiing slopes , and is generally disliked as an icy falling zone . Névé has a minimum density of 500 kg/m ³ , which is roughly half of the density of liquid water at 1 atm . Névé can also refer to the alpine region in which snowfall accumulates , becomes névé , and feeds a glacier .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Névé", "rank": 45, "score": 100118 }, { "content": "Title: Champlain Sea Content: The Champlain Sea was a temporary inlet of the Atlantic Ocean , created by the retreating glaciers during the close of the last ice age . The Sea once included lands in what are now the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario , as well as parts of the American states of New York and Vermont . The mass of ice from the continental ice sheets had depressed the rock beneath it over millennia . At the end of the last ice age , while the rock was still depressed , the Saint Lawrence and Ottawa River valleys , as well as modern Lake Champlain , were below sea level and flooded with rising worldwide sea levels , once the ice no longer prevented the ocean from flowing into the region . As the land gradually rose again , in the process known as isostatic rebound , the sea coast gradually retreated to its current location . The sea lasted from about 13,000 years ago to about 10,000 years ago and was continuously shrinking during that time , since the rebounding continent was slowly rising above sea level . At its peak , the sea extended inland as far south as Lake Champlain and somewhat farther west than the city of Ottawa , Ontario , and farther up the Ottawa River past Pembroke . The remaining glaciers fed the sea during that time , making it more brackish than typical seawater . It is estimated that the sea was as much as 150 m above the level of today 's Saint Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers . The best evidence of this former sea is the vast clay plain deposited along the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers . This resulted in distinctive forest types , and large wetlands . Other modern evidence of the sea can be seen in the form of whale fossils , ( belugas , fin whales , and bowhead whales ) and marine shells that have been found near the cities of Ottawa , Ontario , and Montreal , Quebec . There are also fossils of oceanic fish such as capelin . The Sea also left ancient raised shorelines in the former coastal regions , and the Leda clay deposits in areas of deeper water . The northern shore of the lake was in southern Quebec where outcrops of the Canadian shield form the Eardley Escarpment . This escarpment still has distinctive plants that may date back to the sea . The Eardley Escarpment is known locally as the Gatineau Hills ; part of the Mattawa fault at the southeastern edge of the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben , in Eastern Ontario and the Outaouais region of Quebec , more commonly known as the Ottawa Valley .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Champlain_Sea", "rank": 46, "score": 99711 }, { "content": "Title: Glacial buzzsaw Content: The glacial buzzsaw is a hypothesis claiming glacier erosion is key to limit the height of mountains above certain threshold altitude . To this the hypothesis adds that great mountain massifs are leveled towards the equilibrium line altitude ( ELA ) , which would act as a `` climatic base level '' . Starting from the hypothesis it has been predicted that local climate is restricts the maximum height that mountain massifs can attain by effect of uplifting tectonic forces . It follows that as local climate is cooler at higher latitudes the highest mountains are lower there compared to the tropics where glaciation is and has been more limited . The mechanism behind the glacial buzzsaw effect would be the erosion of small glaciers that are mostly unable to erode much below the equilibrium line altitude since they do not reach these altitudes because of increased ablation . Instead , large valley glaciers may easily surpass the equilibrium line altitude and do therefore not contribute to a glacial buzzsaw effect . The concept has been criticized as measured erosion rates in the Pyrenees does not indicate a general drive towards certain level . In the case of Norway the elevated paleic surface has been proposed to have been shaped by a glacial buzzsaw effect . However this proposal is difficult to reconcile with the fact that the paleic surface consist of a series of steps at different levels . Further glacial cirques that in the buzzsaw hypothesis contribute to belevel the landscape are not associated to any paleosurface levels of the composite paleic surface , nor does the modern ELA or the Last Glacial Maximum ELA match any given level of the paleic surface . The elevated plains of West Greenland are also unrelated to any glacial buzzsaw effect .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Glacial_buzzsaw", "rank": 47, "score": 99235 }, { "content": "Title: Glacier Content: A glacier ( -LSB- pronˈɡleɪʃər -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɡlæsiə -RSB- ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight ; it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation ( melting and sublimation ) over many years , often centuries . Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight , creating crevasses , seracs , and other distinguishing features . They also abrade rock and debris from their substrate to create landforms such as cirques and moraines . Glaciers form only on land and are distinct from the much thinner sea ice and lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water . On Earth , 99 % of glacial ice is contained within vast ice sheets in the polar regions , but glaciers may be found in mountain ranges on every continent except Australia , and on a few high-latitude oceanic islands . Between 35 ° N and 35 ° S , glaciers occur only in the Himalayas , Andes , Rocky Mountains , a few high mountains in East Africa , Mexico , New Guinea and on Zard Kuh in Iran . Glaciers cover about 10 percent of Earth 's land surface . Continental glaciers cover nearly 5 e6sqmi or about 98 percent of Antarctica 's 5.1 e6sqmi , with an average thickness of 7,000 ft. Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers . Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth . Many glaciers from temperate , alpine and seasonal polar climates store water as ice during the colder seasons and release it later in the form of meltwater as warmer summer temperatures cause the glacier to melt , creating a water source that is especially important for plants , animals and human uses when other sources may be scant . Within high altitude and Antarctic environments , the seasonal temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater . Because glacial mass is affected by long-term climatic changes , e.g. , precipitation , mean temperature , and cloud cover , glacial mass changes are considered among the most sensitive indicators of climate change and are a major source of variations in sea level . A large piece of compressed ice , or a glacier , appears blue as large quantities of water appear blue . This is because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue . The other reason for the blue color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles . Air bubbles , which give a white color to ice , are squeezed out by pressure increasing the density of the created ice .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Glacier", "rank": 48, "score": 99235 }, { "content": "Title: Rôche moutonnée Content: In glaciology , a rôche moutonnée ( or sheepback ) is a rock formation created by the passing of a glacier . The passage of glacier ice over underlying bedrock often results in asymmetric erosional forms as a result of abrasion on the `` stoss '' ( upstream ) side of the rock and plucking on the `` lee '' ( downstream ) side . These erosional features are seen on scales of less than a metre to several hundred metres .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Rôche_moutonnée", "rank": 49, "score": 98774 }, { "content": "Title: Topography of the Moon Content: The topography of the Moon has been measured by the methods of laser altimetry and stereo image analysis , most recently from data obtained during the Clementine mission . The most visible topographic feature is the giant far side South Pole-Aitken basin , which possesses the lowest elevations of the Moon . The highest elevations are found just to the north-east of this basin , and it has been suggested that this area might represent thick ejecta deposits that were emplaced during an oblique South Pole-Aitken basin impact event . Other large impact basins , such as the maria Imbrium , Serenitatis , Crisium , Smythii , and Orientale , also possess regionally low elevations and elevated rims . Another distinguishing feature of the Moon 's shape is that the elevations are on average about 1.9 km higher on the far side than the near side . If it is assumed that the crust is in isostatic equilibrium , and that the density of the crust is everywhere the same , then the higher elevations would be associated with a thicker crust . Using gravity , topography and seismic data , the crust is thought to be on average about thick , with the far-side crust being on average thicker than the near side by about 15 km .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Topography_of_the_Moon", "rank": 50, "score": 98689 }, { "content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Deglaciation", "rank": 51, "score": 98504 }, { "content": "Title: Icefall Content: An icefall is a portion of certain glaciers characterized by rapid flow and a chaotic crevassed surface . The term icefall is formed by analogy with the word waterfall , a similar , but much higher speed , phenomenon . When ice movement is faster than elsewhere , because the glacier bed steepens or narrows , the flow can not be accommodated by plastic deformation and the ice fractures , forming crevasses . Where two fractures meet , seracs ( ice towers ) can be formed . When the movement of the ice slows down , the crevasses can coalesce , resulting in the surface of the glacier becoming smoother .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Icefall", "rank": 52, "score": 98434 }, { "content": "Title: Jamieson Ridge Content: Jamieson Ridge is a narrow ridge 1 nmi long , rising to about 1,200 m at the southwestern end of the Herbert Mountains , in the Shackleton Range , Antarctica . It was photographed from the air by the U.S. Navy , 1967 , and surveyed by the British Antarctic Survey , 1968 -- 71 . In association with the names of glacial geologists grouped in this area , it was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1971 after Thomas F. Jamieson , a Scottish geologist whose work on the ice-worn rocks of Scotland developed the true origin of glacial striae in 1862 , and who in 1865 originated the theory of isostasy .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Jamieson_Ridge", "rank": 53, "score": 98362 }, { "content": "Title: Glaciovolcanism Content: Glaciovolcanism is volcanism and related phenomena associated with glacial ice . The ice commonly constrains the erupted material and melts to create meltwater . Considerable melting of glacial ice can create massive lahars and glacial outburst floods known as jökulhlaups . Three forms of glaciovolcanism are known . Subglacial eruptions occur when a volcano erupts under ice . Such activity can produce landforms such as tuyas and subglacial mounds . Ice-marginal volcanism takes place when material from a subaerial eruption makes lateral contact with ice . Ice-marginal lava flows are a product of this phenomenon . Supraglacial eruptions deposit ejecta onto the surface of an ice sheet .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Glaciovolcanism", "rank": 54, "score": 98170 }, { "content": "Title: Fluvio-glacial Content: Fluvio refers to things related to rivers and glacial refers to something that is of ice . Fluvio-glacial refers to the meltwater created when a glacier melts . Fluvio-glacial processes can occur on the surface and within the glacier . The deposits that happen within the glacier are revealed after the entire glacier melts or partially retreats . Fluvio-glacial landforms and erosional surfaces include : outwash plains , kames , kame terraces , kettle holes , eskers , varves , and proglacial lakes .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Fluvio-glacial", "rank": 55, "score": 97965 }, { "content": "Title: Jökulhlaup Content: A jökulhlaup ( -LSB- ˈjœːkʏl̥øip -RSB- ) ( literally ` glacial run ' ) is a type of glacial outburst flood . It is an Icelandic term that has been adopted in glaciological terminology in many languages . It originally referred to the well-known subglacial outburst floods from Vatnajökull , Iceland , which are triggered by geothermal heating and occasionally by a volcanic subglacial eruption , but it is now used to describe any large and abrupt release of water from a subglacial or proglacial lake/reservoir . Since jökulhlaups emerge from hydrostatically-sealed lakes with floating levels far above the threshold , their peak discharge can be much larger than that of a marginal or extra-marginal lake burst . The hydrograph of a jökulhlaup from Vatnajökull typically either climbs over a period of weeks with the largest flow near the end , or it climbs much faster during the course of some hours . These patterns are suggested to reflect channel melting , and sheet flow under the front , respectively . Similar processes on a very large scale occurred during the deglaciation of North America and Europe after the last ice age ( e.g. , Lake Agassiz and the English Channel ) , and presumably at earlier times , although the geological record is not well preserved .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Jökulhlaup", "rank": 56, "score": 97578 }, { "content": "Title: Fluvioglacial landform Content: Fluvioglacial landforms are landforms molded by glacial meltwater . This discharge of glacial streams , both over the surface ( supraglacial ) and beneath the ice sheet ( subglacial ) , is higher in the warmer summer months . As subglacial water often flows under pressure , it has a high velocity and is very turbulent . This high velocity enables it to transport a large amount of material which would not normally be transported in a regular stream of similar size ; boulders thus transported may remain as glacial erratics in the post-glacial terrain . As this material is transported it makes contact with the underside of a glacier and erodes vertically from below by abrasion . This erosion creates subglacial valleys . When there is a decrease in discharge of the glacial steams , deposition occurs , and is responsible for large groupings of landforms like eskers and drumlins in glaciated areas . Pro-glacial lakes leave their own passive impress on the glaciated landscape , recognizable by the flatness of the former lakebed and raised terraces that mark former shorelines . More active massive scouring occurs when ice dams of pro-glacial lakes fail catastrophically in a glacial lake outburst flood ; the results can be seen , for example in the Channeled Scablands in the U.S. state of Washington , created by the cataclysmic Missoula Floods that swept periodically across eastern Washington and down the Columbia River Plateau during the Pleistocene epoch . The Shonkin Sag along the northern edge of the Highwood Mountains , Montana , is a channel formed by the Missouri River and glacial meltwater pouring from Glacial Lake Great Falls ; it is one of the most famous prehistoric meltwater channels in the world .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Fluvioglacial_landform", "rank": 57, "score": 97563 }, { "content": "Title: Glacial lake Content: A glacial lake is a lake with origins in a melted glacier . They are formed when a glacier erodes the land , and then melts , filling the hole or space that it has created . Near the end of the last glacial period , roughly 10,000 years ago , glaciers began to retreat . A retreating glacier often left behind large deposits of ice in hollows between drumlins or hills . As the ice age ended , these melted to create lakes . This is apparent in the Lake District in Northwestern England where post-glacial sediments are normally between 4 and 6 metres deep . These lakes are often surrounded by drumlins , along with other evidence of the glacier such as moraines , eskers and erosional features such as striations and chatter marks . The scouring action of the glaciers pulverizes minerals in the rock over which the glacier passes . These pulverized minerals become sediment at the bottom of the lake , and some of the rock flour becomes suspended in the water column . These suspended minerals support a large population of algae , making the water appear green . These lakes are clearly visible in aerial photos of landforms in regions that were glaciated during the last ice age . The coastlines near these areas are typically very irregular , reflecting the same geological process . By contrast , other areas have fewer lakes that often appear attached to rivers . Their coastlines are smoother . These areas were carved more by water erosion .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Glacial_lake", "rank": 58, "score": 97147 }, { "content": "Title: Glacial boundary Content: A glacial boundary is a line on a map representing the farthest advance of a glacier that has retreated . It generally refers to the extent of continental , rather than alpine , glaciers . In the northern hemisphere , glaciers advanced from the north during the Pleistocene epoch . The glacial boundary thus represents the farthest southern extent of the glaciers at that time . In North America , the boundary from the most recent ice sheet passes through the states of New York , New Jersey , Pennsylvania , Ohio , Kentucky , Indiana , Illinois , Missouri , Kansas , Nebraska , South Dakota , Montana , and Washington . It also crosses the Canada -- US border in several locations . See Timeline of glaciation . See the U.S. National Atlas for a map of the boundary in North America . Category : Cartography Category : Glaciology", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Glacial_boundary", "rank": 59, "score": 96746 }, { "content": "Title: Ice rise Content: An ice rise is a clearly defined elevation of the otherwise totally flat ice shelf , typically dome-shaped and rising 100 to 200 metres above the surrounding ice shelf . An ice rise forms where the ice shelf touches the rocky seabed because of an elevation in the seabed that remains below sea level . ( In contrast , an elevation in the seabed that extends above sea level is defined as an island ) . The ice shelf flows over the seabed elevation , completely covering it with ice , thereby forming an ice rise . The resulting tension forms crevasses around the ice rise . An island within and totally covered by the ice shelf , may appear the exactly the same as an ice rise . Elaborate measurements may be required to distinguish between these two geographic features . Although ice rises are typically located within the ice shelf area , they can partially face the open sea . Ice rises are found only on the ice shelves of Antarctica . The largest ice rises exceed dimensions of 50 by 200 km , or 10 000 km ² in area . Some ice rises are incorrectly called islands , but also a few totally ice-covered islands within an ice shelf are also called ice rises . Ice rises , grouped by ice shelf , clockwise starting in East Antarctica : Brunt Ice Shelf McDonald Ice Rumples Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Lyddan Island King Baudouin Ice Shelf Derwael Ice Rise Amery Ice Shelf Budd Ice Rumples IR1 to IR5 near the ice front Shackleton Ice Shelf Green Ice Rises ( the northernmost ice rise , at 66 ° 21 'S ) Harrisson Ice Rises Ross Ice Shelf Crary Ice Rise ( the southernmost ice rise , at 82 ° 56 'S ) Crosson Ice Shelf Davis Ice Rise Bach Ice Shelf Burgess Ice Rise Dvořák Ice Rise Ives Ice Rise Landy Ice Rises George VI Ice Shelf Martin Ice Rise Wilkins Ice Shelf Petrie Ice Rises Schaus Ice Rises Vere Ice Rise Wordie Ice Shelf Coker Ice Rise Linchpin Ice Rise Miller Ice Rise Napier Ice Rise Reynolds Ice Rise Wade Ice Rise Müller Ice Shelf Humphreys Ice Rise Larsen-C Ice Shelf Bawden Ice Rise Gipps Ice Rise Tharp Ice Rise Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Berkner Island Korff Ice Rise Henry Ice Rise Fowler Ice Rise Skytrain Ice Rise Doake Ice Rumples Dott Ice Rise Fletcher Ice Rise Hemmen Ice Rise Kealey Ice Rise Kershaw Ice Rumples Henry and Korff Ice Rises are the largest ice rises , with areas of roughly 1 500 to 1 600 km ² .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ice_rise", "rank": 60, "score": 96617 }, { "content": "Title: Flute (glacial) Content: A glacial flute is a landform created by the movement of a glacier around a boulder . They are long ridges on the ground parallel to the movement . Examples can be found in many places including Iceland , Alaska and Canada . As glaciers move along the surface of the earth , rocks are slowly mixed in with the ice . Rocks may reach the bottom of the glacier and begin to scrape along the earth . Eventually boulder sized rocks become lodged in the ground . Once the boulder is in place , the glacier flows around it . As a result , a cavity is formed on the down slope side of the boulder . This cavity is then filled with sediments such as till and outwash . Similar cavities can also be formed as the glacier moves over bedrock outcrops or bed irregularities which also may form flutes . These mounds are usually only a couple of metres high but hundreds of metres long . They are named flutes as their long and narrow shape resembles the musical instrument .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Flute_(glacial)", "rank": 61, "score": 96612 }, { "content": "Title: Paraglacial Content: Paraglacial means unstable conditions caused by a significant relaxation time in processes and geomorphic patterns following glacial climates . Rates of landscape change and sediment output from the system are typically elevated during paraglacial landscape response . When a large mass of ice melts , the newly exposed landscape is free of vegetation and is generally unstable . Often , the retreating glacier is providing the area with high stream discharge , further increasing erosion . The combination of a lack of vegetation , high discharge , and a changing climate ( the cause of deglaciation ) forces ecological communities , sediment deposition patterns and surface morphology to adjust to the new conditions over time . Periglacial processes -- those that directly involve ice -- may be prominent in the early stages of paraglacial landscape response , but the two terms are not synonymous . Many geomorphic processes that do n't require freezing conditions -- for example fluvial erosion , transport and deposition -- are typically involved in paraglacial change .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Paraglacial", "rank": 62, "score": 96247 }, { "content": "Title: 12th Soviet Antarctic Expedition Content: The Twelfth Soviet Antarctic Expedition was an expedition by the Soviet Union to Antarctica . During this expedition , a new method was used for measuring the thickness of the ice cap of Antarctica using radar . Glaciologists on the team surveyed the area around Mirny Station and measured the thickness of the glacier . The investigations discovered that the central part of the glacial cap in Eastern Antarctica is the largest and most ideal elevated plain in the world . Soviet geologists also did surveys of Queen Maud Land and Enderby Land where they found deposits of coal and iron ore .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "12th_Soviet_Antarctic_Expedition", "rank": 63, "score": 96105 }, { "content": "Title: Melt-Freeze Crust Content: A Melt-Freeze Crust or Rain Crust is a discontinuity between snow layers which can lead to avalanches . The layer can be created in two ways : A temperature high enough to allow surface snow to melt , creating a layer of melt water which may later re-freeze . Rain falling and freezing on the surface of existing snow , also creating a frozen layer . This layer is brittle , smooth and slippery , and does not bond with snow layers above it , allowing the overlying slab of snow to move down the mountain under gravity when disturbed or if the accumulated snowfall exceeds a critical mass . The initial slab may be as large as 10,000 m ² and 10 metres thick .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Melt-Freeze_Crust", "rank": 64, "score": 95942 }, { "content": "Title: Ice field Content: An ice field ( also spelled icefield ) is an area less than 50,000 km2 of ice often found in the colder climates and higher altitudes of the world where there is sufficient precipitation . It is an extensive area of interconnected valley glaciers from which the higher peaks rise as nunataks . Ice fields are larger than alpine glaciers , smaller than ice sheets and similar in area to ice caps . The topography of ice fields is determined by the shape of the surrounding land forms , while ice caps have their own forms overriding underlying shapes .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ice_field", "rank": 65, "score": 95848 }, { "content": "Title: John Nye (scientist) Content: John Frederick Nye ( born 26 February 1923 ) is the first physicist to apply plasticity to understand glacier flow . Nye 's early work was on the physics of plasticity , spanning ice rheology , ice flow mechanics , laboratory ice flow measurements , glacier surges , meltwater penetration in ice , and response of glaciers and ice sheets to seasonal and climatic changes . He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1976 . He has served as president of the International Glaciological Society ( 1966 -- 9 ) , who awarded him the Seligman Crystal in 1969 for outstanding contributions to glaciology , and was also president of the International Commission of Snow and Ice of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences ( 1971 -- 5 ) . The Cryosphere Focus Group of the American Geophysical Union hosts a Nye Lecture each year at its fall meeting . Nye is currently Emeritus Professor in Physics at the University of Bristol , UK . In addition to glaciology , his research interests include caustics and microwave probes .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "John_Nye_(scientist)", "rank": 66, "score": 95709 }, { "content": "Title: Tyrrell Sea Content: The Tyrrell Sea , named for Canadian geologist Joseph Tyrrell , is another name for prehistoric Hudson Bay , namely as it existed during the retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet . Roughly 8,000 years BP , the Laurentide Ice Sheet thinned and split into two lobes , one centred over Quebec-Labrador , the other over Keewatin . This drained Glacial Lake Ojibway , a massive proglacial lake south of the ice sheet , leading to the formation of the early Tyrrell Sea . The weight of the ice had isostatically depressed the surface as much as 270-280 m below its current level , making the Tyrrell Sea much larger than modern Hudson Bay . Indeed , in some places the shoreline was 100 to 250 km farther inland than at present . It was at its largest at roughly 7,000 years BP . Isostatic uplift proceeded rapidly after the retreat of the ice , as much as .09 m per year , causing the margins of the sea to regress quickly towards its present margins . The rate of uplift decreased with time however , and in any event was nearly matched by sea-level rise from the melting ice sheets . When the Tyrrell Sea `` became '' Hudson Bay is difficult to define , as Hudson Bay is still shrinking from isostatic rebound .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Tyrrell_Sea", "rank": 67, "score": 95698 }, { "content": "Title: Jøkulfallet Content: Jøkulfallet is a steep ice slope on the north side of Jokulkyrkja Mountain in the Mühlig-Hofmann Mountains of Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . It was plotted from surveys and air photos by the Sixth Norwegian Antarctic Expedition ( 1956 -- 60 ) and named Jøkulfallet ( the glacier fall ) .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Jøkulfallet", "rank": 68, "score": 95637 }, { "content": "Title: Faraday's ice pail experiment Content: Faraday 's ice pail experiment is a simple electrostatics experiment performed in 1843 by British scientist Michael Faraday that demonstrates the effect of electrostatic induction on a conducting container . For a container , Faraday used a metal pail made to hold ice , which gave the experiment its name . The experiment shows that an electric charge enclosed inside a conducting shell induces an equal charge on the shell , and that in an electrically conducting body , the charge resides entirely on the surface . It also demonstrates the principles behind electromagnetic shielding such as employed in the Faraday cage . The ice pail experiment was the first precise quantitative experiment on electrostatic charge . It is still used today in lecture demonstrations and physics laboratory courses to teach the principles of electrostatics .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Faraday's_ice_pail_experiment", "rank": 69, "score": 95485 }, { "content": "Title: Gastineau Channel Content: Gastineau Channel is a channel between the mainland of the U.S. state of Alaska and Douglas Island in the Alexander Archipelago of southeastern Alaska . It separates Juneau on the mainland side from Douglas ( now part of Juneau ) , on Douglas Island . The first European to sight the channel was Joseph Whidbey early in August 1794 , first from the south and later from the west . It was probably named for John Gastineau , an English Civil Engineer and Surveyor . The channel is navigable by large ships only from the southeast as far as the Douglas Bridge , approximately 9.7 mi . Between the bridge and Juneau International Airport , approximately 8.1 mi , it is navigable only by smaller craft and only at high tide . The channel is becoming increasingly unnavigable due to shallow water depths . The two principal causes for this are : Isostatic rebound following the retreat of glacial ice sheets Sedimentation and infilling of the Gastineau Channel by silty sediment produced by the Mendenhall Glacier and Mendenhall River . If current trends continue , Gastineau Channel may eventually become dry or unnavigable or both . During isostatic rebound , the Earth 's lithosphere ( crust ) is slowly rising due to buoyant forces , following the removal of a large mass on the surface . This can be likened to an ice cube floating in a glass of water with a penny sitting on top . The weight of the penny makes the ice cube float lower , similar to the immense weight of a glacier on top of the lithosphere . When the penny ( glacier ) is removed , the ice cube ( lithosphere ) `` rebounds '' and floats slightly higher . In the geologic case , this scenario happens very slowly . Rates of isostatic rebound throughout SE Alaska vary from 0.1 to 1.5 inches/year depending on glacial history . The approximate rebound rate in the Juneau area is 0.25 to 0.5 inches/year .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Gastineau_Channel", "rank": 70, "score": 95477 }, { "content": "Title: Ice calving Content: Ice calving , also known as glacier calving or iceberg calving , is the breaking of ice chunks from the edge of a glacier . It is a form of ice ablation or ice disruption and is normally caused by the glacier expanding . It is the sudden release and breaking away of a mass of ice from a glacier , iceberg , ice front , ice shelf , or crevasse . The ice that breaks away can be classified as an iceberg , but may also be a growler , bergy bit , or a crevasse wall breakaway . Calving of glaciers is often accompanied by a loud cracking or booming sound before blocks of ice up to 60 m high break loose and crash into the water . The entry of the ice into the water causes large , and often hazardous waves . The waves formed in locations like Johns Hopkins Glacier can be so large that boats can not approach closer than 3 km . These events have become major tourist attractions in locations such as Alaska . Many glaciers terminate at oceans or freshwater lakes which results naturally with the calving of large numbers of icebergs . Calving of Greenland 's glaciers produce 12,000 to 15,000 icebergs each year alone . Calving of ice shelves is usually preceded by a rift . These events are not often observed . Etymologically , calving is cognatic with calving as in bearing a calf .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ice_calving", "rank": 71, "score": 95428 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity drag Content: In astrodynamics and rocketry , gravity drag ( or gravity losses ) is a measure of the loss in the net performance of a rocket while it is thrusting in a gravitational field . In other words , it is the cost of having to hold the rocket up in a gravity field . It is the difference between the delta-v expended and the theoretical delta-v for the actual change in speed and altitude , plus the delta-v for other losses such as air drag , that are experienced by a thrusting spacecraft . Gravity losses depend on the time over which thrust is applied as well the direction the thrust is applied in . Gravity losses as a proportion of delta-v are minimised if maximum thrust is applied for a short time , or if thrust is applied in a direction perpendicular to the local gravitational field . During the launch and ascent phase , however , thrust must be applied over a long period with a major component of thrust in the opposite direction to gravity , so gravity losses become significant . For example , to reach a speed of 7.8 km/s in low Earth orbit requires a delta-v of between 9 and 10 km/s . The additional 1.5 to 2 km/s delta-v is due to gravity losses and atmospheric drag .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Gravity_drag", "rank": 72, "score": 95390 }, { "content": "Title: CryoSat Content: CryoSat is an ESA programme to monitor variations in the extent and thickness of polar ice through use of a satellite in low Earth orbit . The information provided about the behaviour of coastal glaciers that drain thinning ice sheets will be key to better predictions of future sea level rise . The CryoSat-1 spacecraft was lost in a launch failure in 2005 , however the programme was resumed with the successful launch of a replacement , CryoSat-2 , launched on 8 April 2010 . CryoSat is operated from the European Space Operations Centre ( ESOC ) in Darmstadt , Germany .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "CryoSat", "rank": 73, "score": 95235 }, { "content": "Title: Glacial striation Content: Glacial striations are scratches or gouges cut into bedrock by glacial abrasion . These scratches and gouges were first recognized as the result of a moving glacier in the late 18th century when Swiss alpinists first associated them with moving glaciers . They also noted that if they were visible today that the glaciers must also be receding . Glacial striations are usually multiple , straight , and parallel , representing the movement of the glacier using rock fragments and sand grains , embedded in the base of the glacier , as cutting tools . Large amounts of coarse gravel and boulders carried along underneath the glacier provide the abrasive power to cut trough-like glacial grooves . Finer sediments also in the base of the moving glacier further scour and polish the bedrock surface , forming a glacial pavement . Ice itself is not a hard enough material to change the shape of rock but because the ice has rock embedded in the basal surface it can effectively abrade the bedrock . Most glacial striations were exposed by the retreat of glaciers since the Last Glacial Maximum or the more recent Little Ice Age . As well as indicating the direction of flow of the glacial ice , the depth and extent of weathering of the striations may be used to estimate the duration of post-glacier exposure of the rock . An outstanding example of glacial grooves can be found at the Glacial Grooves at Kelleys Island , Ohio ( a National Natural Landmark ) , the most impressive of which is 400 ft long , 35 ft wide , and up to 10 ft deep . These grooves cut into the Columbus Limestone . Striations cover the sides and bottoms of the grooves . Other examples of glacial striations can be found in the former path of the Moiry Glacier , south of Grimentz , Anniviers , Valais , Switzerland , alongside the present path of the glacier , north-east of the 2016 location of the tongue of the glacier ( images ) .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Glacial_striation", "rank": 74, "score": 95197 }, { "content": "Title: Ferrigno Ice Stream Content: Ferrigno Ice Stream is an ice Stream more than 15 nmi long flowing into Eltanin Bay southwest of Wirth Peninsula , Antarctica . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Jane G. Ferrigno of the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) . Ferrigno has been a specialist for some decades from the 1970s in the use of satellite imagery for glacier studies and map compilation , co-leader of the USGS team that compiled the 1:5,000,000 - scale radiometer maps of Antarctica , and task leader of the team that is compiling 25 glaciological and coastal-change maps of Antarctica . Beneath the glacier lies the Ferrigno Rift , a rift valley some 1.5 km deep , 10 km wide , and at least 100 km long . The rift valley was discovered using ice-penetrating radar during a survey of the glacier in 2010 by a team from the British Antarctic Survey and the University of Aberdeen investigating ice-melt on the glacier that had been measured using satellites . The ice-filled rift valley is connected to the ocean and is believed to impact ice loss on the West Antarctic Ice Sheet .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ferrigno_Ice_Stream", "rank": 75, "score": 95022 }, { "content": "Title: Last glacial period Content: The last glacial period , popularly known as the Ice Age , was the most recent glacial period , which occurred from years ago . This most recent glacial period is part of a larger pattern of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation ( years ago to present ) . From this point of view , scientists consider this `` ice age '' to be merely the latest glaciation event in a much larger ice age , one that dates back over two million years and is still ongoing . During this last glacial period , there were several changes between glacier advance and retreat . The Last Glacial Maximum , the maximum extent of glaciation within the last glacial period , was approximately 22,000 years ago . While the general pattern of global cooling and glacier advance was similar , local differences in the development of glacier advance and retreat make it difficult to compare the details from continent to continent ( see picture of ice core data below for differences ) . Approximately 13,000 years ago , the Late Glacial Maximum began . Around 11,700 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch , which includes the Holocene glacial retreat . From the point of view of human archaeology , it falls in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods . When the glaciation event started , Homo sapiens were confined to Africa and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia and by Homo erectus in Asia . Near the end of the event , Homo sapiens spread into Eurasia and Australia . Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover . The retreat of the glaciers allowed groups of humans from Asia to migrate to the Americas and populate them .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Last_glacial_period", "rank": 76, "score": 94851 }, { "content": "Title: Ice rafting Content: Ice rafting is the transport of various materials by ice . Various objects deposited on ice may eventually become embedded in the ice . When the ice melts after a certain amount of drifting , these objects are deposited onto the bottom of the water body , e.g. , onto a river bed or an ocean floor . These deposits are called ice rafted debris ( IRD ) or ice rafted deposits . Ice rafting was a primary mechanism of sediment transport during glacial episodes of the Pleistocene when sea levels were very low and much of the land was covered by large masses ( sheets ) of ice . The rafting of various size sediments into deeper ocean waters by icebergs became a rather important process . Ice rafting is still a process occurring today although its impact is significantly less and much harder to gauge . The melting of large icebergs deposits sediment of various sizes , usually referred to as glacial marine sediment , onto the shelf and deeper marine areas . Ice rafting may be used for analysis of ice drift pattern by matching the rafted sediment with its origin . Ice rafting must also be taken into an account in archaeology and as a possible cause of displacement of archaeological artifacts .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ice_rafting", "rank": 77, "score": 94762 }, { "content": "Title: Heinrich event Content: A Heinrich event is a natural phenomenon in which large armadas of icebergs break off from glaciers and traverse the North Atlantic . First described by marine geologist Hartmut Heinrich ( Heinrich , H. , 1988 ) , they occurred during five of the last seven glacial periods or `` ice ages '' over the past 640,000 years ( Hodell , et al. , 2008 ) . Heinrich events are particularly well documented for the last glacial period but notably absent from the penultimate glaciation ( Obrochta et al. , 2014 ) . The icebergs contained rock mass , which has been eroded by the glaciers , and as they melted , this matter was dropped onto the sea floor as ice rafted debris ( abbreviated to `` IRD '' ) . The icebergs ' melting caused extensive amounts of fresh water to be added to the North Atlantic . Such inputs of cold and fresh water may well have altered the density-driven , thermohaline circulation patterns of the ocean , and often coincide with indications of global climate fluctuations . Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain the cause of Heinrich events , most of which imply instability of the massive Laurentide ice sheet , a continental glacier covering North America during the last glacial period . Other northern hemisphere ice sheets were potentially involved as well ( Scandinavia , Iceland , Greenland ) . However , the initial cause of this instability is still debated .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Heinrich_event", "rank": 78, "score": 94258 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Content: The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment ( GRACE ) , a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center , has been making detailed measurements of Earth 's gravity field anomalies since its launch in March 2002 . By measuring gravity anomalies , GRACE shows how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time . Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth 's ocean , geology , and climate . GRACE is a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas , Austin ; NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , Calif. ; the German Space Agency and Germany 's National Research Center for Geosciences , Potsdam . The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP program . The principal investigator is Dr. Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research , and the co-principal investigator is Dr. Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum ( GFZ ) Potsdam . The GRACE satellites were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome , Russia on a Rockot ( SS-19 + Breeze upper stage ) launch vehicle , on 17 March 2002 . The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89 ° . The satellites are separated by approximately 200 km along their orbit track . GRACE has far exceeded its designed five-year lifespan . the GRACE spacecrafts orbit has decayed by 150 km , and is continuing to decay at 30 km/year . Its successor , GRACE Follow-On , is expected to launch in 2017/18", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment", "rank": 79, "score": 94093 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 80, "score": 93953 }, { "content": "Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Last_Glacial_Maximum", "rank": 81, "score": 93800 }, { "content": "Title: Quadrupole formula Content: In general relativity , the quadrupole formula describes rate at which gravitational waves are emitted from a system of masses based on the change of the ( mass ) quadrupole moment . The formula reads where is the ( spatial part of ) the trace reversed perturbation of the metric ( i.e. the gravitational wave ) , and is the mass quadrupole moment . The formula was first obtained by Albert Einstein in 1916 . After a long history of debate on its physical correctness , observations of energy loss due to gravitational radiation in the Hulse -- Taylor binary discovered in 1974 confirmed the result , with agreement up to 0.2 percent ( by 2005 ) .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Quadrupole_formula", "rank": 82, "score": 93556 }, { "content": "Title: Glacial lake outburst flood Content: A glacial lake outburst flood ( GLOF ) is a type of outburst flood that occurs when the dam containing a glacial lake fails . An event similar to a GLOF , where a body of water contained by a glacier melts or overflows the glacier , is called a Jökulhlaup . The dam can consist of glacier ice or a terminal moraine . Failure can happen due to erosion , a buildup of water pressure , an avalanche of rock or heavy snow , an earthquake or cryoseism , volcanic eruptions under the ice , or if a large enough portion of a glacier breaks off and massively displaces the waters in a glacial lake at its base .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Glacial_lake_outburst_flood", "rank": 83, "score": 93498 }, { "content": "Title: Presumpscot Formation Content: The Presumpscot formation is a late Pleistocene glacial deposit of predominantly submarine clays , located along the Maine and New Hampshire coast and inland along their major river valleys . It consists of primarily silt - and clay-sized particles formed from the glacial abrasion of the feldspars , quartz , and micas of the region , carried by glacial meltwater and deposited below sea level before subsequent crust rising ( isostatic rebound ) elevated the deposits up to more than 300 ft. It is named after the Presumpscot River where large amounts of the characteristic blue-gray clay are found . Fossilized remains of marine organisms are found interspersed among the deposits . It was a historically significant resource for the production of brick , though little of that industry remains . Pollen found in the clays near Portland , Maine , indicate spruce forests , with low proportions of pines , about 11500 BP .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Presumpscot_Formation", "rank": 84, "score": 93234 }, { "content": "Title: Ice mélange Content: Ice mélange refers to a mixture of sea ice types , icebergs , and snow without a clearly defined floe that forms from shearing and fracture at the ice front . Ice mélange is commonly the result of an ice calving event where ice breaks off the edge of a glacier . Ice mélange affects many of the Earth 's processes including glacier calving , ocean wave generation and frequency , generation of seismic waves , atmosphere and ocean interactions , and tidewater glacier systems . Ice mélange is possibly the largest granular material on Earth , and is quasi-2-dimensional", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ice_mélange", "rank": 85, "score": 93196 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Music Festival Content: Ice Music Festival ( initiated 2006 in Geilo , Norway ) is a glacial instrument festival founded by Terje Isungset together with Pål Knutsson Medhus . Isungset had the idea of the festival and is the creative director . Medhus made it all happen by being the organizer . Today it is run by a board of volunteers in cooperation with Visit Geilo . Everything id made out of ice and snow at this festival . the venue , the instruments , the art . It is a tribute to nature taking place every first full moon of the year at Geilo , Norway . Around 30 volunteers and students are working hard for 10 days for preparations , as well as ice carvers , designers , ice cutters , architects and artists .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ice_Music_Festival", "rank": 86, "score": 93152 }, { "content": "Title: ICESat Content: ICESat ( Ice , Cloud , and land Elevation Satellite ) , part of NASA 's Earth Observing System , was a satellite mission for measuring ice sheet mass balance , cloud and aerosol heights , as well as land topography and vegetation characteristics . ICESat was launched 13 January 2003 on a Delta II rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California into a near-circular , near-polar orbit with an altitude of approximately 600 km . It operated for seven years before being retired in February 2010 , after its scientific payload shut down and scientists were unable to restart it . The ICESat mission was designed to provide elevation data needed to determine ice sheet mass balance as well as cloud property information , especially for stratospheric clouds common over polar areas . It provides topography and vegetation data around the globe , in addition to the polar-specific coverage over the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets . The satellite was found useful in assessing important forest characteristics , including tree density .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "ICESat", "rank": 87, "score": 93072 }, { "content": "Title: Extreme Ice Survey Content: The Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) , based in Boulder , Colorado , uses time-lapse photography , conventional photography and video to document the effects of global warming on glacial ice . It is the most wide-ranging glacier study ever conducted using ground-based , real-time photography . Starting in 2007 the EIS team installed as many as 43 time-lapse cameras at a time at 18 glaciers in Greenland , Iceland , Alaska , Canada , the Nepalese Himalaya ( where cameras were installed at Mount Everest in 2010 ) , and the Rocky Mountains of the U.S. . The cameras shoot year-round , every half hour of daylight . The team supplements the time-lapse record by occasionally repeating shots at fixed locations in Iceland , Bolivia , the Canadian province of British Columbia and the French and Swiss Alps . Collected images are being used for scientific evidence and as part of a global outreach campaign aimed at educating the public about the effects of climate change . EIS imagery has appeared in time-lapse videos displayed in the terminal at Denver International Airport ; in media productions such as the 2009 NOVA Extreme Ice documentary on PBS ; and is the focus of the feature-length film Chasing Ice , directed by Jeff Orlowski , which premiered at the Sundance film festival in Utah on January 23 , 2012 . Major findings were published in 2012 in Ice : Portraits of the World 's Vanishing Glaciers by James Balog ( Rizzoli Publishing ) .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Extreme_Ice_Survey", "rank": 88, "score": 92918 }, { "content": "Title: Glacial survival hypothesis Content: The glacial survival hypothesis is the idea that cold tolerant plant and animal species ( e.g. Norway spruce and Norwegian lemmings ) survived in ice-free northern microrefugia during the last ice age . The alternative hypothesis of postglacial immigration of plant and animals is called the tabula rasa hypothesis . Over the past plants and animals have persisted through long periods of climate change including several glacial and interglacial periods . There is a long-standing debate on what happened to the species that were inhabiting high-latitidue regions during the Pleistocene ice age . Two main scenarios are usually considered . The first scenario proposes a total extinction of species within glaciated areas with survival events in peripheral refugia in the south and successive massive postglacial migration into empty areas ( tabula rasa hypothesis ) . The second scenario proposes long-term in situ survival within glaciated regions ( glacial survival hypothesis ) , either in isolated northern ice-free micro-refugia at the edge of the ice sheet , or on exposed mountains not covered with ice within the ice sheet ( nunatak hypothesis ) . For boreal and cold-tolerant species the glacial survival hypothesis is credible , though controversial , and a growing body of molecular data is now supporting it . Several recent studies have shown that several northern regions ( above latitudes > 45 ° N ) have supported low-density boreal and temperate tree populations during the late-glacial or Early Holocene -LSB- e.g. North America , Eurasia , Scandinavia -RSB- .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Glacial_survival_hypothesis", "rank": 89, "score": 92716 }, { "content": "Title: Ice age (disambiguation) Content: __ NOTOC __ An ice age is a geologic period characterized by the presence of polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Periods of major glaciation ( commonly also referred to as ice ages ) are scientifically termed glacial periods . Ice Age may also refer to :", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ice_age_(disambiguation)", "rank": 90, "score": 92580 }, { "content": "Title: Ice worm Content: Ice worms ( also written as ice-worms or iceworms ) are enchytraeid annelids of the genus Mesenchytraeus . The majority of the species in the genus are abundant in gravel beds or the banks of riverine habitats , but the most well-known members of the genus are found in glacial ice . They include the only annelid worms known to spend their entire lives in glacial ice , and some of the few metazoans to complete their entire life cycle at conditions below 0 C. The genus contains 77 species , including the North American glacier ice worm ( Mesenchytraeus solifugus ) and the Yosemite snow worm ( Mesenchytraeus gelidus ) .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ice_worm", "rank": 91, "score": 92391 }, { "content": "Title: Davis Ice Rise Content: Davis Ice Rise is an ice rise , 4 nmi long , near the terminus of Smith Glacier , 8 nmi southeast of Mayo Peak , Bear Peninsula , on the Walgreen Coast , Marie Byrd Land . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy aerial photographs taken 1966 and from Landsat imagery taken 1972 -- 73 . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Commander Arthur R. Davis , U.S. Navy , Supply Officer , Operation Deep Freeze , 1975 -- 76 and 1976 -- 77 .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Davis_Ice_Rise", "rank": 92, "score": 92294 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 93, "score": 92244 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrostatic equilibrium Content: In fluid mechanics , a fluid is said to be in hydrostatic equilibrium or hydrostatic balance when it is at rest , or when the flow velocity at each point is constant over time . This occurs when external forces such as gravity are balanced by a pressure gradient force . For instance , the pressure-gradient force prevents gravity from collapsing Earth 's atmosphere into a thin , dense shell , whereas gravity prevents the pressure gradient force from diffusing the atmosphere into space . Hydrostatic equilibrium is the current distinguishing criterion between dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies , and has other roles in astrophysics and planetary geology . This qualification typically means that the object is symmetrically rounded into a spheroid or ellipsoid shape , where any irregular surface features are due to a relatively thin solid crust . There are 31 observationally confirmed such objects ( apart from the Sun ) , sometimes called planemos , in the Solar System , seven more that are virtually certain , and a hundred or so more that are likely .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Hydrostatic_equilibrium", "rank": 94, "score": 92156 }, { "content": "Title: Dirt cone Content: thumb | right | 250px | Dirt cones near Gorsajökull , Sweden A dirt cone is a feature of a glacier or snow patch , in which dirt or debris has fallen onto ice , firn or snow . This debris forms a coating which , when thick enough , insulates the underlying ice or snow . Although deposition of sediments may be uniform originally , dirt cones can be produced due to the constant growing and shrinking of the underlying snow , which in turn masses the debris together . The surrounding ice or snow melts away , leaving the dirt cone .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Dirt_cone", "rank": 95, "score": 92097 }, { "content": "Title: Zungenbecken Content: A Zungenbecken , also called a tongue basin or tongue-basin , is part of a succession of ice age geological landforms , known as a glacial series . It is a hollow that is left behind by the ice mass , as the snout of the glacier ( German : Gletscherzunge ) recedes , which initially fills with meltwater , forming a proglacial lake , and later may be filled with surface water from streams or precipitation . When the glacier has more fully retreated this produces a finger lake or glacial piedmont lake ( German : Zungenbeckensee , known as a Gletscherendsee of the glacial series in the Alpine Foreland ) . The term Zungenbecken is of German origin , but used in English language sources . Examples are the Tegernsee , Ammersee , Starnberger See , Lake Constance , Chiemsee , Tollensesee and the Baltic Sea .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Zungenbecken", "rank": 96, "score": 91965 }, { "content": "Title: Aufeis Content: Aufeis , , ( German for `` ice on top '' ) is a sheet-like mass of layered ice that forms from successive flows of ground water during freezing temperatures . This form of ice is also called overflow , icings , or the Russian term , naled . The term was first used in 1859 by A. T. von Middendorff following his observations of the phenomenon in northern Siberia .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Aufeis", "rank": 97, "score": 91955 }, { "content": "Title: Philippi Rise Content: Philippi Rise is a low , snow-covered promontory 7 nautical miles ( 13 km ) wide and extending some 10 nautical miles ( 18 km ) southeast from the east coast of Graham Land . The ice surface is highest in the west , where it rises to about 395 m and is broken by Borchgrevink and Gemini Nunataks . The Swedish Antarctic Expedition under Nordenskjold , 1901 -- 04 , reported an ice wall or glacial terrace in the vicinity of Borchgrevink Nunatak . Although unable to determine its nature , Nordenskjold named the feature Philippigletscher , after Emil Philippi . It was determined to be a snow-covered promontory by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey ( FIDS ) during their 1947 survey of this coast . Category : Mountains of Graham Land Category : Oscar II Coast", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Philippi_Rise", "rank": 98, "score": 91953 }, { "content": "Title: Glaciers on Mars Content: Glaciers , loosely defined as patches of currently or recently flowing ice , are thought to be present across large but restricted areas of the modern Martian surface , and are inferred to have been more widely distributed at times in the past . Lobate convex features on the surface known as viscous flow features and lobate debris aprons , which show the characteristics of non-Newtonian flow , are now almost unanimously regarded as true glaciers . However , a variety of other features on the surface have also been interpreted as directly linked to flowing ice , such as fretted terrain , lineated valley fill , concentric crater fill , and arcuate ridges . A variety of surface textures seen in imagery of the midlatitudes and polar regions are also thought to be linked to sublimation of glacial ice . Today , features interpreted as glaciers are largely restricted to latitudes polewards of around 30 ° latitude . Particular concentrations are found in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle . Based on our current models of the Martian atmosphere , ice should not however be stable if exposed at the surface in the mid-Martian latitudes . It is thus thought that most glaciers must be covered with a layer of rubble or dust preventing free transfer of water vapor from the subliming ice into the air . This also suggests that in Mars ' relatively recent past , its climate must have been different in order to allow the glaciers to grow stably at these latitudes . This provides good independent evidence that the obliquity of Mars has changed significantly in the past , as independently indicated by modelling of Mars ' orbital solutions . Evidence for past glaciation also appears on the peaks of several Martian volcanoes in the tropics . Like glaciers on Earth , glaciers on Mars are not pure water ice . Many are thought to contain substantial proportions of debris , and a substantial number are probably better described as rock glaciers . For many years , largely because of the modeled instability of water ice in the midlatitudes where the putative glacial features were concentrated , it was argued that almost all glaciers were rock glaciers on Mars . However , recent direct observations made by the SHARAD radar instrument on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter satellite have confirmed that at least some features are relatively pure ice , and thus , true glaciers . Some authors have also made claims that glaciers of solid carbon dioxide have formed on Mars under certain rare conditions . Some landscapes look just like glaciers moving out of mountain valleys on Earth . Some have a hollowed out appearance , looking like a glacier after almost all the ice has disappeared . What is left are the moraines -- the dirt and debris carried by the glacier . The center is hollowed out because the ice is mostly gone . These supposed alpine glaciers have been called glacier-like forms ( GLF ) or glacier-like flows ( GLF ) . Glacier-like forms are a later and maybe more accurate term because we can not be sure the structure is currently moving . Another , more general term sometimes seen in the literature is viscous flow features ( VFF ) .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Glaciers_on_Mars", "rank": 99, "score": 91483 }, { "content": "Title: Plutoid Content: A plutoid or ice dwarf is a trans-Neptunian dwarf planet , i.e. a body orbiting beyond Neptune that is massive enough to be rounded in shape . The term plutoid was adopted by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) working group Committee on Small Bodies Nomenclature , but was rejected by the IAU working group Planetary System Nomenclature . The term plutoid is not widely used by astronomers , though ice dwarf is not uncommon . There are thought to be thousands of plutoids in the Solar System , although only four have been formally designated as such by the IAU . The IAU developed this category of astronomical objects as a consequence of its 2006 resolution defining the word `` planet '' . The IAU 's formal definition of `` plutoid '' , announced 11 June 2008 , is : Plutoids are celestial bodies in orbit around the Sun at a semi-major axis greater than that of Neptune that have sufficient mass for their self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that they assume a hydrostatic equilibrium ( near-spherical ) shape , and that have not cleared the neighbourhood around their orbit . Satellites of plutoids are not plutoids themselves . In light of the difficulty of remotely ascertaining hydrostasis , the IAU only formally confers `` dwarf planet '' ( and by extension , `` plutoid '' ) status to those bodies whose minimum estimated size is substantially greater than what is generally thought necessary to guarantee hydrostatic equilibrium . , Pluto , , , and are the only objects officially recognized as plutoids , while upwards of seventy more bodies that currently lack formal recognition are thought likely to meet the definition , and can expect formal recognition at some time in the future . Alan Stern of the Southwest Research Institute believes the outer planets show signs of collisions with plutoids 1,000 to 2,000 kilometers in diameter : Uranus could have been tipped off its axis by a plutoid , and Triton , the largest moon of Neptune , is probably a captured plutoid from the Kuiper belt .", "qid": "2896", "docid": "Plutoid", "rank": 100, "score": 91371 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Content: The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment ( GRACE ) , a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center , has been making detailed measurements of Earth 's gravity field anomalies since its launch in March 2002 . By measuring gravity anomalies , GRACE shows how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time . Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth 's ocean , geology , and climate . GRACE is a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas , Austin ; NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , Calif. ; the German Space Agency and Germany 's National Research Center for Geosciences , Potsdam . The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP program . The principal investigator is Dr. Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research , and the co-principal investigator is Dr. Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum ( GFZ ) Potsdam . The GRACE satellites were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome , Russia on a Rockot ( SS-19 + Breeze upper stage ) launch vehicle , on 17 March 2002 . The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89 ° . The satellites are separated by approximately 200 km along their orbit track . GRACE has far exceeded its designed five-year lifespan . the GRACE spacecrafts orbit has decayed by 150 km , and is continuing to decay at 30 km/year . Its successor , GRACE Follow-On , is expected to launch in 2017/18", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment", "rank": 1, "score": 134185 }, { "content": "Title: GRACE and GRACE-FO Content: The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) was a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR). Twin satellites took detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field anomalies from its launch in March 2002 to the end of its science mission in October 2017. The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On (GRACE-FO) is a continuation of the mission on near-identical hardware, launched in May 2018. By measuring gravity anomalies, GRACE showed how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time. Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth's ocean, geology, and climate. GRACE was a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas at Austin, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the German Aerospace Center and Germany's National Research Center for Geosciences, Potsdam. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory was responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP (Earth System Science Pathfinder) program. The principal investigator is Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research, and the co-principal investigator is Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Potsdam.The two GRACE satellites (GRACE-1 and GRACE-2) were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia, on a Rockot (SS-19 + Breeze upper stage) launch vehicle on 17 March 2002. The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89°. During normal operations, the satellites were separated by 220 km along their orbit track. This system was able to gather global coverage every 30 days. GRACE far exceeded its 5-year design lifespan, operating for 15 years until the decommissioning of GRACE-2 on 27 October 2017. Its successor, GRACE-FO, was successfully launched on 22 May 2018. In 2019, a glacier in West Antarctica was named after the GRACE mission.", "qid": "2897", "docid": "GRACE_and_GRACE-FO", "rank": 2, "score": 133668 }, { "content": "Title: Laramie Potts Content: Laramie Potts is an American scientist at Ohio State University who identified the Wilkes Land mass concentration in Antarctica in collaboration with Ralph von Frese . He is from South Africa . He currently ( December 2010 ) teaches geomatics ( surveying ) at the New Jersey Institute of Technology . Potts is a Post-Doctoral Researcher in Civil and Environmental Engineering and Geodetic Science . He and von Frese used gravity measurements by NASA 's GRACE satellites to identify a 200-mile ( 300 km ) wide mass concentration . This mass anomaly is centered within a larger ring-like structure visible in radar images of the land surface beneath the Antarctic ice cap . This combination led these researchers to speculate that it may be the result of a large impact event .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Laramie_Potts", "rank": 3, "score": 131526 }, { "content": "Title: Nature Geoscience Content: Nature Geoscience is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Nature Publishing Group . The editor-in-chief is Heike Langenberg . It was established in January 2008 .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Nature_Geoscience", "rank": 4, "score": 129794 }, { "content": "Title: Ralph von Frese Content: Ralph R. B. von Frese is an American geophysicist at the Ohio State University who identified the Wilkes Land mass concentration in Antarctica in collaboration with Laramie Potts . In 1969 , Frese graduated B.A. cum laude from Park College in physics , mathematics , and German . He earned M.Sc . degrees in physics ( 1973 ) and geophysics ( 1978 ) and a Ph.D. in geophysics ( 1980 ) from Purdue University . He has taught at OSU since 1982 . He and Potts used gravity measurements by NASA 's GRACE satellites to identify a 200-mile ( 300 km ) wide mass concentration . This mass anomaly is centered within a larger ring-like structure visible in radar images of the land surface beneath the Antarctic ice cap . This combination led these researchers to speculate that it may have resulted from a large impact event .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Ralph_von_Frese", "rank": 5, "score": 128033 }, { "content": "Title: Index of earth science articles Content: Earth science ( also known as geoscience , the geosciences or the Earth Sciences ) , is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth . It is arguably a special case in planetary science , the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet . There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth science . There are four major disciplines in earth sciences , namely geography , geology , geophysics and geodesy . These major disciplines use physics , chemistry , biology , chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of the principal areas or spheres of the Earth system . Articles related to earth science include :", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Index_of_earth_science_articles", "rank": 6, "score": 124889 }, { "content": "Title: Hans Oeschger Medal Content: The Hans Oeschger Medal is an award bestowed by the European Geosciences Union ( EGU ) to recognise scientists who have made `` outstanding achievements in ice research and/or short term climatic changes ( past , present , future ) . '' The award was established by the European Geophysical Society ( EGS ) in recognition of the scientific achievements of Professor Hans Oeschger . It was awarded by the EGS in 2002 and 2003 , and subsequently by the EGU .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Hans_Oeschger_Medal", "rank": 7, "score": 117472 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Geoscience Data Cube Content: The Australian Geoscience Data Cube ( AGDC ) is an approach to storing , processing and analyzing large collections of earth observation data . The technology is designed to meet challenges of national interest by being agile and flexible with vast amounts of layered grid data . The AGDC reduces processing time of traditional image analysis by calibrating , pre-computing known extents , pixel alignment and storing metadata in a cell lattice structure . The temporal-pixel aligned data can often be analysed faster across space and time dimensions than previous scene based techniques . This allows the AGDC to be flexible in tackling future challenges and improve analysis times on every-increasing data repositories of earth observation . The AGDC has also been used internationally to allow countries to maintain ecologically sustainable programs and reduce the difficultly curve of utilizing Remote Sensing data .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Australian_Geoscience_Data_Cube", "rank": 8, "score": 105019 }, { "content": "Title: Bulletin of Geosciences Content: The Bulletin of Geosciences is a peer-reviewed scientific journal publishing original research papers , review articles , and short contributions . It covers all aspects of palaeoenvironmental geology , including palaeontology , stratigraphy , sedimentology , palaeogeography , palaeoecology , palaeoclimatology , geochemistry , mineralogy , geophysics , and related fields . It is published by the Czech Geological Survey , West Bohemian Museum in Plzeň , Palacký University Olomouc and the Geological institute of Czech Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Bulletin_of_Geosciences", "rank": 9, "score": 104457 }, { "content": "Title: Petroleum Geoscience Content: Petroleum geosciences includes exploration , environmental science and technology and recovery of oil and gas which are formed through geological process in the underground . Methods such as seismology are used in the exploration process . when the petroleum reserves are identified the production engineers plan and recover oil using engineering sciences and computer technology . Carbon dioxide emissions from the petroleum industry is a major environmental threat hence Environmental science and technology are used to mitigate the problem", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Petroleum_Geoscience", "rank": 10, "score": 103703 }, { "content": "Title: Earth science Content: Earth science or geoscience is a widely embraced term for the fields of science related to the planet Earth . Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science , but with a much older history . There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences . The Earth sciences can include the study of geology , the lithosphere , and the large-scale structure of the Earth 's interior , as well as the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and biosphere . Typically , Earth scientists use tools from geography , chronology , physics , chemistry , biology , and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth works and evolves .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Earth_science", "rank": 11, "score": 103226 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of Geosciences Content: Journal of Geosciences ( 1956-1992 Časopis pro mineralogii a geologii , 1993-2006 : Journal of the Czech Geological Society ) is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Czech Geological Society and its predecessors since 1956 . The journal covers research in the fields of igneous and metamorphic petrology , geochemistry , and mineralogy .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Journal_of_Geosciences", "rank": 12, "score": 101944 }, { "content": "Title: Mathematical Geosciences Content: Mathematical Geosciences ( formerly Mathematical Geology ; print : , online : ) is a scientific journal , published by the International Association for Mathematical Geosciences . It is published semi-quarterly by Springer Science + Business Media and contains original papers in numerical mathematical geosciences . The journal focuses on quantitative methods and studies of the Earth and its natural resources and environment .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Mathematical_Geosciences", "rank": 13, "score": 101840 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 14, "score": 101592 }, { "content": "Title: Geoscience Australia Content: Geoscience Australia is an agency of the Australian Government . It carries out geoscientific research . The agency is the government 's technical adviser on all aspects of geoscience , and custodian of the geographic and geological data and knowledge of the nation . On a user pays basis it produces geospatial products such as topographic maps and satellite imagery . It is also a major contributor to the Australian Government 's free , open data collections such as data.gov.au .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Geoscience_Australia", "rank": 15, "score": 99773 }, { "content": "Title: Niter Ice Cave Content: The Niter Ice Cave is a geological feature approximately 3 miles south of the small southeastern Idaho town of Grace , Idaho .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Niter_Ice_Cave", "rank": 16, "score": 99418 }, { "content": "Title: Geographic information science Content: Geographic information science or Geographical information science ( GIScience ) is the scientific discipline that studies data structures and computational techniques to capture , represent , process , and analyze geographic information . It can be contrasted with geographic information systems , which are software tools . British geographer Michael Goodchild has defined this area in the 1990s , and summarized its core interests , including spatial analysis , visualization , and the representation of uncertainty . GIScience is conceptually related to geography , information science , computer science , geomatics and geoinformatics , but it claims the status of an independent scientific discipline .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Geographic_information_science", "rank": 17, "score": 98049 }, { "content": "Title: UNAVCO Content: UNAVCO is a non-profit university-governed consortium that facilitates geoscience research and education using Geodesy . The UNAVCO academic and research community seeks to broaden human understanding of the changing Earth by integrating technologies , open geodetic observations , and research . UNAVCO is funded by the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) and The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) and supports research around the world . As a university-governed consortium , UNAVCO is collectively tasked with advancing and supporting the science goals of the community . UNAVCO currently has over 100 US academic members , and supports over 65 organizations as associate members . Before incorporation in 2001 , UNAVCO existed under different organizational umbrellas for nearly two decades as the University Navstar Consortium , then primarily serving geophysicists and geodesists who study tectonic deformation using high-precision GPS technology . Since 2003 , UNAVCO 's scope has expanded significantly , with service to new science communities - including those who focus on the deformation of ice , the Earth 's response to ground water , sea level , and other aspects of the hydrosphere , and renewed interest in imaging the structure of the atmosphere . UNAVCO has also expanded its support of new geodetic tools : advancing GPS towards mm-level global GPS geodesy and to streaming high rate observations ; borehole strain meters and seismometers , expanded geodetic imaging using lidar for Airborne Laser Swath Mapping , InSAR ( Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar ) , and Terrestrial Laser Scanning , web services and cyberinfrastructure . GPS is finding applications in a frequency range that used to be the sole provenance of seismology , as GPS measurements grow from one solution per day to one solution per second , with high precision . As of October , 2013 , UNAVCO operates the GAGE ( Geodesy Advancing Geosciences and EarthScope ) Facility , located in Boulder , Colorado with regional offices in San Clemente , California and Anchorage , Alaska . The Facility provides science support through community coordination , field engineering , data services , technology innovation , and instrument testing , acquisition , and deployment . It provides scientific support to global geodetic infrastructure that is developed and operated through international collaborations . EarthScope , a set of integrated geophysical observatories , supports investigation of the entire temporal spectrum of Earth deformation processes . In particular , the Plate Boundary Observatory ( PBO ) provides geodetic imaging of plate boundary deformation . UNAVCO undertook an internal reorganization to refine its community support and advisory committees . Three UNAVCO programs focus on : ( 1 ) Geodetic Infrastructure ; ( 2 ) Geodetic Data Services ; and ( 3 ) Education and Community Engagement .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "UNAVCO", "rank": 18, "score": 97938 }, { "content": "Title: Open Geosciences Content: Open Geosciences is a quarterly peer-reviewed open access scientific journal covering all aspects of the Earth sciences . It is published by De Gruyter Open and the editor-in-chief is Robert J. Bodnar ( Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University ) . The journal was established in 2009 as the Central European Journal of Geosciences , co-published by Versita and Springer Science + Business Media . In 2014 the journal was moved to the De Gruyter Open imprint . It obtained its current name in 2015 when it became open access .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Open_Geosciences", "rank": 19, "score": 97276 }, { "content": "Title: Index of physics articles Content: Physics ( Greek : physis -- φύσις meaning `` nature '' ) is the natural science which examines basic concepts such as mass , charge , matter and its motion and all that derives from these , such as energy , force and spacetime . More broadly , it is the general analysis of nature , conducted in order to understand how the world and universe behave . The index of physics articles is split into multiple pages due to its size . To navigate by individual letter use the table of contents below .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Index_of_physics_articles", "rank": 20, "score": 97018 }, { "content": "Title: Geoscience e-Journals Content: Geoscience e-Journals is an academic portal that includes 54 open access electronic journals , all dealing with geosciences . Most journals grouped under this aegis give a free and full access to their contents ( except for one journal that has an embargo period ) . Some are electronic only , others are also available in paper-printed versions or in CD or DVD versions .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Geoscience_e-Journals", "rank": 21, "score": 96130 }, { "content": "Title: Alun Anderson Content: Alun Mark Anderson ( born North Wales , 27 May 1948 ) is a Welsh scientist and science journalist . He is best known as the editor in chief and publishing director of New Scientist from 1992 to 2005 . He continues to act as a consultant for the magazine . In 2009 he published After the Ice : Life , Death , and Geopolitics in the New Arctic , about the effects of climate change on the wildlife and native peoples of the arctic region . A 2003 interview at the University of Sussex is the likely inspiration for Richard Dawkins ' famous quote `` Science is interesting and if you do n't agree you can fuck off '' .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Alun_Anderson", "rank": 22, "score": 95968 }, { "content": "Title: GeoSciML Content: GeoSciML or Geoscience Markup Language is a GML Application Schema that can be used to transfer information about geology , with an emphasis on the `` interpreted geology '' that is conventionally portrayed on geologic maps . Its feature-type catalogue includes Geologic Unit , Mapped Feature , Earth Material , Geologic Structure , and specializations of these , as well as Borehole and other observational artefacts . It was created by , and is governed by , the Commission for the Management and Application of Geoscience Information ( CGI ) to support interoperability of information served from Geologic Surveys and other data custodians . It will be used in the OneGeology project , an effort to create a geological map of the entire Earth , served live by merging data from many national geological surveys . The GeoSciML project was initiated in 2003 , under the auspices of the Commission for Geoscience Information ( CGI ) working group on Data Model Collaboration . The project is part of what is known as the CGI Interoperability Working Group . GeoSciML is intended for use by data portals publishing data for customers in GeoSciML , for interchanging data between organisations that use different database implementations and software/systems environments , and in particular , for use in geoscience web services . In this way , GeoSciML allows applications to utilize globally distributed geoscience data and information . Version 3.1 was released in December , 2012 . In January , 2013 a Standards Working Group was initiated in the Open Geospatial Consortium to develop a version 4 release as an OGC modular specification . This release will include simple feature ` portrayal ' schemes to support interoperable view services . Links to documentation , XML schema and other resources are available at the GeoSciML resource repository .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "GeoSciML", "rank": 23, "score": 95546 }, { "content": "Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Ian_Clark_(geologist)", "rank": 24, "score": 95120 }, { "content": "Title: Paleogeoscience Content: Paleogeosciences are those associated with the past states or processes associated with Earth science or geoscience . Earth science or geoscience is an all-embracing term referring to the fields of science dealing with planet Earth . These studies of earth 's history encompass the Biosphere , Cryosphere , Hydrosphere , Atmosphere , and Lithosphere ; the Geosphere . One of the most socially prominent facets of the paleogeosciences would be their applications to our changing climate system .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Paleogeoscience", "rank": 25, "score": 95107 }, { "content": "Title: Glaciology Content: Glaciology ( from Latin : glacies , `` frost , ice '' , and Ancient Greek : λόγος , logos , `` subject matter '' ; literally `` study of ice '' ) is the scientific study of glaciers , or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice . Glaciology is an interdisciplinary earth science that integrates geophysics , geology , physical geography , geomorphology , climatology , meteorology , hydrology , biology , and ecology . The impact of glaciers on people includes the fields of human geography and anthropology . The discoveries of water ice on the Moon , Mars , Europa and Pluto add an extraterrestrial component to the field , as in `` astroglaciology '' .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Glaciology", "rank": 26, "score": 94494 }, { "content": "Title: IEEE Committee on Earth Observation Content: The IEEE Committee on Earth Observation ( ICEO ) is an international committee of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) that , according to its website , is focused on improving `` living conditions , particularly in developing countries , through the development of -LSB- Global Earth Observation System of Systems -RSB- GEOSS . '' The IEEE member base , such as systems of systems ( SoS ) engineers , communications specialists , and standards and information applications developers , embody GEOSS to shape a `` global resource for decision makers at all levels . '' The ICEO states it is `` an applications-oriented effort that spans the totality of engineering concepts that are the lifeblood of practicing engineers . The design , development and implementation of -LSB- GEOSS -RSB- will bring to play a wide cross section of talent from many of IEEE Societies e.g. systems , remote sensing , computers , communications , standards , renewable energy , etc. . '' The Intergovernmental Group on Earth Observations ( GEO ) is a major participant of the IEEE ICEO . Its vision for GEOSS , supported by ICEO , is `` to realize a future wherein decisions and actions for the benefit of humankind are informed via coordinated , comprehensive and sustained Earth observations and information . '' The ICEO was one of several organizations that hosted more than twenty workshops held in Korea , South Africa , China , France , USA , India , Costa Rica , and Chile for GEOSS international professionals involved in IEEE technology development .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "IEEE_Committee_on_Earth_Observation", "rank": 27, "score": 93979 }, { "content": "Title: Graceville Correctional Facility Content: The Graceville Correctional Facility is a private state prison for men located in Graceville , Jackson County , Florida , which has been operated since 2007 by the GEO Group under contract with the Florida Department of Corrections . This facility was opened in 2007 and has a maximum capacity of 1884 prisoners housed at various security levels .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Graceville_Correctional_Facility", "rank": 28, "score": 93549 }, { "content": "Title: I.O.N (manga) Content: ( ( Lit.Ice on Nature ) ) is a Japanese science fiction manga written and illustrated by Arina Tanemura . Originally serialized in Ribon from May to November 1997 , the six chapters were collected and published in a single tankōbon volume by Shueisha in December 1997 . The series was originally intended to be only three chapters , but Ribon had her lengthen it to six chapters . On October 22 , 2010 , an additional chapter of the manga was published in Ribon Fantasy Zokan Go Magazine . The series is licensed for English language release in North America by Viz Media , which published its single volume on April 1 , 2008 . It is also licensed for regional language releases in Spain by Planeta DeAgostini and in Germany in Egmont Manga & Anime .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "I.O.N_(manga)", "rank": 29, "score": 93407 }, { "content": "Title: Geodi Content: GeoDI ( Geological & Geophysical Data Integration ) is a three-year project led by University College Cork and funded by the Irish National Development Plan under the Sea Change programme . The project started on February 1 , 2008 . The objective of the GeoDI project is to derive maximum value from the national data acquisition effort to date and to allow future data to be integrated easily . This will be achieved by integrating datasets and advancing the data management methods to derive a holistic and more sophisticated view of change in the status of the marine environment . The GeoDI project aims to address this challenge by examining the critical issues involved in the integration of Irish marine geoscientific datasets and assessing tools and services for enhanced analyses of geoscientific data .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Geodi", "rank": 30, "score": 92558 }, { "content": "Title: Geophysics Content: Geophysics -LSB- dʒiːoʊfɪzɪks -RSB- is a subject of natural science concerned with the physical processes and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space environment , and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis . The term geophysics sometimes refers only to the geological applications : Earth 's shape ; its gravitational and magnetic fields ; its internal structure and composition ; its dynamics and their surface expression in plate tectonics , the generation of magmas , volcanism and rock formation . However , modern geophysics organizations use a broader definition that includes the water cycle including snow and ice ; fluid dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere ; electricity and magnetism in the ionosphere and magnetosphere and solar-terrestrial relations ; and analogous problems associated with the Moon and other planets . Although geophysics was only recognized as a separate discipline in the 19th century , its origins date back to ancient times . The first magnetic compasses were made from lodestones , while more modern magnetic compasses played an important role in the history of navigation . The first seismic instrument was built in 132 BC . Isaac Newton applied his theory of mechanics to the tides and the precession of the equinox ; and instruments were developed to measure the Earth 's shape , density and gravity field , as well as the components of the water cycle . In the 20th century , geophysical methods were developed for remote exploration of the solid Earth and the ocean , and geophysics played an essential role in the development of the theory of plate tectonics . Geophysics is applied to societal needs , such as mineral resources , mitigation of natural hazards and environmental protection . Geophysical survey data are used to analyze potential petroleum reservoirs and mineral deposits , locate groundwater , find archaeological relics , determine the thickness of glaciers and soils , and assess sites for environmental remediation .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Geophysics", "rank": 31, "score": 92506 }, { "content": "Title: Geoscience Research Institute Content: The Geoscience Research Institute ( GRI ) , founded in 1958 and currently located on the campus of Loma Linda University in California , is an official institute of the Seventh-day Adventist Church that specializes in the study of creation science and serves the church through research and communication . The institute employed four PhD researchers as of late 2015 .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Geoscience_Research_Institute", "rank": 32, "score": 92365 }, { "content": "Title: Outline of Earth sciences Content: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Earth science : Earth science -- all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth . It is also known as geoscience , the geosciences or the Earth sciences , and is arguably a special case in planetary science , the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet . Earth science is a branch of the physical sciences which is a part of the natural sciences . It in turn has many branches .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Outline_of_Earth_sciences", "rank": 33, "score": 91871 }, { "content": "Title: American Geosciences Institute Content: The American Geosciences Institute ( AGI ) is a nonprofit federation of 51 geoscientific and professional organizations that represents geologists , geophysicists , and other earth scientists . The organization was founded in 1948 . The name of the organization was changed from the American Geological Institute on October 1 , 2011 . The organization 's offices are in Alexandria , Virginia . EARTH Magazine , formerly known as Geotimes , is AGI 's monthly newsmagazine . Since 1966 , AGI has produced GeoRef , a literature database for those studying the earth sciences .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "American_Geosciences_Institute", "rank": 34, "score": 91799 }, { "content": "Title: European Geosciences Union Content: The European Geosciences Union ( EGU ) is a non-profit international union in the fields of Earth , planetary , and space sciences . The organization has headquarters in Munich ( Germany ) . Membership is open to individuals who are professionally engaged in or associated with these fields and related studies , including students and retired seniors . The EGU publishes 16 open-access scientific journals and organises a number of topical meetings , as well as education and outreach activities . Its most prominent event is the EGU General Assembly , an annual conference that brings together over 11,000 scientists from all over the world . The meeting 's sessions cover a wide range of topics , including volcanology , planetary exploration , the Earth 's internal structure and atmosphere , climate change , and renewable energies . The EGU has 22 scientific divisions that reflect the interdisciplinary nature of the organization .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "European_Geosciences_Union", "rank": 35, "score": 91711 }, { "content": "Title: Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences Content: The Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences ( acronym : ICES ) is an independent , non-profit corporation that applies the study of health informatics for health services research and population-wide health outcomes research in Ontario , Canada using data collected through the routine administration of Ontario 's system of publicly funded health care . ICES scientists have secure access to Ontario 's health administrative data . ICES research teams produce peer-reviewed scientific journal articles , as well as reports and atlases to assist health care providers , government planners and policy makers in improving population health through the advancement of evidence-based practice and health policy . ICES was established in 1992 and is governed by a Board of Directors . Its vision is to `` be a world-leading institute where data and discovery improve health and health care '' . ICES receives core funding from the Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care ( MOHLTC ) . In addition , ICES faculty and staff receive peer-reviewed grants from federal funding agencies such as the Canadian Institutes of Health Research , and project-specific funds from provincial and national organizations . Most of the more than 200 scientists affiliated with ICES have clinical and/or teaching appointments at hospitals and universities across Ontario .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Institute_for_Clinical_Evaluative_Sciences", "rank": 36, "score": 91552 }, { "content": "Title: Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources Content: The Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources ( Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe or BGR ) is a German agency within the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology . It acts as a central geoscience consulting institution for the German federal government . The headquarters of the agency is located in Hanover and there is a branch in Berlin . Early 2013 , the BGR employed a total of 795 employees . The BGR , the State Authority for Mining , Energy and Geology and the Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics form the Geozentrum Hanover . All three institutions have a common management and infrastructure , and complement each other through their interdisciplinary expertise .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Federal_Institute_for_Geosciences_and_Natural_Resources", "rank": 37, "score": 91450 }, { "content": "Title: Nature Climate Change Content: Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Nature_Climate_Change", "rank": 38, "score": 91251 }, { "content": "Title: Grace Glacier Content: Grace Glacier is a glacier which flows north into Ample Bay at the Bay of Isles , near Salisbury Plain , South Georgia . It was charted in 1912 -- 13 by Robert Cushman Murphy , an American naturalist aboard the brig Daisy , who named it for his wife , Grace Barstow Murphy .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Grace_Glacier", "rank": 39, "score": 90677 }, { "content": "Title: GeoScience Victoria Content: GeoScience Victoria , formerly the Geological Survey of Victoria is a government agency responsible for mapping the geology of Victoria , Australia . The Geological Survey was founded in the 1852 in the Victorian gold rush era , and proceeded to actively explore the state of Victoria for geological and mineral resources , discovering and mapping extensive gold , brown coal and petroleum resources . Originally a core element of the Mines Department , it was folded into the Department of Primary Industries -LSB- DPI -RSB- and renamed Geoscience Victoria in February 2004 . Victoria 's mineral , petroleum , extractive and geothermal industries are managed by DPI . The DPI regulates the industries , promotes the development of the state 's earth resources , maintains the earth resources database and provides scientific and strategic policy advice to government . The DPI also provides licensing , monitors environmental standards and reviews significant projects . Following its move to DPI , Geoscience Victoria commenced a major and original program of research and remapping of the state , incorporating new understanding of the state 's tectonic origins , producing a new series of seamless digital maps and a publicly available database of earth sciences data . In mid-2012 , cuts to the Victorian public service announced by the Baillieu government resulted in almost half of Geoscience Victoria 's staff being retrenched , as a result of which it lost the capability to undertake original research on a meaningful scale , and its ` mission ' was redefined as no more than a source of government earth science data . It is now only able to mine data it already has .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "GeoScience_Victoria", "rank": 40, "score": 90087 }, { "content": "Title: Grace Wahba Content: Grace Wahba ( born August 3 , 1934 ) is the I. J. Schoenberg-Hilldale Professor of Statistics at the University of Wisconsin -- Madison . She is a pioneer in methods for smoothing noisy data . Best known for the development of generalized cross-validation and `` Wahba 's problem '' , she has developed methods with applications in demographic studies , machine learning , DNA microarrays , risk modeling , medical imaging , and climate prediction . She was educated at Cornell ( B.A. 1956 ) , University of Maryland , College Park ( M.A. 1962 ) and Stanford ( Ph.D. 1966 ) , and worked in industry for several years before receiving her doctorate in 1966 and settling in Madison in 1967 . She is the author of Spline Models for Observational Data . She was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 2000 and received an honorary degree of Doctor of Science from the University of Chicago in 2007 .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Grace_Wahba", "rank": 41, "score": 89663 }, { "content": "Title: Geoscientific Model Development Content: Geoscientific Model Development is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journal published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union . It covers the description , development , and evaluation of numerical models of the Earth system and its components . The journal has a two-stage publication process . In the first stage , papers that pass a rapid access peer-review are immediately published on the Geoscientific Model Development Discussions website . They are then subject to interactive public discussion , during which the referees ' comments ( anonymous or attributed ) , additional short comments by other members of the scientific community ( attributed ) , and the authors ' replies are published . In the second stage , the peer-review process is completed and , if accepted , the final revised papers are published in Geoscientific Model Development .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Geoscientific_Model_Development", "rank": 42, "score": 89519 }, { "content": "Title: List of Graceland episodes Content: Graceland is an American police drama television series created by Jeff Eastin that premiered on the USA Network on June 6 , 2013 . A group of undercover agents from various law enforcement agencies in the United States , including the DEA , the FBI , and the ICE , live together in a confiscated Southern California beach house known as `` Graceland '' . Rookie FBI agent Mike Warren is assigned to the house fresh out of Quantico training .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "List_of_Graceland_episodes", "rank": 43, "score": 89511 }, { "content": "Title: SCICEX Content: SCICEX , standing for Scientific Ice Expeditions , was a five-year ( 1995 -- 1999 ) scientific research program involving a collaboration between the U.S. Navy and academic researchers from a variety of different universities . The object of study was geophysical and oceanological conditions in the Arctic Ocean . The Navy made available a nuclear submarine for each research cruise .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "SCICEX", "rank": 44, "score": 89344 }, { "content": "Title: International Geoscience Programme Content: The International Geoscience and Geoparks Programme ( IGCP ) is a cooperative enterprise of UNESCO ( the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ) and the International Union of Geological Sciences ( IUGS ) . It was launched in 1972 and originally termed the International Geological Correlation Programme , the source of the acronym IGCP which it retains . For decades the programme was known as the International Geoscience Programme . In November 2015 the name was changed to International Geoscience and Geoparks Programme as the global geoparks were made part of the programme . The aim of the IGCP is to facilitate research cooperation among geoscientists across frontiers and national boundaries , through joint research work , meetings and workshops . At the present time IGCP has about 400 active projects involving thousands of scientists from about 150 countries .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "International_Geoscience_Programme", "rank": 45, "score": 89197 }, { "content": "Title: Institute of Geosciences of the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Content: The Institute of Geosciences is a unit of instruction of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul ( UFRGS ) . It includes the undergraduate courses of Geography , Geomatics Engineering , Geology . It has a department of study of vertebrate paleontology which has made great contributions to the geopark of Paleorrota . The unit is also responsible for the maintenance of three museums , the Journal of Research in Geosciences , and post-graduate education and research .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Institute_of_Geosciences_of_the_Universidade_Federal_do_Rio_Grande_do_Sul", "rank": 46, "score": 89182 }, { "content": "Title: Geoscientist (magazine) Content: Geoscientist is a monthly magazine produced for the Fellowship of the Geological Society of London . The magazine is editorially independent of the Geological Society 's administration . It has a print run of 10,000 and is freely available to all Fellows .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Geoscientist_(magazine)", "rank": 47, "score": 89048 }, { "content": "Title: Geomathematics Content: Geomathematics or mathematical geosciences is the application of mathematics to the geosciences . It is also a new course that uses computer based technology , this is a form of geophysics or in other cases one might call it geology . The software is in the form of packages of interactive programs or modules of instructional material . Geomathematics is designed to teach students of this computer based technology .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Geomathematics", "rank": 48, "score": 88582 }, { "content": "Title: New Civil Engineer Content: New Civil Engineer is the monthly magazine for members of the Institution of Civil Engineers ( ICE ) , the UK chartered body that oversees the practice of civil engineering in the UK . First published in May 1972 , it is today published by Ascential who , as Emap , acquired the title and editorial control from the ICE in 1995 , though the ICE regularly discusses the magazine 's content through an editorial advisory board and a supervisory board . Available in print and online after the appropriate subscription has been taken out ( it is free for members of the ICE ) , the magazine is aimed at professionals in the civil engineering industry . It contains industry news and analysis , letters from subscribers , a directory of companies , with listings arranged by companies ' areas of work , and an appointments section . It also occasionally has details of university courses and graduate positions . In 2013 it had a net circulation of more than 50,000 per issue . Two years later , this had dropped to 42,805 , of which some 39,000 related to copies distributed to ICE members . Previously printed on a weekly basis the magazine switch to a monthly format in December 2015 . New Civil Engineer was a co-founder of the British Construction Industry Awards . In January 2017 , Ascential announced its intention to sell 13 titles including New Civil Engineer ; the 13 `` heritage titles '' were to be `` hived off into a separate business while buyers are sought . ''", "qid": "2897", "docid": "New_Civil_Engineer", "rank": 49, "score": 88082 }, { "content": "Title: ICESat Content: ICESat ( Ice , Cloud , and land Elevation Satellite ) , part of NASA 's Earth Observing System , was a satellite mission for measuring ice sheet mass balance , cloud and aerosol heights , as well as land topography and vegetation characteristics . ICESat was launched 13 January 2003 on a Delta II rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California into a near-circular , near-polar orbit with an altitude of approximately 600 km . It operated for seven years before being retired in February 2010 , after its scientific payload shut down and scientists were unable to restart it . The ICESat mission was designed to provide elevation data needed to determine ice sheet mass balance as well as cloud property information , especially for stratospheric clouds common over polar areas . It provides topography and vegetation data around the globe , in addition to the polar-specific coverage over the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets . The satellite was found useful in assessing important forest characteristics , including tree density .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "ICESat", "rank": 50, "score": 88003 }, { "content": "Title: Mark Serreze Content: Mark Clifford Serreze ( born 1960 ) is an American geographer and the director of the National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) , a project of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder . He officially became the NSIDC 's director in August 2009 . Serreze is primarily known for his expertise in the Arctic sea ice decline that has occurred over the last few decades due to global warming , a topic about which he has expressed serious concern .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Mark_Serreze", "rank": 51, "score": 87929 }, { "content": "Title: Kendrick Taylor Content: Kendrick Cashman Taylor , Jr. is a climate change researcher working with ice cores in Greenland and Antarctica . While a Research Professor at the Desert Research Institute in Reno , Nevada , he was the Chief Scientist for the Siple Dome and WAIS Divide ice core projects in Antarctica . He has also done work on near shore clarity at Lake Tahoe and teaching World Vision how to use geophysics to find favorable locations for shallow water wells in West Africa . His ResearcherID is A-3469-2016 and ORCID is 0000-0001-8535-1261 . Kendrick Cashman Taylor , Sr. ( 1922 -- 1995 ) was an engineer who specialized in vacuum metallurgy , especially related to depositing thin films on mylar . He is listed as the inventor on the follow U.S.A. patents : US3185565 , US3314826 , US3278331 , US3326177 , US3601179 , US3215423 , US3330900 , US3180633 , US3554268 , US3235243 .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Kendrick_Taylor", "rank": 52, "score": 87845 }, { "content": "Title: The Cryosphere Content: The Cryosphere is a peer-reviewed scientific journal focusing on all aspects of frozen water and ground ( especially glaciers ) on Earth and on other planetary bodies . It was established in 2007 and is published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union . The editors-in-chief are Jonathan L. Bamber ( University of Bristol ) , Florent Dominé ( Université Laval and CNRS ) , Stephan Gruber ( Carleton University ) , G. Hilmar Gudmundsson ( British Antarctic Survey ) , and Michiel van den Broeke ( Utrecht University ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 5.516 .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "The_Cryosphere", "rank": 53, "score": 87599 }, { "content": "Title: Grace Y. Yi Content: Grace Yun Yi is a professor at the University of Waterloo , Canada , where she holds a University Research Chair in Statistical and Actuarial Science . Her research concerns event history analysis with missing data and its applications in medicine , engineering , and social science . Yi earned bachelor 's and master 's degrees from Sichuan University , China , in 1986 and 1989 . She moved to Canada and continued her studies with another master 's degree from York University in 1996 , and a Ph.D. from the University of Toronto in 2000 under the supervision of Donald A. S. Fraser . She came to Waterloo as a postdoctoral researcher , and then continued there as an assistant professor in 2001 . Yi won the CRM -- SSC Prize of the Statistical Society of Canada in 2010 . In 2015 she was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association `` for research excellence in developing statistical theory and methods , particularly in missing and mis-measured data ; for important contributions to biostatistics ; and for excellence in statistical education and mentoring students . '' Her work with Xianming Tan and Runze Li won the Canadian Journal of Statistics Award for 2016 .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Grace_Y._Yi", "rank": 54, "score": 87381 }, { "content": "Title: Maria Fadiman Content: Maria Grace Fadiman ( born July 4 , 1969 ) is an ethnobotanist and Associate Professor of Geosciences at Florida Atlantic University .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Maria_Fadiman", "rank": 55, "score": 87298 }, { "content": "Title: Ice (Dukaj novel) Content: Ice ( Lód ) is a Janusz A. Zajdel , European Union Prize for Literature and Kościelski awards-winning novel written in 2007 by the Polish science fiction writer Jacek Dukaj , published in Poland by Wydawnictwo Literackie . The novel mixes alternate history with science fiction elements , in particular , with alternative physics and logic . English language rights to Ice have been acquired by London-based publisher Head of Zeus . The publication date will be announced once the novel is translated .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Ice_(Dukaj_novel)", "rank": 56, "score": 87155 }, { "content": "Title: National Snow and Ice Data Center Content: The National Snow and Ice Data Center , or NSIDC , is a United States information and referral center in support of polar and cryospheric research . NSIDC archives and distributes digital and analog snow and ice data and also maintains information about snow cover , avalanches , glaciers , ice sheets , freshwater ice , sea ice , ground ice , permafrost , atmospheric ice , paleoglaciology , and ice cores . NSIDC is part of the University of Colorado Boulder Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences ( CIRES ) , and is affiliated with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) National Geophysical Data Center through a cooperative agreement . NSIDC serves as one of twelve Distributed Active Archive Centers funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration to archive and distribute data from NASA 's past and current satellites and field measurement programs . NSIDC also supports the National Science Foundation through the Exchange For Local Observations and Knowledge of the Arctic ( ELOKA ) and other scientific research grants . NSIDC is also a member of the ICSU World Data System . Mark Serreze is the director of NSIDC .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "National_Snow_and_Ice_Data_Center", "rank": 57, "score": 87148 }, { "content": "Title: Lunar and Planetary Science Conference Content: The Lunar and Planetary Science Conference ( LPSC ) , jointly sponsored by the Lunar and Planetary Institute ( LPI ) and NASA Johnson Space Center ( JSC ) , brings together international specialists in petrology , geochemistry , geophysics , geology , and astronomy to present the latest results of research in planetary science . Since its beginning in 1970 , the LPSC has been a significant focal point for planetary science research , with more than 1700 planetary scientists and students attending from all over the world .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Lunar_and_Planetary_Science_Conference", "rank": 58, "score": 86962 }, { "content": "Title: University of California Center for Hydrologic Modeling Content: The University of California Center for Hydrologic Modeling ( UCCHM ) is a campus-wide hydrologic modeling research center , located at the University of California , Irvine . The models and modeling frameworks developed at the Center address the urgent environmental and health issues related to water availability , such as how water availability will change in response to external factors like global climate change , how water availability will change with diminishing snow and ice , and how the frequency of hydrologic extremes ( flood and drought ) will affect the state of California The UCCHM team , made up of faculty , researchers and students , is working towards creating a state-of-the-art integrated model of California water resources that can influence and inform leaders of local , state and regional governments when making water management decisions . Much of the Center 's research relies on data from NASA 's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment ( GRACE ) . This data is used to follow changes in freshwater availability in aquifers and river basins , which allows the Center to track groundwater depletion throughout California . Through GRACE satellite data , the UCCHM team has found evidence of global groundwater depletion . The Center was founded in 2009 by Director Jay Famiglietti . In addition to his position as Director of the UCCHM , Famiglietti holds faculty appointments at the University of California , Irvine as a Professor of Earth System Science and Civil and Environmental Engineering . Famiglietti is a leader in the field of hydrology , and recently starred in the film , Last Call at the Oasis , a documentary about the global depletion of water resources . The Center is partnered with + H20 and Freewaters , organizations focused on water sustainability on a global scale and universal access to clean drinking water .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "University_of_California_Center_for_Hydrologic_Modeling", "rank": 59, "score": 86594 }, { "content": "Title: GeoArabia Content: GeoArabia is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering petroleum geoscience studies in the Middle East . It is published in Bahrain by Gulf PetroLink and was established in 1996 . Publications in GeoArabia cover various aspects of geoscience including sedimentology , tectonics , geophysics and petroleum reservoir characterisation .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "GeoArabia", "rank": 60, "score": 86515 }, { "content": "Title: Geophysics (journal) Content: Geophysics is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering all aspects of research , exploration , and education in applied geophysics . It was established in 1936 and is published by the Society of Exploration Geophysicists . The current editor-in-chief is Evert Slob ( Delft University of Technology ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 1.759 .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Geophysics_(journal)", "rank": 61, "score": 86495 }, { "content": "Title: Nature (journal) Content: Nature is an English multidisciplinary scientific journal , first published on 4 November 1869 . It was ranked the world 's most cited scientific journal by the Science Edition of the 2010 Journal Citation Reports , is ascribed an impact factor of approximately 38.1 , and is widely regarded as one of the few remaining academic journals that publishes original research across a wide range of scientific fields . Nature claims an online readership of about 3 million unique readers per month . The journal has a weekly circulation of around 53,000 but studies have concluded that on average a single copy is shared by as many as eight people . Research scientists are the primary audience for the journal , but summaries and accompanying articles are intended to make many of the most important papers understandable to scientists in other fields and the educated public . Towards the front of each issue are editorials , news and feature articles on issues of general interest to scientists , including current affairs , science funding , business , scientific ethics and research breakthroughs . There are also sections on books and arts . The remainder of the journal consists mostly of research papers ( articles or letters ) , which are often dense and highly technical . Because of strict limits on the length of papers , often the printed text is actually a summary of the work in question with many details relegated to accompanying supplementary material on the journal 's website . There are many fields of research in which important new advances and original research are published as either articles or letters in Nature . The papers that have been published in this journal are internationally acclaimed for maintaining high research standards . In 2007 Nature ( together with Science ) received the Prince of Asturias Award for Communications and Humanity .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Nature_(journal)", "rank": 62, "score": 86369 }, { "content": "Title: Thin Ice (2013 film) Content: Thin Ice is a 2013 documentary film following geologist Simon Lamb on a search to understand the science behind climate change . This is achieved by traveling the world and meeting a range of scientists , from biologists to physicists , who are investigating the climate . The film 's conclusion emphasises the scientific consensus on human-induced climate change . The film was a joint initiative between Oxford University and Victoria University of Wellington , and premiered around the world on Earth Day 2012 , and in New Zealand in 2015 .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Thin_Ice_(2013_film)", "rank": 63, "score": 86319 }, { "content": "Title: Henry Pollack (geophysicist) Content: Henry Pollack is emeritus professor of geophysics at the University of Michigan . Pollack received his A.B. from Cornell University in 1958 and Ph.D in 1963 from the University of Michigan . He is also an advisor to the National Science Foundation and an author ( along with 2000 other people ) of a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which was awarded the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore . Pollack has conducted scientific research on all seven continents and has traveled regularly to Antarctica . In 2010 , Pollack wrote the book A World Without Ice which provides an analysis of climate change science . In 2003 , he wrote Uncertain Science ... Uncertain World .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Henry_Pollack_(geophysicist)", "rank": 64, "score": 86232 }, { "content": "Title: Rainer Spurzem Content: Rainer Spurzem is a German astronomer at the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut in Heidelberg , Germany . His speciality is the N-body simulation of galaxies and star clusters . With Sverre Aarseth , he was the first to simulate core collapse of a star cluster using a direct N-body algorithm on a Cray supercomputer . Rainer Spurzem is a leader of the GRACE project , which uses reconfigurable hardware for astrophysical particle simulations . The GRACE project was funded via grants from the Volkswagen Foundation and from the Ministry of Science , Research and Art of Baden-Württemberg . He also designed gravitySimulator , a special-purpose computer based on GRAPE accelerator boards at the Rochester Institute of Technology .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Rainer_Spurzem", "rank": 65, "score": 86184 }, { "content": "Title: Grace Theological Journal Content: Grace Theological Journal was a peer-reviewed academic journal published by Grace Theological Seminary . It contained articles of theological interest , the majority of which were written by the faculty of the seminary . It was abstracted and indexed in the ATLA Religion Database . The founding editor-in-chief was John C. Whitcomb ; towards the end of its run the journal was edited by John J. Davis .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Grace_Theological_Journal", "rank": 66, "score": 86161 }, { "content": "Title: GEO-LEO Content: GEO-LEO ( GEO Library Experts Online ) is a virtual library for the specialty fields of mining , geography , maps , Earth sciences , and astronomy . This is a free Internet portal to search for , find and obtain books , periodicals , articles , websites and maps in the context of geosciences . Free or licensed full texts , e.g. from e-journals , are directly accessible . Furthermore you can publish your own papers in GEO-LEOe-docs . GEO-LEO is a service provided by the university library `` Georgius Agricola '' of the TU Bergakademie Freiberg and the Göttingen State and University Library ( Niedersächsische Staats - und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen , SUB ) of the University of Göttingen . This cooperation is based on the DFG ´ s ( Germany 's Research Foundation ) `` national distributed library plan '' , which shares the scientific literature provision between selected university libraries , each with special scientific priorities . Both libraries have a similar focus on the geosciences aspects of this library plan and therefore they cooperate closely . This is the background of their partnership and of the project GEO-LEO , funded by the DFG since 2002 .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "GEO-LEO", "rank": 67, "score": 86139 }, { "content": "Title: Zeitschrift für Naturforschung Content: The Zeitschrift für Naturforschung ( English : Journal for Nature Research ) was a peer-reviewed monthly academic journal which was established by Kaiser Wilhelm Institute scientists in 1946 . It published original German-language research manuscripts from the fields of chemistry , physics , and the biosciences . It existed for only one year , being split into two parts in 1947 , one dealing with physical sciences ( Zeitschrift für Naturforschung A ) and the other covering the chemical and biosciences ( Zeitschrift für Naturforschung B ) . The biosciences were separated in 1973 ( Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C ) , resulting in three successor journals . The three current journals are all considered to begin with the 1946 volume ; consequently , all three journals use the same volume number in each calendar year . The publisher typically uses the abbreviation Z. Naturforsch . for all three journals with the part indicated in the volume number . For example , an article in a 2012 issue of Part A might be referenced in some places as being from volume `` 67a '' of Z. Naturforsch. , but in other places references will show volume `` 67 '' of `` Z. Naturforsch . A '' .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Zeitschrift_für_Naturforschung", "rank": 68, "score": 86111 }, { "content": "Title: Maria Cristina Facchini Content: Maria Cristina Facchini is a geoscientist and research director based , since the 1980s , at the University of Bologna in Italy . Her research is directed at the process of change , natural and man-made , from aerosols in atmospheric composition , and at how that change is affecting many aspects of our lives , including climate , ultraviolet radiation levels , and regional air quality . These impact , as her group 's website puts it , `` the fundamental necessities of human existence '' , such as human health , food production , and water resources . She has published over 100 papers , many of which have been critically acclaimed . She is on multiple panels/boards , including , since 2011 , the Scientific Advisory Board of the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz , Germany .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Maria_Cristina_Facchini", "rank": 69, "score": 86063 }, { "content": "Title: List of geoscience organizations Content: This is a list of organizations dealing with the various geosciences , including geology , geophysics , hydrology , oceanography , petrophysics , and related fields . American Association of Petroleum Geologists ( AAPG ) American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists ( AASP ) American Gemological Society ( AGS ) American Geological Institute ( AGI ) American Geophysical Union ( AGU ) American Institute of Hydrology ( AIH ) American Institute of Professional Geologists ( AIPG ) American Rock Mechanics Association ( ARMA ) American Society of Limnology and Oceanography ( ASLO ) Arizona Geological Society ( AGS ) Asia Oceania Geosciences Society ( AOGS ) Association for Women Geoscientists ( AWG ) Association of American State Geologists ( AASG ) Association of Earth Science Editors ( AESE ) Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists ( AEG ) Association of Professional Geoscientists of Ontario Australian Clay Minerals Society ( ACMS ) Australian Institute of Geoscientists ( AIG ) Australian Society of Exploration Geophysicists ( ASEG ) British Geological Survey ( BGS ) British Organic Geochemical Society ( BOGS ) CAMESE ( Canadian Association of Mining Equipment and Services for Export ) Canadian Geophysical Union Canadian Institute of Mining , Metallurgy and Petroleum ( CIM ) Canadian Society of Exploration Geophysicists ( CSEG ) Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Central Geological Survey ( CGS ) Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences ( CAGS ) Chinese Geoscience Union ( CGU ) The Clay Minerals Society ( CMS ) Colegio de Geólogos de Chile Council for Undergraduate Research-Geosciences Division ( CUR ) Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft , ( DGG ) ( German Geophysical Society ) Delft Organization of Geophysics Students ( DOGS ) Edinburgh Geological Society Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society ( EEGS ) European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers ( EAGE ) European Association of Science Editors ( EASE ) European Geosciences Union ( EGU ) Friends of Mineralogy ( FOM ) Geo-Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers ( GI ) Geological Association at Berkeley ( GAB ) Geological Society of America ( GSA ) Geological Society of Glasgow ( Scotland ) Geological Society of India Geological Society of London ( GSL ) Geological Society of Washington ( GSW ) Geological Survey of Austria ( GBA ) Geological Survey of Belgium ( GSB ) Geological Survey of Canada Geological Survey of China ( GSC ) Geological Survey of India Geological Survey of Newfoundland and Labrador Geological Survey of Pakistan ( GSP ) Geologists ' Association ( GA ) Gemological Institute of America ( GIA ) Geoscience Australia Geoscience Information Society ( GSIS ) Geoscientists Canada History of Earth Sciences Society ( HESS ) International Association of Geomorphologists ( IAG/AIG ) International Association of Hydrogeologists/U . S. National Chapter ( IAH ) International Association of Hydrological Sciences ( IAHS/AISH ) International Association of Planetary Sciences ( IAPS ) International Association for Mathematical Geosciences ( IAMG ) International Association for Promoting Geoethics ( IAPG ) International Association of Sedimentologists ( IAS ) International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth 's Interior ( IAVCEI ) International Basement Tectonics Association International Commission on Stratigraphy ( ICS ) International Glaciological Society ( IGS ) International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation ( ITC ) International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics ( IUGG ) International Union of Geological Sciences ( IUGS ) International Union of Soil Sciences ( IUSS ) Japan Geoscience Union ( JpGU ) Micropalaeontological Society Mineralogical Society of America ( MSA ) Mining , Geological & Metallurgical Institute of India Myanmar Geosciences Society ( MGS ) Myanmar Geologist Society , Singapore ( MGSS ) National Association of Black Geologists and Geophysicists ( NABGG ) National Association of Geoscience Teachers ( NAGT ) National Association of State Boards of Geology ( ASBOG ) National Cooperative Soil Survey ( NCSS ) National Earth Science Teachers Association National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology ( INGV , Italy ) National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists ( NSCSS ) National Speleological Society ( NSS ) Nigerian Geological Survey Agency ( NGSA ) Nigerian Mining and Geosciences Society ( NMGS ) North American Commission of Stratigraphic Nomenclature ( NACSN ) Norwegian Geological Survey ( NGU ) Oregon State Board of Geologist Examiners ( OSBGE ) Palaeontographical Society Palaeontological Association ( PalAss ) Paleobotanical Section of the Botanical Society of America ( PSBSA ) Paleontological Research Institution ( PRI ) Paleontological Society ( PS ) Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia ( PESA ) Petroleum Exploration Society of Great Britain ( PESGB ) Petroleum History Institute ( PHI ) * Prospectors & Developers Association of Canada ( PDAC ) Pittsburgh Association of Petroleum Geologists ( PAPG ) Pittsburgh Geological Society ( PGS ) Quaternary Research Association ( QRA ) Rockwatch Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists ( RMAG ) Royal Astronomical Society ( RAS ) Royal Geological Society of Cornwall ( RGSC ) Russell Society Saudi Geological Survey ( SGS ) Seismological Society of America ( SSA ) Society for Mining , Metallurgy , and Exploration ( SME ) Society for Sedimentary Geology ( SEPM ) Society of Economic Geologists ( SEG ) Society of Exploration Geophysicists ( SEG ) Society of Independent Professional Earth Scientists ( SIPES ) Society of Mineral Museum Professionals ( SMMP ) Society of Petrophysicists and Well Log Analysts ( SPWLA ) Society of Vertebrate Paleontology ( SVP ) Soil Science Society of America ( SSSA ) South Wales Geologists ' Association ( SWGA ) The Society for Organic Petrology ( TSOP ) United States Consortium of Soil Science Associations ( USCSSA ) United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) United States Permafrost Association ( USPA )", "qid": "2897", "docid": "List_of_geoscience_organizations", "rank": 70, "score": 85863 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Journal of Earth Sciences Content: The Australian Journal of Earth Sciences : An International Geoscience Journal of the Geological Society of Australia is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that is published eight times per year by Taylor & Francis on behalf of the Geological Society of Australia . The journal broadly covers the earth sciences . The editor-in-Chief is A.S. Andrew ( New South Wales ) . It was established in 1953 as the Journal of the Geological Society of Australia and obtained its current name in 1984 .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Australian_Journal_of_Earth_Sciences", "rank": 71, "score": 85401 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 72, "score": 85313 }, { "content": "Title: Integrated Geo Systems Content: Integrated Geo Systems ( IGS ) is a computational architecture system developed for managing geoscientific data through systems and data integration . Geosciences often involve large volumes of diverse data which have to be processed by computer and graphics intensive applications . The processes involved in processing these large datasets are often so complex that no single applications software can perform all the required tasks . Specialized applications have emerged for specific tasks . To get the required results , it is necessary that all applications software involved in various stages of data processing , analysis and interpretation effectively communicate with each other by sharing data . IGS provides a framework for maintaining an electronic workflow between various geoscience software applications through data connectivity . The main components of IGS are : Geographic Information Systems as a front end . Format Engine for data connectivity link between various geoscience software applications . The format engine uses Output Input Language ( OIL ) , an interpreted language to define various data formats . An array of geoscience relational databases for data integration . Data Highways as internal data formats for each data type . Specialized Geoscience Applications Software as processing modules . Geoscientific Processing Libraries", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Integrated_Geo_Systems", "rank": 73, "score": 85286 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific Data (journal) Content: Scientific Data is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journal published by the Nature Publishing Group since 2014 . It focuses on descriptions of data sets relevant to the natural sciences , which are provided as machine readable data , complemented with a human oriented narrative . The journal was not the first to publish data papers , but is one of few journals that purely publish data papers . The journal is abstracted and indexed by Index Medicus/MEDLINE/PubMed .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Scientific_Data_(journal)", "rank": 74, "score": 84320 }, { "content": "Title: Nature Methods Content: Nature Methods is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering new scientific techniques . It was established in 2004 and is published by the Nature Publishing Group . Like other Nature journals , there is no external editorial board and editorial decisions are made by an in-house team , although peer review by external experts forms a part of the review process . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 25.328 , ranking it first in the category `` Biochemical Research Methods '' .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Nature_Methods", "rank": 75, "score": 84155 }, { "content": "Title: Petr Chýlek Content: Petr Chýlek is a researcher for Space and Remote Sensing Sciences at Los Alamos National Laboratory . Prior to becoming a government researcher in 2001 , Chýlek was a Professor at several US and Canadian universities including SUNY Albany , Purdue University , University of Oklahoma and Dalhousie University in Halifax , Canada . Chýlek has published over 100 first authored scientific papers in remote sensing , atmospheric radiation , climate change , cloud and aerosol physics , applied laser physics and ice core analysis . His work has been cited more than 4000 times . Chylek is best known for his work in remote sensing , aerosols and climate change . In 2006 , Chýlek served as Chairman , Scientific Program Committee for The Second International Conference on Global Warming and the Next Ice Age held at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Santa Fe , NM . Speakers included Venkatachalam Ramaswamy , Chris Folland , Gerald North , Roger A. Pielke , William M. Gray and Jan Veizer . The conference included a two-day workshop on climate prediction uncertainties . The papers presented at the 2006 Conference were published in a special section of the Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres in 2007 . In 2007 , Chýlek and co-authors published a peer-reviewed paper estimating climate sensitivity to doubled atmospheric CO2 to be significantly less than the IPCC estimate . Chýlek received his diploma in theoretical physics from Charles University in Prague , Czech Republic . He received his Ph.D. in physics from UC Riverside in 1970 .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Petr_Chýlek", "rank": 76, "score": 83983 }, { "content": "Title: GeoRef Content: The GeoRef database is a bibliographic database of scientific literature in the geosciences , including geology . Coverage ranges from 1669 to the present for North American literature , and 1933 to the present for the rest of the world . It currently contains more than 2.8 million references . It is widely considered one of the preeminent literature databases for those studying the earth sciences . It is produced by the American Geosciences Institute , known as the American Geological Institute until October 2011 . `` To maintain the database , GeoRef editor/indexers regularly scan more than 3,500 journals in 40 languages as well as new books , maps , and reports . They record the bibliographic data for each document and assign index terms to describe it . Each month between 6,000 and 9,000 new references are added to the database . '' Major areas of coverage by GeoRef include : • Areal geology • Economic geology • Engineering geology • Environmental geology • Extraterrestrial geology • Geochemistry • Geochronology • Geophysics • Hydrogeology and hydrology • Marine geology and oceanography • Mathematical geology • Mineralogy and Crystallography • Paleontology • Petrology • Seismology • Stratigraphy • Structural geology • Surficial geology Print publications that correspond to GeoRef are Bibliography and Index of North American Geology ; Bibliography of Theses in Geology ; and the Geophysical Abstracts , Bibliography and Index of Geology Exclusive of North America .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "GeoRef", "rank": 77, "score": 83976 }, { "content": "Title: Grace Rocks Content: The Grace Rocks are prominent rock outcrops situated at the south side of the mouth of Apfel Glacier at its junction with Scott Glacier , Antarctica . They were mapped from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump , 1946 -- 47 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Lieutenant Philip J. Grace , U.S. Navy , a pilot with U.S. Navy Operation Windmill , 1947 -- 48 , who assisted in operations which resulted in the establishment of astronomical control stations from Wilhelm II Coast to Budd Coast .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Grace_Rocks", "rank": 78, "score": 83909 }, { "content": "Title: Grace Church Complex (Massapequa, New York) Content: The Grace Church Complex is a historic Episcopal church complex in Massapequa , Nassau County , New York . The complex consists of the church , surrounding parish cemetery , the Floyd-Jones family cemetery , and the DeLancey Floyd-Jones Free Library . The small church was built in 1844 and remodeled in 1905 . It is a frame structure on a brick foundation and consists of a vestibule , nave , and chancel . It is in the Gothic Revival style and features a square bell tower with modest spire . The church also has Tiffany glass windows added during the remodeling . Sometime after 1983 , the old Grace Church was given to the Historical Society of the Massapequas . The DeLancey Floyd-Jones Free Library was built in 1896 and is a two-by-two-bay one-room structure that served as the only public library in Massapequa for 60 years . The library was founded and built by DeLancey Floyd-Jones ( 1826 -- 1902 ) . Initially , the library , which Col. Floyd-Jones gave to Massapequa along with an endowment , was open three days a week and had enough space on its shelves to accommodate up to 2,500 books . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 . It may include two structures that are Oyster Bay municipal landmarks .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Grace_Church_Complex_(Massapequa,_New_York)", "rank": 79, "score": 83832 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Mountain Content: Ice Mountain is a mountain ridge and algific talus slope that is part of a 149 acre preserve near the community of North River Mills in Hampshire County , West Virginia , United States . It was designated a National Natural Landmark in 2012 . Ice Mountain is protected by The Nature Conservancy and open for visits by small groups of hikers . It is nicknamed `` Nature 's Ice Box '' and `` Nature 's Refrigerator '' owing to its ice vents that release cool air all year long .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Ice_Mountain", "rank": 80, "score": 83815 }, { "content": "Title: The Grace Commission Content: The Private Sector Survey on Cost Control ( PSSCC ) , commonly referred to as The Grace Commission , was an investigation requested by United States President Ronald Reagan , authorized in on June 30 , 1982 . The focus of it was waste and inefficiency in the US Federal government . Its head , businessman J. Peter Grace , asked the members of that commission to `` be bold '' and `` work like tireless bloodhounds . Do n't leave any stone unturned in your search to root out inefficiency . ''", "qid": "2897", "docid": "The_Grace_Commission", "rank": 81, "score": 83788 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment", "rank": 82, "score": 83692 }, { "content": "Title: Ice divide Content: An ice divide is the boundary on an ice sheet , ice cap or glacier separating opposing flow directions of ice , analogous to a water divide . Such ice divides are important for geochronology investigations using ice cores , because such coring is typically made on top of a dome of an ice sheet to avoid interference caused by horizontal ice movement . Ice divides are used for looking at what the atmosphere was like in history . The ice is very accurate because instead of shifting horizontally like normal ice , it moves vertically downward with time trapping gases into its layers . Scientist find these ice divides and take ice cores from them , which are typically long cylinder poles of ice , and evaluate them . Once they have these ice cores , they are able to look through it and find elements that the snow and ice carried down with it during that time period such as sulfate , nitrate , and other ions . These ice cores are important in determining how our atmosphere has changed for the better or worse , and how we can fix it such as the greenhouse effect which discovered when scientist found how much more greenhouse gasses was in our atmosphere than there was in the past . Scientists from around the United States came together to find the perfect ice divide in order to go the furthest into the past . They formed the WAIS project . This project is funded by the United States National Foundation , and is run by scientists from many organizations such as National Ice Core Laboratory , Ice Drilling Design and Operations ( IDDO ) , and over fifty Universities . The WAIS project is located in West Antarctica , and the goal is to look into the past 100,000 years . WAIS is better than other ice divides because of the amount of snow it gets . This large amount of snow causes there to be a very small off-set from the ages of the ice to the air and gases trapped inside . This gives the scientists to give much more precise predictions of what the atmosphere was like in history . If the WAIS project is a success it will educate scientists around the world how the atmosphere of Earth has changed completely over 100,000 years .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Ice_divide", "rank": 83, "score": 83494 }, { "content": "Title: The Invention of Nature Content: The Invention of Nature : Alexander von Humboldt 's New World is a nonfiction book released in 2015 , by the historian Andrea Wulf about the Prussian naturalist , explorer and geographer Alexander von Humboldt . The book follows Humboldt from his early childhood and travels through Europe as a young man to his journey through Latin America and his return to Europe . Wulf makes the case that Humboldt synthesized knowledge from many different fields to form a vision of nature as one interconnected system , that would go on to influence scientists , activists and the public .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "The_Invention_of_Nature", "rank": 84, "score": 83447 }, { "content": "Title: International Journal of Earth Sciences Content: International Journal of Earth Sciences is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published monthly by Springer Science + Business Media . It covers original and review papers on the history of earth and is an international Geoscience journal . Subject areas covered in the journal include : dynamics of the lithosphere , tectonics and volcanology , sedimentology , evolution of life , marine and continental ecosystems , global dynamics of physicochemical cycles , mineral deposits and hydrocarbons , and surface processes .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "International_Journal_of_Earth_Sciences", "rank": 85, "score": 83334 }, { "content": "Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies", "rank": 86, "score": 83246 }, { "content": "Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera", "rank": 87, "score": 83240 }, { "content": "Title: Nature Photonics Content: Nature Photonics is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Nature Publishing Group . The editor-in-chief is Oliver Graydon . The journal covers research related to optoelectronics , laser science , imaging , communications , and other aspects of photonics and was established in January 2007 . Nature Photonics publishes review articles , research papers , News and Views pieces , and research highlights summarizing the latest scientific findings in optoelectronics . This is complemented by a mix of articles dedicated to the business side of the industry covering areas such as technology commercialization and market analysis . The papers that have been published in this journal are internationally acclaimed for maintaining high research standards . The journal is regarded as top-ranking in the field of photonics . Nature Photonics is indexed in the NASA Astrophysics Data System and Science Citation Index .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Nature_Photonics", "rank": 88, "score": 82995 }, { "content": "Title: Paleoclimatology Content: Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Paleoclimatology", "rank": 89, "score": 82676 }, { "content": "Title: Geoscience Information Society (GSIS) Content: The Geoscience Information Society ( GSIS ) is a nonprofit organization reflecting all aspects of the geosciences that works toward solutions to the information challenges faced by geoscience researchers . Membership in the Society reflects the different groups interested in addressing these challenges including commercial firms , academic institutions , government bodies , publishers and other related organizations , both national and international .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Geoscience_Information_Society_(GSIS)", "rank": 90, "score": 82660 }, { "content": "Title: Ice (anime) Content: is a 2007 three-episode original video animation created by Yasushi Akimoto and directed by Makoto Kobayashi . It is set in the ruins of Tokyo in the near future , after an unspecified catastrophe has led to the death of all human males and many females . The small groups of women who survive face the impending extinction of humanity . There are suggestions that the disaster was caused by human interference with nature , possibly biological warfare experiments or genetic engineering . Many of the survivors blame men 's warlike nature and scientific arrogance for the catastrophe . However , even though men have perished , the women who remain are forced to use violence in the face of bioterrorism and other threats . While some accept their fate as the last generation of humans , others see biological engineering as a final hope for the survival of the species .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Ice_(anime)", "rank": 91, "score": 82617 }, { "content": "Title: Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research Content: Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering reference materials , analytical techniques , and data quality relevant to the chemical analysis of geological and environmental samples . The journal was established in 1977 as Geostandards Newsletter and modified its title in 2004 . The editors-in-chief are Thomas C. Meisel , Jacinta Enzweiler , Mary F. Horan , Kathryn L. Linge , Christophe R. Quétel and Paul J. Sylvester . It is published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the International Association of Geoanalysts .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Geostandards_and_Geoanalytical_Research", "rank": 92, "score": 82442 }, { "content": "Title: Geoarchaeology Content: Geoarchaeology is a multi-disciplinary approach which uses the techniques and subject matter of geography , geology and other Earth sciences to examine topics which inform archaeological knowledge and thought . Geoarchaeologists study the natural physical processes that affect archaeological sites such as geomorphology , the formation of sites through geological processes and the effects on buried sites and artifacts post-deposition . Geoarchaeologists ' work frequently involves studying soil and sediments as well as other geographical concepts to contribute an archaeological study . Geoarchaeologists may also use computer cartography , geographic information systems ( GIS ) and digital elevation models ( DEM ) in combination with disciplines from human and social sciences and earth sciences . Geoarchaeology is important to society because it informs archaeologists about the geomorphology of the soil , sediments and the rocks on the buried sites and artifacts they 're researching on . By doing this we are able locate ancient cities and artifacts and estimate by the quality of soil how `` prehistoric '' they really are .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Geoarchaeology", "rank": 93, "score": 82240 }, { "content": "Title: Moments in Grace Content: Moments in Grace was a rock band from St. Augustine , Florida . Initially called ` Postcard Audio , ' the band was re-vamped with the help of Brian McTernan , who engineered and produced all of the band 's recorded output . Jake now plays in The Eastern Wave ( formerly En Masse ) , Decahedron , Frodus , and runs Computer Club Records . Jeremy has recorded/produced music for Taken from You , Forever Changed , Bernard , Amity and City of Ships .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Moments_in_Grace", "rank": 94, "score": 82234 }, { "content": "Title: Chartered Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors Content: The Chartered Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors or ICES is a professional association in the field of civil engineering surveying . ICES is now recognised as the leading chartered professional body for civil engineering surveyors . ICES members consist mainly of commercial managers and geospatial engineers working and studying within civil engineering surveying . The institution began in 1969 as the Association of Surveyors in Civil Engineering and became a registered educational charity in 1992 . In 1992 , ICES became the first associated institution of the Institution of Civil Engineers ( ICE ) and together formed two joint boards to provide and disseminate surveying knowledge and expertise ; the Geospatial Engineering Board and Commercial Management Board . ICES also has reciprocal membership agreements in place with the ICE .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Chartered_Institution_of_Civil_Engineering_Surveyors", "rank": 95, "score": 82117 }, { "content": "Title: Geophysical Research Letters Content: Geophysical Research Letters is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal of geoscience published by the American Geophysical Union that was established in 1974 . The editor-in-chief is Noah Diffenbaugh .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Geophysical_Research_Letters", "rank": 96, "score": 82107 }, { "content": "Title: Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station Content: The Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station 2007 ( APLIS07 ) is an U.S.A. and Japanese laboratory dedicated to the study of global climate change , located about 300km south of the Arctic Circle , Alaska on the West Ridge of the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Applied_Physics_Laboratory_Ice_Station", "rank": 97, "score": 81942 }, { "content": "Title: International Association for Mathematical Geosciences Content: The International Association for Mathematical Geosciences ( IAMG ) is a nonprofit organization of geoscientists . The aim of the International Association for Mathematical Geosciences is to promote international cooperation in the application and use of mathematics in geological research and technology . IAMG 's activities are to organize meetings , issue of publications on the application of mathematics in the geological sciences , extend cooperation with other organizations professionally concerned with applications of mathematics and statistics to the biological sciences , earth sciences , engineering , environmental sciences , and planetary sciences . IAMG is a not for profit 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) organization .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "International_Association_for_Mathematical_Geosciences", "rank": 98, "score": 81895 }, { "content": "Title: Radioglaciology Content: Radioglaciology is the study of glaciers and ice sheets using radar . It employs a geophysical method similar to ground-penetrating radar that operates at frequencies in the MF , HF and VHF portions of the radio spectrum . Radioglaciology is sometimes referred to as `` ice-penetrating radar '' or `` radio-echo sounding '' . Glaciers are well suited to investigation by radar because the imaginary part of the permittivity of ice is small relative to its real part ; this ratio is called the loss tangent . The conductivity of ice is small at radio frequencies , so its dielectric absorption is also small .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Radioglaciology", "rank": 99, "score": 81865 }, { "content": "Title: Outline of geophysics Content: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to geophysics : Geophysics -- the physics of the Earth and its environment in space ; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods . The term geophysics sometimes refers only to the geological applications : Earth 's shape ; its gravitational and magnetic fields ; its internal structure and composition ; its dynamics and their surface expression in plate tectonics , the generation of magmas , volcanism and rock formation . However , modern geophysics organizations have a broader definition that includes the hydrological cycle including snow and ice ; fluid dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere ; electricity and magnetism in the ionosphere and magnetosphere and solar-terrestrial relations ; and analogous problems associated with the Moon and other planets .", "qid": "2897", "docid": "Outline_of_geophysics", "rank": 100, "score": 81706 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 1, "score": 110260 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 2, "score": 107396 }, { "content": "Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Glacier_mass_balance", "rank": 3, "score": 105480 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 4, "score": 99562 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 5, "score": 95954 }, { "content": "Title: January 1999 North American ice storm Content: The January 1999 North American ice storm was a severe ice storm that struck the Washington D.C. metropolitan area on January 14 and 15 , 1999 . Heavy ice accumulation bringing down power lines resulted in around 745,000 people in the area losing power . Many of the major power companies supplying DC , Maryland , and Virginia had significant portions of their customer bases impacted . At the height of the storm , around one third of PEPCO 's customers were without power , with some waiting up to two weeks for power to be restored .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "January_1999_North_American_ice_storm", "rank": 6, "score": 95840 }, { "content": "Title: December 2005 North American ice storm Content: The December 2005 North American ice storm was a damaging winter storm that produced extensive ice damage in a large portion of the Southern United States from December 14 -- 16 , 2005 , while extensive snowfall was reported across portions of the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec . The ice storm led to enormous and widespread power outages , and at least 7 deaths .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "December_2005_North_American_ice_storm", "rank": 7, "score": 94732 }, { "content": "Title: Quelccaya Ice Cap Content: The Quelccaya Ice Cap is the largest glaciated area in the tropics . Located in the Cordillera Oriental section of the Andes mountains of Peru , the ice cap is at an average altitude of 5,470 m and spans an area of 44 km2 . As with the majority of the Earth 's glaciers , the Quelccaya Ice cap has retreated significantly since it was first studied . Since 1978 the icecap has lost approximately 20 % of its area , and the rate of retreat is increasing . Comparing pictures taken in 1963 and 1978 , an annual retreat rate of 4.7 m was estimated . In the first few years of the 21st century , the annual retreat was measured to be as much as 205 m , more than 40 times as fast . The major outlet glacier from the Quelccaya Ice Cap , the Qori Kalis Glacier , has also retreated significantly since 1963 .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Quelccaya_Ice_Cap", "rank": 8, "score": 93926 }, { "content": "Title: Ice (anime) Content: is a 2007 three-episode original video animation created by Yasushi Akimoto and directed by Makoto Kobayashi . It is set in the ruins of Tokyo in the near future , after an unspecified catastrophe has led to the death of all human males and many females . The small groups of women who survive face the impending extinction of humanity . There are suggestions that the disaster was caused by human interference with nature , possibly biological warfare experiments or genetic engineering . Many of the survivors blame men 's warlike nature and scientific arrogance for the catastrophe . However , even though men have perished , the women who remain are forced to use violence in the face of bioterrorism and other threats . While some accept their fate as the last generation of humans , others see biological engineering as a final hope for the survival of the species .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_(anime)", "rank": 9, "score": 91766 }, { "content": "Title: Aufeis Content: Aufeis , , ( German for `` ice on top '' ) is a sheet-like mass of layered ice that forms from successive flows of ground water during freezing temperatures . This form of ice is also called overflow , icings , or the Russian term , naled . The term was first used in 1859 by A. T. von Middendorff following his observations of the phenomenon in northern Siberia .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Aufeis", "rank": 10, "score": 90828 }, { "content": "Title: January 1998 North American ice storm Content: The North American Ice Storm of 1998 ( also known as Great Ice Storm of 1998 ) was a massive combination of five smaller successive ice storms in January 1998 that struck a relatively narrow swath of land from eastern Ontario to southern Quebec , New Brunswick and Nova Scotia in Canada , and bordering areas from northern New York to central Maine in the United States . It caused massive damage to trees and electrical infrastructure all over the area , leading to widespread long-term power outages . Millions were left in the dark for periods varying from days to several weeks , and in some instances , months . It led to 35 fatalities , a shutdown of activities in large cities like Montreal and Ottawa , and an unprecedented effort in reconstruction of the power grid . The ice storm led to the largest deployment of Canadian military personnel since the Korean War , with over 16,000 Canadian Forces personnel deployed , 12,000 in Quebec and 4,000 in Ontario at the height of the crisis .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "January_1998_North_American_ice_storm", "rank": 11, "score": 89537 }, { "content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850", "rank": 12, "score": 89324 }, { "content": "Title: December 2008 Northeastern United States ice storm Content: The December 2008 Northeastern United States ice storm was a damaging ice storm that took out power for millions of people in those regions . The storm was deemed the worst ice storm in a decade for New England and the most severe ice storm in 21 years for Upstate New York . Damage was primarily a result of fallen trees and fallen utility wires and poles , which were coated in a heavy layer of ice . The storm raised heavy controversy over the slow return of power , as at the storm 's peak as many as 1.7 million customers were without power . Days after the storm more than 800,000 customers were still without power . Almost a week after the storm still more than 100,000 customers were without power , affecting the holiday shopping season and crippling the business and transportation of many northeast cities for days .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "December_2008_Northeastern_United_States_ice_storm", "rank": 13, "score": 89072 }, { "content": "Title: Ice (Sorokin novel) Content: Ice ( Лёд , Lyod ) is a 2002 novel by the Russian writer Vladimir Sorokin . The story is set in a brutal Russia of the near future , where the Tunguska meteor has provided a mysterious cult with a material which can make people 's hearts speak . The book is the first written part of Sorokin 's Ice Trilogy , although the second part in the narrative ; it was followed by Bro in 2004 and 23,000 in 2006 .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_(Sorokin_novel)", "rank": 14, "score": 88876 }, { "content": "Title: North American ice storm of January 1961 Content: The North American ice storm of January 1961 was a massive ice storm that struck areas of northern Idaho in the United States on January 1 -- 3 , 1961 . The storm set a record for thickest recorded ice accumulation from a single storm in the United States , at 8 inches . The storm 's swath covered areas from Grangeville , in north central Idaho , to the Canada -- United States border . According to the National Weather Service , a combination of dense fog , sub-freezing temperatures , and occasional freezing rain led to the heavy ice accretions . Catastrophic damage to trees and utilities resulted , resulting in widespread power outages . Prior to this storm , previous records of between 4 and 6 inches of ice were recorded in New York City and Texas .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "North_American_ice_storm_of_January_1961", "rank": 15, "score": 88699 }, { "content": "Title: Black Icefalls Content: Black Icefalls is a line of icefalls at the south margin of Chapman Snowfield , Churchill Mountains . The icefalls extend southwest from Mount Massam to Vance Bluff , and were named in honor of A. W. Black , a member of the 1959 Cape Hallett winter-over team , working as a technician on the geomagnetic project .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Black_Icefalls", "rank": 16, "score": 87652 }, { "content": "Title: January 2007 North American Ice Storm Content: The January 2007 North American ice storm was a severe ice storm that affected a large swath of North America from the Rio Grande Valley to New England and southeastern Canada starting on January 11 , 2007 through January 16 , followed by a second wave in the Southern United States from Texas to the Carolinas from January 16 through January 18 and a third one that hit the southern Plains and mid-Atlantic states as well as Newfoundland and Labrador from January 19 to January 24 . It resulted in at least 74 deaths across 12 U.S. states and three Canadian provinces , and caused hundreds of thousands of residents across the U.S and Canada to lose electric power . The event was similar to the 1998 Ice storm that struck portions of eastern Canada and northern New England , which were affected by multiple waves of ice precipitation over a period of five days .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "January_2007_North_American_Ice_Storm", "rank": 17, "score": 86809 }, { "content": "Title: Ice storm Content: An ice storm is a type of winter storm characterized by freezing rain , also known as a glaze event or , in some parts of the United States , as a silver thaw . The U.S. National Weather Service defines an ice storm as a storm which results in the accumulation of at least 0.25 in of ice on exposed surfaces . From 1982 to 1994 , ice storms were more common than blizzards and averaged 16 per year . They are generally not violent storms but instead are commonly perceived as gentle rains occurring at temperatures just below freezing .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_storm", "rank": 18, "score": 86675 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet", "rank": 19, "score": 86325 }, { "content": "Title: Ice cap Content: An ice cap is an ice mass that covers less than 50,000 km ² of land area ( usually covering a highland area ) . Larger ice masses covering more than 50,000 km ² are termed ice sheets . Ice caps are not constrained by topographical features ( i.e. , they will lie over the top of mountains ) . By contrast , ice masses of similar size that are constrained by topographical features are known as ice fields . The dome of an ice cap is usually centred on the highest point of a massif . Ice flows away from this high point ( the ice divide ) towards the ice cap 's periphery . Ice caps have significant effects on the geomorphology of the area they occupy . Plastic moulding , gouging and other glacial erosional features become present upon the glacier 's retreat . Many lakes , such as the Great Lakes in North America , as well as numerous valleys have been formed by glacial action over hundreds of thousands of years . On Earth , there are about 30 million km ³ of total ice mass . The average temperature of an ice mass ranges between − 20 ° C and − 30 ° C . The core of an ice cap exhibits a constant temperature that ranges between − 15 ° C and − 20 ° C. A high-latitude region covered in ice , though strictly not an ice cap ( since they exceed the maximum area specified in the definition above ) , are called polar ice caps ; the usage of this designation is widespread in the mass media and arguably recognized by experts . Vatnajökull is an example of an ice cap in Iceland .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_cap", "rank": 20, "score": 86019 }, { "content": "Title: Lower Curtis Glacier Content: Lower Curtis Glacier is in North Cascades National Park in the U.S. state of Washington . Named for photographer Asahel Curtis , the glacier is in a cirque on the western slopes of Mount Shuksan . Lower Curtis Glacier is rapidly retreating and has a negative mass balance , meaning that the rate of snow and ice that is falling in the accumulation zone is less than that which is lost each year in the ablation zone . Between 1908 and 1984 , the glacier experienced a loss of thickness by 45 meters ( 147 ft ) . Between 1984 and 2002 , the glacier lost another 6 meters ( 19 ft ) in thickness . Lower Curtis Glacier also lost 28 % of its surface area between the end of the little ice age ( around 1850 ) and 1950 . Between the years 1951 and 1979 , the glacier actually lengthened by 245 meters ( 800 ft ) but has retreated 184 m ( 600 ft ) since 1985 , partly due to the tongue of the glacier being on a steep precipice which may have increased the loss of ice at the termini .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Lower_Curtis_Glacier", "rank": 21, "score": 85773 }, { "content": "Title: Ice shelf Content: An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters . In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica . Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss . Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf . The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica . The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_shelf", "rank": 22, "score": 85713 }, { "content": "Title: Ice pellets Content: Ice pellets are a form of precipitation consisting of small , translucent balls of ice . Ice pellets are smaller than hailstones which form in thunderstorms rather than in winter , and are different from graupel ( `` soft hail '' ) which is made of frosty white rime , and from a mixture of rain and snow which is a slushy liquid or semisolid . Ice pellets often bounce when they hit the ground or other solid objects , and make a higher-pitched `` tap '' when striking objects like jackets , windshields , and dried leaves , compared to the dull splat of liquid raindrops . Pellets generally do not freeze into a solid mass unless mixed with freezing rain . The METAR code for ice pellets is PL ( PE before November 1998 ) .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_pellets", "rank": 23, "score": 85708 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback", "rank": 24, "score": 85004 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 25, "score": 84593 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment", "rank": 26, "score": 84217 }, { "content": "Title: Bad Reichenhall Ice Rink roof collapse Content: At approximately 15:00 UTC on Monday 2 January 2006 , in the town of Bad Reichenhall , Bavaria , Germany , near the Austrian border , the roof of a 1970s-built ice rink collapsed , possibly under the weight of heavy snowfall , trapping 50 people underneath the rubble . Fifteen people were killed , with the last body being recovered early on 5 January . Eight children are known to have died . Thirty-two people were injured . Weather conditions in the area were extremely severe , an avalanche having killed three people nearby earlier in the day . The rescue was temporarily halted on 3 January due to fears that the walls of the ice rink could collapse , endangering firefighters , police and rescue workers . However it resumed in the early hours of the next morning . The accident has provoked outrage in the town as it emerged that officials had halted the training session of an ice hockey team inside the rink due to fears that the wall could collapse . Prior to the disaster , officials had planned to close the ice rink on Monday 2 January as snowfall was continuing . However , as many meteorologists pointed out , the weather and snow conditions were not unusual for the time of the year as the town lies in a popular winter sport area of Southern Germany . Local officials examined the collapsed roof on Monday and suggested that the accumulated snow was below the limit for the roof .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Bad_Reichenhall_Ice_Rink_roof_collapse", "rank": 27, "score": 83313 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Ic Content: Ice Ic ( pronounced `` ice one c '' or `` ice icy '' ) is a metastable cubic crystalline variant of ice . H. König was the first to identify and deduce the structure of ice Ic . The oxygen atoms in ice Ic are arranged in a diamond structure and is extremely similar to ice Ih having nearly identical densities and the same lattice constant along the hexagonal puckered-planes . It forms at temperatures between 130 and 220 K ( − 140 and − 50 ° C ) upon cooling , and can exist up to 240 K upon warming , when it transforms into ice Ih . Apart from forming from supercooled water , ice Ic has also been reported to form from amorphous ice as well as from the high pressure ices II , III and V . It can form in and is occasionally present in the upper atmosphere and is believed to be responsible for the observation of Scheiner 's halo , a rare ring that occurs near 28 degrees from the Sun or the Moon . Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih ( in the Bridgman nomenclature ) . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_Ic", "rank": 28, "score": 83120 }, { "content": "Title: Ice sheet Content: An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2 , thus also known as continental glacier . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland ; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America , the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America . Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers . Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap . An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery . Although the surface is cold , the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat . In places , melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly . This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet -- these are ice streams . The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms . The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a small ice cap ( maybe several ) in the early Oligocene , but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene , when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica . The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene , but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation . This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_sheet", "rank": 29, "score": 82876 }, { "content": "Title: January 2009 North American ice storm Content: The January 2009 North American ice storm was a major ice storm that impacted parts of Oklahoma , Arkansas , Missouri , Illinois , Indiana , West Virginia , and Kentucky . The storm produced widespread power outages for over 2 million people due to heavy ice accumulation . The hardest hit areas were in Western Kentucky with over 500,000 residences without power during the height of the storm , including 100,000 without power for over one week , and northern Arkansas , with 300,000 residences without power . This ice storm killed 65 people nationwide , 35 in Kentucky . Most deaths were attributed to carbon monoxide poisoning due to power generators or kerosene heaters being used indoors without proper ventilation . Kentucky Governor Steve Beshear called up the entire Kentucky Army National Guard to deal with the after effects of this storm , the largest National Guard call up in that state 's history . Emergency response teams from NRWA state affiliates , including the Arkansas , Kentucky , Oklahoma , Missouri and Florida rural water associations provided portable generators and technical assistance to maintain the water supply in the impacted areas .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "January_2009_North_American_ice_storm", "rank": 30, "score": 82606 }, { "content": "Title: Soza Icefalls Content: Soza Icefalls is a line of icefalls nearly 200 m high at the southern margin of Chapman Snowfield in the Churchill Mountains . The icefalls extend southwest for 12 nmi from Mount Massam , ending near the head of Starshot Glacier . They were named after Ezekiel R. Soza , a U.S. Geological Survey topographic engineer with the Topo North - Topo South survey expedition in these mountains , 1961-62 .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Soza_Icefalls", "rank": 31, "score": 82471 }, { "content": "Title: Mid-January 2017 North American ice storm Content: The mid-January 2017 North American ice storm was a major ice storm that impacted the Great Plains , Pacific Northwest , and American Midwest . During the storm , multiple U.S. states declared states of emergency , and icy road conditions caused traffic incidents and fatalities .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Mid-January_2017_North_American_ice_storm", "rank": 32, "score": 82211 }, { "content": "Title: King Oscar Glacier Content: King Oscar Glacier ( Kong Oscar Gletscher ) is one of several glaciers that drain the north-western part of the Greenland Ice Sheet into Melville Bay . As part of a comprehensive survey of Greenland 's glaciers that was published in 2006 , scientists documented that the mass balance -- the sum of gains through snow accumulation and losses through iceberg calving and melting -- of Kong Oscar and Greenland 's other north-western glaciers was strongly negative between 1996 and 2005 : they lost more ice than they gained . The pattern was similar to the ice sheet as a whole , which has been losing ice mass at an accelerating pace in the past decade .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "King_Oscar_Glacier", "rank": 33, "score": 82147 }, { "content": "Title: Cryoseism Content: A cryoseism , also known as an ice quake or a frost quake , is a seismic event that may be caused by a sudden cracking action in frozen soil or rock saturated with water or ice . As water drains into the ground , it may eventually freeze and expand under colder temperatures , putting stress on its surroundings . This stress builds up until relieved explosively in the form of a cryoseism . Another type of cryoseism is a non-tectonic seismic event caused by sudden glacial movements . This movement has been attributed to a veneer of water which may pool underneath a glacier sourced from surface ice melt . Hydraulic pressure of the liquid can act as a lubricant , allowing the glacier to suddenly shift position . This type of cryoseism can be very brief , or may last for several minutes . The requirements for a cryoseism to occur are numerous ; therefore , accurate predictions are not entirely possible and may constitute a factor in structural design and engineering when constructing in an area historically known for such events . Speculation has been made between global warming and the frequency of cryoseisms .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Cryoseism", "rank": 34, "score": 82031 }, { "content": "Title: Sosa Icefalls Content: Sosa Icefalls is a line of icefalls nearly 200 m high at the south margin of Chapman Snowfield , Churchill Mountains . The icefalls extend southwest for 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ) from Mount Massam , ending near the head of Starshot Glacier . Named after Ezekiel R. Sosa , United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) topographic engineer with the Topo North-Topo South survey expedition in these mountains , 1961-62 . Category : Icefalls of Antarctica Category : Landforms of Oates Land", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Sosa_Icefalls", "rank": 35, "score": 81894 }, { "content": "Title: Southern New England ice storm of 1973 Content: The Southern New England ice storm of 1973 was a winter storm that caused considerable damage to trees and power lines in parts of Connecticut , Massachusetts , and Rhode Island . While the winter storm also affected New York State , it was not as destructive at that location .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Southern_New_England_ice_storm_of_1973", "rank": 36, "score": 81615 }, { "content": "Title: November 2015 United States ice storm Content: Around Black Friday of 2015 , a major ice storm occurred in the Southern Central Plains , with areas receiving up to 1 in of the frozen precipitation . Residents in the areas were without powers for days , if not weeks . The storm also brought snow to parts of the Midwest , with accumulations up to 1 ft of snow . Historic rainfall also fell too , breaking numerous records .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "November_2015_United_States_ice_storm", "rank": 37, "score": 81205 }, { "content": "Title: Ice field Content: An ice field ( also spelled icefield ) is an area less than 50,000 km2 of ice often found in the colder climates and higher altitudes of the world where there is sufficient precipitation . It is an extensive area of interconnected valley glaciers from which the higher peaks rise as nunataks . Ice fields are larger than alpine glaciers , smaller than ice sheets and similar in area to ice caps . The topography of ice fields is determined by the shape of the surrounding land forms , while ice caps have their own forms overriding underlying shapes .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_field", "rank": 38, "score": 80989 }, { "content": "Title: Ice (yacht) Content: Ice is a large private yacht , measuring 295 ft in length . Launched in 2005 as Air , she was completed at the Lürssen yard in Bremen , Germany to the design of Tim Heywood . The yacht was owned by Russian billionaire Suleiman Kerimov . The ship is equipped with a diesel-electric powered , using eight 842 kW Deutz 16-cylinder generators to provide electric power to two ABB type 5 Azipod electric azimuth thrusters . She can reach a speed of 18 knots . Ice has a large swimming pool on the main deck ( stern ) in addition to the jacuzzi on the sun deck . She carries a Eurocopter EC135 . Ice won Superyacht of the Year at the 2006 World Superyacht Awards .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_(yacht)", "rank": 39, "score": 80198 }, { "content": "Title: Ice blasting Content: Ice blasting is the use of explosives to break up ice in rivers , greatly aiding navigation systems . This is done during the spring when snow is melting and river ice is breaking up . There is always a chance that the ice flows could collide creating an ice jam and blocking the river . The river , filled with melt water , will quickly flood and often cause damage to nearby settlements . Thus in most northern areas governments quickly act to break up the ice jams before they can do much damage . This is most easily done with explosives . These explosives may be planted from the shore , or in some cases by helicopter . Explosives can also be remotely delivered by artillery or dropped by bombers . In the large rivers of the Siberia the Russian airforce is sometimes called in to bomb ice jams . Some districts , where flooding is especially common , do preemptive ice blasting . The city of Ottawa , Ontario , Canada , for instance , blasts the Rideau River each spring to break up the ice . In 1994 , for instance , 10,000 sticks of dynamite were used to break up ice along 9 kilometres of the river . Ice blasting has a number of disadvantages . It is expensive and dangerous requiring highly skilled explosives experts . When blasting is occurring the public must be warned to keep their distance . The blasting has negative environmental consequences . Fish and other river creatures are inevitably killed and the river bottom is scarred . Unexploded ordnance can also be a concern where remote delivery is used .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_blasting", "rank": 40, "score": 79803 }, { "content": "Title: Ferrigno Ice Stream Content: Ferrigno Ice Stream is an ice Stream more than 15 nmi long flowing into Eltanin Bay southwest of Wirth Peninsula , Antarctica . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Jane G. Ferrigno of the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) . Ferrigno has been a specialist for some decades from the 1970s in the use of satellite imagery for glacier studies and map compilation , co-leader of the USGS team that compiled the 1:5,000,000 - scale radiometer maps of Antarctica , and task leader of the team that is compiling 25 glaciological and coastal-change maps of Antarctica . Beneath the glacier lies the Ferrigno Rift , a rift valley some 1.5 km deep , 10 km wide , and at least 100 km long . The rift valley was discovered using ice-penetrating radar during a survey of the glacier in 2010 by a team from the British Antarctic Survey and the University of Aberdeen investigating ice-melt on the glacier that had been measured using satellites . The ice-filled rift valley is connected to the ocean and is believed to impact ice loss on the West Antarctic Ice Sheet .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ferrigno_Ice_Stream", "rank": 41, "score": 79748 }, { "content": "Title: ICER Content: ICER is a wavelet-based image compression file format used by the NASA Mars Rovers . ICER has both lossy and lossless compression modes . The Mars Exploration Rovers `` Spirit '' ( MER-A ) and `` Opportunity '' ( MER-B ) both use ICER . Onboard image compression is used extensively to make best use of the downlink resources . The Mars Science Lab supports the use of ICER for its navigation cameras ( but all other cameras use other file formats ) . Most of the MER images are compressed with the ICER image compression software . The remaining MER images that are compressed make use of modified Low Complexity Lossless Compression ( LOCO ) software , a lossless submode of ICER . ICER is a wavelet-based image compressor that allows for a graceful trade-off between the amount of compression ( expressed in terms of compressed data volume in bits/pixel ) and the resulting degradation in image quality ( distortion ) . ICER has some similarities to JPEG2000 , with respect to select wavelet operations . The development of ICER was driven by the desire to achieve high compression performance while meeting the specialized needs of deep space applications .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "ICER", "rank": 42, "score": 79662 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Tower Content: Ice Tower was a supertall skyscraper project in Avenida Balboa , Panama City , Panama , which was cancelled in 2007 . The planned height of the building was 381 m , which would have 104 floors , increased from the original proposal of 80 floors . In March 2007 , excavations began for the construction of the foundation of the building . However , three months later , in June 2007 , the project was cancelled . Ice is the third cancelled supertall skyscraper project in Panama City after the Torre Generali ( cancelled in 2001 ) and the Palacio de la Bahía .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_Tower", "rank": 43, "score": 79648 }, { "content": "Title: The Ice Organisation Content: The Ice Organisation is a UK Loyalty programme . Ice promotes brands , goods and services that are more sustainable , with the aim of mitigating climate change through mass consumer purchase power . Like other loyalty schemes , customers are rewarded with Ice points which they earn when shopping with a retailer who is part of the programme . Customers can spend their points at Ice retailers for money off their purchases or get it for free . Depending on the retailer , customers can collect and spend Ice points either online , via the telephone or in-store . The Ice Organisation is run by Jude Thorne ( CEO , former CEO of Airmiles ) , Michael Baulk ( Chairman , former Chairman and Chief Executive of AMV plc from Jan 1997 to 2006 ) and Tessa Tennant ( President , Co-founder of the UK Social Investment Forum , and the Carbon Disclosure Project ) and the scheme tries to make people think about the environmental impacts of their shopping baskets and rewards them for making more environmentally friendly purchases .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "The_Ice_Organisation", "rank": 44, "score": 79427 }, { "content": "Title: ICE (FPGA) Content: iCE is the brand name used for a family of low-power FPGAs produced by Lattice Semiconductor . Parts in the family are marketed with the `` world 's smallest FPGA '' tagline , and are intended for use in portable and battery-powered devices ( such as mobile phones ) , where they would be used to offload tasks from the device 's main processor or SoC . By doing so , the main processor and its peripherals can enter a low-power state or be powered off entirely , potentially increasing battery life . Lattice received the iCE brand as part of its 2011 acquisition of SiliconBlue Technologies .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "ICE_(FPGA)", "rank": 45, "score": 79369 }, { "content": "Title: Icesave dispute Content: The Icesave dispute was a diplomatic dispute that began after the privately owned Icelandic bank Landsbanki was placed in receivership on 7 October 2008 . As Landsbanki was one of three systemically important financial institutions in Iceland to go bankrupt within a few days , the Icelandic Depositors ' and Investors ' Guarantee Fund ( Tryggingarsjóður ) had no remaining funds to make good on deposit guarantees to foreign Landsbanki depositors who held savings in the Icesave branch of the bank . When Landsbanki was placed into receivership by the Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority ( FME ) , 343,306 retail depositors in the UK and Netherlands that held accounts in the `` Icesave '' branch of Landsbanki lost a total of $ 6.7 bn of savings . Because no immediate repayment was expected by any Icelandic institutions , the Dutch and British national deposit guarantee schemes covered repayment up to the maximum limit for the national deposit guarantees and the Dutch and British states covered the rest . The Icelandic state refused to take on this liability on behalf of the guarantee fund . Originally this was because the state lost funding access at credit markets due to the Icelandic financial crisis , but later proposed bilateral loan guarantees for repayment were rejected by Icelandic voters . The dispute centred on the demand by the British and Dutch states that the Icelandic state should repay the Icelandic minimum deposit guarantees ( up to $ 20,887 per account holder ) , equal to # 2.35 bn ( $ 2.7 bn ) repaid to the UK and $ 1.3 bn repaid to the Netherlands . The Icesave bill 1 was the first negotiated loan agreement , attempting to define the repayment terms for these two loans . It was enacted on 2 September 2009 but was not accepted by the governments of UK and Netherlands , due to a unilaterally attached term added by the Icelandic parliament which limited Iceland 's repayment guarantee only to 2024 , with automatic cancellation of any potential owing still existing beyond this year . Instead , UK and Netherlands then counter proposed a new version of the loan agreement , referred to as Icesave bill 2 , where no time limit was included for the Icelandic state 's repayment guarantee . This was at first accepted by the Icelandic parliament , but the Icelandic president refused to enact the law and referred approval to a referendum being held on 6 March 2010 , where voters subsequently rejected the law . After the rejection of Icesave bill 2 , renewed negotiations started on the terms for the repayment agreement . The negotiations resulted , in December 2010 , in an adjusted agreement named Icesave bill 3 , with better terms for Iceland . This included the removal of a previous creditor priority issue , a lower 3 % interest rate , an interest moratorium until 1 October 2009 , and a possible extension of the `` repayment window '' up to 30 years . When the Icesave bill 3 was put to a referendum in April 2011 , it was again rejected , by 59 % of Icelandic voters . After analysing the election result , stakeholders decided not to attempt negotiation of a further improved Icesave bill 4 , but instead to refer the case to the EFTA Court as a legal dispute . On 28 January 2013 , the EFTA Court cleared Iceland of all charges , meaning that Iceland was freed from the disputed obligation for deposit guarantees worth $ 4.0 bn ( ISK 674bn ) plus accrued interest to UK and the Netherlands . This caused shock , as some legal experts had suggested the ESA would win . The repayment claim still existed as a claim on the Landsbanki receivership , who one year earlier had been ordered by the Supreme Court of Iceland to repay confiscated deposits ( including minimum deposit guarantees ) as priority claims , totaling ISK 852bn ( # 4.46 bn , $ 5.03 bn ) to the UK Financial Services Compensation Scheme and ISK 282bn ( $ 1.67 bn ) to De Nederlandsche Bank . By January 2016 , the Landsbanki receivership had , through liquidation of assets , repaid all the priority claims . If either of the proposed deals with the UK ( and Netherlands ) had been implemented , Iceland would still be paying , because of high interest costs , for the Icesave guarantees .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Icesave_dispute", "rank": 46, "score": 79166 }, { "content": "Title: Ice (The X-Files) Content: `` Ice '' is the eighth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files , which premiered on the Fox network on November 5 , 1993 . It was directed by David Nutter and written by Glen Morgan and James Wong . The debut broadcast of `` Ice '' was watched by 10 million viewers in 6.2 million households and received positive reviews from critics , who praised its tense atmosphere . The plot of the episode sees FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) investigate the deaths of an Alaskan research team . Isolated and alone , the agents and their accompanying team discover the existence of extraterrestrial parasitic organisms which drive their hosts into impulsive fits of rage . The episode was inspired by an article in Science News about an excavation in Greenland , and series creator Chris Carter also cited John W. Campbell 's 1938 novella Who Goes There ? as an influence . Although the producers hoped that `` Ice '' would save money by being shot in a single location , it ended up exceeding its production budget .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_(The_X-Files)", "rank": 47, "score": 79150 }, { "content": "Title: Ice giant Content: An ice giant is a giant planet composed mainly of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium , such as oxygen , carbon , nitrogen , and sulfur . There are two known ice giants in the Solar System , Uranus and Neptune . Ice giants consist of only about 20 % hydrogen and helium in mass , as opposed to the Solar System 's gas giants ( Jupiter and Saturn ) , which are both more than 90 % hydrogen and helium in mass . In the 1990s , it was realized that Uranus and Neptune are a distinct class of giant planet , separate from the other giant planets . They have become known as ice giants because their constituent compounds were ices when they were primarily incorporated into the planets during their formation , either directly in the form of ices or trapped in water ice . The amount of solid volatiles within the ice giants today is , however , very small .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_giant", "rank": 48, "score": 79116 }, { "content": "Title: Ice palace Content: An ice palace or ice castle is a castle-like structure made of blocks of ice . These blocks are usually harvested from nearby rivers or lakes when they become frozen in winter . The first known ice palace ( or , rather , ice house , ледяной дом in Russian ) appeared in St. Petersburg , Russia and was the handiwork of Empress Anna . Anna Ivanovna , Empress of Russia , commissioned an ice palace in St. Petersburg , Russia , during the winter of 1739-40 . Architect Piotr Eropkin and scientist Georg Wolfgang Krafft used huge ice blocks measuring 16 m long by 5 m wide , joined together with frozen water , to build the palace . The city recreates the ice palace every winter .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_palace", "rank": 49, "score": 79090 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Saints Content: The Ice Saints is a name given to St. Mamertus ( or , in some countries , St. Boniface of Tarsus ) , St. Pancras , and St. Servatius in Austrian , Belgian , Croatian , Czech , Dutch , French , German , Hungarian , North-Italian , Polish , Slovene and Swiss folklore . They are so named because their feast days fall on the days of May 11 , May 12 , and May 13 respectively , known as `` the black-thorn winter '' .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_Saints", "rank": 50, "score": 78908 }, { "content": "Title: Ice (TV series) Content: Ice is an American television series created by Robert Munic and Antoine Fuqua . The project , set to air in late 2016 on Audience Network was ordered straight-to-series with an order of 10 episodes on August 2 , 2016 . The project was originally ordered in 2014 but was dropped for creative reasons . The series was then released on November 16 , 2016 .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_(TV_series)", "rank": 51, "score": 78904 }, { "content": "Title: Ice calving Content: Ice calving , also known as glacier calving or iceberg calving , is the breaking of ice chunks from the edge of a glacier . It is a form of ice ablation or ice disruption and is normally caused by the glacier expanding . It is the sudden release and breaking away of a mass of ice from a glacier , iceberg , ice front , ice shelf , or crevasse . The ice that breaks away can be classified as an iceberg , but may also be a growler , bergy bit , or a crevasse wall breakaway . Calving of glaciers is often accompanied by a loud cracking or booming sound before blocks of ice up to 60 m high break loose and crash into the water . The entry of the ice into the water causes large , and often hazardous waves . The waves formed in locations like Johns Hopkins Glacier can be so large that boats can not approach closer than 3 km . These events have become major tourist attractions in locations such as Alaska . Many glaciers terminate at oceans or freshwater lakes which results naturally with the calving of large numbers of icebergs . Calving of Greenland 's glaciers produce 12,000 to 15,000 icebergs each year alone . Calving of ice shelves is usually preceded by a rift . These events are not often observed . Etymologically , calving is cognatic with calving as in bearing a calf .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_calving", "rank": 52, "score": 78792 }, { "content": "Title: Counts Icefall Content: Counts Icefall is a steep , heavily crevassed icefall at the juncture of the Ford Massif and the western end of the Bermel Escarpment , in the Thiel Mountains . It was surveyed by the United States Geological Survey Thiel Mountains party , 1960 -- 61 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Lieutenant Commander William D. Counts , U.S. Navy , who lost his life in the crash of a P2V Neptune aircraft soon after take-off from Wilkes Station on November 9 , 1961 . Mount Counts is also named for William Counts , who was assigned to Air Development Squadron Six ( VX-6 ) at the time of the crash .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Counts_Icefall", "rank": 53, "score": 78705 }, { "content": "Title: 2017 in ice sports Content:", "qid": "2898", "docid": "2017_in_ice_sports", "rank": 54, "score": 78568 }, { "content": "Title: Information Council on the Environment Content: The Information Council on the Environment ( ICE ) , was a U.S. organization created by the National Coal Association , the Western Fuels Association , and Edison Electrical Institute .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Information_Council_on_the_Environment", "rank": 55, "score": 78541 }, { "content": "Title: Cryovolcano Content: A cryovolcano ( colloquially known as an ice volcano ) is a theoretical type of volcano that erupts volatiles such as water , ammonia or methane , instead of molten rock . Collectively referred to as cryomagma or ice-volcanic melt , these substances are usually liquids and can form plumes , but can also be in vapour form . After eruption , cryomagma is expected to condense to a solid form when exposed to the very low surrounding temperature . Cryovolcanoes may potentially form on icy moons and other objects with abundant water past the Solar System 's snow line ( such as Pluto ) . A number of features have been identified as possible cryovolcanoes on Pluto , Titan and Ceres . In addition , although they are not known to form volcanoes , ice geysers have been observed on Enceladus and potentially Triton . One potential energy source on some solar system bodies for melting ices and producing cryovolcanoes is tidal friction . It has also been suggested that translucent deposits of frozen materials could create a subsurface greenhouse effect that would accumulate the required heat . Signs of past warming of the Kuiper belt object Quaoar have led scientists to speculate that it exhibited cryovolcanism in the past . Radioactive decay could provide the energy necessary for such activity , as cryovolcanoes can emit water mixed with ammonia , which would melt at − 95 ° C and create an extremely cold liquid that would flow out of the volcano .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Cryovolcano", "rank": 56, "score": 78428 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Peak Content: Ice Peak is a stratovolcano , located 39 km west of Tatogga and 3 km south of Mount Edziza , British Columbia , Canada . It overlaps the 7.5-million-year-old Armadillo Peak . It lies on a large volcanic plateau , which is made of basaltic lava flows from the massive Mount Edziza volcanic complex . Ice Peak last erupted during the Holocene . The summit of Ice Peak is a remnant of the western rim of a small summit caldera , which has been nearly destroyed by alpine glaciation . Ice Peak gets name because it is almost completely surrounded by glaciers .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_Peak", "rank": 57, "score": 78295 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Content: Ice is water frozen into a solid state . Depending on the presence of impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles of air , it can appear transparent or a more or less opaque bluish-white color . In the Solar System , ice is abundant and occurs naturally from as close to the Sun as Mercury to as far away as the Oort cloud objects . Beyond the Solar System , it occurs as interstellar ice . It is abundant on Earth 's surfaceparticularly in the polar regions and above the snow lineand , as a common form of precipitation and deposition , plays a key role in Earth 's water cycle and climate . It falls as snowflakes and hail or occurs as frost , icicles or ice spikes . Ice molecules can exhibit seventeen or more different phases ( packing geometries ) that depend on temperature and pressure . When water is cooled rapidly ( quenching ) , up to three different types of amorphous ice can form depending on the history of its pressure and temperature . When cooled slowly correlated proton tunneling occurs below 20 K giving rise to macroscopic quantum phenomena . Virtually all the ice on Earth 's surface and in its atmosphere is of a hexagonal crystalline structure denoted as ice I ( spoken as `` ice one h '' ) with minute traces of cubic ice denoted as ice I . The most common phase transition to ice I occurs when liquid water is cooled below at standard atmospheric pressure . It may also be deposited directly by water vapor , as happens in the formation of frost . The transition from ice to water is melting and from ice directly to water vapor is sublimation . Ice is used in a variety of ways , including cooling , winter sports and ice sculpture .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice", "rank": 58, "score": 78202 }, { "content": "Title: Ice (Dukaj novel) Content: Ice ( Lód ) is a Janusz A. Zajdel , European Union Prize for Literature and Kościelski awards-winning novel written in 2007 by the Polish science fiction writer Jacek Dukaj , published in Poland by Wydawnictwo Literackie . The novel mixes alternate history with science fiction elements , in particular , with alternative physics and logic . English language rights to Ice have been acquired by London-based publisher Head of Zeus . The publication date will be announced once the novel is translated .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_(Dukaj_novel)", "rank": 59, "score": 78141 }, { "content": "Title: Coudersport Ice Mine Content: The Coudersport Ice Mine is an ice cave located in Sweden Township , Pennsylvania ( east of Coudersport ) that forms icicles in the spring and summer but not in the winter . Ice formations appear in the shaft during the spring of the year , continue through the hot weather , and disappear in winter . Ice appears in various shapes and forms , often as huge icicles measuring from 1 to 3 ft in thickness , and from 15 to 25 ft in length ; the ice is generally clear and sparkling . A theory about the origin of this mine states that during the winter , cold air over the hilltop sinks into rock openings in the Lock Haven Formation ( Devonian age ) and slowly expels the warm air that had penetrated these openings during the preceding summer . Ordinarily this process takes place locally , but here the interconnection of the rock crevices tends to be so arranged that the air circulation over a wide region is focused on one spot . Thus , from April or May to September , cold air comes in contact with percolating groundwater , forming ice during the hot months of the year ; from September to late spring , warm air trapped in the rocks from the preceding summer , escapes and melts the ice . Discovered in 1894 , the cave is about 40 ft deep , about 8 ft wide , and 10 ft long . The cave was open to the public for many decades The ice mine property was purchased by new owners who began a restoration in 2013 . After being closed for nearly a quarter of a century , the Coudersport Ice Mine was re-opened in 2014 .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Coudersport_Ice_Mine", "rank": 60, "score": 78016 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 61, "score": 77990 }, { "content": "Title: North Carolina ice storm of 2002 Content: The North Carolina ice storm of 2002 caused up to an inch of freezing rain from December 4 -- 5 in central North Carolina . A total of 24 people were killed , and as many as 1.8 million people were left without electricity on December 6 . Power outages began December 4 , and power was not completely restored to until December 14 . Raleigh received the most freezing rain from a single storm since 1948 , and Bristol , Tennessee received the most ice it had seen in 28 years . The storm also produced heavy rain in both the mountains and coastal plain of North Carolina . Much of the Southern Plains and the Northeast received snow with this system . During the power outages many residents used propane and kerosene powered generators and heaters to combat the cold , with some resorting to moving charcoal grills indoors to heat their households . The increased usage of these heating methods , particularly grills led to a substantial number of cases of carbon monoxide poisoning . Varying reports allege 48 to 200 cases of poisoning . Hispanic residents were disproportionally affected by the impacts of the ice storm , sustaining 23 % of total injuries and 65 % of carbon monoxide poisonings during the storm period .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "North_Carolina_ice_storm_of_2002", "rank": 62, "score": 77936 }, { "content": "Title: Great Siberian Ice March Content: The Great Siberian Ice march ( Russian : Великий Сибирский Ледяной поход , Velikiy Sibirskiy Ledyanoy pokhod ) was the winter retreat of Vladimir Kappel 's White Russian Army in the course of the Russian Civil War in January -- February 1920 . After Admiral Kolchak 's White Russian Army retreated from Tomsk and Omsk and fled eastward along the Trans-Siberian Railway , they came to a halt on the shore of Lake Baikal near Irkutsk . With the Red Army in hot pursuit , the White Army had to escape southward to China across the frozen Lake Baikal in sub-zero temperatures . About 30,000 White Army soldiers , their families and all their possessions as well as the Tsar 's gold , made their way across the lake to Transbaikalia . The bloodiest campaign battles occurred at the villages of Yakovlevka , Birulka , and Gruznovskaya , as well as the city of Barguzin . As the Arctic winds blew unobstructed across the lake , many in the army and their families froze to death . Their bodies remained frozen on the lake in a kind of tableau throughout the winter of 1919 -- 20 . With the advent of spring , the frozen corpses and all their possessions disappeared in 5,000 feet of water . Kappel himself was struck by frostbite and pneumonia while leading his survivors along a frozen river in temperatures of -40 ° C ; he died on 26 January .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Great_Siberian_Ice_March", "rank": 63, "score": 77776 }, { "content": "Title: Ice VII Content: Ice VII is a cubic crystalline form of ice . It can be formed from liquid water above 3 GPa ( 30,000 atmospheres ) by lowering its temperature to room temperature , or by decompressing heavy water ( D2O ) ice VI below 95 K. Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih , ( in the Bridgman nomenclature ) . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures . Ice VII is metastable over a wide range of temperatures and pressures and transforms into low-density amorphous ice ( LDA ) above 120K . Ice VII has a triple point with liquid water and ice VI at 355 K and 2.216 GPa , with the melt line extending to at least 715 K and 10 GPa . It can also be created by increasing the pressure on ice VI at ambient temperature . Like the majority of ice phases ( including ice Ih ) , the hydrogen atom positions are disordered . In addition , the oxygen atoms are disordered over multiple sites . The structure of ice VII comprises a hydrogen bond framework in the form of two interpenetrating ( but non-bonded ) sublattices . Hydrogen pass through the center of the water hexamers and thus do not connect the two lattices . Ice VII has a density of about 1.65 g cm − 3 ( at 2.5 GPa and 25 ° C ) , which is less than twice the cubic ice density as the intra-network O -- O distances are 8 % longer ( at 0.1 MPa ) to allow for interpenetration . The cubic unit cell has a side length of 3.3501 Å ( for D2O , at 2.6 GPa and 22 ° C ) and contains two water molecules . Ice VII is the only disordered phase of ice that can be ordered by simple cooling , and it forms ( ordered ) ice VIII below 273 K up to ~ 8 GPa . Above this pressure , the VII -- VIII transition temperature drops rapidly , reaching 0 K at ~ 60 GPa . Thus , ice VII has the largest stability field of all of the molecular phases of ice . The cubic oxygen sub-lattices that form the backbone of the ice VII structure persist to pressures of at least 128 GPa ; this pressure is substantially higher than that at which water loses its molecular character entirely , forming ice X . In high pressure ices , protonic diffusion ( movement of protons around the oxygen lattice ) dominates molecular diffusion , an effect which has been measured directly . Scientists hypothesize that ice VII may comprise the ocean floor of Titan as well as extrasolar planets ( such as Gliese 436 b and GJ 1214 b ) that are largely made of water .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_VII", "rank": 64, "score": 77672 }, { "content": "Title: The Ice Twins Content: The Ice Twins is a 2015 psychological thriller , written by S.K. Tremayne ( a pseudonym for British author and journalist Sean Thomas . ) . Screenwriter Isaac Adamson has adapted the novel for a movie . The novel describes the troubled lives of Sarah and Angus Moorcroft who lose one of their young twin daughters in an accident . A year after the tragedy , Angus and Sarah decide to take their surviving twin , Kirstie , to live on a small island off Skye , in Scotland . Just before the family 's move to Scotland , Kirstie claims she is , in fact , her identical twin sister Lydia , supposedly dead . The novel was an international bestseller , reaching number 1 on the Sunday Times list , in the UK ; it spent several months on bestseller lists in Germany , the Netherlands , Finland , Denmark , South Korea , Brazil , and elsewhere .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "The_Ice_Twins", "rank": 65, "score": 77636 }, { "content": "Title: Ice (1998 film) Content: Ice is a 1998 television disaster film starring Grant Show , Udo Kier , and Eva La Rue . The film has a similar premise as The Day After Tomorrow , a science fiction disaster film released six years later . Though completely in English , it first premiered in Germany in 1998 before being aired on ABC in the United States in 2000 .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_(1998_film)", "rank": 66, "score": 77625 }, { "content": "Title: Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process Content: The Wegener -- Bergeron -- Findeisen process ( after Alfred Wegener , Tor Bergeron and Walter Findeisen ) , ( or `` cold-rain process '' ) is a process of ice crystal growth that occurs in mixed phase clouds ( containing a mixture of supercooled water and ice ) in regions where the ambient vapor pressure falls between the saturation vapor pressure over water and the lower saturation vapor pressure over ice . This is a subsaturated environment for liquid water but a supersaturated environment for ice resulting in rapid evaporation of liquid water and rapid ice crystal growth through vapor deposition . If the number density of ice is small compared to liquid water , the ice crystals can grow large enough to fall out of the cloud , melting into rain drops if lower level temperatures are warm enough . The Bergeron process , if occurring at all , is much more efficient in producing large particles than is the growth of larger droplets at the expense of smaller ones , since the difference in saturation pressure between liquid water and ice is larger than the enhancement of saturation pressure over small droplets ( for droplets large enough to considerably contribute to the total mass ) . For other processes affecting particle size , see rain and cloud physics .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen_process", "rank": 67, "score": 77573 }, { "content": "Title: Ice circle Content: An ice disc , ice circle , or ice pan is a natural phenomenon that occurs in slow moving water in cold climates . Ice circles are thin and circular slabs of ice that rotate slowly in the water . It is believed that they form in eddy currents . It has been shown that existing ice discs can maintain their rotation due to melting . Ice discs have most frequently been observed in Scandinavia and North America , but they are occasionally recorded as far south as England and Wales . An ice disc was observed in Wales in December 2008 and another was reported in England in January 2009 . An ice disc was observed on the Sheyenne River in North Dakota in December 2013 . An ice circle of approximately 50 ft. in diameter was observed and photographed in Lake Katrine , New York on the Esopus Creek around January 23 , 2014 . In Idaho , extreme weather led to a rare sighting of an Ice disk on the Snake River on January 22 , 2014 . An unusual natural phenomenon , ice disks occur in slow moving water in cold climates and can vary in size , with circles more than 15 metres ( 49 ft ) in diameter observed .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_circle", "rank": 68, "score": 77414 }, { "content": "Title: Ice planet Content: An ice planet is a theoretical type of exoplanet with an icy surface of volatiles such as water , ammonia , and methane . Ice planets consist of a global cryosphere . They are bigger versions of the small icy worlds of the Solar System , which includes the moons Europa , Enceladus , and Triton , the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris , and many other small Solar System bodies such as comets .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_planet", "rank": 69, "score": 77387 }, { "content": "Title: Frost line (astrophysics) Content: In astronomy or planetary science , the frost line , also known as the snow line or ice line , is the particular distance in the solar nebula from the central protostar where it is cold enough for volatile compounds such as water , ammonia , methane , carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide to condense into solid ice grains . This condensation temperature depends on the volatile substance and the partial pressure of vapor in the protostar nebula . The actual temperature and distance for the snow line of water ice depend on the physical model used to calculate it and on the theoretical solar nebula model : 170 K at 2.7 AU ( Hayashi , 1981 ) 143 K at 3.2 AU to 150 K at 3 AU ( Podolak and Zucker , 2010 ) 3.1 AU ( Martin and Livio , 2012 ) ≈ 150 K for μm-size grains and ≈ 200 K for km-size bodies ( D'Angelo and Podolak , 2015 ) The radial position of the condensation/evaporation front varies over time , as the nebula evolves . Occasionally , the term snow line is also used to represent the present distance at which water ice can be stable ( even under direct sunlight ) . This current snow line distance is different from the formation snow line distance during the formation of Solar System , and approximately equals 5 AU . The reason for the difference is that during the formation of Solar System , the solar nebula was an opaque cloud where temperature were lower close to the Sun , and the Sun itself was less energetic . After formation , the ice got buried by infalling dust and it has remained stable a few meters below the surface . If ice within 5 AU is exposed , e.g. by a crater , then it sublimates on short timescales . However , out of direct sunlight ice can remain stable on the surface of asteroids ( and the Moon ) if it is located in permanently shadowed craters , where temperature may remain very low over the age of the Solar System ( e.g. 30 -- 40 K on the Moon ) . Observations of the asteroid belt , located between Mars and Jupiter , suggest that the water snow line during formation of Solar System was located within this region . The outer asteroids are icy C-class objects ( e.g. Abe et al. 2000 ; Morbidelli et al. 2000 ) whereas the inner asteroid belt is largely devoid of water . This implies that when planetesimal formation occurred the snow line was located at around 2.7 AU from the Sun . For example , the dwarf planet Ceres with semi-major axis of 2.77 AU lies almost exactly on the lower estimation for water snow line during the formation of the Solar System . Ceres appears to have an icy mantle and may even have a water ocean below the surface . Each volatile substance has its own snow line , e.g. carbon monoxide and nitrogen , so it is important to always specify which material 's snow line is meant . The lower temperature in the nebula beyond the frost line makes many more solid grains available for accretion into planetesimals and eventually planets . The frost line therefore separates terrestrial planets from giant planets in the Solar System . However , giant planets have been found inside the frost line around several other stars ( so-called hot Jupiters ) . They are thought to have formed outside the frost line , and later migrated inwards to their current positions . Earth , which lies less than a quarter of the distance to the frost line but is not a giant planet , has adequate gravitation for keeping methane , ammonia , and water vapor from escaping it . Methane and ammonia are rare in the Earth 's atmosphere only because of their instability in an oxygen-rich atmosphere that results from life forms ( largely green plants ) whose biochemistry suggests plentiful methane and ammonia at one time , but of course liquid water and ice , which are chemically stable in such an atmosphere , form much of the surface of Earth . Researchers Rebecca Martin and Mario Livio have proposed that asteroid belts may tend to form in the vicinity of the frost line , due to nearby giant planets disrupting planet formation inside their orbit . By analysing the temperature of warm dust found around some 90 stars , they concluded that the dust ( and therefore possible asteroid belts ) was typically found close to the frost line . The term is borrowed from the notion of `` frost line '' in soil science .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Frost_line_(astrophysics)", "rank": 70, "score": 77248 }, { "content": "Title: Frozen Mountain Content: Frozen Mountain Software is a Canadian software company known for various real-time communication SDKS : IceLink , a WebRTC-compatible audio/video/data streaming SDK , available for JavaScript , . NET , Mono , iOS , Android , Xamarin , and Java , including support for non-WebRTC compliant browsers ( such as IE and Safari ) via Java applet/ActiveX . IceLink includes full implementations of VP8 and PCM audio/video encoding/decoding on all supported platforms , as well as a self-contained DTLS implementation on all platforms . WebSync , a Bayeux-compliant Comet server for the Microsoft and Mono frameworks , enabling HTTP-based data push from server to client on a wide range of platforms , including JavaScript , . NET , Mono , iOS , Android , Xamarin , and Java . WebSync uses WebSockets when possible and falls back to long polling . It handles scaling to extremely large numbers of simultaneous connections with a provider model for swapping the back-end data services for use with server farms and clusters . TheRest , a . NET and Mono REST server infrastructure with clients pre-built for JavaScript , . NET , Mono , iOS , Android , Xamarin , and Java . It incorporates a framework for handling translation between exceptions and HTTP error codes , an aspect-oriented approach to mapping URLs to function calls , and a pluggable data transport mechanism that allows XML , HTML , JSON , etc. to be used interchangeably . Frozen Mountain 's goal is to simplify the development of real-time web and mobile applications for business owners as well as develop consumer products that enhance collaboration .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Frozen_Mountain", "rank": 71, "score": 77135 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic ice pack Content: The Arctic ice pack is the ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity . The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring and summer , reaches a minimum around mid-September , then increases during fall and winter . Summer ice cover in the Arctic is about 50 % of winter cover . Some of the ice survives from one year to the next . Currently 28 % of Arctic basin sea ice is multi-year ice , thicker than seasonal ice : up to 3 - thick over large areas , with ridges up to 20 m thick . As well as the regular seasonal cycle there has been an underlying trend of declining sea ice in the Arctic in recent decades .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Arctic_ice_pack", "rank": 72, "score": 77041 }, { "content": "Title: Big Four Ice Caves Content: Big Four Mountain is a mountain in the Cascade Range of Washington , located 21 mi east of Granite Falls . The mountain is about 6180 ft high . At the bottom of its steep , 4200 ft high north face , debris piles form from avalanches and are able to remain there year round because of the continuous shade provided by the mountain . At an elevation between 2450 ft and 1950 ft , this ice forms the lowest-elevation glacier in the lower 49 states . During the summer , snow-melt streams flow beneath the debris piles and cause caves to be formed in the ice . The Big Four Ice Caves Trail , a designated National Recreation Trail , ( # 723 ) is one of the most popular hikes in the Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest attracting over 50,000 visitors per year . Frequently exceeding several hundred hikers per day , the trailhead 's two separate parking areas are often filled beyond capacity occasionally forcing hikers to park along neighboring Mountain Loop Road . A severe autumn storm in November 2006 caused flooding of the South Fork Stillaguamish River destroying a major footbridge to the Big Four Ice Caves . Estimated repair costs to replace the damaged span were approximately $ 425,000 , and repairs were completed in June 2009 . While the trail is open to the public , the snowfield itself is off-limits due to cave-ins and slides which have killed hikers in incidents in 1998 , 2010 , and in 2015 . The Big Four cliffs are shown in the opening scene of the music video of rapper Macklemore 's song `` Ca n't Hold Us . ''", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Big_Four_Ice_Caves", "rank": 73, "score": 76739 }, { "content": "Title: Ice shove Content: An ice shove , ice surge , ice heave , ivu , or shoreline ice pileup is a surge of ice from an ocean or large lake onto the shore . Ice shoves are caused by ocean currents , strong winds , or temperature differences pushing ice onto the shore , creating piles up to 12 metres ( 40 feet ) high . Some have described them as ` ice tsunamis ' , but the phenomenon works like an iceberg . Witnesses have described the shove 's sound as being like that of a train or thunder . Ice shoves can damage buildings and plants that are near to the body of water . Arctic communities can be affected by ice shoves .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_shove", "rank": 74, "score": 76574 }, { "content": "Title: 2014 Mount Everest ice avalanche Content: On 18 April 2014 , seracs on the western spur of Mount Everest failed , resulting in an ice avalanche that killed sixteen Nepalese guides in the Khumbu Icefall . This was the same icefall where the earlier 1970 Mount Everest disaster took place . Thirteen bodies were recovered within two days , while the remaining three were never recovered due to the great danger of performing such an expedition . Some Sherpa guides were angered by what they saw as the Nepalese government 's meager offer of compensation to victims ' families , and threatened a protest or strike . On 22 April , the Sherpas announced they would not work on Everest for the remainder of 2014 as a mark of respect for the victims .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "2014_Mount_Everest_ice_avalanche", "rank": 75, "score": 76272 }, { "content": "Title: WASH-740 Content: WASH-740 was a report published by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission ( USAEC ) in 1957 . This report , called `` Theoretical Possibilities and Consequences of Major Accidents in Large Nuclear Power Plants '' ( also known as `` The Brookhaven Report '' ) , estimated maximum possible damage from a meltdown with no containment building at a large nuclear reactor . The conclusions of this study estimated the possible effects of a `` maximum credible accident '' for nuclear reactors then envisioned as being 3400 deaths , 43,000 injuries and property damage of $ 7 billion ( $ 57bn adjusted for inflation in 2012 since 1957 ) . The estimate of probability was one in a hundred thousand to one in a billion per reactor-year . When WASH-740 was revised in 1964-65 to account for the larger reactors then being designed , the new figures indicated that there could be as many as 45,000 deaths , 100,000 injuries , and $ 17 billion in property damage ( $ 125bn adjusted for inflation since 1964 ) . However ; the assumptions underlying the results were unrealistic ( including the worst meteorological conditions , no containment building , and that half the reactor core is released into the atmosphere as micrometre-sized pellets without any examination of how this might occur ) . These were due to conservatism ( estimating the maximum possible damage ) and the need to use atomic bomb fallout data , which had been collected from tests ( computers in 1955 being greatly insufficient to do the calculations ) . As knowledge , models and computers improved the conclusions of this report were replaced by those of first WASH-1400 ( 1975 , The Rasmussen Report ) , then CRAC-II ( 1982 ) , and most recently NUREG-1150 ( 1991 ) . Now all of these studies are considered obsolete ( see the disclaimer to NUREG-1150 ) , and are being replaced by the State-of-the-Art Reactor Consequence Analyses study .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "WASH-740", "rank": 76, "score": 76183 }, { "content": "Title: Ice (comics) Content: Ice ( Tora Olafsdotter ) is a fictional character , a comic book superheroine in publications from DC Comics .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_(comics)", "rank": 77, "score": 76136 }, { "content": "Title: ICE (cipher) Content: In cryptography , ICE ( Information Concealment Engine ) is a symmetric-key block cipher published by Kwan in 1997 . The algorithm is similar in structure to DES , but with the addition of a key-dependent bit permutation in the round function . The key-dependent bit permutation is implemented efficiently in software . The ICE algorithm is not subject to patents , and the source code has been placed into the public domain . ICE is a Feistel network with a block size of 64 bits . The standard ICE algorithm takes a 64-bit key and has 16 rounds . A fast variant , Thin-ICE , uses only 8 rounds . An open-ended variant , ICE-n , uses 16n rounds with 64n bit key . Van Rompay et al. ( 1998 ) attempted to apply differential cryptanalysis to ICE . They described an attack on Thin-ICE which recovers the secret key using 223 chosen plaintexts with a 25 % success probability . If 227 chosen plaintexts are used , the probability can be improved to 95 % . For the standard version of ICE , an attack on 15 out of 16 rounds was found , requiring 256 work and at most 256 chosen plaintexts .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "ICE_(cipher)", "rank": 78, "score": 76078 }, { "content": "Title: Acceptable Loss (Law & Order: Special Victims Unit) Content: `` Acceptable Loss '' is the fourth episode of the fourteenth season of the police procedural television series , Law & Order : Special Victims Unit , it is the series ' 299th episode overall . It originally aired on National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) on October 17 , 2012 . In this episode , Captain Cragen ( Dann Florek ) comes back from his suspension just as the Special Victims Unit is being stopped by Lieutenant Eames ( Kathryn Erbe ) for uncovering a sex trafficking operation , leaving Detective Benson ( Mariska Hargitay ) to figure out another way to free the enslaved women . The episode was written by veteran Law & Order franchise writer , Ed Zuckerman and directed by franchise director Alex Chapple . It marks the first crossover of any kind with SVU and the now-ended L&O spin-off Law & Order : Criminal Intent . Kathryn Erbe reprises her role of Alexandra Eames from that series . `` Acceptable Loss '' received generally positive reviews , with critics mostly commenting on Ice-T 's performance throughout the episode . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode 's original broadcast was watched by 6.25 million viewers and acquired a 1.6 / 4 % share in the 18 -- 49 demographic . It ranked fourth in its time slot , but was the highest-rated NBC program that evening .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Acceptable_Loss_(Law_&_Order:_Special_Victims_Unit)", "rank": 79, "score": 76056 }, { "content": "Title: December 2013 North American storm complex Content: The December 2013 North American storm complex was a significant storm complex that had all sorts of severe weather , including a winter storm , a crippling ice storm and a tornado outbreak that impacted the central and eastern portions of Canada , parts of the Central Great Plains , the Southern United States , and the northeastern United States from December 20 to 23 , 2013 . Formed in the South Central United States , the storm headed across the Great Plains towards Canada into Atlantic Canada and northeastern United States where the storm dissipated on December 23 , 2013 . The storm produced freezing rain and snow to the affected areas which caused massive damage to electric power transmission and trees . The storm resulted in 27 deaths , loss of power to over a million of residents and over $ 200 million in damages . The storm produced similar conditions to the ice storm of 1998 which affected similar areas .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "December_2013_North_American_storm_complex", "rank": 80, "score": 76042 }, { "content": "Title: Early January 2017 North American winter storm Content: The early January 2017 North American winter storm was a major snow and ice storm that affected the Lower 48 of the United States with severe weather . Moving ashore on the West Coast on January 3 , the system produced heavy snowfall in the Sierra Mountains , with nearly 4 feet of snowfall falling in the highest elevations . After impacting the Northwest and Southwest , the winter storm went on to strike the Southeast on January 5 -- 6 with snow and ice , with snowfall accumulations up to 4 in . Afterwards , it began to morph into a nor'easter as it moved off the Southeast coast late on January 6 , while producing blizzard conditions in the Carolinas . It then began to affect the Northeastern United States as it tracked northwards early on January 7 . It produced a swath of moderate snowfall accumulations up the East Coast , with easternmost areas such as parts of Massachusetts receiving up to 1.5 ft of snow . Fearful of another disaster reminiscent of that from late January 2014 , residents of states such as Louisiana , Mississippi , Alabama , and Georgia prepared in advance for the storm . Multiple advisories were issued in advance for winter weather in the affected areas . The storm caused nearly 35,000 or more power outages in the south , with at least five fatalities confirmed .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Early_January_2017_North_American_winter_storm", "rank": 81, "score": 76023 }, { "content": "Title: Hemmen Ice Rise Content: Hemmen Ice Rise is an ice rise 11 mi long and 2 to wide , with an estimated area of 55 sqkm , located 17 km off the northwest corner of Berkner Island in the Ronne Ice Shelf , Antarctica . The feature appears for the first time on a chart prepared at Ellsworth Station in 1957 by Captain Finn Ronne , U.S. Navy Reserve . The ice rise was subsequently noted in U.S. Earth Resources Technology Satellite imagery . It was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee for George E. Hemmen , Executive Secretary of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research in 1972 ; he served with the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey as a meteorological observer at Admiralty Bay , 1952 -- 53 , and as Base Leader at Deception Island , 1953 -- 54 , and with the Royal Society Antarctic Expedition , 1956 .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Hemmen_Ice_Rise", "rank": 82, "score": 75983 }, { "content": "Title: Chasing Ice Content: Chasing Ice is a 2012 documentary film about the efforts of nature photographer James Balog and his Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) to publicize the effects of climate change , directed by Jeff Orlowski . It was released in the United States on November 16 , 2012 . The documentary includes scenes from a glacier calving event that took place at Jakobshavn Glacier in Greenland , lasting 75 minutes , the longest such event ever captured on film . Two EIS videographers waited several weeks in a small tent overlooking the glacier , and were finally able to witness 7.4 km3 of ice crashing off the glacier . `` The calving of a massive glacier believed to have produced the ice that sank the Titanic is like watching a city break apart . ''", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Chasing_Ice", "rank": 83, "score": 75835 }, { "content": "Title: Ice (2011 miniseries) Content: Ice is a 2011 British miniseries directed by Nick Copus and based upon James Follett 's novel with similar name . The miniseries has 2 episodes . Main roles are performed by Richard Roxburgh , Frances O'Connor and Claire Forlani .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_(2011_miniseries)", "rank": 84, "score": 75744 }, { "content": "Title: Ice (band) Content: Ice is an industrial music band formed by guitarist Justin Broadrick and saxophonist/vocalist Kevin Martin .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_(band)", "rank": 85, "score": 75703 }, { "content": "Title: Indonesia Convention Exhibition Content: Indonesia Convention Exhibition or ICE is a convention and exhibition centre located at Bumi Serpong Damai , Tangerang District of the greater Jakarta region , Indonesia . The convention center and exhibition centre inaugurated on August 2015 . It is the biggest convention and exhibition centre in Indonesia . ICE is designed as the biggest and most spacious exhibition and convention center in Indonesia , spanned over a total area of 220.000 square meters . ICE offers 10 exhibition halls of 50.000 m2 , a 4.000 m2 convention hall , 50.000 m2 outdoor exhibition space , 12.000 m2 convenient pre-function lobby , and 33 Meeting rooms for small or large meetings . Indonesia Convention Exhibition also well known as the biggest wedding hall and largest concert hall in Indonesia . The parking capacity of ICE is up to 5.000 cars . The halls are equipped with a world class services to accommodate all kind of exhibitions , trade shows , consumer shows , concerts , seminars , conferences , weddings , graduations , sporting events , corporate events , birthday , etc. . The venue provides flexible spaces and full array of services , adjustable to every event organizers ' requirements .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Indonesia_Convention_Exhibition", "rank": 86, "score": 75481 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Mountain (Colorado) Content: Ice Mountain is a high mountain summit of the Collegiate Peaks in the Sawatch Range of the Rocky Mountains of North America . The 13958 ft thirteener is located in the Collegiate Peaks Wilderness , 27.5 km west-northwest ( bearing 290 ° ) of the Town of Buena Vista , Colorado , United States , on the Continental Divide separating San Isabel National Forest and Chaffee County from White River National Forest and Pitkin County .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_Mountain_(Colorado)", "rank": 87, "score": 75444 }, { "content": "Title: Ice (2003 film) Content: Ice is a 2003 Tamil romantic film directed by R. Raghuraj . The film starred Ashok and Priyanka Trivedi in the lead roles , while Vivek and Mouli appeared in other pivotal role . The film produced by , had music scored by Devi Sri Prasad . The film released in 2003 to below average collections and reviews .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_(2003_film)", "rank": 88, "score": 75442 }, { "content": "Title: CryoSat-1 Content: CryoSat-1 , also known as just CryoSat , was a European Space Agency satellite which was lost in a launch failure in 2005 . It was to have been operated as part of the CryoSat programme to study the Earth 's polar ice caps . The CryoSat spacecraft was intended to operate in low Earth orbit for three years . It had a mass of 750 kg Its primary instrument , Synthetic Aperture Interferometric Radar Altimeter ( SIRAL ) , was to have used radar altimeter to determine and monitor the spacecraft 's altitude in order to measure the elevation of the ice , and for radar imaging of the ice caps . A second instrument , DORIS , was to have been used to calculate precisely the spacecraft 's orbit . It also carried an array of retroreflectors which would have allowed measurements to be made from the ground to verify the orbital data provided by DORIS . CryoSat was launched from Site 133/3 at the Plesetsk Cosmodrome at 15:02:00 UTC on 8 October 2005 . The launch was conducted by Eurockot , using a Rokot carrier rocket with a Briz-KM upper stage . The command to shut down the rocket 's second stage engine was missing from the flight control system , and consequently the stage burned to depletion . This prevented the second stage from separating from the Briz-KM , and as a result the rocket was unable to achieve orbit . It reentered over the Arctic Ocean , north of Greenland . A replacement satellite , CryoSat-2 , was successfully launched in 2010 .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "CryoSat-1", "rank": 89, "score": 75397 }, { "content": "Title: ICE 1 Content: The ICE 1 is the first batch-produced German high-speed train and one of six in the InterCityExpress family . Revenue service at speeds up to 250 km/h started in 1991 . It was raised to 280 km/h in May 1995 and later reduced to 250 km/h again . Today , only a handful of ICE 1 services on the Nuremberg-Ingolstadt high-speed rail line reach 280 km/h . Trainsets consist of two power cars ( Class 401 ) and up to 14 intermediate cars ( Classes 801 to 804 ) . Occasionally , power cars and intermediate cars of the ICE 2 are used as well ( Classes 402 , 805 to 808 ) . Unlike later ICE generations , trainsets always operate as a whole train and units can not be coupled in regular service . One of the 60 trainsets ( trainset 51 ) was destroyed in the Eschede train disaster . The others were refurbished between 2005 and 2008 and will remain in service for ten to fifteen additional years .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "ICE_1", "rank": 90, "score": 75397 }, { "content": "Title: Ablation zone Content: Ablation zone or ablation area refers to the low-altitude area of a glacier or ice sheet below firn with a net loss in ice mass due to melting , sublimation , evaporation , ice calving , aeolian processes like blowing snow , avalanche , and any other ablation . The equilibrium line altitude ( ELA ) or snow line separates the ablation zone from the higher-altitude accumulation zone . The ablation zone often contains meltwater features such as supraglacial lakes , englacial streams , and subglacial lakes . Sediments dropped in the ablation zone forming small mounds or hillocks are called kames . Kame and kettle hole topography is useful in identifying an ablation zone of a glacier . The seasonally melting glacier deposits much sediment at its fringes in the ablation area . Ablation constitutes a key part of the glacier mass balance . The amount of snow and ice gained in the accumulation zone and the amount of snow and ice lost in the ablation zone determine glacier mass balance . Often mass balance measurements are made in the ablation zone using snow stakes .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ablation_zone", "rank": 91, "score": 75392 }, { "content": "Title: Storming the Black Ice Content: Storming the Black Ice is a 2014 political thriller written by Don Brown . The novel explores the international relationship in South America between the nations of Chile , Argentina , Great Britain , Venezuela , Russia , and the United States of America . The storyline features a naval war that erupts in the icy waters around Antarctica after British geologists make a massive oil discovery on the Antarctic Peninsula , and an alliance is formed between Britain and Chile to drill for the oil and pump it to processing stations in Chile . Storming the Black Ice is the third novel in Don Brown 's Pacific Rim Series .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Storming_the_Black_Ice", "rank": 92, "score": 75323 }, { "content": "Title: The Ice People Content: The Ice People is a 1998 science fiction novel by Maggie Gee , set in a future world dominated by a new ice age . The novel examines different elements of contemporary society : the fundamental roles and relationships of men and women , sexuality , politics and the issue of global warming . Global warming is the initial context , where increases in temperature are then followed by the cyclic appearance of an ice age . The reaction of society and individuals to these dramatic extremes sites the novel within the genre of dystopian science fiction , but closer to the author 's heart seem to be the changes within such a scenario of issues we face today : the changes in racism as different parts of the planet change in their attractiveness ; the changes in social position as `` Insiders '' and `` Outsiders '' -- the `` haves '' and the `` have-nots '' -- live within differing conditions ; the value , status and interpretation of marriage ; parenthood -- the increasing difficulties in conception and the subsequent single-parenthood versus family issues ; the `` gang '' mentality of men and women ; the way politics is perceived , used and power abused . The Ice People has been compared to George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty-Four and Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "The_Ice_People", "rank": 93, "score": 75292 }, { "content": "Title: Mid-February 2014 North American winter storm Content: The Mid-February 2014 North American winter storm was a major snow and ice storm that affected the American South and East Coast of the United States , bringing with it up to a foot of snow and crippling ice across parts of the South . Thousands if not hundreds of thousands of people were left in the dark for days , possibly even up to 2 weeks without power . The world 's largest carrier Delta Air Lines canceled over 2,000 flights , and it was reported by 8:00 p.m. Thursday , February 13 , that as many as 6,500 flights originating in or destined for the United States had been canceled . On that day 70 percent of flights were cancelled at airports in Baltimore , Philadelphia , Washington , D.C. , and Charlotte . As of February 14 , 22 people had died from the storm . Approximately 1.2 million homes and businesses lost power as the storm moved from the South through the Northeast . By the evening of Thursday , February 13 , about 550,000 customers remained in the dark , mostly in South Carolina and Georgia .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Mid-February_2014_North_American_winter_storm", "rank": 94, "score": 75244 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Glen Content: The Ice Glen is a ravine in the southeast area of Stockbridge , Massachusetts . The park is essentially a lush , untended , romantic landscape consisting of piled rocks thick with mosses . Ice Glen derives its name from the fact that , ice can persist at the bottom of deep rock crevices there into the summer . Its north-south orientation protects the glen from much direct sunlight . Surrounding the glen is an old growth forest , rare in New England . In 1891 , the Ice Glen was donated by David Dudley Field to the Laurel Hill Association , the first incorporated village improvement society in the United States . As the association 's existing property at Laurel Hill , which directly abuts the village center of Stockbridge , is separated from the forested hills in which the Ice Glen is located by the Housatonic River , the association built a bridge to connect the two properties . A trail still runs from Laurel Hill , behind the former Stockbridge Plain School , now the Town Offices building , over the bridge , through the glen , and exits on Ice Glen Road behind Villa Virginia . Beginning in the late nineteenth century , annual torch-light `` parades '' through the Glen became popular .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Ice_Glen", "rank": 95, "score": 75243 }, { "content": "Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Quaternary_glaciation", "rank": 96, "score": 75171 }, { "content": "Title: Glacier ice accumulation Content: Glacier ice accumulation occurs through accumulation of snow and other frozen precipitation , as well as through other means including rime ice ( freezing of water vapor on the glacier surface ) , avalanching from hanging glaciers on cliffs and mountainsides above , and re-freezing of glacier meltwater as superimposed ice . Accumulation is one element in the glacier mass balance formula , with ablation counteracting . With successive years in which accumulation exceeds ablation , then a glacier will experience positive mass balance , and its terminus will advance .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Glacier_ice_accumulation", "rank": 97, "score": 75127 }, { "content": "Title: Early Palaeozoic Icehouse Content: The Early Palaeozoic Icehouse was a cool period that interrupted the greenhouse temperatures of the Ordovician and Silurian periods , culminating in the Hirnantian glaciation and the Ordovician extinction event . The icehouse was formerly thought only to consist of the Hirnantian glaciation itself , but has now been recognized as a longer , more gradual event .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "Early_Palaeozoic_Icehouse", "rank": 98, "score": 75120 }, { "content": "Title: ICE Advertisements Content: iCE Advertisements ( or more commonly and accurately simply `` iCE '' ) is a digital art group founded in Canada by Many Axe ( later Frozen Tormenter ) in 1991 . Although the expanded title is rarely ever used , iCE is an acronym for Insane Creators Enterprise . iCE , along with ACiD Productions , was one of the most prominent and critically successful groups on the underground computer artscene .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "ICE_Advertisements", "rank": 99, "score": 75099 }, { "content": "Title: ICESat Content: ICESat ( Ice , Cloud , and land Elevation Satellite ) , part of NASA 's Earth Observing System , was a satellite mission for measuring ice sheet mass balance , cloud and aerosol heights , as well as land topography and vegetation characteristics . ICESat was launched 13 January 2003 on a Delta II rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California into a near-circular , near-polar orbit with an altitude of approximately 600 km . It operated for seven years before being retired in February 2010 , after its scientific payload shut down and scientists were unable to restart it . The ICESat mission was designed to provide elevation data needed to determine ice sheet mass balance as well as cloud property information , especially for stratospheric clouds common over polar areas . It provides topography and vegetation data around the globe , in addition to the polar-specific coverage over the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets . The satellite was found useful in assessing important forest characteristics , including tree density .", "qid": "2898", "docid": "ICESat", "rank": 100, "score": 74994 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit Content: Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit featured in press discussions of disputes over access to data from instrumental temperature records , particularly during the Climatic Research Unit email controversy which began in November 2009 . The UK Freedom of Information Act ( FOIA ) came into effect in 2005 , and FOI requests were made to the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) for the raw data from weather stations used in developing instrumental temperature record datasets , for copies of agreements under which the raw data was obtained from meteorology institutions , and also for email correspondence relating to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report . In many cases the raw data which CRU had obtained from National Meteorological Organisations was subject to restrictions on redistribution : on 12 August 2009 CRU announced that they were seeking permission to waive these restrictions , and on 24 November 2009 the university stated that over 95 % of the CRU climate data set had already been available for several years , with the remainder to be released when permissions were obtained . In a decision announced on 27 July 2011 the Information Commissioner 's Office ( ICO ) required release of raw data even though permissions had not been obtained or in one instance had been refused , and on 27 July 2011 CRU announced release of the raw instrumental data not already in the public domain , with the exception of Poland which was outside the area covered by the FOIA request . A 2008 FOI request by David Holland for emails discussing work on the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report was refused by the university . In November 2009 he alleged that CRU emails posted online discussed deleting the emails he had requested : in January 2010 the Deputy Information Commissioner told a journalist that this indicated an offence under section 77 of the FOIA , but prosecution was time-barred by statute of limitations . Newspapers misrepresented this as a decision in relation to raw data , and the issue was discussed by the House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee inquiry , which found there had been a lack of openness . The ICO decision published on 7 July 2010 stated that this potential offence had not been investigated as it was time-barred . As Holland was content not to proceed with his complaint against the university , no further action was needed , but the ICO would `` consider whether further action is appropriate to secure future compliance . '' In September 2011 the ICO issued new guidance to universities . This described exceptions and exemptions to protect research , including allowance for internal exchange of views between academics and researchers free from external scrutiny , as well as commending actively disclosing information when it is in the public interest .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Freedom_of_Information_requests_to_the_Climatic_Research_Unit", "rank": 1, "score": 113424 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit Content: The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change . With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit", "rank": 2, "score": 106512 }, { "content": "Title: List of temperature sensors Content:", "qid": "2901", "docid": "List_of_temperature_sensors", "rank": 3, "score": 97427 }, { "content": "Title: HadCRUT Content: HadCRUT is the dataset of monthly instrumental temperature records formed by combining the sea surface temperature records compiled by the Hadley Centre of the UK Met Office and the land surface air temperature records compiled by the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) of the University of East Anglia . The data is provided on a grid of boxes covering the globe , with values provided for only those boxes containing temperature observations in a particular month and year . Interpolation is not applied to infill missing values . The first version of HadCRUT initially spanned the period 1881 -- 1993 , and this was later extended to begin in 1850 and to be regularly updated to the current year/month in near real-time .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "HadCRUT", "rank": 4, "score": 93545 }, { "content": "Title: Rover Environmental Monitoring Station Content: Rover Environmental Monitoring Station ( REMS ) is a weather station on Mars for Curiosity rover contributed by Spain and Finland . REMS measures humidity , pressure , temperatures , wind speeds , and ultraviolet radiation on Mars . This Spanish project is led by the Center for Astrobiology ( Madrid ) and includes the Finnish Meteorological Institute as a partner , contributing pressure and humidity sensors . All sensors are located around three elements : two booms attached to the rover Remote Sensing Mast ( RSM ) , the Ultraviolet Sensor ( UVS ) assembly located on the rover top deck , and the Instrument Control Unit ( ICU ) inside the rover . Goals include understanding Martian general circulation , microscale weather systems , local hydrological cycle , destructive potential of UV radiation , and subsurface habitability based on ground-atmosphere interaction . By August 18 , 2012 , REMS was turned on and its data was being returned to Earth . The temperature at that time : 37 degrees Fahrenheit ( 2.8 degrees Celsius ) . On August 21 , 2012 , one of two windspeedmeters returned data with errors . After testing it was concluded that it was broken , probably hit by a rock on descent . Martian winds can still be detected with the other sensor . Reports are posted on the Center for Astrobiology website and twitter daily . Parts of REMS Instrument Control Unit Ultraviolet Sensor Boom 1 with : Air Temperature Sensor Wind Sensor Ground Temperature Sensor Boom 2 with : Air Temperature Sensor Wind Sensor Humidity Sensor The pressure sensor can detect pressures from 1 to 1150 Pa ( Pascal ) ( 0.000145038 PSI to 0.1667934 PSI ) . For comparison , 1 atmosphere is 101,325 Pascals or 14.7 PSI .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Rover_Environmental_Monitoring_Station", "rank": 5, "score": 92783 }, { "content": "Title: CRESU experiment Content: The CRESU experiment ( -LSB- Cinétique de Réaction en Ecoulement Supersonique Uniforme , lit = Reaction Kinetics in Uniform Supersonic Flow -RSB- ) is an experiment investigating chemical reactions taking place at very low temperatures . The technique involves the expansion of a gas or mixture of gases through a de Laval nozzle from a high pressure reservoir into a vacuum chamber . As it expands , the nozzle collimates the gas into a uniform supersonic beam that is essentially collision free and has a temperature that , in the centre of mass frame , can be significantly below that of the reservoir gas . Each nozzle produces a characteristic temperature . This way , any temperature between room temperature and about 10K can be achieved . There are relatively few CRESU apparatuses in existence for the simple reason that the gas throughput and pumping requirements are huge , which makes them expensive to run . Two of the leading centres have been the University of Rennes ( France ) and the University of Birmingham ( UK ) . A more recent development has been a pulsed version of the CRESU , which requires far less gas and therefore smaller pumps . One might well ask why we should use such a complex method for producing low temperature gases when they could be produced much more easily using liquid helium . The answer is simple : most species have a negligible vapour pressure at such low temperatures and this means that they quickly condense on the sides of the apparatus . Essentially , the CRESU technique provides a `` wall-less flow tube , '' which allows the kinetics of gas phase reactions to be investigated at much lower temperatures than otherwise possible . Chemical kinetics experiments can then be carried out in a `` pump-probe '' fashion using a laser to initiate the reaction ( for example by preparing one of the reagents by photolysis of a precursor ) , followed by observation of that same species ( for example by laser-induced fluorescence ) after a known time delay . The fluorescence signal is captured by a photomultiplier a known distance downstream of the de Laval nozzle . The time delay can be varied up to the maximum corresponding to the flow time over that known distance . By studying how quickly the reagent species disappears in the presence of differing concentrations of a ( usually stable ) co-reagent species the reaction rate constant at the low temperature of the CRESU flow can be determined . Reactions studied by the CRESU technique typically have no significant activation energy barrier . In the case of neutral-neutral reactions ( i.e. , not involving any charged species , ions ) , these type of barrier-free reactions usually involve free radical species such as molecular oxygen ( O2 ) , the cyanide radical ( CN ) or the hydroxyl radical ( OH ) . The energetic driving force for these reactions is typically an attractive long range intermolecular potential . CRESU experiments have been used to show deviations from Arrhenius kinetics at low temperatures : as the temperature is reduced , the rate constant actually increases . They can explain why chemistry is so prevalent in the interstellar medium , where many different polyatomic species have been detected ( by radio astronomy ) , but where temperatures are so low that conventional wisdom might suggest that chemical reactions do not occur .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "CRESU_experiment", "rank": 6, "score": 88442 }, { "content": "Title: Community Radiative Transfer Model Content: Community Radiative Transfer Model ( CRTM ) is a fast radiative transfer model for calculations of radiances for satellite infrared or microwave radiometers . Given an atmospheric profile of temperature , variable gas concentrations , cloud and surface properties CRTM calculates radiances and brightness temperatures . The only mandatory inputs in terms of variable gases are water vapor and ozone . The range of temperatures and water vapour concentrations over which the optical depth computations are valid depends on the training datasets which were used . CRTM contains forward , tangent linear , adjoint and K ( full Jacobian matrices ) versions of the model ; the latter three modules are used in inversion methods , including variational assimilation and satellite retrievals . One of several applications of CRTM are retrievals of brightness temperature and sea surface temperature from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer sensor .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Community_Radiative_Transfer_Model", "rank": 7, "score": 83972 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents", "rank": 8, "score": 83434 }, { "content": "Title: CRN Content: CRN may refer to : Climate Reference Network a network of climate stations in the United States for future long-term standardized observations Cognos ReportNet , a software sold by Cognos designed to facilitate reporting of databases CRN , SIL code for the Cornish language CRN , station code for Crowthorne railway station in the United Kingdom Cable Radio Network , a distributor of talk radio programming to cable television outlets in the United States Cumann Rince Náisiúnta , an Irish Dancing organisation CRN , Amtrak station code for Creston , Iowa , United States CRN , cosmogenic radionuclides CrN , chromium nitride CRN Magazine , originally titled Computer Reseller News", "qid": "2901", "docid": "CRN", "rank": 9, "score": 82617 }, { "content": "Title: MSU temperature measurements Content: Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform . Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult . To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 : RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade . UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade . An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set . Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade . A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) . Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel . The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "MSU_temperature_measurements", "rank": 10, "score": 81528 }, { "content": "Title: Crometeo Content: Crometeo is a non-profit association of Croatian amateur meteorologists . It was founded in November 2005 and its headquarters are in Zagreb , Croatia . Crometeo monitors and forecasts weather , perusing a network of automatic weather stations in Croatia . The data from the stations is made available on-line . Crometeo also maintains a web portal and a forum on meteorology , and works to popularise meteorology in Croatia . Presided by Kristijan Božarov , aside from Croatian members , Crometeo has associates from other , mainly neighbouring countries . In recent years , the association gained popularity in Croatian media for its weather forecasts and articles relating to weather , climate , meteorology and environment . There are two very important projects of Crometeo team . Automatic weather stations network , found at http://www.pljusak.com and numerical weather forecasting site with NCEP GFS and Crometeo WRF-NMM and WRF-ARW high-resolution mesomodel products at http://maps.meteoadriatic.net .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Crometeo", "rank": 11, "score": 81519 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 12, "score": 80716 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Observing Optical Network Content: The Solar Observing Optical Network ( SOON ) consists of three U.S. Air Force ( USAF ) Air Force Weather Agency ( AFWA ) solar observatories . AFWA operates a solar telescope at each site to monitor solar active regions at optical wavelengths . The National Geophysical Data Center ( NGDC ) archives histograms of intensity versus area every minute for the active regions . It also archives magnetograms of the magnetic field structure and tachograms of plasma velocities on an irregular schedule . The SOON observatories are operated by detachments of AFWA 's 2nd Weather Group at the following sites : RAAF Learmonth , Western Australia , Australia Holloman AFB , New Mexico , USA San Vito dei Normanni Air Station , San Vito dei Normanni , Italy ( contractor-run site ) Telescopes at Palehua , Hawaii and Ramey Air Force Base , Puerto Rico have been shut down . There is an active Consolidated Repair Activity ( CRA ) based out of Holloman Air Force Base , New Mexico which is operated by the 49th Communications Squadron . The CRA provides depot-level maintenance and support to the SOON program . The CRA also develops maintenance procedures , institutes physical ( non-software ) updates , and overhauls all three telescopes on a regular basis .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Solar_Observing_Optical_Network", "rank": 13, "score": 80707 }, { "content": "Title: Tampere railway station Content: The Tampere railway station is a functionalist building in Tampere , Finland , designed by Eero Seppälä and Otto Flodin , completed in 1936 . The 36-metre clock tower was later added because the Finnish railway bureau required it ( its total height from ground level is about 50 metres ) . The city 's main street Hämeenkatu begins at the railway station , continuing over the Hämeensilta bridge to its western end at the Aleksanteri church . The Itsenäisyydenkatu ( originally called Puolimatkankatu ) street begins at the Tammela side of the station , continuing to the Kaleva Church . Situated in a central location , the station and its railway yard have served as divisors of the city 's districts almost in the same way as Tammerkoski : Tamperean places are often located by saying which side of the station they are on . For decades , there has been discussion of a unified travel centre in Tampere : currently , the long-distance bus terminal is quite far away from the railway station . There are currently three platforms in the Tampere railway station , two of which have a roof . There are five tracks in total , but there are plans to add a fourth platform , making seven tracks in total . About 120 trains arrive at and depart from the Tampere railway station every day . Annually , about 1.5 million passengers pass through the station . Most of the traffic is towards Helsinki . Tampere also has railway connections northwards , and towards the cities of Turku , Jyväskylä , and Pori . Pendolino trains go from Tampere to Helsinki , Kuopio via Jyväskylä , and Oulu via Seinäjoki . The Tampere cargo station is located south from the passenger station . It includes one of the busiest railway organisation yards in Finland . The green building on the east side of the tracks , opposite the old passenger station is the old cargo station . A track leads from the cargo station , over the highway to Helsinki , to the Nekala district , which previously contained many private tracks servicing stock companies . Nowadays , some of the tracks have been disassembled and some are disused . The starting point of the track is used to store train carriages .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Tampere_railway_station", "rank": 14, "score": 78711 }, { "content": "Title: CRMO Content: CRMO may refer to : 41xx steel , also known CrMo CHOU ( AM ) , radio station ; also known as CRMO Radio Moyen-Orient Chief risk officer ( CRO ) , also known as Chief risk management officer ( CRMO ) Chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis", "qid": "2901", "docid": "CRMO", "rank": 15, "score": 77834 }, { "content": "Title: RNLB Lester (ON 1287) Content: RNLB Lester ( ON 1287 ) is the ALB lifeboat stationed at Cromer in the English county of Norfolk . Cromer is the first lifeboat station on the east of England coast to receive the latest Tamar-class all-weather lifeboat . The lifeboat became officially operational at 3:55 pm on 6 January 2008 . The lifeboat was officially christened Lester on Monday 8 September by HRH The Duke of Kent . The lifeboats name Lester has been created by using parts of the surnames of Derek Clifton Lethern and William Foster , both of whom have been long-term supporters and members of the RNLI . Mr Lethern left # 1.23 m to the RNLI when he died in 1992 and asked for a new lifeboat to be bought in memory of him and his friend Mr Foster .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "RNLB_Lester_(ON_1287)", "rank": 16, "score": 77814 }, { "content": "Title: Creigiau railway station Content: Creigiau railway station was a railway station in Creigiau in south Wales . It was on the Barry Railway between Efail Isaf and Wenvoe , which ran broadly north-south through Creigiau . To the east of the station , a second former line headed north-west towards Llantrisant , and south-east towards Cardiff . There was no connection between these lines , the Barry Railway line passing over the former Llantrisant and Taff Vale Junction Railway 's and later Taff Vale Railway 's Waterhall branch to the north of the station . During the Second World War , the station was used to transfer American military to the nearby hospital at Rhydlafar . The Railway closed in 1962 . Both platforms remain , albeit rather overgrown . The site of the station buildings and yard is now used by a coach operator . There are rumours about the line re-opening between Cardiff and Creigiau , and another rumour around the village says it will be paved over into a levelled-out concrete cycle and walking path to Cardiff . The final say lies with the Welsh assembly government .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Creigiau_railway_station", "rank": 17, "score": 77608 }, { "content": "Title: Turku Central railway station Content: The Turku Central railway station is a railway station in the VII District of Turku , Finland . It has VR services to Helsinki and towards Joensuu ( most terminate in Tampere or Pieksämäki ) . The station serves approximately a million passengers annually . The railway station was opened in 1876 , together with the newly built railway between Turku and Tampere , in a celebration attended by the future Tsar Alexander III of Russia . Services were at first only to Tampere and Toijala , and the significance of railways was rather minor . In 1899 , a new railway to Helsinki was opened , and subsequently rail traffic to and from Turku became more frequent . The older station was demolished in 1938 , and a new , more modern , one was built in its place . The current building , completed in 1940 , was designed by Finnish architects Väinö Vähäkallio and Martti Välikangas . In addition to the two main railway lines to Helsinki and Joensuu , the station has handled passenger traffic to Naantali and Uusikaupunki . These local lines have been discontinued due to lack of use , but are still used by goods traffic . In addition , there is talk of re-establishing the line to Naantali in the near future , either as a museum railway line or a form of local public transport . Unlike the Helsinki Central railway station , which stands out as a prominent landmark of downtown Helsinki , the Turku Central railway station blends in among the scenery and is hidden behind other buildings when viewed from the city centre . Because of this , it can be difficult for non-Turkuans to get their bearings around the railway station . On 7 June 2010 , the Turku Central railway station was officially renamed Turun päärautatieasema-Åbo centralstation ( Turku main railway station , or Turku central railway station ) in Finnish and Swedish , replacing the previous official name Turun rautatieasema-Åbo järnvägsstation ( Turku railway station ) . The Finnish transport bureau use `` Turku C '' as a shorthand , and there were erroneous news reports that this shorthand would also be taken into official use . The Helsinki Central railway station was renamed in a similar manner .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Turku_Central_railway_station", "rank": 18, "score": 77052 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy Content: The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy", "rank": 19, "score": 76522 }, { "content": "Title: Phil Jones (climatologist) Content: Philip Douglas Jones ( born April 22 , 1952 ) retired from his positions as the Director of the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) and as a Professor in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) at the end of 2016 . Jones was replaced as CRU director by Tim Osborn and has taken up a position as a Professorial Fellow at the UEA from January 2017 . His research interests include instrumental climate change , palaeoclimatology , detection of climate change and the extension of riverflow records in the UK . He has also published papers on the temperature record of the past 1000 years . He is known for maintaining a time series of the instrumental temperature record . This work was featured prominently in both the 2001 and 2007 IPCC reports , where he was a contributing author to Chapter 12 , Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes , of the Third Assessment Report and a Coordinating Lead Author of Chapter 3 , Observations : Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change , of the AR4 .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Phil_Jones_(climatologist)", "rank": 20, "score": 75553 }, { "content": "Title: TAMDAR Content: TAMDAR ( Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting ) is a weather monitoring system that consists of an in situ atmospheric sensor mounted on commercial aircraft for data gathering . It collects information similar to that collected by radiosondes carried aloft by weather balloons . It was developed by AirDat LLC , which was acquired by Panasonic Avionics Corporation in April 2013 and now operates as Panasonic Weather Solutions based in the United States .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "TAMDAR", "rank": 21, "score": 75468 }, { "content": "Title: Weather station Content: A weather station is a facility , either on land or sea , with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate . The measurements taken include temperature , atmospheric pressure , humidity , wind speed , wind direction , and precipitation amounts . Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible , while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation , or insolation . Manual observations are taken at least once daily , while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour . Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys , which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature ( SST ) , wave height , and wave period . Drifting weather buoys outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Weather_station", "rank": 22, "score": 74943 }, { "content": "Title: Croxall railway station Content: Croxall railway station was a railway station serving the village of Croxall in Staffordshire between Tamworth and Burton upon Trent It was opened in 1840 by the Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway , one year after the line opened . It was called Oakley and Alrewas at first , changing to Oakley in 1849 , then Croxall in 1856 , closing in 1928 . Another station named Oakley was opened in 1857 by the Midland Railway on its extension from Leicester to Bedford and Hitchin . This closed in 1958 .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Croxall_railway_station", "rank": 23, "score": 74844 }, { "content": "Title: Emu Creek Station Content: Emu Creek or Emu Creek Station is a pastoral lease and cattle station located approximately 150 km east of Coral Bay and 180 km south east of Exmouth in the Pilbara region of Western Australia . The station occupies an area of 124988 ha and has a carrying capacity of 1,590 head of cattle . The property was established in 1891 and occupied an area of almost 500000 acre . Initially sheep were run at Emu Creek and some 20,000 were pastured and shorn in the early years . The station also runs a Bureau of Meteorology weather station which in 2014 recorded 67 days of temperatures of over 40 C throughout the year .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Emu_Creek_Station", "rank": 24, "score": 73994 }, { "content": "Title: FourU thermometer Content: __ NOTOC __ FourU thermometers are a class of non-coding RNA thermometers found in Salmonella . They are named ` FourU ' due to the four highly conserved uridine nucleotides found directly opposite the Shine-Dalgarno sequence on hairpin II ( pictured ) . RNA thermometers such as FourU control regulation of temperature via heat shock proteins in many prokaryotes . FourU thermometers are relatively small RNA molecules , only 57 nucleotides in length , and have a simple two-hairpin structure . FourU are found in the 5 ' untranslated region of the gene for heat shock protein Salmonella agsA , they repress translation of this protein by base-pairing the Shine-Dalgardo sequence of the gene 's mRNA . This prevents ribosomes from binding the gene 's start codon . They are also found in the 5 ` UTR of htrA ( high temperature requirement ) genes in Salmonella and E.coli . In V. cholerae fourU thermometer in the 5 ' of toxT controls its temperature-dependant translation . At human body temperature , the thermometer structure opens and to allow transcriptional activator protein ToxT translation , facilitating V. cholerae virulance . Other known RNA thermometers include the ROSE element and Hsp90 cis-reg element .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "FourU_thermometer", "rank": 25, "score": 73860 }, { "content": "Title: Engine coolant temperature sensor Content: The coolant temperature sensor is used to measure the temperature of the engine coolant of an internal combustion engine . The readings from this sensor are then fed back to the engine control unit ( ECU ) , which uses this data to adjust the fuel injection and ignition timing . On some vehicles the sensor may also be used to switch on the electric cooling fan . The data may also be used to provide readings for a coolant temperature gauge on the dashboard .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Engine_coolant_temperature_sensor", "rank": 26, "score": 73673 }, { "content": "Title: Community radio Content: Community radio ( CR ) is a radio service offering a third model of radio broadcasting in addition to commercial and public broadcasting . Community stations serve geographic communities and communities of interest . They broadcast content that is popular and relevant to a local , specific audience but is often overlooked by commercial or mass-media broadcasters . Community radio stations are operated , owned , and influenced by the communities they serve . They are generally nonprofit and provide a mechanism for enabling individuals , groups , and communities to tell their own stories , to share experiences and , in a media-rich world , to become creators and contributors of media . In many parts of the world , community radio acts as a vehicle for the community and voluntary sector , civil society , agencies , NGOs and citizens to work in partnership to further community development aims , in addition to broadcasting . There is legally defined community radio ( as a distinct broadcasting sector ) in many countries , such as France , Argentina , South Africa , Australia and Ireland . Much of the legislation has included phrases such as `` social benefit '' , `` social objectives '' and `` social gain '' as part of the definition . Community radio has developed differently in different countries , and the term has somewhat different meanings in the United Kingdom , Ireland , the United States , Canada , and Australia , where freedom of speech laws and de facto realities differ .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Community_radio", "rank": 27, "score": 73396 }, { "content": "Title: Heat Capacity Mapping Mission Content: The Heat Capacity Mapping Mission ( HCMM ) was the first Applications Explorer Mission . HCMM provided comprehensive , accurate , high-spatial-resolution thermal surveys of the surface of the Earth . HCCM was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base on April 26 , 1978 by a Scout-F rocket . Its mass was 117.0 kg . The HCMM spacecraft was placed in a circular sun-synchronous orbit , allowing the spacecraft to sense surface temperatures near the maximum and minimum of the diurnal cycle . There was no on-board data storage capability , so only real-time data were transmitted when the satellite came within reception range of seven ground stations . During February 21 -- 23 , 1980 , the HCMM orbital altitude was lowered from 620 km to 540 km to stop the drift of the orbit plane to unfavorable sun angles which in turn reduced the power collection capability of the solar panels . The operations of the spacecraft were terminated on September 30 , 1980 .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Heat_Capacity_Mapping_Mission", "rank": 28, "score": 73168 }, { "content": "Title: Niikappu Station Content: is a railway station on the Hidaka Main Line in Niikappu , Hokkaido , Japan , operated by the Hokkaido Railway Company ( JR Hokkaido ) . Services on the 116 km section of the line between and have been suspended indefinitely since January 2015 due to storm damage .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Niikappu_Station", "rank": 29, "score": 73011 }, { "content": "Title: Nicolaas Kruik Content: Nicolaas Samuelszoon Kruik ( Nicolaus Samuelis Cruquius 2 December 1678 , Vlieland -- 5 February 1754 , Spaarndam ) , also known as Klaas Kruik and Nicolaes Krukius , was a Dutch land surveyor , cartographer , astronomer and weatherman . He is remembered most today for the Museum De Cruquius bearing his name . He was a perfectionist who liked to measure things and he calculated temperature measurements in Fahrenheit from 1706 to 1734 . His historical calculations are still used today by the KNMI , the Dutch meteorological institute . He not only measured weather changes in wind speed , rainfall , air pressure , temperature , and humidity , but also measured sea level . His method of visualizing planes of water level to illustrate contours of depth ( isobaths ) in his map of the Merwede was the first of its kind . He was an advocate of pumping out the Haarlemmermeer ( Haarlem lake ) , which was done a century after his death .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Nicolaas_Kruik", "rank": 30, "score": 72999 }, { "content": "Title: ISS-RapidScat Content: ISS-RapidScat was an instrument mounted to the International Space Station Columbus module that measured wind speeds . It was launched aboard SpaceX CRS-4 in September 2014 and operated until August 2016 . ISS-RapidScat was a scatterometer designed to support weather forecasting by bouncing microwaves off the ocean 's surface to measure wind speed . It featured a 75 cm rotating radar dish that operated at 13.4 GHz ( Ku band ) . It could collect data between 51.6 degrees north and south latitude , with a swath 560 mi . The ISS-RapidScat program was initiated in response to the failure of the QuikSCAT satellite 's antenna rotation mechanism in November 2009 . While the spacecraft continued to function , it could only gather data in one direction , significantly limiting its data collection ability . ISS-RapidScat was built by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory from elements of QuikSCAT 's SeaWinds instrument engineering model , originally used to validate that instrument 's flight hardware prior to its launch in 1999 . It was constructed in 18 months ; re-using the QuikScat hardware had the double benefit of reducing cost and using already flight-proven hardware that functioned well in orbit . ISS-RapidScat was very similar to QuikSCAT in functionality . However , the instrument suffered due to peculiarities of the International Space Station , such as the station 's varying altitude due to increased drag , its variable orientation due to the demands of visiting spacecraft , and its lack of a Sun-synchronous orbit . By the time of ISS-RapidScat 's launch , the European Space Agency MetOp series were the only two satellites with fully functioning scatterometers in orbit . Some of these peculiarities were also advantages . Its mid-latitude orbit meant it was able to collect data about the same spot on Earth at different times of day , whereas the Sun-synchronous orbits used by other scatterometer-equipped spacecraft would re-visit the same location on Earth at the same time daily . This allowed scientists to study how the wind changes at one location over the course of a day . This orbit also gives better coverage of the tropics , and by crossing the orbit of other satellites , it was able to observe the same area at the same time as them , allowing for cross-calibration between the different data sets . Objectives of the ISS-RapidScat program were to mitigate the loss of and provide continuity of wind data products from the QuikSCAT SeaWinds instrument , serve as a calibration standard for the international constellation of scatterometer-equipped satellites , and to sample the diurnal and semi-diurnal wind variations that occur between ISS flight latitudes at least every two months . The scatterometer was launched as external cargo aboard the SpaceX CRS-4 mission on 21 September 2014 , attached to the unpressurized section of the Dragon capsule . Dragon was berthed to the station on 23 September . The instrument was removed from Dragon , robotically assembled and attached to Columbus between 29 and 30 September . It was powered up on 1 October and immediately began gathering data , which was first processed into an uncalibrated product on 3 October . ISS-RapidScat was declared fully operational and its data products properly calibrated on 10 November . One of ISS-RapidScat 's first observations was of Tropical Storm Simon off the coast of the Baja California Peninsula on 3 October 2014 . It also played a role in observing the Category 5 Hurricane Patricia in October 2015 , which was noted as one of the most powerful hurricanes on record , with maximum sustained winds of 185 kn . Data from ISS-RapidScat was disseminated worldwide for use in weather forecasting , and was used by the United States Navy , NOAA , and EUMETSAT , among others . On 19 August 2016 , the Columbus module , to which ISS-RapidScat was attached and reliant on for resources , suffered a power distribution unit failure , which resulted in ISS-RapidScat shutting down . This was followed by an electrical overload in the power distribution unit during recovery efforts . Attempts to restore the instrument were without success , and NASA formally terminated operations on 28 November 2016 .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "ISS-RapidScat", "rank": 31, "score": 72717 }, { "content": "Title: Hidariishi Station Content: is a railway station in Sasebo , Nagasaki , Japan . It is operated by Matsuura Railway and is located on the Nishi-Kyūshū Line .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Hidariishi_Station", "rank": 32, "score": 71687 }, { "content": "Title: Critical relative humidity Content: The critical relative humidity ( CRH ) of a salt is defined as the relative humidity of the surrounding atmosphere ( at a certain temperature ) at which the material begins to absorb moisture from the atmosphere and below which it will not absorb atmospheric moisture . When the humidity of the atmosphere is equal to ( or is greater than ) the critical relative humidity of a sample of salt , the sample will take up water until all of the salt is dissolved to yield a saturated solution . All water-soluble salts and mixtures have characteristic critical humidities ; it is a unique material property . The critical relative humidity of most salts decreases with increasing temperature . For instance , the critical relative humidity of ammonium nitrate decreases 22 % with a temperature from 0 ° C to 40 ° C ( 32 ° F to 104 ° F ) . The critical relative humidity of several fertilizer salts is given in table 1 : Table 1 : Critical relative humidities of pure salts at 30 ° C. Mixtures of salts usually have lower critical humidities than either of the constituents . Fertilizers that contain Urea as an ingredient usually exhibit a much lower Critical Relative Humidity than Fertilizers without Urea.Table 2 shows CRH data for two-component mixtures : Table 2 : Critical relative humidities of mixtures of salts at 30 ° C ( values are percent relative humidity ) . As shown , the effect of salt mixing is most dramatic in the case of ammonium nitrate with urea . This mixture has an extremely low critical relative humidity and can therefore only be used in liquid fertilisers ( so called UAN-solutions ) .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Critical_relative_humidity", "rank": 33, "score": 71438 }, { "content": "Title: AESP-14 Content: AESP-14 is a Brazilian 1U Cubesat developed by multiple Brazilian institutions . It was launched on 10 January 2015 aboard the SpaceX CRS-5 mission on a Falcon 9 v1 .1 rocket . It was the first Brazilian Cubesat ever launched into space . On 5 February , the satellite was deployed from the International Space Station using the Japanese Experiment Module ( JEM ) Small Satellite Orbital Deployer , but an unknown malfunction caused it to be unable to transmit any data back to Earth . The satellite reentered the atmosphere on 11 May 2015 .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "AESP-14", "rank": 34, "score": 71103 }, { "content": "Title: Commercial Radio Hong Kong Content: Commercial Radio Hong Kong ( CRHK , , aka Hong Kong Commercial Broadcasting Company Limited is one of only two commercial radio broadcasting companies in Hong Kong along with Metro Radio Hong Kong . It contains a balanced array of entertainment including informative , educational , arts and cultural programmes . CRHK provides updates on current affairs as well as news and weather reports .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Commercial_Radio_Hong_Kong", "rank": 35, "score": 70794 }, { "content": "Title: MesoWest Content: MesoWest is an ongoing cooperative project , started in 1996 , to provide access to current and archive weather observations across the United States . Weather observations include but are not limited to : temperature , humidity , wind speed , wind direction , and precipitation . Data are collected from a variety of organizations . Some stations participate in voluntary weather observing networks such as the Citizen Weather Observer Program . Others are part of mesonets that are managed by private firms or federal/state/local agencies . These data are available for a multitude of uses . Over 20,000 weather stations actively report to the MesoWest database . Parties involved in this project include researchers at the University of Utah , forecasters at the Salt Lake City National Weather Service Office , the National Weather Service Western Region Headquarters , and personnel of participating agencies , universities , and commercial firms . Support for this project is being provided by the National Weather Service .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "MesoWest", "rank": 36, "score": 70675 }, { "content": "Title: Miller-Casella thermometer Content: The Miller-Casella thermometer was a Six 's thermometer with a double bulb used extensively by the Challenger expedition during the late nineteenth century . The thermomemeter was used for water temperature readings along 360 different research stations around the world 's oceans . The thermometer , which was about 9 inches in length , was enclosed in a copper case and filled with a solution of creosote in spirit . A U-shaped mercury tube recorded maximum and minimum temperature as the thermometer was lowered and raised into the ocean . This design assumed accurate measurements could be taken as long as the water closer to the surface of the ocean was always warmer than that below . Scientists aboard the HMS Challenger later questioned this assumption and made temperutare measurements with reversing thermometers instead which would n't require the coldest water to be at the ocean 's bottom .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Miller-Casella_thermometer", "rank": 37, "score": 70639 }, { "content": "Title: Cruquius Content: Nicolaus Samuel Cruquius was a Dutch land-surveyor , cartographer , and land reclamation engineer . Named in his honor are : Cruquius ( town ) is a village in the Haarlemmermeer in the Netherlands . Museum De Cruquius - a former steam pumping station on the edge of the Haarlemmermeer , now made into a museum . Cruquiuseiland - an area of Amsterdam", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Cruquius", "rank": 38, "score": 70210 }, { "content": "Title: Museum De Cruquius Content: The Museum De Cruquius ( or Cruquiusmuseum ) occupies the old Cruquius steam pumping station in Cruquius , the Netherlands . It derives its name from Nicolaas Kruik ( 1678 -- 1754 ) , a Dutch land-surveyor and one of many promotors of a plan to pump the Haarlemmermeer ( Haarlem lake ) dry . Like many well-educated men of his time , he latinized his name to Nicolaus Samuel Cruquius . During his lifetime the issue of the Haarlem Lake and how to pump it dry was international news , as the following excerpt from the Virginia Gazette on 31 May 1751 illustrates : `` By a private letter from Rotterdam , we are told , that the Dutch Engineers , in their Plan for draining the lake of Haerlem , proposed to employ 150 mills for three Years , and had computed the Expence at a Million and Half of Florins , but that a German , who had been long employed in the Mines of Hungary and Hartz , had proposed to drain it with 50 machines , in 15 months , at a far less Expence ; and that he has been ordered to erect one of those Machines , which , if it shall be found to execute what he has asserted , his Proposal will be immediately accepted . '' Even 50 machines proved too expensive , so it was not until successful experiments with steam pumping stations , such as at nearby Groenendaal park in 1781 , that serious plans resulted in three steam-driven pumping stations , including the one at Cruquius . As a tribute to former planners , the pumping stations of the Haarlemmermeer were named after them . The one at the mouth of the Spaarne river , near Heemstede , was called Cruquius . To service the mill , the workers who lived there founded the town of the same name . The dike was built in the 1840s , the pump started work in 1850 and in the three years that had been predicted a century before , the Haarlem lake was pumped dry . The pumping station Cruquius continued to work on and off until 1933 , when it was made into a museum . The foreman 's house was made into a café which it still is today .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Museum_De_Cruquius", "rank": 39, "score": 70088 }, { "content": "Title: Hideshio Station Content: is a railway station of Chūō Main Line , Central Japan Railway Company , in Sōga , Shiojiri City , Nagano Prefecture , Japan .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Hideshio_Station", "rank": 40, "score": 69844 }, { "content": "Title: Hido Station Content: is a railway station in Iga , Mie Prefecture , Japan . It is located 15.6 rail kilometres from the terminus of the Iga Line at Iga-Ueno Station .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Hido_Station", "rank": 41, "score": 69769 }, { "content": "Title: Crivina Power Station Content: The Crivina Power Station ( Termocentrala de la Crivina ) was a large thermal power plant located in Crivina , near Anina in Caraş-Severin County . It had three generating units of 330 MW each , altogether having a total electricity generating capacity of 990 MW . It was intended to be the first oil shale power station built in Romania . The total cost of the oil shale power plant was around US$ 1 billion . The Crivina Power Station was supplied with 4 million tonnes of oil shale per year from the nearby Anina Mine .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Crivina_Power_Station", "rank": 42, "score": 69716 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature data logger Content: A temperature data logger , also called temperature monitor , is a portable measurement instrument that is capable of autonomously recording temperature over a defined period of time . The digital data can be retrieved , viewed and evaluated after it has been recorded . A data logger is commonly used to monitor shipments in a cold chain and to gather temperature data from diverse field conditions .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Temperature_data_logger", "rank": 43, "score": 69643 }, { "content": "Title: No. 1 Remote Sensor Unit Content: No. 1 Remote Sensor Unit ( 1RSU ) , formerly known as No. 1 Radar Surveillance Unit , was renamed on 2 May 2015 . 1RSU is the Royal Australian Air Force unit responsible for operating the Jindalee Operational Radar Network ( JORN ) . While 1RSU is located at RAAF Base Edinburgh the Unit also has personnel stationed at the JORN sites near Longreach in Queensland , Alice Springs in the Northern Territory , and Laverton in Western Australia . 1RSU was established on 1 July 1992 to operate the initial JORN site at Alice Springs and moved to RAAF Base Edinburgh in 1999 . The sites at Longreach and Laverton were commissioned in mid-2003 . In addition to the JORN sites , 1RSU operates the JORN Coordination Centre at RAAF Base Edinburgh , which is responsible for providing JORN data to the system 's ` customers ' , which include the Australian Strategic Theatre Joint Intelligence Centre and Northern Command . Once completed in 2016 , the unit will remotely operate the C-Band Space Surveillance Radar currently being installed at Naval Communication Station Harold E. Holt in Exmouth , Western Australia . It will provide a Space Situational Awareness capability , allowing the tracking of space assets and debris .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "No._1_Remote_Sensor_Unit", "rank": 44, "score": 69630 }, { "content": "Title: Automated Weather Source Content: Automated Weather Source ( AWS ) was a partnership and later a corporation founded in 1992 by James Michael `` Mike '' Bailey and Charles `` Topper '' Shutt of Montgomery County , Maryland , whose purpose was to create a network of weather stations located at public schools and recreational facilities throughout the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States . The weather data generated was accessed by dialup modem and included wind speed , wind direction , barometric pressure , temperature , and rainfall totals , along with daily minimum and maximum values of each . The network of primarily school-based weather stations became the first to generate real-time meteorological data for use on broadcast television when the AWS network was first referenced on September 11 , 1992 during the nightly newscast of WUSA-TV ( Channel 9 ) in Washington , D.C. The AWS concept encouraged academic and recreational institutions to increase localized community awareness by soliciting donors to help them join the network . A computer and software interfaced to the weather station , provided access to each site , and enabled the user to download near real-time and archived surface weather observations . The meteorological data were then used in the classroom as part of multiple curricula . The real time data was shared with the general public on broadcast media and provided to the National Weather Service ( NWS ) for internal use and eventual integration into AFOS ( Automation of Field Operations and Services ) , the computer system in place at the time linking NWS offices for the transmission of weather data now known as AWIPS . Headquartered in Darnestown , Maryland , the Automated Weather Source partnership formed in 1992 was incorporated in January 1994 . Implementations of AWS ' core concept , often referred to as `` SchoolNet '' or `` WeatherNet , '' then began to expand into many other major US television markets over the course of the 1990s .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Automated_Weather_Source", "rank": 45, "score": 69599 }, { "content": "Title: Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System Content: AMeDAS ( Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System ) , commonly known in Japanese as '' アメダス '' ( amedasu ) , is a high-resolution surface observation network developed by the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) used for gathering regional weather data and verifying forecast performance . The system began operating on November 1 , 1974 , and currently comprises 1,300 stations throughout Japan ( of which over 1,100 are unmanned ) , with an average separation of 17 km . Observations at manned stations cover weather , wind direction and speed , types and amounts of precipitation , types and base heights of clouds , visibility , air temperature , humidity , sunshine duration , and atmospheric pressure . All of these ( except weather , visibility and cloud-related meteorological elements ) are observed automatically . At unmanned stations , observations are performed every 10 minutes . About 700 of the unmanned stations observe precipitation , air temperature , wind direction and speed , and sunshine duration , while the other stations observe only precipitation . For about 280 stations ( manned or unmanned ) located in areas of heavy snowfall , snow depth is also observed . All the observational data is transmitted to the AMeDAS Center at JMA Headquarters in Tokyo on a real time basis via dedicated telephone lines . The data is then delivered to the whole country after a quality check . As well as weather conditions , AMeDAS is also used in the observation of natural disasters . Temporary observation points are set up in areas where there are signs of volcanic eruptions or earthquakes .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Automated_Meteorological_Data_Acquisition_System", "rank": 46, "score": 69494 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Laboratory Content: The Climatic Research Laboratory ( CRL ) was a U.S. Army military clothing and equipment test site formerly located at Lawrence , Massachusetts from 1943 to 1954 . The lab tested textile and insulating materials and was capable of simulating climatic conditions throughout the world ( e.g. , desert , rain forest , tundra , mountain ) . A `` Jungle Room '' was maintained for thermal physiological testing on human volunteers . Field trials were conducted by the lab at sites such as the Dolly Copp Test Site at the foot of Mount Washington , New Hampshire . The CRL was relocated to Natick , Massachusetts in 1954 under the new name of the Environmental Protection Research Division ( EPRD ) of the U.S. Army 's Quartermaster Research and Engineering Command . The EPRD in turn was merged with elements of the Armored Medical Research Laboratory ( AMRL ) ( originally at Fort Knox , Kentucky ) in 1961 to constitute what is now the U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine ( USARIEM ) at Natick . Category : Buildings and structures in Lawrence , Massachusetts Category :1943 establishments in Massachusetts Category : Closed installations of the United States Army Category : Closed research facilities of the United States Army Category : Closed medical research facilities of the United States Army", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Laboratory", "rank": 47, "score": 69408 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "NOAA-6", "rank": 48, "score": 69367 }, { "content": "Title: Theta1 Crucis Content: Theta1 Crucis ( θ1 Cru , Theta1 Crucis ) is a spectroscopic binary star system in the southern constellation of Crux . It is visible to the naked eye with an apparent visual magnitude of 4.30 m . The distance to this star , as determined using parallax measurements , is around 235 light years . The pair orbit each other closely with a period of 24.5 days and an eccentricity of 0.61 . The primary component is an Am star , which is a chemically peculiar A-type star that shows anomalous variations in absorption lines of certain elements . It has a stellar classification of A3 ( m ) A8-A8 . With a mass 157 % times that of the Sun , it radiates 81 times the Sun 's luminosity from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 7341 K. Unusually for a fully-radiative A-type star , X-ray emissions have been detected , which may instead be coming from the orbiting companion .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Theta1_Crucis", "rank": 49, "score": 69258 }, { "content": "Title: Texas A&M University Press Content: Texas A&M University Press ( also known informally as TAMU Press ) is a scholarly publishing house associated with Texas A&M University . It was founded in 1974 and is located in College Station , Texas , in the United States .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Texas_A&M_University_Press", "rank": 50, "score": 69136 }, { "content": "Title: Czech Radio Content: Český rozhlas ( ČRo ) is the public radio broadcaster of the Czech Republic , which has operated since 1923 . The service broadcasts throughout the Czech Republic nationally and locally . Its four national services are Radiožurnál , Dvojka , Vltava and Plus . 13 regional stations are also provided . Czech Radio celebrated 90 years of existence in 2013 .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Czech_Radio", "rank": 51, "score": 69081 }, { "content": "Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Instrumental_temperature_record", "rank": 52, "score": 68478 }, { "content": "Title: Station model Content: In meteorology , station models are symbolic illustrations showing the weather occurring at a given reporting station . Meteorologists created the station model to fit a number of weather elements into a small space on weather maps . This allows map users to analyze patterns in atmospheric pressure , temperature , wind speed & direction , cloud cover , precipitation , and other parameters . The most common station plots depict surface weather observations although upper air plots at various mandatory levels are also frequently depicted . Station model plots use an internationally accepted coding convention that has changed little since August 1 , 1941 . Elements in the plot show the key weather elements , including temperature , dew point , wind , cloud cover , air pressure , pressure tendency , and precipitation .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Station_model", "rank": 53, "score": 68436 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica Schmidt telescopes Content: The Antarctica Schmidt Telescopes project ( also known as Antarctic Survey Telescopes ( AST3 ) ) is a joint project between Texas A&M University ( TAMU ) and the Beijing Astronomical Observatory to build three small ( 50cm aperture ) wide-field telescopes at the Antarctic Kunlun Station near Dome A in Antarctica ; Lifan Wang at TAMU is the main instigator of the project . These telescopes will take advantage of the low background and the long Antarctic nights to provide high-accuracy photometric time series for finding extrasolar planets , and to observe wide fields in the infra-red to look for new supernovae . The first of three Antarctic Survey Telescopes AST3-1 , was installed at the Antarctic Kunlun Station in April 2012 . 2nd and 3rd telescopes will be installed in 2013 and 2014 An update was published indicating that the first telescope operated for only a few weeks in 2012 before a power failure , and was repaired in 2013 , but the CCD controller proceeded to fail after further data collection . The AST3-2 unit has seen several design revisions to improve reliability in the harsh Antarctic environment , and will be tested over the 2013-2014 winter in Mohe , China before being sent to the field .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Antarctica_Schmidt_telescopes", "rank": 54, "score": 68421 }, { "content": "Title: Hadibu Content: Hadibu , formerly known as Tamrida , is a coastal town in northern Socotra ( Yemen ) , not far from the mount Jabal al-Jahir . It is the largest town of the small archipelago , with a population of 8,545 at the 2004 census . Hadibu is also the capital of the larger eastern district of Socotra 's two administrative districts , Hidaybū . For the inhabitants of the town , animal husbandry is the main source of income . Category : Socotra Governorate Category : Populated places in Socotra Category : Populated coastal places in Yemen", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Hadibu", "rank": 55, "score": 68181 }, { "content": "Title: CRI Nairobi 91.9 FM Content: CRI 91.9 FM is a radio station in Nairobi , Kenya . It is part of China Radio International . It broadcasts in English , Swahili and Mandarin . It launched on February 27 , 2006 .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "CRI_Nairobi_91.9_FM", "rank": 56, "score": 68180 }, { "content": "Title: CIAU-FM Content: CIAU-FM is a french language community radio station that operates at 103.1 FM in Radisson , Quebec , Canada . Owned by Radio communautaire de Radisson , the station received CRTC approval in 1997 .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "CIAU-FM", "rank": 57, "score": 68174 }, { "content": "Title: Ōkaribe Station Content: is a railway station on the Hidaka Main Line in Niikappu , Hokkaido , Japan , operated by the Hokkaido Railway Company ( JR Hokkaido ) . Services on the 116 km section of the line between and have been suspended indefinitely since January 2015 due to storm damage .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Ōkaribe_Station", "rank": 58, "score": 68061 }, { "content": "Title: Redu Station Content: Redu Station is an ESTRACK radio antenna station for communication with spacecraft . The station is located about one kilometre away from the village of Redu , Belgium . The ground terminals provide tracking capabilities in C band , L-band , S-band , Ku band , and Ka band as well as provide in-orbit tests of telecommunication satellites .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Redu_Station", "rank": 59, "score": 68018 }, { "content": "Title: ČRo Jazz Content: ČRo Jazz is a digital public radio station owned by Český rozhlas , and is dedicated mainly to Jazz music .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "ČRo_Jazz", "rank": 60, "score": 67865 }, { "content": "Title: Cryogenic Rare Event Search with Superconducting Thermometers Content: The Cryogenic Rare Event Search with Superconducting Thermometers ( CRESST ) is a collaboration of European experimental particle physics groups involved in the construction of cryogenic detectors for direct dark matter searches . The participating institutes are the Max Planck Institute for Physics ( Munich ) , Technische Universität München , Universität Tübingen , University of Oxford ( Great Britain ) and the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare ( INFN , Italy ) . The CRESST collaboration currently runs an array of cryogenic detectors in the underground laboratory of the Gran Sasso National Laboratory . The modular detectors used by CRESST facilitate discrimination of background radiation events by the simultaneous measurement of phonon and photon signals from scintillating calcium tungstate crystals . By cooling the detectors to temperatures of a few millikelvin , the excellent discrimination and energy resolution of the detectors allows identification of rare particle events . CRESST-I took data in 2000 using sapphire detectors with tungsten thermometers . CRESST-II uses CaWO4 crystal scintillating calorimeters . It was prototyped in 2004 and had a 47.9 kg-day commissioning run in 2007 and operated 2009 to 2011 . Phase 2 has a new CaWO4 crystal with better radiopurity , improved detectors , and significantly reduced background . It began July 2013 , to explore excess signals in the prior run . CRESST-I first detected the alpha decay of tungsten . CRESST-II phase 1 full results were published in 2012 . New phase 2 results have been presented on July 2014 with a limit on spin-independent WIMP-nucleon scattering for WIMP masses below 3 GeV/c2 . In 2015 the CRESST detectors were upgraded by a sensitivity factor of 100 allowing dark matter particles with a mass around that of a proton to be detected . The EURECA experiment is a planned successor to CRESST , ultimately aiming to run an array of detectors with a total mass of around 1 tonne .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Cryogenic_Rare_Event_Search_with_Superconducting_Thermometers", "rank": 61, "score": 67791 }, { "content": "Title: Club de Radioexperimentadores de Nicaragua Content: The Club de Radioexperimentadores de Nicaragua ( CREN ) ( n English , Nicaraguan Radio Experimenters Club ) is a national non-profit organization for amateur radio enthusiasts in Nicaragua . Key membership benefits of the CREN include a QSL bureau for those amateur radio operators in regular communications with other amateur radio operators in foreign countries , and a network to support amateur radio emergency communications . CREN represents the interests of Nicaraguan amateur radio operators before Nicaraguan and international regulatory authorities . CREN is the national member society representing Nicaragua in the International Amateur Radio Union .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Club_de_Radioexperimentadores_de_Nicaragua", "rank": 62, "score": 67621 }, { "content": "Title: Humppila railway station Content: Humppila railway station ( Finnish Humppilan rautatieasema ; Swedish Humppila järnvägsstation ) is located in the municipality of Humppila in the region of Tavastia Proper in Finland . The original station building on the track between Turku and Toijala was destroyed in a fire in 1973 after a failed attempt to rob a post office . Apparently the robbers were scared of something , and when they ran away , the accidentally left their welding flame on . Humppila was without a proper station building for nearly a decade , because the new building designed by Mauri Liedenpohja was only completed in 1983 . Before this , traffic control was handled from a cargo warehouse . The station is nowadays unmanned . The traffic control is handled remotely from the Tampere railway station . Ticket sales were discontinued in March 2000 . Passenger trains between Turku and Tampere still stop at the station . This is partly because the station is about halfway between the Turku Central railway station and the Toijala railway station , so trains having left at the same time meet at the station . Many trains do meet at Humppila regularly . Another reason why passenger traffic has been retained in Humppila is because inhabitants of Forssa and people visiting there have a practical train connection from Humppila . The distance is about 20 kilometres . There is regular bus traffic between Forssa and Humppila , and express buses between Helsinki and Pori also stop there . Forssa can also be reached by car via Finnish National Road 2 . The station building is currently owned by Humppila municipality , and is open on weekdays . There are no ticket sales at the station , not even a ticket vending machine . Humppila is a place where the past and the present meet at summer Sundays , because Humppila is a terminus of the Jokioinen Museum Railway .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Humppila_railway_station", "rank": 63, "score": 67548 }, { "content": "Title: CRN International Content: CRN International is a radio marketing and promotions company . Some of its promotions include two-minute vignettes , contests , personality endorsements , retail marketing , social media and digital integration . Since the company was founded in 1973 , its clients have included : Microsoft , Kraft , Chrysler , Johnson & Johnson , Hershey Foods , The Campbell Soup Company , Apple , The Navy , Unilever , Pepsico and Nextel among others . In 2009 , CRN received MediaWeek Magazine 's Award for the Media Plan of the Year for Local Television and Cable . Through the years it has won awards for its original use of media from a variety of organizations . CRN was included on the Inc Magazine list of 500 fastest growing private companies in 1985 and 1986 . Its founder Barry Berman and his partner S. Richard Kalt were inducted into The Connecticut Business Hall Of Fame in the Class of 2006 . The roots of CRN International came from a company Berman founded , `` Connecticut Radio Network , '' which provided news , sports , weather and special programming for 55 Connecticut radio stations . That company produced an independent ski report , New England Ski Watch for only Connecticut stations . Its sponsor , Maxwell House Coffee , funded CRN 's expansion to broadcast local ski reports around the country . By 1981 , CRN International was producing programming and promotions in 45 states . By 2000 CRN was creating campaigns that were broadcast in all 50 states , plus Canada and Europe . CRN International is headquartered in Hamden , Connecticut and has offices in New York City , Detroit , Los Angeles , Seattle , Minnesota , and Hershey .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "CRN_International", "rank": 64, "score": 67451 }, { "content": "Title: Community Radio Network (New Zealand) Content: The Community Radio Network ( CRN ) was a network of radio stations based in provincial centres across New Zealand . The network was operated by The Radio Network ( TRN ) . Established in June 1998 , each radio station in the network retained its local name and broadcast a live breakfast show from the centre in which it was based and then during the day and overnight would pick up the network feed broadcast from Taupo . ( Programme would be fed from Huka Falls Road Taupo to The Radio Network 's Auckland Street premises for upload to the Optus Satellite where it was then received in the various markets ) . The network on-air line up originally included : Mark Bramley ( 10a - 2p ) Aaron Gillions ( 2p - 7p ) Peter Gosney ( 7p - 12a ) In late 1998 , the lineup would change to : Mark Bramley ( 10a - 2p ) Scott Armstrong ( 2p - 7p ) ( Brian Gentil in 2000 ) Peter Gosney ( 7p - 12a ) ( Corey K and Duncan Allen in 2000 ) Other voices heard on the network included Geoff Bargas , Rebecca Ali , Nadine Christiansen , Sarah McMullan , Chris Auer , Marke Dickson and Paul Frost . On 1 December 2000 , CRN stations joined the Classic Hits programme fed from Cook Street Auckland , also operated by TRN . Where the station had both an FM and AM frequency the FM frequency was usually used to broadcast a localised version of Classic Hits while the AM frequency was used to broadcast Newstalk ZB . CRN as a division of TRN remained , providing creative services , writing and producing commercials for each of the stations . CRN was later renamed to ` The Provincial Group ' .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Community_Radio_Network_(New_Zealand)", "rank": 65, "score": 67380 }, { "content": "Title: Flight test instrumentation Content: Flight test instrumentation ( FTI ) is monitoring and recording equipment fitted to aircraft during flight test . It is mainly used on experimental aircraft , prototype aircraft and development aircraft - both military and civil , and can monitor various parameters from the temperatures of specific components to the speed of the engines . This may be displayed in the cockpit or cabin to allow the aircrew to monitor the aircraft in flight , and is usually recorded to allow the data to be analysed later . FTI typically monitors between 10 and 120000 parameters - for example temperatures inside the cargo and pressure distribution along the wing . FTI sources could be temperature sensors , pressure probes , voltages , current transducers , potentiometers , strain gauges , aircraft data buses or cameras . These sensors may be digitalized and acquired by the data acquisition system . A cockpit audio recording may also be included . A telemetry transmitter may be added to the FTI to allow real-time monitoring of the tests from a ground-station . A core component of a data acquisition system are the data acquisition units ( DAU ) . These are electronic boxes that interface to FTI sources and are typically designed to be rugged and reliable . The current trend is to make these units as small as possible and move them closer to the sensors . This leads to many challenges for the designers of a data acquisition chassis such as how to cope with inhospitably environments and maintain functionality with smaller designs . For the end user it means shorter wiring , better accuracy and easier installation and maintenance .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Flight_test_instrumentation", "rank": 66, "score": 67333 }, { "content": "Title: Radio KLF Content: Radio KLF was a radio station based in Helsinki , broadcasting on FM on the frequencies 100.0 MHz ( Helsinki ) , 101.9 MHz ( Turku ) , 101.6 MHz ( Tampere ) and 98.1 MHz Oulu . It mainly played dance music .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Radio_KLF", "rank": 67, "score": 66920 }, { "content": "Title: China Radio International Content: China Radio International ( CRI ) is the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) state-owned international radio broadcaster , currently headquartered in Babaoshan , a subdistrict of Beijing . Formerly Radio Beijing , and originally Radio Peking , it was founded on December 3 , 1941 . CRI also publishes online dailies called Beijing News and Beijing International . CRI adopts the PRC Government 's stance on political issues such as the Political status of Taiwan and the status of the Dalai Lama . CRI claims that it `` endeavours to promote favourable relations between the PRC and the world '' . As with other nations ' external broadcasters such as Voice of America , BBC World Service and Radio Australia , CRI claims to `` play a significant role in the PRC 's soft power strategy '' and `` going out '' police , aiming to expand the influence of Chinese culture and media in a global stage . And it is trying to employ new media to compete with other international media . Unlike those broadcasters , CRI 's control via indirect majority ownership or financial support of radio stations in various nations is not published . It has 32 overseas correspondent bureaus and 6 main regional bureaus , and broadcasts over 2700 hours of programming each day ( 24 hours in English ) , including news , current affairs , and features on politics , the economy , culture , science and technology . Its overseas reporting involves 65 languages . More than 50 shortwave transmitters are used to cover most of the world ; it is broadcast via the internet and numerous satellites ; and its programs are rebroadcast by many local FM and AM radio stations worldwide .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "China_Radio_International", "rank": 68, "score": 66879 }, { "content": "Title: CRU Group Content: CRU Group is a privately owned business intelligence company . The Group focuses on the global mining , metals and fertilizers markets . It provides consultancy , business analysis , news , data and conferences services . The company 's main aim is to help its clients make profitable business decisions .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "CRU_Group", "rank": 69, "score": 66854 }, { "content": "Title: Radio in China Content: There are over 3,000 radio stations in China . The Central People 's Broadcasting Station , the nation 's official radio station , has eight channels , and broadcasts for a total of over 200 hours per day via satellite . Every province , autonomous region and municipality has local broadcasting stations . China Radio International ( CRI ) , the only national overseas broadcasting station , is beamed to all parts of the world in 38 foreign languages , standard Chinese and four Chinese dialects , and broadcasts for a total of over 300 hours every day . It offers various special programs of news , current affairs , comment , entertainment , politics , economy , culture , technology and so on . Currently , CRI ranks third in overseas broadcasting time and languages in the world .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Radio_in_China", "rank": 70, "score": 66793 }, { "content": "Title: CRI Vientiane Content: CRI Vientiane at 93.0 FM is a radio station in Vientiane , Laos . It is part of China Radio International . It broadcasts primarily in English . According to China Radio International , this is the third overseas radio station launch after CRI Nairobi Kenya 91.9 FM .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "CRI_Vientiane", "rank": 71, "score": 66666 }, { "content": "Title: Criș Collector Canal Content: The Criș Collector Canal ( Canalul Colector Criș ) is the main canal of the drainage system of the area between the Crișul Repede River and the Crișul Negru River in Bihor County , western Romania . The lower reach of the canal is also known as Tămașda Collector Canal ( Canalul Corector Tămașda ) . The canal starts from the Crișul Repede near the village of Tărian , 10 km west of Oradea , and flows into the Crișul Negru upstream of the village of Tămașda . The canal intercepts the drainage canals and the rivers flowing westward between the two main rivers , including Gepiu , Veljul Mare and Veljul Negreştilor . It passes through the villages Tărian , Toboliu , Roit , Sânnicolau Român , Cefa , Homorog , Arpășel , Ghiorac , Boiu and Tămașda .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Criș_Collector_Canal", "rank": 72, "score": 66593 }, { "content": "Title: Reichenau-Tamins (Rhaetian Railway station) Content: Reichenau-Tamins is a railway station serving the communities of Reichenau and Tamins in Switzerland . It is an important station for connections between the Chur-Thusis line and the Chur-Disentis line as it is where the two lines diverge . From this station , there are trains to Chur ( of which RE1 and RE3 operate direct throughout most of the day ) , Disentis , Scuol , St. Moritz and Thusis . At Chur , there are also mainline connecting services to Zurich .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Reichenau-Tamins_(Rhaetian_Railway_station)", "rank": 73, "score": 66481 }, { "content": "Title: Seppu Station Content: is a railway station on the Hidaka Main Line in Niikappu , Hokkaido , Japan , operated by the Hokkaido Railway Company ( JR Hokkaido ) . Services on the 116 km section of the line between and have been suspended indefinitely since January 2015 due to storm damage .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Seppu_Station", "rank": 74, "score": 66402 }, { "content": "Title: Dipterocarpus crinitus Content: Dipterocarpus crinitus ( Indonesian : tampurau ) is a species of plant in the Dipterocarpaceae family . The species is named derived from Latin ( crinitus = having tufts of long weak hair ) and refers to golden-brown bristle-like hairs that cover the plant parts . It is an emergent tree , up to 60 m tall , in mixed dipterocarp forest on sandy clay soils . It is a medium hardwood sold under the trade names of Keruing . It is found in Peninsular Thailand , Sumatra , Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Dipterocarpus_crinitus", "rank": 75, "score": 66362 }, { "content": "Title: Tamagawa-Jōsui Station Content: is a railway station in Tachikawa , Tokyo , Japan , operated by the private railway operator Seibu Railway , and a monorail station operated by the Tokyo Tama Intercity Monorail in Higashiyamato , Tokyo , Japan . The two stations are adjacent to , and at right angles to one another , with the border between the two cities passing in between the stations . The names of the stations are identical in Japanese , but are transliterated slightly different in romaji such that the Seibu Station is Tamagawa-Jōsui Station , whereas the Tokyo Tama Intercity Monorail is Tamagawajosui Station ( i.e. without the hypen or diacritic mark ) .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Tamagawa-Jōsui_Station", "rank": 76, "score": 66312 }, { "content": "Title: Criggion Radio Station Content: Criggion Radio Station was a transmitter site latterly operated by BT on behalf of the UK Ministry of Defence . It was located near the village of Criggion in the parish of Bausley with Criggion , which lies in the county of Powys , Wales . It was established in World War II as a back-up unit for Rugby Radio Station and took over the latter 's traffic for a short period in 1943 following a fire at Rugby . Operating on 19.6 kHz with the callsign GBZ , the station was used until its shutdown on 1 April 2003 for sending messages to submarines . This task ( and that of Rugby ) is now carried out by the Anthorn radio station . Criggion 's VLF antenna was hung from three free-standing steel lattice towers at 182.9 m tall , three guyed masts at 213.4 m tall and a rock anchor . The towers and masts were demolished in August 2003 but , although there is now less obvious visible evidence that a large radio station existed on the site , the derelict main transmitting building still survived in 2011 and the foundation sites of the former masts can be still be located on satellite and aerial photographs . the remaining parts of the station were reported to be in a state of disrepair .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Criggion_Radio_Station", "rank": 77, "score": 66302 }, { "content": "Title: Cru Content: Cru or CRU may refer to : Amsterdam Crusaders , an American football team in the Netherlands Cru ( Christian organization ) The Crusader Union of Australia or CRU Cru ( wine ) , term for a vineyard Cru ( album ) , an album by Seu Jorge Cru ( group ) , an American hip hop group Climatic Research Unit , University of East Anglia , UK Civil Resettlement Unit , a place for repatriated World War II British POWs CRU Group , a business intelligence company CRU ( EP ) , an EP by Gnarwolves", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Cru", "rank": 78, "score": 66195 }, { "content": "Title: CRU (EP) Content: CRU is a six track EP by British punk rock band Gnarwolves released on 16 July 2012 through BSM Recordings and Tangled Talk Records . All six tracks would later appear on the compilation album Chronicles of Gnarnia . All the song titles on this EP are references to the book Brave New World .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "CRU_(EP)", "rank": 79, "score": 66194 }, { "content": "Title: Stations of the Crass Content: Stations of the Crass is the second album by Crass , released in 1979 . The record , originally released as a double 12 '' , includes live tracks from a gig recorded at the Pied Bull pub in Islington , London , on August 7 , 1979 . The first three sides contain the studio tracks and play at 45 rpm , while the final side comprises the live material and plays at 33 rpm . The album 's title is not only a pun on the Catholic rite of the Stations of the Cross ( such jibes against the religious establishment were typical of Crass ) , but is also a reference to the graffiti campaign that the band had been conducting around London 's underground railway system , the cover artwork depicting a wall at Bond Street tube station that had allegedly been ` decorated ' by them . Although the album met mixed critical reception at first , it managed to sell at least 20,000 copies within two weeks . A remastered edition of the album , complete with new artwork by Gee Vaucher designed specifically for the small size of a CD case , was due to be released in March 2009 , but was delayed because of contentions with former members . The remastered ` Crassical Collection ' version was eventually released in October 2010 , including a 64-page booklet of liner notes by Steve Ignorant and Penny Rimbaud , as well as bonus tracks in the form of the band 's 1979 John Peel Session . The live tracks recorded at the Pied Bull are not included on the remastered edition .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Stations_of_the_Crass", "rank": 80, "score": 66191 }, { "content": "Title: Ravenshaw Radio Content: Ravenshaw Radio is the community radio station ( CRS ) of Ravenshaw University , Cuttack , Odisha , India . It is the first campus community radio station in Odisha , and was launched on April 14 , 2011 , the Oriya New Year . It was opened by the Vice-Chancellor of Ravenshaw University , Sri Devdas Chhotray . Programs on Ravenshaw Radio are broadcast through a low-power 50-watt transmitter , and can be heard on 90.4 MHz within an 8 - 10 km radius . The station caters primarily to the university 's students .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Ravenshaw_Radio", "rank": 81, "score": 66165 }, { "content": "Title: CRI Darhan Content: CRI Darhan at 103.7 FM is a radio station in Darhan , Mongolia . It is part of China Radio International . It broadcasts primarily in English . According to China Radio International , this is the second overseas radio station launch after CRI Nairobi Kenya 91.9 FM .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "CRI_Darhan", "rank": 82, "score": 66050 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Satellite_temperature_measurements", "rank": 83, "score": 66036 }, { "content": "Title: Douglas-Daly Experiment Station Content: The Douglas-Daly Experiment Station was an extensive research site of the Northern Territory Administration ( NTA ) of the Government of Australia and , after statehood , of the Northern Territory Government . It formed part of a string of similar research sites in northern Australia . Located at the junction of the Douglas and Daly Rivers and covering an area of approximately 100 km ² , the site spanned three major soil types of the Top End of the Northern Territory - Blain , Tippera and Florina soil types . The climate is hot-humid tropical with a distinct six-month dry season and an annual rainfall of around 1 m . It was used mainly for pasture , forage , and grazing experiments with its main research activity beginning in the 1960s and continuing until the break-up of the site into development farms in the 1980s . Research from the site is mainly documented in scientific journal papers and annals of the NTA . Among the researchers on the site have been Bruce Franks , John Sturtz , John Austin and Lindsay Falvey , who were supported by the manager Heinz Mollman . The site was also used by CSIRO , especially for the rock-phosphate research of Ray Swaby .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Douglas-Daly_Experiment_Station", "rank": 84, "score": 65984 }, { "content": "Title: Hämeenkatu Content: This article is about Hämeenkatu in Tampere . There are other Hämeenkatu in Finland . Hämeenkatu is the main street of Tampere , Finland . The boulevard is roughly a kilometre long , and 28.5 m wide ( driveway and sidewalk ) at its widest point . Hämeenkatu is a boulevard , which begins from the east at the Tampere railway station , continues westward to the Hämeenpuisto park , and is covered with cobble stones for its entire length . The street also contains the Hämeensilta bridge crossing the Tammerkoski rapids with gorgeous views on both sides . The bridge that Hämeenkatu runs across Tammerkoski is decorated with four human statues , one at each corner of the bridge . Of these statues , three represent men and one represents a woman . Eastwards from the railway station , Hämeenkatu is followed by the 700 m-long Itsenäisyydenkatu , which then diverges into Sammonkatu and Teiskontie . In the west , Hämeenkatu continues first as Pirkankatu and then as Pispalan valtatie .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Hämeenkatu", "rank": 85, "score": 65888 }, { "content": "Title: Hideya Station Content: is a railway station in Aga , Higashikanbara District , Niigata Prefecture , Japan , operated by East Japan Railway Company ( JR East ) .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Hideya_Station", "rank": 86, "score": 65816 }, { "content": "Title: CRI Malakula Content: CRI Malakula at 106 FM is a radio station in Malakula , Vanuatu . It is part of China Radio International . It broadcasts primarily in English .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "CRI_Malakula", "rank": 87, "score": 65713 }, { "content": "Title: CRI Vila and Santo Content: CRI Vila and Santo at 102 FM is a radio station in Vila , Solomon Islands and Santo , Vanuatu . It is part of China Radio International . It broadcasts primarily in English .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "CRI_Vila_and_Santo", "rank": 88, "score": 65629 }, { "content": "Title: Station code Content: A station code is an abbreviation used on railways for railway stations . The codes are most used internally in the business , but can be seen at railway traffic signs and in some time tables . For different station codes , see List of Amtrak station codes , United States and Canada List of Deutsche Bahn station abbreviations , Germany List of MTR station codes , Hong Kong , China UK railway stations , Britain . Three-letter alpha codes ( formerly called CRS codes - Computer Reservation System ) are issued by National Rail which is responsible for railways in Great Britain . Station codes are not used by Northern Ireland Railways for stations in Northern Ireland . Indian railway stations , India . Lists of Tokyo Metro and Toei Subway stations , Tokyo , Japan List of Osaka Municipal Subway stations , Osaka , Osaka Prefecture , Japan", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Station_code", "rank": 89, "score": 65522 }, { "content": "Title: Cameroon Radio Television Content: Cameroon Radio Television ( CRTV ) is a major radio and television broadcasting company in Cameroon . CRTV is a government-controlled radio and television service in Cameroon . It initially started as Cameroon Television ( CTV ) and later merged with the radio service to become known as CRTV . It covers all the ten regions of Cameroon rendering it the indomitable broadcaster amongst a number of private television stations in the country . Its coverage of events is generally viewed as pro-government . On 29 June 2016 , Charles Ndongo was named new General Manager of CRTV by a presidential decree . He replaces Ahmadou Valmouke at a time when the country is on the verge of switching to a digital Television Platform . Much of the coverage is done in French , although there is some English programming as well , given that the country is bilingual . CRTV programmes include home-produced documentaries , magazines , news analysis , and imported series from Asia and Brazil .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Cameroon_Radio_Television", "rank": 90, "score": 65514 }, { "content": "Title: Automatic weather station Content: An automatic weather station ( AWS ) is an automated version of the traditional weather station , either to save human labour or to enable measurements from remote areas . An AWS will typically consist of a weather-proof enclosure containing the data logger , rechargeable battery , telemetry ( optional ) and the meteorological sensors with an attached solar panel or wind turbine and mounted upon a mast . The specific configuration may vary due to the purpose of the system . The system may report in near real time via the Argos System and the Global Telecommunications System , or save the data for later recovery . In the past , automatic weather stations were often placed where electricity and communication lines were available . Nowadays , the solar panel , wind turbine and mobile phone technology have made it possible to have wireless stations that are not connected to the electrical grid or hardline telecommunications network .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Automatic_weather_station", "rank": 91, "score": 65511 }, { "content": "Title: Cru (Christian organization) Content: Cru ( known as Campus Crusade for Christ until 2011 ) is an evangelical non-denominational Christian ministry for university and college students . It was founded in 1951 at the University of California , Los Angeles by Bill Bright and Vonette Zachary Bright . Since then , Cru has expanded its focus to include adult professionals , athletes , and high school students . In 2011 Cru had 25,000 missionaries in 191 countries . Cru relocated its world headquarters from Arrowhead Springs , San Bernardino , California to Orlando , Florida in 1991 . The current president of the organization is Steve Douglass . In 2011 , Campus Crusade for Christ in the United States changed its name to Cru , to avoid the negative connotation of `` crusade '' from the historical Crusades ( particularly to Muslim communities ) , and to reflect the fact that much of the organization 's work was no longer limited to college campuses .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Cru_(Christian_organization)", "rank": 92, "score": 65419 }, { "content": "Title: City Rail Link Content: The City Rail Link ( CRL ) is a rail project in Auckland , New Zealand . The project consists of an electrified , double-track rail tunnel underneath Auckland 's city centre , running for approximately 3.5 km between Britomart Transport Centre and the Western Line , connecting just to the west of Mount Eden Railway Station . Two underground stations will be provided in Auckland 's CBD : Aotea Station ( located near Aotea Square ) and Karangahape Station ( located in the vicinity of Karangahape Road ) . Due to the significant costs and difficulties associated with a project of this size , its planning and funding has been highly controversial . The current project is an adapted version of previous proposals to improve rail access to Auckland 's city centre since the 1920s . The CRL was highlighted as the number one transport project in the 2012 Auckland Spatial Plan and has enjoyed strong public support in a number of polls . In June 2013 the central government announced its support for the project , albeit with a later construction commencement date of 2020 , compared to Auckland Council 's preferred start date of 2016 . The Prime Minister announced in January 2016 that central government funding for main works had been confirmed , allowing Auckland Council to start construction of the main works from 2018 , with central funds guaranteed to flow from 2020 .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "City_Rail_Link", "rank": 93, "score": 65415 }, { "content": "Title: District heating substation Content: thumb | right | A district heating substation in a residential neighborhood with a thermal capacity of 300 kW . Two components of the heat meter are visible : the metering electronics unit on the right ( white/blue box ) , and the ultrasonic flow meter in the center ( bronze tube ) . A district heating substation is a component in a district heating system that connects the main network to a building 's own heating system . The station normally has one , or more of the following parts : Heat exchanger - to split primary and secondary side of the system Control valve - to regulate the flow through the heat exchanger Differential pressure controller - to balance the network and improve working conditions of control valve Strainer - to remove particles that could block heat exchanger or control valve Shut off valve - to stop the flow on primary side in case of service or emergency Heat meter - to measure energy consumption and allocate costs Temperature controller - to control temperature on secondary side by regulating the flow on primary side Temperature sensor - to sense flow and return temperatures required for temperature control In addition , a district heating substation may also include : Pump Safety valve Manometer Non-return valve", "qid": "2901", "docid": "District_heating_substation", "rank": 94, "score": 65404 }, { "content": "Title: Craiova II Power Station Content: The Craiova II Power Station is a large thermal power plant located in Craiova , having 2 generation groups of 150 MW each having a total electricity generation capacity of 300 MW . There are plans to add another generating group of 150 MW at Craiova II Power Station that will result a total power generating capacity of 450 MWh at a cost of US$ 225 million .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Craiova_II_Power_Station", "rank": 95, "score": 65250 }, { "content": "Title: Tama Station Content: is a railway station in Fuchū , Tokyo , Japan , operated by the private railway operator Seibu Railway .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Tama_Station", "rank": 96, "score": 65191 }, { "content": "Title: Cru (album) Content: Cru is a 2004 album by Seu Jorge first released in France on September 21 , 2004 by parisian independent label Fla-Flu ( Favela Chic ) with the record company Naïve . This was his second album to be released outside his native Brazil , the first being Carolina . Many of the songs on the album are covers such as `` Chatterton '' , written by Serge Gainsbourg and `` Do n't '' by Leiber & Stoller . The album also includes political and social commentary in songs like `` Mania de Peitão '' and `` Eu Sou Favela '' . The song Tive Razão was featured in FIFA 07 by EA Sports .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Cru_(album)", "rank": 97, "score": 65180 }, { "content": "Title: Toijala railway station Content: Toijala railway station is located in the Toijala district of the town of Akaa , Finland . The station is located at a crossing point of three different railway tracks : from Riihimäki to Tampere , from Turku to Toijala , and from Toijala to Valkeakoski . Originally , all three tracks served both personnel and cargo traffic , but personnel traffic to Valkeakoski was discontinued in 1956 . Nowadays , all passenger trains between Helsinki and Tampere , except Pendolino trains , and all trains from Turku to Tampere and on towards Oulu and Pieksämäki stop at Toijala . Toijala also serves InterCity and InterCity ² trains and local trains . Category : Akaa Category : Railway stations in Pirkanmaa", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Toijala_railway_station", "rank": 98, "score": 64992 }, { "content": "Title: Monthly Climatic Data for the World Content: Monthly Climatic Data for the World ( MCDW ) is a monthly publication of the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) division of the National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the United States . According to the website , each monthly issue `` contains monthly mean temperature , pressure , precipitation , vapor pressure , and sunshine for approximately 2,000 surface data collection stations worldwide and monthly mean upper air temperatures , dew point depressions , and wind velocities for approximately 500 observing sites . This is the final quality controlled copy and generally has a 4 - 6 month time lag . '' The issues are available for download in portable document format .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "Monthly_Climatic_Data_for_the_World", "rank": 99, "score": 64989 }, { "content": "Title: KVOZ Content: KVOZ , branded as `` Radio Cristiana '' , is a Spanish-language Christian talk format AM radio station that serves the Laredo , Texas , United States and Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas , Mexico border area . Its transmitter is located in Del Mar Hills , Texas .", "qid": "2901", "docid": "KVOZ", "rank": 100, "score": 64986 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit Content: Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit featured in press discussions of disputes over access to data from instrumental temperature records , particularly during the Climatic Research Unit email controversy which began in November 2009 . The UK Freedom of Information Act ( FOIA ) came into effect in 2005 , and FOI requests were made to the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) for the raw data from weather stations used in developing instrumental temperature record datasets , for copies of agreements under which the raw data was obtained from meteorology institutions , and also for email correspondence relating to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report . In many cases the raw data which CRU had obtained from National Meteorological Organisations was subject to restrictions on redistribution : on 12 August 2009 CRU announced that they were seeking permission to waive these restrictions , and on 24 November 2009 the university stated that over 95 % of the CRU climate data set had already been available for several years , with the remainder to be released when permissions were obtained . In a decision announced on 27 July 2011 the Information Commissioner 's Office ( ICO ) required release of raw data even though permissions had not been obtained or in one instance had been refused , and on 27 July 2011 CRU announced release of the raw instrumental data not already in the public domain , with the exception of Poland which was outside the area covered by the FOIA request . A 2008 FOI request by David Holland for emails discussing work on the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report was refused by the university . In November 2009 he alleged that CRU emails posted online discussed deleting the emails he had requested : in January 2010 the Deputy Information Commissioner told a journalist that this indicated an offence under section 77 of the FOIA , but prosecution was time-barred by statute of limitations . Newspapers misrepresented this as a decision in relation to raw data , and the issue was discussed by the House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee inquiry , which found there had been a lack of openness . The ICO decision published on 7 July 2010 stated that this potential offence had not been investigated as it was time-barred . As Holland was content not to proceed with his complaint against the university , no further action was needed , but the ICO would `` consider whether further action is appropriate to secure future compliance . '' In September 2011 the ICO issued new guidance to universities . This described exceptions and exemptions to protect research , including allowance for internal exchange of views between academics and researchers free from external scrutiny , as well as commending actively disclosing information when it is in the public interest .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Freedom_of_Information_requests_to_the_Climatic_Research_Unit", "rank": 1, "score": 132525 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit Content: The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change . With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit", "rank": 2, "score": 115009 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents", "rank": 3, "score": 104617 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy Content: The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy", "rank": 4, "score": 100666 }, { "content": "Title: HadCRUT Content: HadCRUT is the dataset of monthly instrumental temperature records formed by combining the sea surface temperature records compiled by the Hadley Centre of the UK Met Office and the land surface air temperature records compiled by the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) of the University of East Anglia . The data is provided on a grid of boxes covering the globe , with values provided for only those boxes containing temperature observations in a particular month and year . Interpolation is not applied to infill missing values . The first version of HadCRUT initially spanned the period 1881 -- 1993 , and this was later extended to begin in 1850 and to be regularly updated to the current year/month in near real-time .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "HadCRUT", "rank": 5, "score": 98610 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 6, "score": 98116 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Global_temperature_record", "rank": 7, "score": 91956 }, { "content": "Title: Raw data Content: Raw data , also known as primary data , is data ( e.g. , numbers , instrument readings , figures , etc. ) collected from a source . If a scientist sets up a computerized thermometer which records the temperature of a chemical mixture in a test tube every minute , the list of temperature readings for every minute , as printed out on a spreadsheet or viewed on a computer screen is `` raw data '' . Raw data has not been subjected to processing , `` cleaning '' by researchers to remove outliers , obvious instrument reading errors or data entry errors , or any analysis ( e.g. , determining central tendency aspects such as the average or median result ) . As well , raw data has not been subject to any other manipulation by a software program or a human researcher , analyst or technician . It is also referred to as primary data . Raw data is a relative term ( see data ) , because even once raw data has been `` cleaned '' and processed by one team of researchers , another team may consider this processed data to be `` raw data '' for another stage of research . Raw data can be inputted to a computer program or used in manual procedures such as analyzing statistics from a survey . The term `` raw data '' can refer to the binary data on electronic storage devices , such as hard disk drives ( also referred to as `` low-level data '' ) .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Raw_data", "rank": 8, "score": 91403 }, { "content": "Title: UAH satellite temperature dataset Content: The UAH satellite temperature dataset , developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from satellite measurements of radiance . It was the first global temperature datasets developed from satellite information and has been used as a tool for research into surface and atmospheric temperature changes . The dataset is published by John Christy et al. and formerly jointly with Roy Spencer .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "UAH_satellite_temperature_dataset", "rank": 9, "score": 86867 }, { "content": "Title: CRESU experiment Content: The CRESU experiment ( -LSB- Cinétique de Réaction en Ecoulement Supersonique Uniforme , lit = Reaction Kinetics in Uniform Supersonic Flow -RSB- ) is an experiment investigating chemical reactions taking place at very low temperatures . The technique involves the expansion of a gas or mixture of gases through a de Laval nozzle from a high pressure reservoir into a vacuum chamber . As it expands , the nozzle collimates the gas into a uniform supersonic beam that is essentially collision free and has a temperature that , in the centre of mass frame , can be significantly below that of the reservoir gas . Each nozzle produces a characteristic temperature . This way , any temperature between room temperature and about 10K can be achieved . There are relatively few CRESU apparatuses in existence for the simple reason that the gas throughput and pumping requirements are huge , which makes them expensive to run . Two of the leading centres have been the University of Rennes ( France ) and the University of Birmingham ( UK ) . A more recent development has been a pulsed version of the CRESU , which requires far less gas and therefore smaller pumps . One might well ask why we should use such a complex method for producing low temperature gases when they could be produced much more easily using liquid helium . The answer is simple : most species have a negligible vapour pressure at such low temperatures and this means that they quickly condense on the sides of the apparatus . Essentially , the CRESU technique provides a `` wall-less flow tube , '' which allows the kinetics of gas phase reactions to be investigated at much lower temperatures than otherwise possible . Chemical kinetics experiments can then be carried out in a `` pump-probe '' fashion using a laser to initiate the reaction ( for example by preparing one of the reagents by photolysis of a precursor ) , followed by observation of that same species ( for example by laser-induced fluorescence ) after a known time delay . The fluorescence signal is captured by a photomultiplier a known distance downstream of the de Laval nozzle . The time delay can be varied up to the maximum corresponding to the flow time over that known distance . By studying how quickly the reagent species disappears in the presence of differing concentrations of a ( usually stable ) co-reagent species the reaction rate constant at the low temperature of the CRESU flow can be determined . Reactions studied by the CRESU technique typically have no significant activation energy barrier . In the case of neutral-neutral reactions ( i.e. , not involving any charged species , ions ) , these type of barrier-free reactions usually involve free radical species such as molecular oxygen ( O2 ) , the cyanide radical ( CN ) or the hydroxyl radical ( OH ) . The energetic driving force for these reactions is typically an attractive long range intermolecular potential . CRESU experiments have been used to show deviations from Arrhenius kinetics at low temperatures : as the temperature is reduced , the rate constant actually increases . They can explain why chemistry is so prevalent in the interstellar medium , where many different polyatomic species have been detected ( by radio astronomy ) , but where temperatures are so low that conventional wisdom might suggest that chemical reactions do not occur .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "CRESU_experiment", "rank": 10, "score": 86658 }, { "content": "Title: Phil Jones (climatologist) Content: Philip Douglas Jones ( born April 22 , 1952 ) retired from his positions as the Director of the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) and as a Professor in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) at the end of 2016 . Jones was replaced as CRU director by Tim Osborn and has taken up a position as a Professorial Fellow at the UEA from January 2017 . His research interests include instrumental climate change , palaeoclimatology , detection of climate change and the extension of riverflow records in the UK . He has also published papers on the temperature record of the past 1000 years . He is known for maintaining a time series of the instrumental temperature record . This work was featured prominently in both the 2001 and 2007 IPCC reports , where he was a contributing author to Chapter 12 , Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes , of the Third Assessment Report and a Coordinating Lead Author of Chapter 3 , Observations : Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change , of the AR4 .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Phil_Jones_(climatologist)", "rank": 11, "score": 86443 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy", "rank": 12, "score": 84864 }, { "content": "Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Carnian_Pluvial_Event", "rank": 13, "score": 80407 }, { "content": "Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Instrumental_temperature_record", "rank": 14, "score": 76459 }, { "content": "Title: Community Radiative Transfer Model Content: Community Radiative Transfer Model ( CRTM ) is a fast radiative transfer model for calculations of radiances for satellite infrared or microwave radiometers . Given an atmospheric profile of temperature , variable gas concentrations , cloud and surface properties CRTM calculates radiances and brightness temperatures . The only mandatory inputs in terms of variable gases are water vapor and ozone . The range of temperatures and water vapour concentrations over which the optical depth computations are valid depends on the training datasets which were used . CRTM contains forward , tangent linear , adjoint and K ( full Jacobian matrices ) versions of the model ; the latter three modules are used in inversion methods , including variational assimilation and satellite retrievals . One of several applications of CRTM are retrievals of brightness temperature and sea surface temperature from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer sensor .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Community_Radiative_Transfer_Model", "rank": 15, "score": 76447 }, { "content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Simon_Tett", "rank": 16, "score": 75765 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 17, "score": 75479 }, { "content": "Title: MSU temperature measurements Content: Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform . Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult . To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 : RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade . UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade . An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set . Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade . A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) . Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel . The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "MSU_temperature_measurements", "rank": 18, "score": 74994 }, { "content": "Title: Remote Sensing Systems Content: Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California . They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction . I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Remote_Sensing_Systems", "rank": 19, "score": 74105 }, { "content": "Title: Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program Content: The Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program ( GTSPP ) is a cooperative international project that seeks to develop and maintain a global ocean Temperature-Salinity resource with up-to-date and high quality data .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Global_Temperature-Salinity_Profile_Program", "rank": 20, "score": 74038 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "NOAA-6", "rank": 21, "score": 73526 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Rawalpindi Content: Rawalpindi features a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen : Cwa ) with long and hot summers , a monsoon and short , mild and wet winters . Its climate is classified as very similar to its twin city Islamabad , but the geographical location and extreme urbanization of Rawalpindi has led to weather and climatic conditions that are notably different from its twin . Rawalpindi 's weather has historically been known to change rather quickly due to its proximity to Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range . These mountains not only influence the weather of the city , but also provide great recreation during the hot months . Furthermore , Its warm comfortable mean annual temperature of 21.3 C attracts people to live here permanently from all over Pakistan . The average annual rainfall is abundant at 1249 mm , most of which falls in the monsoon season . However , frontal cloud bands also bring significant rainfall in the winter . In summers , June is the hottest with record maximum temperature at a blistering 48.3 C recorded on 13 June 1953 . On the other hand , January is the coldest month of the year when temperature can drop to a minimum -3.9 C in the winter recorded on 17 January 1967 . Throughout the year , Rawalpindi and Islamabad experience an average of about 90 thunderstorms , which is the highest frequency of thunderstorms in Punjab province of any plane station . In fact , most rainfall in the city is accompanied by a thunderstorm with peak activity experienced in August . Record rainfall was experienced in the year 2013 at a massive 1952 mm mostly due to an unusually wet monsoon season . On a typical day , the city hosts breezy afternoons ( 30 km/h + ) , but usually calm to light breeze ( Beaufort scale ) wind conditions are observed after midnight . The mean annual wind speed of Rawalpindi is roughly 10 km/h at 14 m height . Moreover , just a few kilometers southwest of Rawalpindi , the potential power generation has been identified by U.S. Aid to be between marginal to good ( 5.4 m/s to 7.4 m/s ) at 50 m height .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Climate_of_Rawalpindi", "rank": 22, "score": 73468 }, { "content": "Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "David_Parker_(climatologist)", "rank": 23, "score": 73234 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 24, "score": 73201 }, { "content": "Title: Ghrsst-pp Content: The Group for High Resolution SST ( GHRSST ) is a follow on activity form the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment ( GODAE ) high-resolution sea surface temperature pilot project ( GHRSST-PP ) provides a new generation of global high-resolution ( < 10 km ) SST data products to the operational oceanographic , meteorological , climate and general scientific community , in real time and delayed mode . See GHRSST for full details . Sea surface temperature ( SST ) measured from Earth Observation Satellites in considerable spatial detail and at high frequency , is increasingly required for use in the context of operational monitoring and forecasting of the ocean , for assimilation into coupled ocean-atmosphere model systems and for applications in short-term numerical weather prediction and longer term climate change detection . Currently there are many different SST data sets available derived from satellite systems . But , scientists and operational agencies alike are presented with a bewidering set of options in terms of SST product content , coverage , spatial resolution , timeliness , format and accuracy . The international GODAE steering committee realised that SST data products were not adequate for GODAE forecast systems and initiated the GODAE High Resolution SST Pilot Project ( GHRSST-PP ) . User Requirements were collected together to define the optimal SST data products that could be developed to suit the widest possible number of applications . In 2008 the GHRSST-PP Science Team agreed to close the Pilot Project as the GODAE project was completed . A follow on activity called the Group for High Resolution SST is now continuing the coordination of GHRSST activities .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Ghrsst-pp", "rank": 25, "score": 72961 }, { "content": "Title: Veena Rawat Content: Veena Rawat is an electrical engineer who specializes in telecommunications . In 2014 she was awarded the Officer of the Order of Canada ( OC ) by the Governor General of Canada , one of Canada 's highest civilian awards , for her life time achievements and contributions at the national and international levels to wireless communications . Between 2011-2013 , Rawat was Vice President and Ambassador to the International Telecommunications Union , for Blackberry , Advanced Technology Division , Canada . Until 2011 , she was the President of the Communications Research Centre ( CRC ) , an agency of Industry Canada that carries out research and development in communications technologies . In 2010 Rawat was a candidate for the position of Director , Radiocommunication Bureau , International Telecommunication Union ( ITU ) .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Veena_Rawat", "rank": 26, "score": 72696 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 27, "score": 72456 }, { "content": "Title: Monthly Climatic Data for the World Content: Monthly Climatic Data for the World ( MCDW ) is a monthly publication of the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) division of the National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the United States . According to the website , each monthly issue `` contains monthly mean temperature , pressure , precipitation , vapor pressure , and sunshine for approximately 2,000 surface data collection stations worldwide and monthly mean upper air temperatures , dew point depressions , and wind velocities for approximately 500 observing sites . This is the final quality controlled copy and generally has a 4 - 6 month time lag . '' The issues are available for download in portable document format .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Monthly_Climatic_Data_for_the_World", "rank": 28, "score": 72227 }, { "content": "Title: Nicolaas Kruik Content: Nicolaas Samuelszoon Kruik ( Nicolaus Samuelis Cruquius 2 December 1678 , Vlieland -- 5 February 1754 , Spaarndam ) , also known as Klaas Kruik and Nicolaes Krukius , was a Dutch land surveyor , cartographer , astronomer and weatherman . He is remembered most today for the Museum De Cruquius bearing his name . He was a perfectionist who liked to measure things and he calculated temperature measurements in Fahrenheit from 1706 to 1734 . His historical calculations are still used today by the KNMI , the Dutch meteorological institute . He not only measured weather changes in wind speed , rainfall , air pressure , temperature , and humidity , but also measured sea level . His method of visualizing planes of water level to illustrate contours of depth ( isobaths ) in his map of the Merwede was the first of its kind . He was an advocate of pumping out the Haarlemmermeer ( Haarlem lake ) , which was done a century after his death .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Nicolaas_Kruik", "rank": 29, "score": 72192 }, { "content": "Title: CRU Group Content: CRU Group is a privately owned business intelligence company . The Group focuses on the global mining , metals and fertilizers markets . It provides consultancy , business analysis , news , data and conferences services . The company 's main aim is to help its clients make profitable business decisions .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "CRU_Group", "rank": 30, "score": 72149 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 31, "score": 72102 }, { "content": "Title: The Raw and the Cooked Content: The Raw and the Cooked ( 1964 ) is the first volume from Mythologiques , a structural study of Amerindian mythology written by French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss . It was originally published in French as Le Cru et le Cuit . Although the book is part of a larger volume Lévi-Strauss writes that it may be appreciated on its own merits , he does not consider this first volume a beginning : `` since it would have developed along similar lines if it had had a different starting point '' . In the introduction , Lévi-Strauss writes of his confidence that `` certain categorical opposites drawn from everyday experience with the most basic sorts of things -- e.g. ` raw ' and ` cooked , ' ` fresh ' and ` rotten , ' ` moist ' and ` parched , ' and others -- can serve a people as conceptual tools for the formation of abstract notions and for combining these into propositions . '' Beginning with a Bororo myth , Lévi-Strauss analyses 187 myths , reconstructing sociocultural formations using binary oppositions based on sensory qualities . The work thus presents an adaption of Ferdinand de Saussure 's theories of structural linguistics applied to a different field .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "The_Raw_and_the_Cooked", "rank": 32, "score": 71796 }, { "content": "Title: CRU (EP) Content: CRU is a six track EP by British punk rock band Gnarwolves released on 16 July 2012 through BSM Recordings and Tangled Talk Records . All six tracks would later appear on the compilation album Chronicles of Gnarnia . All the song titles on this EP are references to the book Brave New World .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "CRU_(EP)", "rank": 33, "score": 71530 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Turkey", "rank": 34, "score": 71458 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 35, "score": 71022 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 36, "score": 70578 }, { "content": "Title: Remote Automated Weather Station Content: The Remote Automatic Weather Stations ( RAWS ) system is a network of automated weather stations run by the U.S. Forest Service ( USFS ) and Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) and monitored by the National Interagency Fire Center ( NIFC ) , mainly to observe potential wildfire conditions . Unlike the automated airport weather stations which are located at significant airports , RAWS stations are often located in remote areas , particularly in national forests . Because of this , they usually are not connected to the electrical grid , but rather have their own solar panels , and a battery to store power for overnight reporting . Some instead run on a generator . In both cases , data important to operating the station itself , such as battery voltage or fuel level , is often included in the hourly reports . Also because of the remote locations , most communicate with a modem via telephone , or via a VSAT connection to a GOES satellite . In this regard , they are similar to mesonets and may be mesonets if the distance between stations ( spatial resolution ) is sufficiently dense . They often lack the consistently high-quality data needed for use in numerical weather prediction and climatology , however . Road Weather Information System ( RWIS ) may likewise be self-powered and located in remote areas .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Remote_Automated_Weather_Station", "rank": 37, "score": 70535 }, { "content": "Title: AATSR Content: The Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer ( AATSR ) is one of the Announcement of Opportunity ( AO ) instruments on board the European Space Agency ( ESA ) 's Envisat satellite . This instrument is a multi-channel imaging radiometer with the principal objective of providing data concerning global Sea Surface Temperature ( SST ) to the high levels of accuracy and stability required for monitoring and carrying out research into the behaviour of the Earth 's climate . AATSR can measure Earth 's surface temperature to a precision of 0.3 K-change , for climate research . Among the secondary objectives of AATSR is the observation of environmental parameters such as aerosols , clouds , fires , gas flares , water content , biomass , and vegetal health and growth . AATSR is the successor of ATSR-1 and ATSR-2 , payloads of ERS-1 and ERS-2 .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "AATSR", "rank": 38, "score": 70512 }, { "content": "Title: Frank Wentz Content: Frank Wentz is the CEO and director of Remote Sensing Systems , a company he founded in 1974 . Remote Sensing Systems specializes in satellite microwave remote sensing research . Together with Carl Mears , he is best known for developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) one . From 1978 to 1982 Frank was a member of NASA 's SeaSat Experiment Team involved in the development of physically based retrieval methods for microwave scatterometers and radiometers . He has also investigated the effect of climate change on satellite-derived evaporation , precipitation and surface wind values . His findings are different from most climate change model predictions .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Frank_Wentz", "rank": 39, "score": 69468 }, { "content": "Title: International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set Content: The International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set ( ICOADS ) is a digital database of 261 million weather observations made by ships , weather ships , and weather buoys spanning the years 1662 to 2007 . The database was initially constructed in 1985 and continues to be expanded upon and updated on a regular basis . From the original data , gridded datasets were created . ICOADS information has been useful in determining the reliability of ship and buoy wind measurements , helping to determine temperature trends in the sea surface temperature field , and updating the Atlantic hurricane database .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "International_Comprehensive_Ocean-Atmosphere_Data_Set", "rank": 40, "score": 69328 }, { "content": "Title: Homogenization (climate) Content: Homogenization in climate research means the removal of non-climatic changes . Next to changes in the climate itself , raw climate records also contain non-climatic jumps and changes for example due to relocations or changes in instrumentation . The most used principle to remove these inhomogeneities is the relative homogenization approach in which a candidate stations is compared to a reference time series based on one or more neighboring stations . The candidate and reference station ( s ) experience about the same climate , non-climatic changes that happen only in one station can thus be identified and removed .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Homogenization_(climate)", "rank": 41, "score": 69177 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 42, "score": 69022 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 43, "score": 68997 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 44, "score": 68783 }, { "content": "Title: Pseudoproxy Content: A pseudoproxy is a synthetic dataset used in paleoclimatology to test methods of reconstruction of global or hemispherical climate change from temperature records , developed for reconstructing the temperature record of the past 1000 years using proxies for periods before the instrumental temperature record . In May 2002 Michael E. Mann and Scott Rutherford published a paper introducing this method of adding artificial noise to actual temperature records or to climate model simulations to produce what they called `` pseudoproxies '' . When the reconstruction algorithms were used with these pseudoproxies , the result was then compared with the original record or simulation to see how closely it had been reconstructed . They discussed the issue that regression methods of reconstruction tended to underestimate the amplitude of variation .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Pseudoproxy", "rank": 45, "score": 68364 }, { "content": "Title: Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project Content: The Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project , or GODAR Project was established to increase the volume of historical oceanographic data available to climate change and other researchers . The project attempts to locate ocean profile and plankton data sets not yet in digital form , digitizes these data , and ensures their submission to national data centers and the World Data Center system ( WDC ) . In addition , data on electronic media that are at risk of loss due to media degradation are also candidates for rescue .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Global_Oceanographic_Data_Archaeology_and_Rescue_Project", "rank": 46, "score": 68331 }, { "content": "Title: The Raw & the Cooked (album) Content: The Raw & the Cooked is the second and final studio album by British rock band Fine Young Cannibals , released in 1988 . The title of the album was lifted from the book of the same name ( `` Le Cru et le Cuit '' in French ) by French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss . Four songs from the album first appeared in film soundtracks in the mid-1980s , three of which were soul tracks from the Tin Men film . The band had already recorded over half of the album by the time David Z came to produce the remainder . His work with the band , which resulted in dance-rock material , included studio experimentation . The album is considered to be an eclectic , varied album , taking influences from numerous genres including Motown soul , rock , funk , British beat and pop . Released in 1988 -- 89 on I.R.S. Records , The Raw & the Cooked was a major commercial success , selling over three million copies . Numerous singles were released from the album , including the two US number one singles `` She Drives Me Crazy '' and `` Good Thing '' . The album was also critically acclaimed and Jo-Ann Greene of AllMusic called the album a masterpiece and one of the 1980s ' most exciting albums . A remixed version of the album entitled The Raw & the Remix was released in 1990 .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "The_Raw_&_the_Cooked_(album)", "rank": 47, "score": 68150 }, { "content": "Title: Cru (Christian organization) Content: Cru ( known as Campus Crusade for Christ until 2011 ) is an evangelical non-denominational Christian ministry for university and college students . It was founded in 1951 at the University of California , Los Angeles by Bill Bright and Vonette Zachary Bright . Since then , Cru has expanded its focus to include adult professionals , athletes , and high school students . In 2011 Cru had 25,000 missionaries in 191 countries . Cru relocated its world headquarters from Arrowhead Springs , San Bernardino , California to Orlando , Florida in 1991 . The current president of the organization is Steve Douglass . In 2011 , Campus Crusade for Christ in the United States changed its name to Cru , to avoid the negative connotation of `` crusade '' from the historical Crusades ( particularly to Muslim communities ) , and to reflect the fact that much of the organization 's work was no longer limited to college campuses .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Cru_(Christian_organization)", "rank": 48, "score": 67999 }, { "content": "Title: Institute of Atmospheric Physics AS CR Content: The Institute of Atmospheric Physics AS CR , also designated as the IAP , is part of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic ( AS CR ) . Within the IAP research institutions are combined in order to cover the whole field of science and humanities . The IAP was established in 1964 , developed from a previously existing institute . This former institute 's main focus was observation , and interpretation of data of tropospheric processes . In 1994 another former institute joined the IAP which then extended its research purview to the entire atmosphere , from the boundary layer up to interplanetary space . In 2007-2008 the IAP organized several international workshops and meetings . The institute is staffed by 111 persons ( 2008 ) and forty percent of those hold the PhD degree or its equivalent . Throughout the years staff members have published research in a variety of international and national peer reviewed journals , as well as various books , chapters in books , and monographs . Also , the IAP participates in international research programs , and many international research projects . For example it participates in the Climate and Weather of the Sun-Earth System ( CAWSES ) program , and the GEO-6 ( Galileo for Scientific User Community ) research project .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Institute_of_Atmospheric_Physics_AS_CR", "rank": 49, "score": 67958 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy", "rank": 50, "score": 67935 }, { "content": "Title: Theta1 Crucis Content: Theta1 Crucis ( θ1 Cru , Theta1 Crucis ) is a spectroscopic binary star system in the southern constellation of Crux . It is visible to the naked eye with an apparent visual magnitude of 4.30 m . The distance to this star , as determined using parallax measurements , is around 235 light years . The pair orbit each other closely with a period of 24.5 days and an eccentricity of 0.61 . The primary component is an Am star , which is a chemically peculiar A-type star that shows anomalous variations in absorption lines of certain elements . It has a stellar classification of A3 ( m ) A8-A8 . With a mass 157 % times that of the Sun , it radiates 81 times the Sun 's luminosity from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 7341 K. Unusually for a fully-radiative A-type star , X-ray emissions have been detected , which may instead be coming from the orbiting companion .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Theta1_Crucis", "rank": 51, "score": 67930 }, { "content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years", "rank": 52, "score": 67912 }, { "content": "Title: Cyclic redundancy check Content: A cyclic redundancy check ( CRC ) is an error-detecting code commonly used in digital networks and storage devices to detect accidental changes to raw data . Blocks of data entering these systems get a short check value attached , based on the remainder of a polynomial division of their contents . On retrieval , the calculation is repeated and , in the event the check values do not match , corrective action can be taken against data corruption . CRCs are so called because the check ( data verification ) value is a redundancy ( it expands the message without adding information ) and the algorithm is based on cyclic codes . CRCs are popular because they are simple to implement in binary hardware , easy to analyze mathematically , and particularly good at detecting common errors caused by noise in transmission channels . Because the check value has a fixed length , the function that generates it is occasionally used as a hash function . The CRC was invented by W. Wesley Peterson in 1961 ; the 32-bit CRC function of Ethernet and many other standards is the work of several researchers and was published in 1975 .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Cyclic_redundancy_check", "rank": 53, "score": 67879 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Satellite_temperature_measurements", "rank": 54, "score": 67815 }, { "content": "Title: List of temperature sensors Content:", "qid": "2902", "docid": "List_of_temperature_sensors", "rank": 55, "score": 67656 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Peter_Doran", "rank": 56, "score": 67353 }, { "content": "Title: Critical relative humidity Content: The critical relative humidity ( CRH ) of a salt is defined as the relative humidity of the surrounding atmosphere ( at a certain temperature ) at which the material begins to absorb moisture from the atmosphere and below which it will not absorb atmospheric moisture . When the humidity of the atmosphere is equal to ( or is greater than ) the critical relative humidity of a sample of salt , the sample will take up water until all of the salt is dissolved to yield a saturated solution . All water-soluble salts and mixtures have characteristic critical humidities ; it is a unique material property . The critical relative humidity of most salts decreases with increasing temperature . For instance , the critical relative humidity of ammonium nitrate decreases 22 % with a temperature from 0 ° C to 40 ° C ( 32 ° F to 104 ° F ) . The critical relative humidity of several fertilizer salts is given in table 1 : Table 1 : Critical relative humidities of pure salts at 30 ° C. Mixtures of salts usually have lower critical humidities than either of the constituents . Fertilizers that contain Urea as an ingredient usually exhibit a much lower Critical Relative Humidity than Fertilizers without Urea.Table 2 shows CRH data for two-component mixtures : Table 2 : Critical relative humidities of mixtures of salts at 30 ° C ( values are percent relative humidity ) . As shown , the effect of salt mixing is most dramatic in the case of ammonium nitrate with urea . This mixture has an extremely low critical relative humidity and can therefore only be used in liquid fertilisers ( so called UAN-solutions ) .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Critical_relative_humidity", "rank": 57, "score": 66609 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 58, "score": 66422 }, { "content": "Title: FourU thermometer Content: __ NOTOC __ FourU thermometers are a class of non-coding RNA thermometers found in Salmonella . They are named ` FourU ' due to the four highly conserved uridine nucleotides found directly opposite the Shine-Dalgarno sequence on hairpin II ( pictured ) . RNA thermometers such as FourU control regulation of temperature via heat shock proteins in many prokaryotes . FourU thermometers are relatively small RNA molecules , only 57 nucleotides in length , and have a simple two-hairpin structure . FourU are found in the 5 ' untranslated region of the gene for heat shock protein Salmonella agsA , they repress translation of this protein by base-pairing the Shine-Dalgardo sequence of the gene 's mRNA . This prevents ribosomes from binding the gene 's start codon . They are also found in the 5 ` UTR of htrA ( high temperature requirement ) genes in Salmonella and E.coli . In V. cholerae fourU thermometer in the 5 ' of toxT controls its temperature-dependant translation . At human body temperature , the thermometer structure opens and to allow transcriptional activator protein ToxT translation , facilitating V. cholerae virulance . Other known RNA thermometers include the ROSE element and Hsp90 cis-reg element .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "FourU_thermometer", "rank": 59, "score": 66374 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Laboratory Content: The Climatic Research Laboratory ( CRL ) was a U.S. Army military clothing and equipment test site formerly located at Lawrence , Massachusetts from 1943 to 1954 . The lab tested textile and insulating materials and was capable of simulating climatic conditions throughout the world ( e.g. , desert , rain forest , tundra , mountain ) . A `` Jungle Room '' was maintained for thermal physiological testing on human volunteers . Field trials were conducted by the lab at sites such as the Dolly Copp Test Site at the foot of Mount Washington , New Hampshire . The CRL was relocated to Natick , Massachusetts in 1954 under the new name of the Environmental Protection Research Division ( EPRD ) of the U.S. Army 's Quartermaster Research and Engineering Command . The EPRD in turn was merged with elements of the Armored Medical Research Laboratory ( AMRL ) ( originally at Fort Knox , Kentucky ) in 1961 to constitute what is now the U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine ( USARIEM ) at Natick . Category : Buildings and structures in Lawrence , Massachusetts Category :1943 establishments in Massachusetts Category : Closed installations of the United States Army Category : Closed research facilities of the United States Army Category : Closed medical research facilities of the United States Army", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Laboratory", "rank": 60, "score": 66242 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 61, "score": 66228 }, { "content": "Title: CORA dataset Content: CORA ( standing for Coriolis Ocean database ReAnalysis ) is a global oceanographic temperature and salinity dataset produced and maintained by the French institute IFREMER . Most of those data are real-time data coming from different types of platforms ( research vessels , profilers , underwater gliders , drifting buoys , moored buoys , sea mammals , opportunity ships , ... ) .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "CORA_dataset", "rank": 62, "score": 66035 }, { "content": "Title: Carl Mears Content: Carl Mears is a Senior Scientist , at Remote Sensing Systems , since 1998 . He has worked on validation of SSM/I derived winds , and rain-flagging algorithm for the QuikScat scatterometer . He is best known for his work with Frank Wentz in developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the UAH one . Mears was a major contributor to Temperature Trends in the Lower Atmosphere : Steps for Understanding and Reconciling Differences , the first released report from the US Climate Change Science Program . He also contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Working Group one report , Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Carl_Mears", "rank": 63, "score": 65990 }, { "content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event", "rank": 64, "score": 65866 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 65, "score": 65612 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record Content: For extreme records instead of records as a set of data , see List of weather records The temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time . The most detailed information exists since 1850 , when methodical thermometer-based records began . There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation , particularly during the current Holocene epoch . Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Temperature_record", "rank": 66, "score": 65554 }, { "content": "Title: Rawu Content: Rawu ( also known as Rawok ) is the name of a small town and village in Nyingchi Prefecture of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China . It is at an altitude of 3,807 m. ( 12,490 ft ) . The modern town ( population about 2,900 ) of about 20 shops and hotels services the loggers and nearby military base . The town of Rawu is quite close to the original Tibetan village . To the southeast of the village is a large chorten and a small temple overlooking the beautiful Ngan-tso or Ranwu Lake , which is surrounded by magnificent snow-capped peaks and forests . It is 26 km by 2 km and consists of two sections connected by a small stream , is said to be Eastern Tibet 's largest lake and attracts many tourists . There are small villages on both shores . The second lake , known as Rawak tso , is 7 km from the town . The main industry other than tourism is logging .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Rawu", "rank": 67, "score": 65472 }, { "content": "Title: Apollo 11 missing tapes Content: The Apollo 11 missing tapes were those that were recorded from Apollo 11 's slow-scan television ( SSTV ) telecast in its raw format on telemetry data tape during the time of the first Moon landing in 1969 and subsequently lost . A team of retired NASA employees and contractors tried to locate the tapes in the early 2000s but were unable to do so . The data tapes were recorded as a backup in case the live television broadcasts failed for any reason . In order to broadcast the SSTV transmission on standard television , NASA ground receiving stations performed real-time scan conversion to the NTSC television format . The moonwalk 's converted video signal was broadcast live around the world on July 21 , 1969 ( 2:56 UTC ) . At the time , the NTSC broadcast was recorded on many videotapes and kinescope films . Many of these low-quality recordings remain intact . The search was sparked when several still photographs appeared in the late 1990s that showed the superior-looking raw SSTV transmission on ground station monitors . The research team conducted a multi-year investigation in the hopes of finding the most pristine and usable versions of the moonwalk . If the original SSTV format tapes were to be found , more modern digital technology could make a higher-quality conversion , yielding better images than those originally seen . The researchers discovered that the tapes containing the raw unprocessed Apollo 11 SSTV signal were erased and reused by NASA in the early 1980s . It is claimed this was according to NASA 's procedures because they were facing a major data tape shortage at that time . Although the researchers never found the telemetry tapes they were looking for , they did discover the best visual quality NTSC videotapes as well as super 8 movie film taken of a video monitor in Australia , showing the SSTV transmission before it was converted . These visual elements were processed in 2009 , as part of a NASA approved restoration project of the first Moonwalk . At a 2009 news conference in Washington , D.C. , the research team released its findings regarding the tapes ' disappearance . They also partially released newly enhanced footage obtained during the search . Lowry Digital completed the full moonwalk restoration project in late 2009 .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Apollo_11_missing_tapes", "rank": 68, "score": 65373 }, { "content": "Title: Raw Tracks Content: Raw Tracks is an EP by American heavy metal band Mötley Crüe in 1988 released exclusively in Japan . The disc features two songs presented in their original Leathür Records mix from their debut album , two remixes and one live version of tracks previously issued on the group 's previous records .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Raw_Tracks", "rank": 69, "score": 65310 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave sounding unit Content: The Microwave sounding unit was the predecessor to the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU ) . The MSU was first launched aboard the TIROS-N satellite in late 1978 and provided global coverage ( from Pole to Pole ) . It carries a 4-channel microwave radiometer , operating between 50 and 60 GHz . Spatial resolution on the ground was 2.5 deg in longitude and latitude ( about 250 km circle ) . There were 9 different MSUs launched ; the most recent one on NOAA-14 . They provided measurements of the temperature of the troposphere and lower stratosphere until 1998 , when the first AMSU was deployed . AMSU provides many more channels and finer resolution ( about 50 km ) . Category : Spacecraft instruments Category : Satellite meteorology and remote sensing Category : Microwave technology", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Microwave_sounding_unit", "rank": 70, "score": 65105 }, { "content": "Title: Hurricane Katrina and global warming Content: The tremendous destruction caused by recent Atlantic Ocean tropical cyclones , such as Hurricanes Katrina , Wilma , and Sandy caused a substantial upsurge in interest in the subject of global warming by news media and the wider public , and concerns that global climatic change may have played a significant role in those events . Time Magazine , for example , published an article titled , `` Is Global Warming Fueling Katrina ? '' -- however , the article itself addressed hurricanes in general , rather than Katrina specifically , and was inconclusive . Shortly after the hurricane , former Boston Globe reporter Ross Gelbspan wrote an op-ed piece for the Globe titled , `` Katrina 's Real Name '' , declaring that the hurricane 's `` real name is global warming . '' Gelbspan went on to assert : `` Although Katrina began as a relatively small hurricane that glanced off south Florida , it was supercharged with extraordinary intensity by the relatively blistering sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico . '' Gelbspan did not single out Katrina from other recent storms in that regard ; in the article he went on to attribute other major weather events over the preceding year to global warming , including a blizzard in Los Angeles , high winds in Scandinavia , wildfires in Spain , and a drought centered in Missouri . Britain 's then deputy prime minister , John Prescott , has linked Katrina with global warming , and statements made shortly after the hurricane by Germany 's environment minister , Jürgen Trittin , indicate he believes that global warming is responsible for an increase in the frequency of destructive natural events . Kerry Emanuel had recently published a paper in the journal Nature that found a good correlation between hurricane intensity and sea surface temperatures . Some journalists have claimed Emanuel 's paper concludes that the recent increase in intense Atlantic storms is due to global warming , but Emanuel stated that `` it would be absurd to attribute the Katrina disaster to global warming '' . The Internet blog RealClimate has written that `` there is no way to prove that Katrina either was , or was not , affected by global warming '' .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Hurricane_Katrina_and_global_warming", "rank": 71, "score": 64956 }, { "content": "Title: John Christy Content: John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "John_Christy", "rank": 72, "score": 64942 }, { "content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm", "rank": 73, "score": 64753 }, { "content": "Title: Cryogenic Rare Event Search with Superconducting Thermometers Content: The Cryogenic Rare Event Search with Superconducting Thermometers ( CRESST ) is a collaboration of European experimental particle physics groups involved in the construction of cryogenic detectors for direct dark matter searches . The participating institutes are the Max Planck Institute for Physics ( Munich ) , Technische Universität München , Universität Tübingen , University of Oxford ( Great Britain ) and the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare ( INFN , Italy ) . The CRESST collaboration currently runs an array of cryogenic detectors in the underground laboratory of the Gran Sasso National Laboratory . The modular detectors used by CRESST facilitate discrimination of background radiation events by the simultaneous measurement of phonon and photon signals from scintillating calcium tungstate crystals . By cooling the detectors to temperatures of a few millikelvin , the excellent discrimination and energy resolution of the detectors allows identification of rare particle events . CRESST-I took data in 2000 using sapphire detectors with tungsten thermometers . CRESST-II uses CaWO4 crystal scintillating calorimeters . It was prototyped in 2004 and had a 47.9 kg-day commissioning run in 2007 and operated 2009 to 2011 . Phase 2 has a new CaWO4 crystal with better radiopurity , improved detectors , and significantly reduced background . It began July 2013 , to explore excess signals in the prior run . CRESST-I first detected the alpha decay of tungsten . CRESST-II phase 1 full results were published in 2012 . New phase 2 results have been presented on July 2014 with a limit on spin-independent WIMP-nucleon scattering for WIMP masses below 3 GeV/c2 . In 2015 the CRESST detectors were upgraded by a sensitivity factor of 100 allowing dark matter particles with a mass around that of a proton to be detected . The EURECA experiment is a planned successor to CRESST , ultimately aiming to run an array of detectors with a total mass of around 1 tonne .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Cryogenic_Rare_Event_Search_with_Superconducting_Thermometers", "rank": 74, "score": 64721 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming (Sonny Rollins album) Content: Global Warming is an album by jazz saxophonist Sonny Rollins , released on the Milestone label in 1998 , featuring performances by Rollins with Stephen Scott , Bob Cranshaw , Idris Muhammad , Clifton Anderson , Victor See Yuen and Perry Wilson .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Global_Warming_(Sonny_Rollins_album)", "rank": 75, "score": 64656 }, { "content": "Title: Wegman Report Content: The Wegman Report ( officially called the Ad Hoc Committee Report on the ` Hockey Stick ' Global Climate Reconstruction ) was prepared in 2006 by three statisticians led by Edward Wegman at the request of Rep. Joe Barton of the United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce to validate criticisms made by Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years , in particular the reconstructions by Mann , Bradley and Hughes which had become the focus of the hockey stick controversy .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Wegman_Report", "rank": 76, "score": 64630 }, { "content": "Title: Delta Coronae Australis Content: Delta Coronae Australis ( δ CrA ) , is a star located in the constellation Corona Australis . Located around 179 light-years distant , it shines with a luminosity approximately 53 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 4801 K . It is an orange giant of spectral type K1III that is around 1.64 times as massive as the Sun .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Delta_Coronae_Australis", "rank": 77, "score": 64497 }, { "content": "Title: NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis Content: The NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data set is a continually updated ( 1948 -- present ) globally gridded data set that represents the state of the Earth 's atmosphere , incorporating observations and numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) model output from 1948 to present . It is a joint product from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) and the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) . ( See also Meteorological reanalysis . )", "qid": "2902", "docid": "NCEP/NCAR_Reanalysis", "rank": 78, "score": 64466 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.", "qid": "2902", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves", "rank": 79, "score": 64383 }, { "content": "Title: Cru (album) Content: Cru is a 2004 album by Seu Jorge first released in France on September 21 , 2004 by parisian independent label Fla-Flu ( Favela Chic ) with the record company Naïve . This was his second album to be released outside his native Brazil , the first being Carolina . Many of the songs on the album are covers such as `` Chatterton '' , written by Serge Gainsbourg and `` Do n't '' by Leiber & Stoller . The album also includes political and social commentary in songs like `` Mania de Peitão '' and `` Eu Sou Favela '' . The song Tive Razão was featured in FIFA 07 by EA Sports .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Cru_(album)", "rank": 80, "score": 64379 }, { "content": "Title: Giovanni (meteorology) Content: Giovanni ( meteorology ) - Web interface that allows users to analyze NASA 's gridded data from various satellite and surface observations . Giovanni provides researchers with the capability to examine data on atmospheric chemistry , atmospheric temperature , water vapor and clouds , atmospheric aerosols , precipitation , and ocean chlorophyll and surface temperature . The primary data consist of global gridded data sets with reduced spatial resolution . Basic analytical functions performed by Giovanni currently are carried out by the Grid Analysis and Display System ( GrADS ) . The GES-DISC Interactive Online Visualization ANd aNalysis Infrastructure ( Giovanni ) allows to explore satellite data using sophisticated analyses and visualizations . Giovanni allows access to data from multiple remote sites , supports multiple data formats including Hierarchical Data Format ( HDF ) , HDF-EOS , network Common Data Form ( netCDF ) , GRIdded Binary ( GRIB ) , and binary , and multiple plot types including area , time , Hovmoller , and image animation .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Giovanni_(meteorology)", "rank": 81, "score": 64187 }, { "content": "Title: UNU-CRIS Content: The United Nations University Institute on Comparative Regional Integration Studies ( UNU-CRIS ) is a Research and Training Institute of the United Nations University ( UNU ) . Based in Bruges , ( Belgium ) since 2001 , UNU-CRIS specialises in the comparative study of regional integration , monitoring and assessing regional integration worldwide and in the study of interactions between regional organizations and global institutions . Its aim is to generate new and policy-relevant knowledge about new forms of governance and co-operation , and to contribute to capacity building on issues of regional integration , particularly in developing countries .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "UNU-CRIS", "rank": 82, "score": 64110 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 83, "score": 64096 }, { "content": "Title: Raw Air 2017 Content: The Raw Air 2017 was the first edition of Raw Air , a ten-day tournament for men in ski jumping and ski flying held in Norway between 10 -- 19 March 2017 . It was part of the 2016 -- 17 FIS Ski Jumping World Cup season . Fatih Arda İpcioğlu represented his country in qualifications of Lillehammer as first Turkish ski jumper in history of the World Cup competitions . On 18 March 2017 , the world record was improved twice at Vikersundbakken ; firstly , Robert Johansson jumped 252 metres ( 827 ft ) , and about 30 minutes later Stefan Kraft landed at 253.5 metres ( 832 ft ) .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Raw_Air_2017", "rank": 84, "score": 64080 }, { "content": "Title: TEMP (meteorology) Content: TEMP ( upper air soundings ) is a set of World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) alphanumerical codes used for reporting weather observations of the upper regions of the atmosphere made by weather balloons released from the surface level ( either at land or at sea ) . The WMO designates the FM-35 numerical code for surface TEMPs and the FM-36 numerical code for ship-based TEMPs . Category : Earth sciences data formats", "qid": "2902", "docid": "TEMP_(meteorology)", "rank": 85, "score": 63728 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 86, "score": 63647 }, { "content": "Title: Cru (band) Content: Cru was an American hip hop group formally signed to Def Jam Recordings composed of three members , Chadio , Mighty Ha and Yogi . The group 's first appearance was the `` We Got It Goin ' On '' remix by R&B group Changing Faces in 1995 . Two years later the group released their debut album , Da Dirty 30 , which featured three singles `` Just Another Case '' `` Pronto '' and `` Bubblin ' '' . After the release of the album , the group disbanded with Yogi becoming a successful hip hop producer . After a long hiatus , Chadio resumed his career and released an album titled `` Internal Insurgency '' via iTunes in 2009 .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Cru_(band)", "rank": 87, "score": 63547 }, { "content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2", "rank": 88, "score": 63393 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 89, "score": 63332 }, { "content": "Title: Mythologiques Content: Mythologiques is a four-volume work of cultural anthropology by Claude Lévi-Strauss . Originally written in French , the works were translated into English by John Weightman and Doreen Weightman . The four volumes of Mythologiques are : The Raw and the Cooked ( Le Cru et le cuit ) - First published 1964 . Translated in 1969 From Honey to Ashes ( Du miel aux cendres ) - First published in 1966 . Translated in 1973 The Origin of Table Manners ( L'Origine des manières de table ) - First published in 1968 . Translated in 1978 The Naked Man ( L'Homme nu ) - First published in 1971 . Translated in 1981 . Category : Works by Claude Lévi-Strauss Category : French books Category : Mythology books Category : Anthropology books", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Mythologiques", "rank": 90, "score": 63265 }, { "content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "North_Report", "rank": 91, "score": 63222 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves", "rank": 92, "score": 63168 }, { "content": "Title: METAR Content: METAR is a format for reporting weather information . A METAR weather report is predominantly used by pilots in fulfillment of a part of a pre-flight weather briefing , and by meteorologists , who use aggregated METAR information to assist in weather forecasting . Raw METAR is the most common format in the world for the transmission of observational weather data . It is highly standardized through the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) , which allows it to be understood throughout most of the world .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "METAR", "rank": 93, "score": 63000 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 94, "score": 62985 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature data logger Content: A temperature data logger , also called temperature monitor , is a portable measurement instrument that is capable of autonomously recording temperature over a defined period of time . The digital data can be retrieved , viewed and evaluated after it has been recorded . A data logger is commonly used to monitor shipments in a cold chain and to gather temperature data from diverse field conditions .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Temperature_data_logger", "rank": 95, "score": 62873 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 96, "score": 62847 }, { "content": "Title: The Crusader Union of Australia Content: The Crusader Union of Australia ( Crusaders or CRU ) , is a Bible-based , interdenominational , non-profit Christian youth organisation . CRU is an organisation with three key ministry areas : CRU Camps , which includes : CRU Holiday Camps , CRU Study Camps and CRU Day Camps Summit Educational Camps and Schools Ministry ( made up of CRU School Groups and CRU Resources ) CRU 's frontline ministries are supported by two campsites ( Galston Gorge Conference & Recreation Centre & Lake Mac Outdoor Recreation Centre ) , and a Training Division .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "The_Crusader_Union_of_Australia", "rank": 97, "score": 62823 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 98, "score": 62622 }, { "content": "Title: Global Drifter Program Content: The Global Drifter Program ( GDP ) ( formerly known as the Surface Velocity Program ( SVP ) ) , was conceived by Prof. Peter Niiler , with the objective of collecting measurements of surface ocean currents , sea surface temperature and sea-level atmospheric pressure using drifters . It is the principal component of the Global Surface Drifting Buoy Array , a branch of NOAA 's Global Ocean Observing System ( GOOS ) and a scientific project of the Data Buoy Cooperation Panel ( DBCP ) . The project originated in February 1979 as part of the TOGA/Equatorial Pacific Ocean Circulation Experiment ( EPOCS ) and the first large-scale deployment of drifters was in 1988 with the goal of mapping the tropical Pacific Ocean 's surface circulation . The current goal of the project is to use 1250 satellite-tracked surface drifting buoys to make accurate and globally dense in-situ observations of mixed layer currents , sea surface temperature , atmospheric pressure , winds and salinity , and to create a system to process the data . Horizontal transports in the oceanic mixed layer measured by the GDP are relevant to biological and chemical processes as well as physical ones .", "qid": "2902", "docid": "Global_Drifter_Program", "rank": 99, "score": 62558 }, { "content": "Title: YAD06 Content: YAD06 is a tree located in the Yamal Peninsula of Siberia . A core sample from this tree , YADO61 , provided data used to support hockey stick interpretation of global climate history . The data was originally published in 1995 a paper by Keith Briffa of the Climate Research Unit at the University of East Anglia . The paper asserted that the late Middle Ages , previously described as a `` Medieval Warm Period , '' was actually quite cold . Steve McIntyre has described this tree as possibly `` the most influential tree in the world '' , and publicly accused Briffa of cherry-picking certain tree ring records in order to get a specific result , creating what Michael E. Mann described as a `` manufactured scandal . ''", "qid": "2902", "docid": "YAD06", "rank": 100, "score": 62351 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Rule of three (computer programming) Content: Rule of three is a code refactoring rule of thumb to decide when a replicated piece of code should be replaced by a new procedure . It states that the code can be copied once , but that when the same code is used three times , it should be extracted into a new procedure . The rule was introduced by Martin Fowler in Refactoring and attributed to Don Roberts . Duplication in programming is a bad practice because it makes the code harder to maintain . When the rule encoded in a replicated piece of code changes , whoever maintains the code will have to change it in all places correctly . This process is error-prone and often leads to problems . Triplication has an even higher cost because it makes maintenance harder yet . If the code exists in only one place , then it can be easily changed there . However , refactoring code to eliminate duplication takes time , which might be better spent on other tasks . Additionally , choosing a good design to refactor code into becomes easier when there are more examples of duplicated code to see patterns in . With three examples of similar code , it is easier than with two examples to see what parts of the code should be abstracted and what parts should be the same in all cases . The rule proposes that the cost of maintenance certainly outweighs the cost of refactoring and potential bad design when there are three copies , and may or may not if there are two copies . As Charles Petzold puts it , `` Three or more ? Use a for ! ''", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Rule_of_three_(computer_programming)", "rank": 1, "score": 75342 }, { "content": "Title: Replace (command) Content: In computing , replace is a command used on DOS , Microsoft Windows and related computer operating systems that is used to replace one or more existing files or add new files to a target directory . The replace command first appeared in DOS 3.2 and has been included in most versions of MS-DOS and IBM PC DOS . It is also included as a console command in Microsoft Windows .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Replace_(command)", "rank": 2, "score": 74103 }, { "content": "Title: Amino acid replacement Content: Amino acid replacement is a change from one amino acid to a different amino acid due to point mutation in DNA sequence . It is caused by nonsynonymous missense mutation which alters the codon sequence to code other amino acid instead of the originals .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Amino_acid_replacement", "rank": 3, "score": 73084 }, { "content": "Title: Data set (IBM mainframe) Content: In the context of IBM mainframe computers , a data set ( IBM preferred ) or dataset is a computer file having a record organization . Use of this term began with OS/360 and is still used by its successors , including the current z/OS . Documentation for these systems historically preferred this term rather than file . A data set is typically stored on a direct access storage device ( DASD ) or magnetic tape , however unit record devices , such as punch card readers , card punch , and line printers can provide input/output ( I/O ) for a data set ( file ) . Data sets are not unstructured streams of bytes , but rather are organized in various logical record and block structures determined by the DSORG ( data set organization ) , RECFM ( record format ) , and other parameters . These parameters are specified at the time of the data set allocation ( creation ) , for example with Job Control Language DD statements . Inside a job they are stored in the Data Control Block ( DCB ) , which is a data structure used to access data sets , for example using access methods .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_set_(IBM_mainframe)", "rank": 4, "score": 72458 }, { "content": "Title: Imputation (statistics) Content: In statistics , imputation is the process of replacing missing data with substituted values . When substituting for a data point , it is known as `` unit imputation '' ; when substituting for a component of a data point , it is known as `` item imputation '' . There are three main problems that missing data causes : missing data can introduce a substantial amount of bias , make the handling and analysis of the data more arduous , and create reductions in efficiency . Because missing data can create problems for analyzing data , imputation is seen as a way to avoid pitfalls involved with listwise deletion of cases that have missing values . That is to say , when one or more values are missing for a case , most statistical packages default to discarding any case that has a missing value , which may introduce bias or affect the representativeness of the results . Imputation preserves all cases by replacing missing data with an estimated value based on other available information . Once all missing values have been imputed , the data set can then be analysed using standard techniques for complete data . Imputation theory is constantly developing and thus requires consistent attention to new information regarding the subject . There have been many theories embraced by scientists to account for missing data but the majority of them introduce large amounts of bias . A few of the well known attempts to deal with missing data include : hot deck and cold deck imputation ; listwise and pairwise deletion ; mean imputation ; regression imputation ; last observation carried forward ; stochastic imputation ; and multiple imputation .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Imputation_(statistics)", "rank": 5, "score": 72446 }, { "content": "Title: Anscombe's quartet Content: Anscombe 's quartet comprises four datasets that have nearly identical simple descriptive statistics , yet appear very different when graphed . Each dataset consists of eleven ( x , y ) points . They were constructed in 1973 by the statistician Francis Anscombe to demonstrate both the importance of graphing data before analyzing it and the effect of outliers on statistical properties . He described the article as being intended to attack the impression among statisticians that `` numerical calculations are exact , but graphs are rough . ''", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Anscombe's_quartet", "rank": 6, "score": 69731 }, { "content": "Title: Data transformation (statistics) Content: In statistics , data transformation is the application of a deterministic mathematical function to each point in a data set -- that is , each data point zi is replaced with the transformed value yi = f ( zi ) , where f is a function . Transforms are usually applied so that the data appear to more closely meet the assumptions of a statistical inference procedure that is to be applied , or to improve the interpretability or appearance of graphs . Nearly always , the function that is used to transform the data is invertible , and generally is continuous . The transformation is usually applied to a collection of comparable measurements . For example , if we are working with data on peoples ' incomes in some currency unit , it would be common to transform each person 's income value by the logarithm function .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_transformation_(statistics)", "rank": 7, "score": 69585 }, { "content": "Title: Rule of replacement Content: In logic , a rule of replacement is a transformation rule that may be applied to only a particular segment of an expression . A logical system may be constructed so that it uses either axioms , rules of inference , or both as transformation rules for logical expressions in the system . Whereas a rule of inference is always applied to a whole logical expression , a rule of replacement may be applied to only a particular segment . Within the context of a logical proof , logically equivalent expressions may replace each other . Rules of replacement are used in propositional logic to manipulate propositions . Common rules of replacement include de Morgan 's laws , commutation , association , distribution , double negation , transposition , material implication , material equivalence , exportation , and tautology .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Rule_of_replacement", "rank": 8, "score": 69429 }, { "content": "Title: Page replacement algorithm Content: In a computer operating system that uses paging for virtual memory management , page replacement algorithms decide which memory pages to page out ( swap out , write to disk ) when a page of memory needs to be allocated . Paging happens when a page fault occurs and a free page can not be used to satisfy the allocation , either because there are none , or because the number of free pages is lower than some threshold . When the page that was selected for replacement and paged out is referenced again it has to be paged in ( read in from disk ) , and this involves waiting for I/O completion . This determines the quality of the page replacement algorithm : the less time waiting for page-ins , the better the algorithm . A page replacement algorithm looks at the limited information about accesses to the pages provided by hardware , and tries to guess which pages should be replaced to minimize the total number of page misses , while balancing this with the costs ( primary storage and processor time ) of the algorithm itself . The page replacing problem is a typical online problem from the competitive analysis perspective in the sense that the optimal deterministic algorithm is known .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Page_replacement_algorithm", "rank": 9, "score": 69127 }, { "content": "Title: Symbolic regression Content: Symbolic regression is a type of regression analysis that searches the space of mathematical expressions to find the model that best fits a given dataset , both in terms of accuracy and simplicity . No particular model is provided as a starting point to the algorithm . Instead , initial expressions are formed by randomly combining mathematical building blocks such as mathematical operators , analytic functions , constants , and state variables . ( Usually , a subset of these primitives will be specified by the person operating it , but that 's not a requirement of the technique . ) New equations are then formed by recombining previous equations , using genetic programming . By not requiring a specific model to be specified , symbolic regression is n't affected by human bias , or unknown gaps in domain knowledge . It attempts to uncover the intrinsic relationships of the dataset , by letting the patterns in the data itself reveal the appropriate models , rather than imposing a model structure that is deemed mathematically tractable from a human perspective . The fitness function that drives the evolution of the models takes into account not only error metrics ( to ensure the models accurately predict the data ) , but also special complexity measures , thus ensuring that the resulting models reveal the data 's underlying structure in a way that 's understandable from a human perspective . This facilitates reasoning and favors the odds of getting insights about the data-generating system .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Symbolic_regression", "rank": 10, "score": 67233 }, { "content": "Title: Dynaset Content: 1 . A dynaset ( short for dynamic set ) is a set of data that is dynamically linked back to the database . Instead of having the query result stored in a temporary table , where the data can not be updated directly by the user , the dynaset allows the user to view and update the data contained in the dynaset . Thus , if a university lecturer queried all students who received a distinction in their assignment and found an error in that student 's record , they would only need to update the data in the dynaset , which would automatically update the student 's database record without the need for them to send a specific update query after storing the query results in a temporary table . The concept was initially put forth by Dr. E.F. Codd , the inventor of the relational database management system ( RDBMS ) concept . 2 . A dynaset is a temporary set of data taken from one or more tables in the underlying file . A dynaset may be a query that was defined in an Access database , a single table , a subset of a table , or the result of joining multiple tables . A dynaset can be updated if the file is not locked or opened for ReadOnly . The data in the dynaset are `` live '' i.e. , any changes made to the data as a project ( in Visual Basic ) is executing will appear in the corresponding recordset . Note : Dynasets created from joining tables are typically non-updateable . The word `` dynaset '' was coined by David Risher during a design meeting for Microsoft Access 1.0 . Category : Databases", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Dynaset", "rank": 11, "score": 67152 }, { "content": "Title: Data set Content: A data set ( or dataset ) is a collection of data . Most commonly a data set corresponds to the contents of a single database table , or a single statistical data matrix , where every column of the table represents a particular variable , and each row corresponds to a given member of the data set in question . The data set lists values for each of the variables , such as height and weight of an object , for each member of the data set . Each value is known as a datum . The data set may comprise data for one or more members , corresponding to the number of rows . The term data set may also be used more loosely , to refer to the data in a collection of closely related tables , corresponding to a particular experiment or event . An example of this type is the data sets collected by space agencies performing experiments with instruments aboard space probes . Data sets that are so large that traditional data processing applications are inadequate to deal with them are known as big data . In the open data discipline , dataset is the unit to measure the information released in a public open data repository . The European Open Data portal aggregates more than half a million datasets . In this field other definitions have been proposed but currently there is not an official one . Some other issues ( real-time data sources , non-relational datasets , etc. ) increases the difficulty to reach a consensus about it .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_set", "rank": 12, "score": 66922 }, { "content": "Title: Autocorrection Content: Text replacement , replace-as-you-type or autocorrect is an automatic data validation function commonly found in word processors and text editing interfaces for smartphones and tablet computers . Its principal purpose is as part of the spell checker to correct common spelling or typing errors , saving time for the user . It is also used to automatically format text or insert special characters by recognizing particular character usage , saving the user from having to use more tedious functions . Additional options include recognizing words with two initial capital letters ( e.g. `` EXample '' ) and correcting them , capitalizing the first letters of sentences , and correcting accidental use of caps lock ( e.g. eXAMPLE ) . The replacement list for text replacement can also be modified by the user , allowing the user to use shortcuts . If , for example , the user is writing an essay on the industrial revolution , a replacement key can be set up to replace `` ir '' with `` industrial revolution '' , saving the user time whenever they want to type it . For users with the patience , this facility can even be used to create a complete keyboard shorthand system , along lines similar to those of Dutton Speedwords , but with short forms instantly replaced by full forms . Some stand alone programs allow global text replacement across the operating system , and apply to text typed into any other application . The list of terms within the default Microsoft AutoCorrect application in Microsoft Word can be replaced by words , terms , expressions , etc. , other than the default set . Doing so in a wise , comprehensive and strategic manner can immensely improve the keyboarding productivity and accuracy in high-production work settings . To get the most from the autocorrect routine , one may best exploit the fact that the most common words typed are the best candidates for which to deploy shortcuts . For example , using `` t '' for `` the '' ; `` w '' for `` with '' ; etcetera can maximize the keystroke-to-production ratio . Any system such as developing a technique requires a learning curve to achieve mastery , but experience in developing a database of expressions has proven that to ensure most effective use of autocorrect , shortcuts must be easy to recall . For example , the threshold of characters in the chosen word is no less than three ( 3 ) except when the 2-letter word is within a longer expression , e.g. , `` aamof '' for `` as a matter of fact '' . One technique in developing a system of large database of terms is using prefixes and suffixes in the formation of a shortcut . For example , using the suffix `` z '' -LSB- mnemonic : expandZ -RSB- for the `` asapz '' to expand to `` as soon as possible '' . Whether one requires either a robust or moderate exploitation of the autocorrect , this feature may be best used by first deleting the default terms that are supplied by the manufacturer . Those default terms typically include those words most commonly mis-typed . Including those terms , e.g. , `` teh '' for `` the '' invites careless and/or thoughtless actions whereas excluding them invites a learning process , or greater productivity . In a robust exploitation of autocorrect , including chemical notation , the deployment could transcends the perceived `` disadvantage '' of autocorrect . The simple use of a shortcut suffix denoting chemical glossaries would be deployed . For example , using `` campx '' for `` cAMP '' and `` camp ¥ '' for `` cyclic adenosine monophosphate '' and `` camp ¥ x '' for `` C10H12N5O6P '' -LSB- with corresponding sub-script or super-script as needed -RSB- the shortcut `` campx '' with `` cAMP '' ; furthermore if/when the full expression was needed , the developer could invoke ¥ to be the suffix for chemical notation , e.g. , substitute .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Autocorrection", "rank": 13, "score": 66685 }, { "content": "Title: List of datasets for machine learning research Content: These datasets are used for machine learning research and have been cited in peer-reviewed academic journals and other publications . Datasets are an integral part of the field of machine learning . Major advances in this field can result from advances in learning algorithms ( such as deep learning ) , computer hardware , and , less-intuitively , the availability of high-quality training datasets . High-quality labeled training datasets for supervised and semi-supervised machine learning algorithms are usually difficult and expensive to produce because of the large amount of time needed to label the data . Although they do not need to be labeled , high-quality datasets for unsupervised learning can also be difficult and costly to produce . This list aggregates high-quality datasets that have been shown to be of value to the machine learning research community from multiple different data repositories to provide greater coverage of the topic than is otherwise available .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "List_of_datasets_for_machine_learning_research", "rank": 14, "score": 65592 }, { "content": "Title: Semantic heterogeneity Content: Semantic heterogeneity is when database schema or datasets for the same domain are developed by independent parties , resulting in differences in meaning and interpretation of data values . Beyond structured data , the problem of semantic heterogeneity is compounded due to the flexibility of semi-structured data and various tagging methods applied to documents or unstructured data . Semantic heterogeneity is one of the more important sources of differences in heterogeneous datasets . Yet , for multiple data sources to interoperate with one another , it is essential to reconcile these semantic differences . Decomposing the various sources of semantic heterogeneities provides a basis for understanding how to map and transform data to overcome these differences .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Semantic_heterogeneity", "rank": 15, "score": 65037 }, { "content": "Title: Data.gov.in Content: Data Portal of India is a platform for single-point access to datasets and apps published by Ministries/Departments/Organisations of the Government of India . It combines and expands the best features of India 's ``'' and the U.S. government 's data.gov project", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data.gov.in", "rank": 16, "score": 64967 }, { "content": "Title: National Change Of Address Content: National Change of Address ( NCOALink ) `` is a secure dataset of approximately 160 million permanent change-of-address ( COA ) records consisting of the names and addresses of individuals , families and businesses who have filed a change-of-address with the USPS '' . It is maintained by the United States Postal Service and access to it is licensed to service providers and made available to mailers . There are six licenses available including Full Service Providers ( 48 months ) and Limited Service Providers ( 18 months ) . The use of NCOALink is required in order to obtain bulk mail rates , as it minimizes the number of UAA ( Undeliverable As Addressed ) mailpieces saving the mailer money and reducing the USPS 's processing of this type of mail .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "National_Change_Of_Address", "rank": 17, "score": 64490 }, { "content": "Title: Data loss Content: Data loss is an error condition in information systems in which information is destroyed by failures or neglect in storage , transmission , or processing . Information systems implement backup and disaster recovery equipment and processes to prevent data loss or restore lost data . Data loss is distinguished from data unavailability , which may arise from a network outage . Although the two have substantially similar consequences for users , data unavailability is temporary , while data loss may be permanent . Data loss is also distinct from data breach , an incident where data falls into the wrong hands , although the term data loss has been used in those incidents .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_loss", "rank": 18, "score": 63079 }, { "content": "Title: Instance selection Content: Instance selection ( or dataset reduction , or dataset condensation ) is an important Data pre-processing step that can be applied in many Machine learning ( or Data mining ) tasks . Approaches for instance selection can be applied for reducing the original dataset to a manageable volume , leading to a reduction of the computational resources that are necessary for performing the learning process . Algorithms of instance selection can also be applied for removing noisy instances , before applying learning algorithms . This step can improve the accuracy in classification problems . Algorithm for instance selection should identify a subset of the total available data to achieve the original purpose of the data mining ( or machine learning ) application as if the whole data had been used . Considering this , the optimal outcome of IS would be the minimum data subset that can accomplish the same task with no performance loss , in comparison with the performance achieved when the task is performed using the whole available data . Therefore , every instance selection strategy should deal with a trade-off between the reduction rate of the dataset and the classification quality .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Instance_selection", "rank": 19, "score": 62855 }, { "content": "Title: Overwriting (computer science) Content: Overwriting is a process of writing a binary set of data in computer data storage and is a term used to describe when new information replaces old information or data . In general it writes over the previous data , hence the name . Overwriting generally occurs when unused file system clusters are written upon with new data , though overwriting is also used in security algorithms . These algorithms use a precise set of rules to remove any part of an original data from the memory by writing a new raw data on the memory . Data that has been overwritten , even just once , is generally considered to be unrecoverable . There have been theories regarding the feasibility of recovering overwritten data , but none have been put into actual practice . As such there is no evidence in favor of recovering overwritten data , but several suggesting it is entirely impossible .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Overwriting_(computer_science)", "rank": 20, "score": 62132 }, { "content": "Title: Replacement Content: Replace , Replacement or Replacements may refer to :", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Replacement", "rank": 21, "score": 61789 }, { "content": "Title: VoID Content: The Vocabulary of Interlinked Datasets ( VoID ) is an RDF vocabulary , and a set of instructions , that enables the discovery and usage of linked data sets . A linked dataset is a collection of data , published and maintained by a single provider , available as RDF on the Web , where at least some of the resources in the dataset are identified by dereferencable URIs .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "VoID", "rank": 22, "score": 61715 }, { "content": "Title: Missing data Content: In statistics , missing data , or missing values , occur when no data value is stored for the variable in an observation . Missing data are a common occurrence and can have a significant effect on the conclusions that can be drawn from the data . Missing data can occur because of nonresponse : no information is provided for one or more items or for a whole unit ( `` subject '' ) . Some items are more likely to generate a nonresponse than others : for example items about private subjects such as income . Attrition ( `` Dropout '' ) is a type of missingness that can occur in longitudinal studies - for instance studying development where a measurement is repeated after a certain period of time . Missingness occurs when participants drop out before the test ends and one or more measurements are missing . Data often are missing in research in economics , sociology , and political science because governments choose not to , or fail to , report critical statistics . Sometimes missing values are caused by the researcher -- for example , when data collection is done improperly or mistakes are made in data entry . These forms of missingness take different types , with different impacts on the validity of conclusions from research : Missing completely at random , missing at random , and missing not at random .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Missing_data", "rank": 23, "score": 61131 }, { "content": "Title: Data corruption Content: Data corruption refers to errors in computer data that occur during writing , reading , storage , transmission , or processing , which introduce unintended changes to the original data . Computer , transmission , and storage systems use a number of measures to provide end-to-end data integrity , or lack of errors . In general , when data corruption occurs a file containing that data will produce unexpected results when accessed by the system or the related application . Results could range from a minor loss of data to a system crash . For example , if a document file is corrupted , when a person tries to open that file with a document editor they may get an error message , thus the file might not be opened or might open with some of the data corrupted ( or in some cases , completely corrupted , leaving the document unintelligble ) . The image to the right is a corrupted image file in which most of the information has been lost . Some types of malware may intentionally corrupt files as part of their payloads , usually by overwriting them with inoperative or garbage code , while non-malicious viruses may also unintentionally corrupt files when it accesses them . If a virus or trojan with this payload method manages to alter files critical to the running of the computer 's operating system software or physical hardware , the entire system may be rendered unusable . Some programs can give a suggestion to repair the file automatically ( after the error ) , and some programs can not repair it . It depends on the level of corruption , and the built-in functionality of the application to handle the error . There are various causes of the corruption .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_corruption", "rank": 24, "score": 61033 }, { "content": "Title: Data lineage Content: Data lineage includes the data 's origins , what happens to it and where it moves over time . It simplifies tracing errors back to their sources in a data analytics process . It also enables replaying specific portions or inputs of the data flow for step-wise debugging or regenerating lost output . In fact , database systems used such information , called data provenance , to address similar validation and debugging challenges . Data provenance documents the inputs , entities , systems , and processes that influence data of interest , in effect providing a historical record of the data and its origins . The generated evidence supports essential forensic activities such as data-dependency analysis , error/compromise detection and recovery , and auditing and compliance analysis . `` Lineage is a simple type of why provenance . '' It can be represented visually to discover the data flow/movement from its source to destination via various changes and hops on its way in the enterprise environment , how the data gets transformed along the way , how the representation and parameters change , and how the data splits or converges after each hop . A simple representation of the Data Lineage can be shown with dots and lines , where dot represents a data container for data point ( s ) and lines connecting them represents the transformation ( s ) the data point under goes , between the data containers . Representation broadly depends on scope of the meta-data management and reference point of interest . Data lineage provides sources of the data and intermediate data flow hops from the reference point with Backward data lineage , leads to the final destination 's data points and its intermediate data flows with forward data lineage . These views can be combined with end to end lineage for a reference point that provides complete audit trail of that data point of interest from source ( s ) to its final destination ( s ) . As the data points or hops increases , the complexity of such representation becomes incomprehensible . Thus , the best feature of the data lineage view would be to be able to simplify the view by temporarily masking unwanted peripheral data points . Tools that have the masking feature enables scalability of the view and enhances analysis with best user experience for both technical and business users . The scope of the data lineage determines the volume of metadata required to represent its data lineage . Usually , data governance , and data management determines the scope of the data lineage based on their regulations , enterprise data management strategy , data impact , reporting attributes , and critical data elements of the organization . Data lineage provides the audit trail of the data points at the lowest granular level , but presentation of the lineage may be done at various zoom levels to simplify the vast information , similar to analytic web maps . Data Lineage can be visualized at various levels based on the granularity of the view . At a very high level data lineage provides what systems the data interacts before it reaches destination . As the granularity increases it goes up to the data point level where it can provide the details of the data point and its historical behavior , attribute properties , and trends and data quality of the data passed through that specific data point in the data lineage . Data governance plays a key role in metadata management for guidelines , strategies , policies , implementation . Data quality , and master data management helps in enriching the data lineage with more business value . Even though the final representation of data lineage is provided in one interface but the way the metadata is harvested and exposed to the data lineage graphical user interface could be entirely different . Thus , data lineage can be broadly divided into three categories based on the way metadata is harvested : data lineage involving software packages for structured data , programming languages , and big data . Data lineage expects to view at least the technical metadata involving the data points and its various transformations . Along with technical data , Data Lineage may enrich the metadata with their corresponding Data Quality results , Reference Data values , Data Models , Business Vocabulary , People , Programs , and Systems linked to the data points and transformations . Masking feature in the data lineage visualization allows the tools to incorporate all the enrichments that matter for the specific use case . Metadata normalization may be done in data lineage to represent disparate systems into one common view .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_lineage", "rank": 25, "score": 60997 }, { "content": "Title: Influential observation Content: In statistics , an influential observation is an observation for a statistical calculation whose deletion from the dataset would noticeably change the result of the calculation . In particular , in regression analysis an influential point is one whose deletion has a large effect on the parameter estimates .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Influential_observation", "rank": 26, "score": 60712 }, { "content": "Title: Cache invalidation Content: Cache invalidation is a process in a computer system whereby entries in a cache are replaced or removed . It can be done explicitly , as part of a cache coherence protocol . In such a case , a processor changes a memory location and then invalidates the cached values of that memory location across the rest of the computer system .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Cache_invalidation", "rank": 27, "score": 60648 }, { "content": "Title: Question-focused dataset Content: A question-focused dataset ( QFD ) is a subset of data that is derived from one or more parent data sources and substantively transformed in order to answer a specific analytic question or small set of questions . Since by definition a QFD is designed with a specific question in mind , it should perform much better at answering the question that the parent repository .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Question-focused_dataset", "rank": 28, "score": 60047 }, { "content": "Title: Newey–West estimator Content: __ NOTOC __ A Newey -- West estimator is used in statistics and econometrics to provide an estimate of the covariance matrix of the parameters of a regression-type model when this model is applied in situations where the standard assumptions of regression analysis do not apply . It was devised by Whitney K. Newey and Kenneth D. West in 1987 , although there are a number of later variants . The estimator is used to try to overcome autocorrelation ( also called serial correlation ) , and heteroskedasticity in the error terms in the models , often for regressions applied to time series data . The problem in autocorrelation , often found in time series data , is that the error terms are correlated over time . This can be demonstrated in , a matrix of sums of squares and cross products that involves and the rows of . The least squares estimator is a consistent estimator of . This implies that the least squares residuals are `` point-wise '' consistent estimators of their population counterparts . The general approach , then , will be to use and to devise an estimator of . This means that as the time between error terms increases , the correlation between the error terms decreases . The estimator thus can be used to improve the ordinary least squares ( OLS ) regression when the residuals are heteroskedastic and/or autocorrelated .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Newey–West_estimator", "rank": 29, "score": 59839 }, { "content": "Title: Drop-in replacement Content: Drop-in replacement is a term used in computer science and other fields . It refers to the ability to replace one hardware ( or software ) component with another one without any other code or configuration changes being required and resulting in no negative impacts . Usually , the replacement has some benefits including one or more of the following : increased security increased speed increased feature set increased compatibility ( e.g. with other components or standards support ) increased support ( e.g. the old component may no longer be supported , maintained , or manufactured )", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Drop-in_replacement", "rank": 30, "score": 59766 }, { "content": "Title: Data deduplication Content: In computing , data deduplication is a specialized data compression technique for eliminating duplicate copies of repeating data . Related and somewhat synonymous terms are intelligent ( data ) compression and single-instance ( data ) storage . This technique is used to improve storage utilization and can also be applied to network data transfers to reduce the number of bytes that must be sent . In the deduplication process , unique chunks of data , or byte patterns , are identified and stored during a process of analysis . As the analysis continues , other chunks are compared to the stored copy and whenever a match occurs , the redundant chunk is replaced with a small reference that points to the stored chunk . Given that the same byte pattern may occur dozens , hundreds , or even thousands of times ( the match frequency is dependent on the chunk size ) , the amount of data that must be stored or transferred can be greatly reduced . This type of deduplication is different from that performed by standard file-compression tools , such as LZ77 and LZ78 . Whereas these tools identify short repeated substrings inside individual files , the intent of storage-based data deduplication is to inspect large volumes of data and identify large sections -- such as entire files or large sections of files -- that are identical , in order to store only one copy of it . This copy may be additionally compressed by single-file compression techniques . For example , a typical email system might contain 100 instances of the same 1 MB ( megabyte ) file attachment . Each time the email platform is backed up , all 100 instances of the attachment are saved , requiring 100 MB storage space . With data deduplication , only one instance of the attachment is actually stored ; the subsequent instances are referenced back to the saved copy for deduplication ratio of roughly 100 to 1 .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_deduplication", "rank": 31, "score": 59666 }, { "content": "Title: Data aggregation Content: Data aggregation is the compiling of information from databases with intent to prepare combined datasets for data processing .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_aggregation", "rank": 32, "score": 59361 }, { "content": "Title: Change of variables Content: In mathematics , a change of variables is a basic technique used to simplify problems in which the original variables are replaced with functions of other variables . The intent is that when expressed in new variables , the problem may become simpler , or equivalent to a better understood problem . Change of variables is an operation that is related with substitution . However these are different operations , as it can be seen when considering differentiation ( chain rule ) or integration ( integration by substitution ) . A very simple example of a useful variable change can be seen in the problem of finding the roots of the sixth order polynomial : Sixth order polynomial equations are generally impossible to solve in terms of radicals ( see Abel -- Ruffini theorem ) . This particular equation , however , may be written ( this is a simple case of a polynomial decomposition ) . Thus the equation may be simplified by defining a new variable x3 = u. Substituting x by into the polynomial gives which is just a quadratic equation with solutions : The solutions in terms of the original variable are obtained by substituting x3 back in for u : Then , assuming that x is real ,", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Change_of_variables", "rank": 33, "score": 59149 }, { "content": "Title: Pseudoproxy Content: A pseudoproxy is a synthetic dataset used in paleoclimatology to test methods of reconstruction of global or hemispherical climate change from temperature records , developed for reconstructing the temperature record of the past 1000 years using proxies for periods before the instrumental temperature record . In May 2002 Michael E. Mann and Scott Rutherford published a paper introducing this method of adding artificial noise to actual temperature records or to climate model simulations to produce what they called `` pseudoproxies '' . When the reconstruction algorithms were used with these pseudoproxies , the result was then compared with the original record or simulation to see how closely it had been reconstructed . They discussed the issue that regression methods of reconstruction tended to underestimate the amplitude of variation .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Pseudoproxy", "rank": 34, "score": 59001 }, { "content": "Title: Polyphyodont Content: A polyphyodont is any animal whose teeth are continually replaced . In contrast , diphyodonts are characterized by having only two successive sets of teeth . Polyphyodonts include most toothed fishes , many reptiles such as crocodiles , geckos , and most other vertebrates , mammals being the main exception . New , permanent teeth grow in the jaws , usually under or just behind the old tooth , from stem cells in the dental lamina . Young animals typically have a full set of teeth when they hatch ; there is no tooth change in the egg . Within days , tooth replacement begins , usually in the back of the jaw continuing forward like a wave . On average a tooth is replaced every few months . Crocodilia are the only non-mammalian vertebrates with tooth sockets . Alligators grow a successional tooth ( a small replacement tooth ) under each mature functional tooth for replacement once a year , each tooth being replaced up to 50 times in the alligator 's life . Crocodilia are researched for tooth regeneration in humans .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Polyphyodont", "rank": 35, "score": 58943 }, { "content": "Title: Oversampling and undersampling in data analysis Content: Oversampling and undersampling in data analysis are techniques used to adjust the class distribution of a data set ( i.e. the ratio between the different classes/categories represented ) . Oversampling and undersampling are opposite and roughly equivalent techniques . They both involve using a bias to select more samples from one class than from another . The usual reason for oversampling is to correct for a bias in the original dataset . One scenario where it is useful is when training a classifier using labelled training data from a biased source , since labelled training data is valuable but often comes from un-representative sources . For example , suppose we have a sample of 1000 people of which 66.7 % are male ( perhaps the sample was collected at a football match ) . We know the general population is 50 % female , and we may wish to adjust our dataset to represent this . Simple oversampling will select each female example twice , and this copying will produce a balanced dataset of 1333 samples with 50 % female . Simple undersampling will drop some of the male samples at random to give a balanced dataset of 667 samples , again with 50 % female . There are also more complex oversampling techniques , including the creation of artificial data points .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Oversampling_and_undersampling_in_data_analysis", "rank": 36, "score": 58763 }, { "content": "Title: Data remanence Content: Data remanence is the residual representation of digital data that remains even after attempts have been made to remove or erase the data . This residue may result from data being left intact by a nominal file deletion operation , by reformatting of storage media that does not remove data previously written to the media , or through physical properties of the storage media that allow previously written data to be recovered . Data remanence may make inadvertent disclosure of sensitive information possible should the storage media be released into an uncontrolled environment ( e.g. , thrown in the trash or lost ) . Various techniques have been developed to counter data remanence . These techniques are classified as clearing , purging/sanitizing , or destruction . Specific methods include overwriting , degaussing , encryption , and media destruction . Effective application of countermeasures can be complicated by several factors , including media that are inaccessible , media that can not effectively be erased , advanced storage systems that maintain histories of data throughout the data 's life cycle , and persistence of data in memory that is typically considered volatile . Several standards exist for the secure removal of data and the elimination of data remanence .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_remanence", "rank": 37, "score": 58601 }, { "content": "Title: Testing hypotheses suggested by the data Content: In statistics , hypotheses suggested by a given dataset , when tested with the same dataset that suggested them , are likely to be accepted even when they are not true . This is because circular reasoning ( double dipping ) would be involved : something seems true in the limited data set , therefore we hypothesize that it is true in general , therefore we ( wrongly ) test it on the same limited data set , which seems to confirm that it is true . Generating hypotheses based on data already observed , in the absence of testing them on new data , is referred to as post hoc theorizing ( from Latin post hoc , `` after this '' ) . The correct procedure is to test any hypothesis on a data set that was not used to generate the hypothesis .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Testing_hypotheses_suggested_by_the_data", "rank": 38, "score": 58543 }, { "content": "Title: Data cleansing Content: Data cleansing , data cleaning , or data scrubbing is the process of detecting and correcting ( or removing ) corrupt or inaccurate records from a record set , table , or database and refers to identifying incomplete , incorrect , inaccurate or irrelevant parts of the data and then replacing , modifying , or deleting the dirty or coarse data . Data cleansing may be performed interactively with data wrangling tools , or as batch processing through scripting . After cleansing , a data set should be consistent with other similar data sets in the system . The inconsistencies detected or removed may have been originally caused by user entry errors , by corruption in transmission or storage , or by different data dictionary definitions of similar entities in different stores . Data cleansing differs from data validation in that validation almost invariably means data is rejected from the system at entry and is performed at the time of entry , rather than on batches of data . The actual process of data cleansing may involve removing typographical errors or validating and correcting values against a known list of entities . The validation may be strict ( such as rejecting any address that does not have a valid postal code ) or fuzzy ( such as correcting records that partially match existing , known records ) . Some data cleansing solutions will clean data by cross checking with a validated data set . A common data cleansing practice is data enhancement , where data is made more complete by adding related information . For example , appending addresses with any phone numbers related to that address . Data cleansing may also involve activities like , harmonization of data , and standardization of data . For example , harmonization of short codes ( st , rd , etc. ) to actual words ( street , road , etcetera ) . Standardization of data is a means of changing a reference data set to a new standard , ex , use of standard codes .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_cleansing", "rank": 39, "score": 58437 }, { "content": "Title: NTU RGB-D dataset Content: The NTU RGB-D ( Nanyang Technological University 's Red Blue Green and Depth information ) dataset is a large dataset containing recordings of labeled human activities . This dataset consists of 56,880 action samples containing 4 different modalities ( RGB videos , depth map sequences , 3D skeletal data , infrared videos ) of data for each sample . The dataset consists of 60 labelled actions . Specifically , drink water , eat meal/snack , brushing teeth , brushing hair , drop , pickup , throw , sitting down , standing up ( from sitting position ) , clapping , reading , writing , tear up paper , wear jacket , take off jacket , wear a shoe , take off a shoe , wear on glasses , take off glasses , put on a hat/cap , take off a hat/cap , cheer up , hand waving , kicking something , put something inside pocket / take out something from pocket , hopping ( one foot jumping ) , jump up , make a phone call/answer phone , playing with phone/tablet , typing on a keyboard , pointing to something with finger , taking a selfie , check time ( from watch ) , rub two hands together , nod head/bow , shake head , wipe face , salute , put the palms together , cross hands in front ( say stop ) , sneeze/cough , staggering , falling , touch head ( headache ) , touch chest ( stomachache/heart pain ) , touch back ( backache ) , touch neck ( neckache ) , nausea or vomiting condition , use a fan ( with hand or paper ) / feeling warm , punching/slapping other person , kicking other person , pushing other person , pat on back of other person , point finger at the other person , hugging other person , giving something to other person , touch other person 's pocket , handshaking , walking towards each other and walking apart from each other .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "NTU_RGB-D_dataset", "rank": 40, "score": 58167 }, { "content": "Title: Democracy-Dictatorship Index Content: Democracy-Dictatorship ( DD ) , index of democracy and dictatorship or simply the DD index or the DD datasets refers to the binary measure of democracy and dictatorship first proposed by Adam Przeworski et al. ( 2010 ) , and further developed and maintained by Cheibub , Gandhi , and Vreeland ( 2009 ) . Based on the regime binary classification idea proposed by Alvarez in 1996 , and the Democracy and Development ( or DD measure , ACLP datatset ) proposed by Przeworski et al. ( 2010 ) , Cheibub , Gandhi , and Vreeland developed a six-fold regime classification scheme , resulting what the authors called as the DD datasets . The DD dataset covers the annual data points of 199 countries from 1946 ( or date of independence ) to 2008 . The figures at the left show the results in 1998 and 2008 .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Democracy-Dictatorship_Index", "rank": 41, "score": 58139 }, { "content": "Title: Bulk personal datasets Content: `` Bulk personal datasets '' is the UK government 's euphemism for datasets containing personally identifiable information on a large number of individuals , as part of mass surveillance in the United Kingdom and on citizens around the world . The term was first used publicly in March 2015 by the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament , and is subject to significant controversy . Other UK Government departments have programmes utilising bulk personal datasets , one of which is the care.data programme in the Department of Health and National Health Service . In health , bulk personal datasets are created as a by-product of providing direct care .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Bulk_personal_datasets", "rank": 42, "score": 57792 }, { "content": "Title: Point set registration Content: In computer vision and pattern recognition , point set registration , also known as point matching , is the process of finding a spatial transformation that aligns two point sets . The purpose of finding such a transformation includes merging multiple data sets into a globally consistent model , and mapping a new measurement to a known data set to identify features or to estimate its pose . A point set may be raw data from 3D scanning or an array of rangefinders . For use in image processing and feature-based image registration , a point set may be a set of features obtained by feature extraction from an image , for example corner detection . Point set registration is used in optical character recognition , augmented reality and aligning data from magnetic resonance imaging with computer aided tomography scans .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Point_set_registration", "rank": 43, "score": 57308 }, { "content": "Title: Fail-stop Content: A fail-stop subset of a computer language is one that has the same semantics as the original , except in the case where an exceptional condition arises . The fail-stop subset must report an exceptional condition whenever the superset language reports one , but may additionally report an exceptional condition in other cases . Fail-stop languages are often used in computer systems where correctness is very important , since it is easier to make such systems fail-fast . For example , the '' + '' operator in many programming languages is not associative because of the possibility of floating-point overflow . Repairing these languages to fail fast when commonly assumed properties do not hold makes it much easier to write and verify correct code .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Fail-stop", "rank": 44, "score": 57277 }, { "content": "Title: National minimum dataset Content: In health informatics , a national minimum dataset is a database of health encounters held by a central repository . Minimum implies that the data fields will be only those required to aggregate information for the purposes of administering the health system in the particular country and for reporting information required as a member country of WHO .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "National_minimum_dataset", "rank": 45, "score": 57006 }, { "content": "Title: Linear Data Set Content: A Linear DataSet ( LDS ) is a type of data set organization used by the VSAM computer data storage system . This data set allows for physical addressing , which allows it to be used by systems such as that Operating systems . The benefit of this is that systems such as the OS can access multiple disk spindles and view it as a single storage implementation . The limitations of this , though , is that this does not make this particularly useful to higher level abstraction levels .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Linear_Data_Set", "rank": 46, "score": 56968 }, { "content": "Title: Data truncation Content: In databases and computer networking data truncation occurs when data or a data stream ( such as a file ) is stored in a location too short to hold its entire length . Data truncation may occur automatically , such as when a long string is written to a smaller buffer , or deliberately , when only a portion of the data is wanted . Depending on what type of data validation a program or operating system has , the data may be truncated silently ( i.e. , without informing the user ) , or the user may be given an error message . For example , sometimes instead of rounding off a numerical value obtained from a calculation , some of the digits might just be removed i.e. truncated", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_truncation", "rank": 47, "score": 56955 }, { "content": "Title: JavaScript Data Components Content: The JavaScript Data Components ( JSDC ) are open source libraries ( GPL ) , made to give developers of dynamic web pages an easy and fast way of making their applications more powerful using datasets , master-detail relations , dataset-events , conditions and data-aware components . Implementing AJAX-technologies , it is able to connect to servers and download data from them . These components are aimed to implement all the features necessary for a newbie ( or former back-end programmer ) to make an AJAX-implementation that looks professional while not having to be knowledgeable of the special behaviour of each browser in the market . It 's like ZK but instead of Java only , it is JavaScript only .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "JavaScript_Data_Components", "rank": 48, "score": 56914 }, { "content": "Title: ABA problem Content: In multithreaded computing , the ABA problem occurs during synchronization , when a location is read twice , has the same value for both reads , and `` value is the same '' is used to indicate `` nothing has changed '' . However , another thread can execute between the two reads and change the value , do other work , then change the value back , thus fooling the first thread into thinking `` nothing has changed '' even though the second thread did work that violates that assumption . The ABA problem occurs when multiple threads ( or processes ) accessing shared data interleave . Below is the sequence of events that will result in the ABA problem : Process reads value A from shared memory , is preempted , allowing process to run , modifies the shared memory value A to value B and back to A before preemption , begins execution again , sees that the shared memory value has not changed and continues . Although can continue executing , it is possible that the behavior will not be correct due to the `` hidden '' modification in shared memory . A common case of the ABA problem is encountered when implementing a lock-free data structure . If an item is removed from the list , deleted , and then a new item is allocated and added to the list , it is common for the allocated object to be at the same location as the deleted object due to optimization . A pointer to the new item is thus sometimes equal to a pointer to the old item which is an ABA problem .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "ABA_problem", "rank": 49, "score": 56885 }, { "content": "Title: Rapid bridge replacement Content: Rapid bridge replacement or accelerated bridge construction ( ABC ) is a technique that allows bridges to be replaced with minimum disruption to traffic . The replacement bridge is constructed on a site near the bridge to be replaced . When it is completed , the old bridge is cut away and removed using self-propelled modular transporters ( SPMTs ) . Then the SPMTs lift the new bridge , transfer it to the work site and put it in place . Often the highway or railroad carried by the bridge is closed for just one weekend . Conventional techniques typically replace half a bridge at a time , with all highway traffic crammed into the other bridge half , often for a year or more , while construction progresses . Notable rapid bridge replacement projects include Interstate 93 in Massachusetts , where 14 bridges were replaced over 10 weekends in 2011 .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Rapid_bridge_replacement", "rank": 50, "score": 56834 }, { "content": "Title: DataVault Content: The DataVault was Thinking Machines ' mass storage system . It stored five gigabytes of data , expandable to ten gigabytes with transfer rates of 40 megabytes per second . Eight DataVaults could be operated in parallel for a combined data transfer rate of 320 megabytes per second for up to 80 gigabytes of data . Each DataVault unit stored its data in an array of 39 individual disk drives with data was spread across the drives . Each 64-bit data chunk received from the I/O bus was split into two 32-bit words . After verifying parity , the DataVault controller added 7 bits of Error Correcting Code ( ECC ) and stored the resulting 39 bits on 39 individual drives . Subsequent failure of any one of the 39 drives would not impair reading of the data , since the ECC code allows any single bit error to be detected and corrected . Although operation is possible with a single failed drive , three spare drives were available to replace failed units until they are repaired . The ECC codes permit 100 % recovery of the data on any one failed disk , allowing a new copy of this data to be reconstructed and written onto the replacement disk . Once this recovery is complete , the data base is considered to be healed . In today 's terminology this would be labeled a RAID-2 subsystem . It actually shipped before the label RAID was formed . The DataVault was a striking example of industrial design . Instead of the usual rectilinear box , the cabinet had a gentle curve that made it look like an information desk or a bartender 's station .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "DataVault", "rank": 51, "score": 56521 }, { "content": "Title: Data reduction Content: Data reduction is the transformation of numerical or alphabetical digital information derived empirically or experimentally into a corrected , ordered , and simplified form . The basic concept is the reduction of multitudinous amounts of data down to the meaningful parts . When information is derived from instrument readings there may also be a transformation from analog to digital form . When the data are already in digital form the ` reduction ' of the data typically involves some editing , scaling , coding , sorting , collating , and producing tabular summaries . When the observations are discrete but the underlying phenomenon is continuous then smoothing and interpolation are often needed . Often the data reduction is undertaken in the presence of reading or measurement errors . Some idea of the nature of these errors is needed before the most likely value may be determined . An example in astronomy is the data reduction in the Kepler satellite . This satellite records 95-megapixel images once every six seconds , generating tens of megabytes of data per second , which is orders of magnitudes more than the downlink bandwidth of 550 KBps . The on-board data reduction encompasses co-adding the raw frames for thirty minutes , reducing the bandwidth by a factor of 300 . Furthermore , interesting targets are pre-selected and only the relevant pixels are processed , which is 6 % of the total . This reduced data is then sent to Earth where it is processed further .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_reduction", "rank": 52, "score": 56487 }, { "content": "Title: CORA dataset Content: CORA ( standing for Coriolis Ocean database ReAnalysis ) is a global oceanographic temperature and salinity dataset produced and maintained by the French institute IFREMER . Most of those data are real-time data coming from different types of platforms ( research vessels , profilers , underwater gliders , drifting buoys , moored buoys , sea mammals , opportunity ships , ... ) .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "CORA_dataset", "rank": 53, "score": 56443 }, { "content": "Title: Dataverse Content: The Dataverse is an open source web application to share , preserve , cite , explore and analyze research data . Researchers , data authors , publishers , data distributors , and affiliated institutions all receive appropriate credit via a data citation with a persistent identifier ( e.g. , DOI , or Handle ) . A Dataverse repository hosts multiple dataverses . Each dataverse contains dataset ( s ) or other dataverses , and each dataset contains descriptive metadata and data files ( including documentation and code that accompany the data ) .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Dataverse", "rank": 54, "score": 56421 }, { "content": "Title: Cache replacement policies Content: In computing , cache algorithms ( also frequently called cache replacement algorithms or cache replacement policies ) are optimizing instructionsor algorithmsthat a computer program or a hardware-maintained structure can follow in order to manage a cache of information stored on the computer . When the cache is full , the algorithm must choose which items to discard to make room for the new ones .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Cache_replacement_policies", "rank": 55, "score": 56303 }, { "content": "Title: DataAdapter Content: In ADO.NET , a DataAdapter functions as a bridge between a data source , and a disconnected data class , such as a DataSet . At the simplest level it will specify SQL commands that provide elementary CRUD functionality . At a more advanced level it offers all the functions required in order to create Strongly Typed DataSets , including DataRelations . Data adapters are an integral part of ADO.NET managed providers , which are the set of objects used to communicate between a data source and a dataset . ( In addition to adapters , managed providers include connection objects , data reader objects , and command objects . ) Adapters are used to exchange data between a data source and a dataset . In many applications , this means reading data from a database into a dataset , and then writing changed data from the dataset back to the database . However , a data adapter can move data between any source and a dataset . For example , there could be an adapter that moves data between a Microsoft Exchange server and a dataset . Sometimes the data you work with is primarily read-only and you rarely need to make changes to the underlying data source Some situations also call for caching data in memory to minimize the number of database calls for data that does not change . The data adapter makes it easy for you to accomplish these things by helping to manage data in a disconnected mode . The data adapter fills a DataSet object when reading the data and writes in a single batch when persisting changes back to the database . A data adapter contains a reference to the connection object and opens and closes the connection automatically when reading from or writing to the database . Additionally , the data adapter contains command object references for SELECT , INSERT , UPDATE , and DELETE operations on the data . You will have a data adapter defined for each table in a DataSet and it will take care of all communication with the database for you . All you need to do is tell the data adapter when to load from or write to the database . Category : ADO.NET Data Access technologies Category : Microsoft application programming interfaces", "qid": "2903", "docid": "DataAdapter", "rank": 56, "score": 56195 }, { "content": "Title: Molecular replacement Content: Molecular replacement ( or MR ) is a method of solving the phase problem in X-ray crystallography . MR relies upon the existence of a previously solved protein structure which is homologous ( similar ) to our unknown structure from which the diffraction data is derived . The first goal of the crystallographer is to obtain an electron density map , density being related with diffracted wave as follows : With usual detectors the intensity is being measured , so all the information about phase is lost . Then , in the absence of phases , we are unable to complete the shown Fourier transform relating the experimental data from X-ray crystallography ( in reciprocal space ) to real-space electron density , into which the atomic model is built . MR tries to find the model which fits best experimental intensities among known structures .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Molecular_replacement", "rank": 57, "score": 56121 }, { "content": "Title: Data extraction Content: Data extraction is the act or process of retrieving data out of ( usually unstructured or poorly structured ) data sources for further data processing or data storage ( data migration ) . The import into the intermediate extracting system is thus usually followed by data transformation and possibly the addition of metadata prior to export to another stage in the data workflow . Usually , the term data extraction is applied when ( experimental ) data is first imported into a computer from primary sources , like measuring or recording devices . Today 's electronic devices will usually present an electrical connector ( e.g. USB ) through which ` raw data ' can be streamed into a personal computer . Typical unstructured data sources include web pages , emails , documents , PDFs , scanned text , mainframe reports , spool files , classifieds , etc. . Which is further used for sales / marketing leads . Extracting data from these unstructured sources has grown into a considerable technical challenge where as historically data extraction has had to deal with changes in physical hardware formats , the majority of current data extraction deals with extracting data from these unstructured data sources , and from different software formats . This growing process of data extraction from the web is referred to as Web scraping . The act of adding structure to unstructured data takes a number of forms Using text pattern matching such as regular expressions to identify small or large-scale structure e.g. records in a report and their associated data from headers and footers ; Using a table-based approach to identify common sections within a limited domain e.g. in emailed resumes , identifying skills , previous work experience , qualifications etc. using a standard set of commonly used headings ( these would differ from language to language ) , e.g. Education might be found under Education/Qualification/Courses ; Using text analytics to attempt to understand the text and link it to other information", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_extraction", "rank": 58, "score": 55912 }, { "content": "Title: Synonym ring Content: In metadata a synonym ring or synset , is a group of data elements that are considered semantically equivalent for the purposes of information retrieval . These data elements are frequently found in different metadata registries . Although a group of terms can be considered equivalent , metadata registries store the synonyms at a central location called the preferred data element . According to WordNet , a synset or synonym set is defined as a set of one or more synonyms that are interchangeable in some context without changing the truth value of the proposition in which they are embedded .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Synonym_ring", "rank": 59, "score": 55868 }, { "content": "Title: Rail replacement bus service Content: A rail replacement bus service uses buses to replace a passenger train service either on a temporary or permanent basis . The train service that is replaced may be of any type such as light rail , tram , streetcar , commuter rail , regional rail or heavy rail , intercity passenger service . The rail service may be replaced if the line is closed due to rail maintenance , a breakdown of a train , a rail accident , strike action , or if the rail service is not economically viable . Terms for a rail replacement bus service include bustitution ( a portmanteau of the words `` bus '' and `` substitution '' , may also be bustitute ) and bus bridge . Substitution of rail services by buses can be unpopular and subject to criticism , so the term bustitution is often used pejoratively . A similar concept in some ways is motorization , but that term more broadly refers to the rise of the automobile as well as bus transportation .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Rail_replacement_bus_service", "rank": 60, "score": 55788 }, { "content": "Title: Data migration Content: Data migration is the process of transferring data between computer storage types or file formats . It is a key consideration for any system implementation , upgrade , or consolidation . Data migration is usually performed programmatically to achieve an automated migration , freeing up human resources from tedious tasks . Data migration occurs for a variety of reasons , including server or storage equipment replacements , maintenance or upgrades , application migration , website consolidation and data center relocation . To achieve an effective data migration procedure , data on the old system is mapped to the new system utilising a design for data extraction and data loading . The design relates old data formats to the new system 's formats and requirements . Programmatic data migration may involve many phases but it minimally includes data extraction where data is read from the old system and data loading where data is written to the new system . After loading into the new system , results are subjected to data verification to determine whether data was accurately translated , is complete , and supports processes in the new system . During verification , there may be a need for a parallel run of both systems to identify areas of disparity and forestall erroneous data loss . Automated and manual data cleaning is commonly performed in migration to improve data quality , eliminate redundant or obsolete information , and match the requirements of the new system . Data migration phases ( design , extraction , cleansing , load , verification ) for applications of moderate to high complexity are commonly repeated several times before the new system is deployed .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_migration", "rank": 61, "score": 55735 }, { "content": "Title: Watermark (data synchronization) Content: Watermark describes an object of a predefined format which provides a point of reference for two systems/datasets attempting to establish delta/incremental synchronization ; any object in the queried data source which was created , modified/changed , and/or deleted after the watermark value was established will be qualified as `` above watermark '' and could/should be returned to a delta-querying partner", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Watermark_(data_synchronization)", "rank": 62, "score": 55700 }, { "content": "Title: Data degradation Content: Data degradation is the gradual corruption of computer data due to an accumulation of non-critical failures in a data storage device . The phenomenon is also known as data decay or data rot .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_degradation", "rank": 63, "score": 55528 }, { "content": "Title: Smart Data Compression Content: Smart Data Compression is a compressed GIS dataset format developed by ESRI . It stores all types of feature data and attribute information together as a core data structure . The SDC format is used in ESRI products such as ArcGIS StreetMap , ArcIMS Route Server , RouteMAP IMS , ArcGIS Business Analyst , and the ArcMobile SDK . Compression ratios range from 8x to 20x depending on the data source and structure . SDC data is optimized for rapid map display , accurate routing , and high-performance geocoding . Smart Data Compression is a proprietary format . The FAQ for ESRI 's RouteServer IMS notes that additional datasets for that application must be prepared by an ESRI subsidiary at additional cost . The SDC technology was developed by Software Technologies , ESRI partner in Russia . Tele Atlas and NAVTEQ provide North American commercial street datasets in SDC format . This data was prepared using the Data Development Kit Pro ( DDK Pro ) , which ESRI licenses to select vendors . The term Smart Data and idea was coined and created by Dr. James A Rodgers professor at Indiana University of Pennsylvania and James A George , Circa `` Smart Data Enterprise Performance Optimization Strategy ''", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Smart_Data_Compression", "rank": 64, "score": 55450 }, { "content": "Title: New trial Content: A new trial or retrial is a recurrence of a court case . Depending on the rules of the jurisdiction , a new trial may occur if : a jury is unable to reach a verdict ( see hung jury ) ; a trial court grants a party 's motion for a new trial , usually on the grounds of a legal defect in the original trial ; or an appellate court reverses a judgment under circumstances requiring that the case be tried again . In some types of cases ( for example , if the original trial court was not a court of record ) or in some legal systems , if the losing party to a case appeals , then the appellate court itself will hold a new trial , known as a trial de novo . In the United States , if a defendant is acquitted of a crime , the Fifth Amendment generally prohibits a retrial ; thus , with few exceptions , a retrial only can occur if the verdict in the first trial was `` guilty '' , or if there was no verdict . In other legal systems , the rules may be different .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "New_trial", "rank": 65, "score": 55417 }, { "content": "Title: Transitive data skew Content: In distributed computing problems , transitive data skew is an issue of data synchronization . It arises with the uneven distribution of otherwise evenly distributed data across a number of devices while the data is in transition . If sorted data is being distributed across multiple devices and the column on which that data is sorted is the `` key '' used to identify the target device , the resulting transitive data skew may be self-correcting . Category : Distributed computing problems", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Transitive_data_skew", "rank": 66, "score": 55302 }, { "content": "Title: Mid-season replacement Content: In American and Canadian television , a mid-season replacement is a television series that premieres in the second half of the traditional television season , usually between January and May . Mid-season replacements usually take place after a show that was in the fall schedule was canceled or put on hiatus , outside factors such as an actor 's family emergency or personal illness led to a delay in the program 's debut , a program was purposefully scheduled for mid-season , or a program had a shortened season for some other reason which resulted in a time slot that needed filling . A few shows in American television history have been perennial mid-season replacements ; American Idol , for example , from its second season onward , aired from January to May each year , to great ratings success . An older , related concept is the summer replacement , which debuts between May and August , when a network 's marquee programs go on hiatus . Summer replacements tend to be lower-profile shows with either low budgets or minimal prospects for renewal .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Mid-season_replacement", "rank": 67, "score": 55036 }, { "content": "Title: Data point Content: In statistics , a data point or observation is a set of one or more measurements on a single member of a statistical population . For example , in a study of the determinants of money demand with the unit of observation being the individual , a data point might be the values of income , wealth , age of individual , number of dependents . Statistical inference about the population would be conducted using a statistical sample consisting of various such data points . In addition , in statistical graphics , a `` data point '' may be an individual item with a statistical display ; such points may relate to either a single member of a population or to a summary statistic calculated for a given subpopulation .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_point", "rank": 68, "score": 55005 }, { "content": "Title: FLAME clustering Content: Fuzzy clustering by Local Approximation of MEmberships ( FLAME ) is a data clustering algorithm that defines clusters in the dense parts of a dataset and performs cluster assignment solely based on the neighborhood relationships among objects . The key feature of this algorithm is that the neighborhood relationships among neighboring objects in the feature space are used to constrain the memberships of neighboring objects in the fuzzy membership space .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "FLAME_clustering", "rank": 69, "score": 54905 }, { "content": "Title: Code page 951 Content: Code page 951 is IBM 's PC Data DBCS code . This is also the IBM KS code . This code page supports the Korean language . Code page 949 is a superset of this code page . It is also a misnomer for a hack used in HKSCS-2001 support in Windows XP , derived from the file name . The `` new '' code page is a replacement for CP950 with Unicode mappings for some Extended User-defined Characters ( EUDC ) found in HKSCS . HKSCS characters without a Unicode mapping are assigned a Unicode Private Use Area ( PUA ) code point following previous practises .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Code_page_951", "rank": 70, "score": 54827 }, { "content": "Title: Framing error Content: Framing error can refer to the following : Generally , a framing error is the result of starting to read a sequence of data at the wrong point . In serial communications , a framing error is the result of reading a data frame -- a string of symbols which are grouped in blocks -- at the wrong starting point . The symbols are bits and the blocks are bytes , ten bits in asynchronous transmission and eight in synchronous . A framing error in an asynchronous stream usually recovers quickly , but a framing error in a synchronous stream produces gibberish at the end of the packet . Framing errors can be detected with parity bits . In genetics , a framing error ( also called a frameshift or a frameshift mutation ) is a mutation that inserts or deletes a single nucleotide from a DNA sequence . Due to the triplet nature of gene expression , the insertion/deletion can disrupt the grouping of the codons , resulting in a completely different translation from the original .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Framing_error", "rank": 71, "score": 54694 }, { "content": "Title: Nomen novum Content: In biological nomenclature , a nomen novum ( Latin for `` new name '' ) , new replacement name ( or replacement name , new substitute name , substitute name ) is a technical term . It indicates a scientific name that is created specifically to replace another scientific name , but only when this other name can not be used for technical , nomenclatural reasons ( for example because it is a homonym : it is spelled the same as an existing , older name ) ; it does not apply when a name is changed for taxonomic reasons ( representing a change in scientific insight ) . It is frequently abbreviated , e.g. nomen nov. , nom . nov. , or more explicitly by the rank specified , e.g. superordo nov. .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Nomen_novum", "rank": 72, "score": 54634 }, { "content": "Title: The Replacement (TV series) Content: The Replacement is a British television drama miniseries . It began airing on BBC One on 28 February 2017 . The three-part serial was filmed and set in Glasgow .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "The_Replacement_(TV_series)", "rank": 73, "score": 54565 }, { "content": "Title: Comparison of Start menu replacements for Windows 8 Content: Microsoft 's Windows 8 operating system introduced an updated Start menu known as the `` Start screen '' , which uses a full-screen design consisting of tiles to represent applications . This replaced the Windows desktop as the primary interface of the operating system . Additionally , the on-screen Start button was replaced by a hidden button in the corner of the screen ; Microsoft explained that the Start button was removed because few people used it , noting the addition of `` pinning '' apps to the taskbar from Windows 7 . The change was controversial among users , and a market ensued for applications which restore the visible Start button , emulate the previous Start menu design , or allow users to boot directly to the Desktop instead of the Start screen . The following is a list of Start menu replacements for Windows 8 which have received coverage from third-party sources : The number of skins in the table givens the number of built-in skins . If there are downloadable skins , then a '' + '' is appended to the number to indicate that download extensions are possible . RetroUI , StartIsBack , Classic Shell , Start8 , and Pokki are five of the more notable of these . RetroUI is offered in 33 languages , and also for Windows Server 2012 , and adds a taskbar and resizable windows . StartIsBack is also localized . Classic Shell used to be free and open source ( now proprietary freeware ) , major items are localized and installing the Language Pack from Windows Update makes all items fully localized ; Classic Shell is also available for Windows 7 and Windows Server , and claims over 25 million downloads . The Pokki download to restore the Start menu is free ; as of January 2013 , it has about 1.5 million users . The Pokki application platform , based on Chromium , enables desktop applications to be built -- like mobile apps -- using standard web languages like HTML5 , CSS3 , and JavaScript . It is also available for Windows XP and Windows 7 . Pokki has raised $ 21.5 M from investors like Google , Intel , and O'Reilly ; its business model is to make a commission on software sold through its app . store . Start8 has been downloaded over 5 million times .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Comparison_of_Start_menu_replacements_for_Windows_8", "rank": 74, "score": 54409 }, { "content": "Title: New Coke Content: New Coke was the unofficial name for the reformulation of Coca-Cola introduced in April 1985 by The Coca-Cola Company to replace the original formula of its flagship soft drink , Coca-Cola ( also called Coke ) . New Coke originally had no separate name of its own but was simply known as `` the new taste of Coca-Cola '' until 1992 , when it was officially renamed Coke II . Coca-Cola 's market share had been steadily losing ground to diet soft drinks and non-cola beverages for many years ; meanwhile the consumers who were purchasing regular colas seemed to prefer the sweeter taste of rival Pepsi-Cola , as Coca-Cola soon learned in conducting blind taste tests . However , the American public 's reaction to the change was negative , even hostile , and the new cola was a major marketing failure . The subsequent , rapid reintroduction of Coke 's original formula ( which was re-branded as `` Coca-Cola Classic '' and was put into market within three months of New Coke 's debut ) resulted in a significant gain in sales . This led to speculation that the introduction of the New Coke formula was just a marketing ploy ; however , the company has always maintained it was a genuine attempt to replace the original product . New Coke was on the market in the United States for only a short period , but it remains influential as a cautionary tale against tampering too extensively with a well-established and successful brand . It was discontinued internationally in July 2002 .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "New_Coke", "rank": 75, "score": 54405 }, { "content": "Title: Textual variants in the New Testament Content: Textual variants in the New testament are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament . Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text being reproduced . Some common alterations include the deletion , rearrangement , repetition , or replacement of one or more words when the copyist 's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text . If their eye skips to an earlier word , they may create a repetition ( error of dittography ) . If their eye skips to a later word , they may create an omission , or they may resort to performing a slight rearranging of words to retain the overall meaning without compromising the context . In other instances , the copyist may add text from memory from a similar or parallel text in another location . Otherwise , they may also replace some text of the original with an alternative reading . Spellings occasionally change . Synonyms may be substituted . A pronoun may be changed into a proper noun ( such as `` he said '' becoming `` Jesus said '' ) . Origen , writing in the 3rd century , was one of the first who made remarks about differences between manuscripts of texts that were eventually collected as the New Testament . He declared his preferences among variant readings . For example , in , he favored `` Barabbas '' against `` Jesus Barabbas '' ( In Matt . Comm . ser . 121 ) . In , he preferred `` Bethabara '' over `` Bethany '' as the location where John was baptizing ( Commentary on John VI .40 ( 24 ) ) . `` Gergeza '' was preferred over `` Geraza '' or `` Gadara '' ( Commentary on John VI .40 ( 24 ) -- see ) . At Hebrews 2:9 , Origen noticed two different readings : `` apart from God '' and `` by the grace of God '' . John Mill 's 1707 Greek New Testament was estimated to contain some 30,000 variants in its accompanying textual apparatus which was based on `` nearly 100 -LSB- Greek -RSB- manuscripts . '' Eberhard Nestle estimated this number in 1897 as 150,000 -- 200,000 variants . Bart D. Ehrman has estimated that there are `` between 200,000 -- 400,000 variants -LSB- in -RSB- several million pages of manuscripts , '' and in 2014 Eldon J. Epp raised the estimate as high as 750,000 . The most recent estimate puts the number of non-spelling variants among New Testament manuscripts around 500,000 . Since 1981 , in a system developed and introduced by Kurt and Barbara Aland in their textbook The text of the New Testament , Greek New Testament manuscripts have commonly been categorized into five groups . An abbreviated list of textual variants in the New Testament is given in this article ( below ) . Legend mss : manuscripts : papyrus number beginning with `` 0 '' : uncial number not beginning with `` 0 '' : minuscule ℓ : lectionary `` Byz '' or ð '' : Byzantine text-t ƒ : Family vg : Vulgate A : Codex Alexandrinus B : Codex Vaticanus C : Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus Dea : Codex Bezae Dp : Codex Claromontanus Ke : Codex Cyprius Kap : Codex Mosquensis I Le : Codex Regius ( New Testament ) Lap : Codex Angelicus Papr : Codex Porphyrianus W : Codex Washingtonianus Z : Codex Dublinensis Γ : Codex Tischendorfianus IV Δ : Codex Sangallensis 48 Θ : Codex Koridethi Π : Codex Petropolitanus ( New Testament ) Φ : Codex Beratinus Ξ : Codex Zacynthius Ψ : Codex Athous Lavrensis Ω : Codex Athous Dionysiou א : Codex Sinaiticus ff1 : Codex Corbeiensis I", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Textual_variants_in_the_New_Testament", "rank": 76, "score": 54378 }, { "content": "Title: Replacement banknote Content: A replacement banknote , commonly referred to as a star note , is a banknote that is printed to replace a faulty one and is used as a control mechanism for governments or monetary authorities to know the exact number of banknotes being printed . Also , since no two serial numbers can be the same , the bill is simply reprinted with a symbol in the serial number , identifying it as a replacement for an error note . Replacement bills have different symbols to mark the error around the world , although the most popular examples are `` star notes '' .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Replacement_banknote", "rank": 77, "score": 54351 }, { "content": "Title: European Climate Assessment and Dataset Content: The European Climate Assessment and Dataset ( ECA&D ) is a database of daily meteorological station observations across Europe and is gradually being extended to countries in the Middle East and North Africa . ECA&D has attained the status of Regional Climate Centre for high-resolution observation data in World Meteorological Organization Region VI ( Europe and the Middle East ) -RSB- . The objective of ECA&D is to monitor and analyze climate and changes in climate with a focus on climate extremes while making the data publicly available to download . Included in the database is a collection of daily series observations obtained from climatological divisions of National Meteorological and Hydrological Services ( NMHSs ) , observatories and research centres throughout Europe and the Mediterranean . The daily series of observations is combined with quality control and analysis of extremes via climate change indices . The ECA&D project is initiated by the European Climate Support Network ( ECSN ) and is coordinated at the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute ( Dutch : Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut or KNMI ) which now funds the project after it was initially funded by the Network of European Meteorological Services ( EUMETNET ) .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "European_Climate_Assessment_and_Dataset", "rank": 78, "score": 54205 }, { "content": "Title: Deming regression Content: In statistics , Deming regression , named after W. Edwards Deming , is an errors-in-variables model which tries to find the line of best fit for a two-dimensional dataset . It differs from the simple linear regression in that it accounts for errors in observations on both the x - and the y - axis . It is a special case of total least squares , which allows for any number of predictors and a more complicated error structure . Deming regression is equivalent to the maximum likelihood estimation of an errors-in-variables model in which the errors for the two variables are assumed to be independent and normally distributed , and the ratio of their variances , denoted δ , is known . In practice , this ratio might be estimated from related data-sources ; however the regression procedure takes no account for possible errors in estimating this ratio . The Deming regression is only slightly more difficult to compute compared to the simple linear regression . Most statistical software packages used in clinical chemistry offer Deming regression . The model was originally introduced by who considered the case δ = 1 , and then more generally by with arbitrary δ . However their ideas remained largely unnoticed for more than 50 years , until they were revived by and later propagated even more by . The latter book became so popular in clinical chemistry and related fields that the method was even dubbed Deming regression in those fields .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Deming_regression", "rank": 79, "score": 54122 }, { "content": "Title: Data scrubbing Content: Data scrubbing is an error correction technique that uses a background task to periodically inspect main memory or storage for errors , then correct detected errors using redundant data in the form of different checksums or copies of data . Data scrubbing reduces the likelihood that single correctable errors will accumulate , leading to reduced risks of uncorrectable errors . Data integrity is a high-priority concern in writing , reading , storage , transmission , or processing of the computer data in computer operating systems and in computer storage and data transmission systems . However , only a few of the currently existing and used file systems provide sufficient protection against data corruption . To address this issue , data scrubbing provides routine checks of all inconsistencies in data and , in general , prevention of hardware or software failure . This `` scrubbing '' feature occurs commonly in memory , disk arrays , file systems , or FPGAs as a mechanism of error detection and correction .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_scrubbing", "rank": 80, "score": 54079 }, { "content": "Title: Replaceable You Content: `` Replaceable You '' is the fourth episode of the twenty-third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 6 , 2011 . In the episode , Homer gets a new assistant named Roz who is secretly out to steal his job . Meanwhile , Bart teams up with Martin Prince for the upcoming Springfield Elementary science fair , constructing robot baby seals that become popular with the senior citizens at the Springfield Retirement Castle . The role of Roz was played by American actress Jane Lynch . `` Replaceable You '' was seen by approximately eight million viewers during its original broadcast , and it has received mixed reviews from critics .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Replaceable_You", "rank": 81, "score": 54028 }, { "content": "Title: Data.gov Content: Data.gov is a U.S. government website launched in late May 2009 by the then Federal Chief Information Officer ( CIO ) of the United States , Vivek Kundra . Data.gov aims to improve public access to high value , machine readable datasets generated by the Executive Branch of the Federal Government . '' The site is a repository for federal government information , made available to the public .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data.gov", "rank": 82, "score": 53950 }, { "content": "Title: National Hydrography Dataset Content: The National Hydrography Dataset ( NHD ) is a digital database of surface water features used to make maps . It contains features such as lakes , ponds , streams , rivers , canals , dams and stream gages for the United States . Cartographers can link to or download the NHD to use in their computer mapping software . The NHD is used to represent surface water on maps and is also used to perform geospatial analysis . It is a digital vector geospatial dataset designed for use in geographic information systems ( GIS ) to analyze the flow of water throughout the nation . The dataset represents over 7.5-million miles of streams/rivers and 6.5-million lake/ponds . In mapping , the NHD is used with other data themes such as elevation , boundaries , and transportation to produce general reference maps . In geospatial analysis the NHD is used by scientists using GIS technology . This takes advantage of a flow direction network that can be processed to trace the flow of water downstream . A rich set of attributes used to identify the water features includes an identifier , the official name of the feature , the length or area of the feature , and metadata describing the source of the data . The identifier is used in an addressing system to link specific information about the water such as water discharge , water quality , and fish population . Using the basic water features , flow network , linked information , and other characteristics , it is possible to study cause and effect relationships , such as how a source of poor water quality upstream might affect a fish population downstream . The NHD is part of the United States Geological Survey The National Map for the United States . The NHD is also linked with similar datasets representing the surface water for Canada and Mexico . The dataset primarily maps features a 1:24,000 - scale , but in certain areas provides detail at 1:5,000 - scale . A version of the NHD called the NHDPlus is integrated with elevation and other landscape data to create detailed drainage catchments and flow volume and velocity estimates for streams and rivers of the U.S. at 1:100,000 - scale . This data is available from the United States Environmental Protection Agency .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "National_Hydrography_Dataset", "rank": 83, "score": 53816 }, { "content": "Title: Data transformation Content: In computing , a data transformation converts a set of data values from the data format of a source data system into the data format of a destination data system . It is often used in a data warehouse system . Data transformation can be divided into two steps : data mapping maps data elements from the source data system to the destination data system and captures any transformation that must occur code generation that creates the actual transformation program Data element to data element mapping is frequently complicated by complex transformations that require one-to-many and many-to-one transformation rules . The code generation step takes the data element mapping specification and creates an executable program that can be run on a computer system . Code generation can also create transformation in easy-to-maintain computer languages such as Java or XSLT . A master data recast is another form of data transformation where the entire database of data values is transformed or recast without extracting the data from the database . All data in a well designed database is directly or indirectly related to a limited set of master database tables by a network of foreign key constraints . Each foreign key constraint is dependent upon a unique database index from the parent database table . Therefore , when the proper master database table is recast with a different unique index , the directly and indirectly related data are also recast or restated . The directly and indirectly related data may also still be viewed in the original form since the original unique index still exists with the master data . Also , the database recast must be done in such a way as to not impact the applications architecture software . When the data mapping is indirect via a mediating data model , the process is also called data mediation .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Data_transformation", "rank": 84, "score": 53737 }, { "content": "Title: Halloween Problem Content: In computing , the Halloween Problem refers to a phenomenon in databases in which an update operation causes a change in the physical location of a row , potentially allowing the row to be visited more than once during the operation . This could even cause an infinite loop in some cases where updates continually place the updated record ahead of the scan performing the update operation . The potential for this database error was first discovered by Don Chamberlin , Pat Selinger , and Morton Astrahan in 1976 , on Halloween day while working on a query that was supposed to give a ten percent raise to every employee who earned less than $ 25,000 . This query would run successfully , with no errors , but when finished all the employees in the database earned at least $ 25,000 , because it kept giving them a raise until they reached that level . The expectation was that the query would iterate over each of the employee records with a salary less than $ 25,000 precisely once . In fact , because even updated records were visible to the query execution engine and so continued to match the query 's criteria , salary records were matching multiple times and each time being given a 10 % raise until they were all greater than $ 25,000 . The name is not descriptive of the nature of the problem but rather was given due to the day it was discovered . As recounted by Don Chamberlin : Pat and Morton discovered this problem on Halloween ... . I remember they came into my office and said , ` Chamberlin , look at this . We have to make sure that when the optimizer is making a plan for processing an update , it does n't use an index that is based on the field that is being updated . How are we going to do that ? ' It happened to be on a Friday , and we said , ` Listen , we are not going to be able to solve this problem this afternoon . Let 's just give it a name . We 'll call it the Halloween Problem and we 'll work on it next week . ' And it turns out it has been called that ever since .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Halloween_Problem", "rank": 85, "score": 53726 }, { "content": "Title: Replacement value Content: The term replacement cost or replacement value refers to the amount that an entity would have to pay to replace an asset at the present time , according to its current worth . In the insurance industry , `` replacement cost '' or `` replacement cost value '' is one of several method of determining the value of an insured item . Replacement cost is the actual cost to replace an item or structure at its pre-loss condition . This may not be the `` market value '' of the item , and is typically distinguished from the `` actual cash value '' payment which includes a deduction for depreciation . For insurance policies for property insurance , a contractual stipulation that the lost asset must be actually repaired or replaced before the replacement cost can be paid is common . This prevents overinsurance , which contributes to arson and insurance fraud . Replacement cost policies emerged in the mid-20th century ; prior to that concern about overinsurance restricted their availability . If insurance carriers honestly determine replacement cost , it becomes a `` win-win '' for both for the carriers and the customers . However , when a replacement cost determination is made by the carrier ( and , perhaps , its third party expert ) that exceeds the actual cost of replacement , the customer is likely to be paying for more insurance than necessary . To the extent that the carrier has knowingly or carelessly sold excessive ( i.e. unnecessary ) insurance , such a practice may constitute consumer fraud . Replacement cost coverage is designed so the policy holder will not have to spend more money to get a similar new item and that the insurance company does not pay for intangibles . For example : when a television is covered by a replacement cost value policy , the cost of a similar television which can be purchased today determines the compensation amount for that item . This kind of policy is more expensive than an Actual Cash Value policy , where the policyholder will not be compensated for the depreciation of an item that was destroyed . The total amount paid by an insurance company on a claim may also involve other factors such as co-insurance or deductibles . One of the champions of the replacement cost method was the Dutch professor in Business economics Théodore Limperg .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Replacement_value", "rank": 86, "score": 53681 }, { "content": "Title: BioGRID Content: The Biological General Repository for Interaction Datasets ( BioGRID ) is a curated biological database of protein-protein interactions , genetic interactions , chemical interactions , and post-translational modifications created in 2003 ( originally referred to as simply the General Repository for Interaction Datasets ( GRID ) by Mike Tyers , Bobby-Joe Breitkreutz , and Chris Stark at the Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute at Mount Sinai Hospital . It strives to provide a comprehensive curated resource for all major model organism species while attempting to remove redundancy to create a single mapping of data . Users of The BioGRID can search for their protein or publication of interest and retrieve annotation , as well as curated data as reported , by the primary literature and compiled by in house large-scale curation efforts . The BioGRID is hosted in Toronto , Ontario , Canada and Dallas , Texas , United States and is partnered with the Saccharomyces Genome Database . The BioGRID is funded by the BBSRC , NIH , and CIHR . BioGRID is a member of the International Molecular Exchange Consortium ( IMEx ) .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "BioGRID", "rank": 87, "score": 53501 }, { "content": "Title: Parallel running Content: Parallel running is one of the ways to change from an existing system to a new one . This conversion takes place as the technology of the old system is outdated so a new system is needed to be installed to replace the old one . The phrase parallel running can refer to the process of changing a fragment of business information technology operation to a new system or to the technique applied by the human resources departments in which the existing staff stay on board during the transition to a new staff . It is one of the strategies for system implementation in which both the old and new systems are running side by side until the users are certain that the new system has no problems . After a period of time , when the system is proved to be working correctly , the old system will be removed completely and users will depend solely on the new system .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Parallel_running", "rank": 88, "score": 53498 }, { "content": "Title: ProteomeXchange Content: ProteomeXchange is a consortium of proteomics data repositories that aims to enhance the usability and interoperability of independent resources by streamlining the submission and discovery of datasets across those resources .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "ProteomeXchange", "rank": 89, "score": 53484 }, { "content": "Title: Ordinary least squares Content: In statistics , ordinary least squares ( OLS ) or linear least squares is a method for estimating the unknown parameters in a linear regression model , with the goal of minimizing the sum of the squares of the differences between the observed responses ( values of the variable being predicted ) in the given dataset and those predicted by a linear function of a set of explanatory variables . Visually this is seen as the sum of the squared vertical distances between each data point in the set and the corresponding point on the regression line -- the smaller the differences , the better the model fits the data . The resulting estimator can be expressed by a simple formula , especially in the case of a single regressor on the right-hand side . The OLS estimator is consistent when the regressors are exogenous , and optimal in the class of linear unbiased estimators when the errors are homoscedastic and serially uncorrelated . Under these conditions , the method of OLS provides minimum-variance mean-unbiased estimation when the errors have finite variances . Under the additional assumption that the errors are normally distributed , OLS is the maximum likelihood estimator . OLS is used in fields as diverse as economics ( econometrics ) , political science , psychology and electrical engineering ( control theory and signal processing ) .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Ordinary_least_squares", "rank": 90, "score": 53379 }, { "content": "Title: Cancels Content: Cancel , sb. , is a bibliographic term for a replaced leaf in a printed book . The technique for this is usually to tear out the rejected leaf , and paste a new one to the stub left on the cognate leaf . Alternatively , a false stub ( known as a ` fold ' ) may be added . The cancelled leaf may be rejected on account of spelling or typing errors , a wording change or addition , or need to suppress libellous or otherwise offensive text . Leaves have been cancelled from around the dawn of printing in the mid-15th century , peaked from about 1600 to 1800 , but the practice is less common today , since it is now cheaper to replace the whole sheet . If the replacement is made before publication , the book can exist in two states ( i.e. with and without the new leaf ) . If after sale , from a new leaf supplied by the binder to the purchaser , it is termed an alternative issue . The terminology , coined by R. W. Chapman in 1930 , is : English : cancel ( pl . cancels ) or cancel leaf ( pl . cancel leaves ) ; Latin : cancellans ( pl . cancellantia ) : The new ( or replacement , or corrected leaf . English : cancelland ( pl . cancellands ) ; Latin : cancellandum ( pl . cancellanda ) : The leaf intended to be replaced , or removed , but when this has not yet been done . English : cancelled leaf ( pl . cancelled leaves ) ; Latin : cancellatum ( pl . cancellata ) : Refers to the cancellandum after it has been removed . Cancels are not always easy to detect , if the stub or fold they are attached to is small ; however , often there will be a difference from other leaves in matters such as paper thickness , watermarks , chainlines , etc. . Whether the old leaf had a signature or not , the new one usually has one added . It occasionally occurs as an error that the old leaf is not excised , or even that the wrong leaf is removed . To obviate this , the old leaf is sometimes partly slit .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Cancels", "rank": 91, "score": 53365 }, { "content": "Title: HyperLogLog Content: HyperLogLog is an algorithm for the count-distinct problem , approximating the number of distinct elements in a multiset . Calculating the exact cardinality of a multiset requires an amount of memory proportional to the cardinality , which is impractical for very large data sets . Probabilistic cardinality estimators , such as the HyperLogLog algorithm , use significantly less memory than this , at the cost of obtaining only an approximation of the cardinality . The HyperLogLog algorithm is able to estimate cardinalities of > 109 with a typical error rate of 2 % , using 1.5 kB of memory . HyperLogLog is an extension of the earlier LogLog algorithm , itself deriving from the 1984 Flajolet -- Martin algorithm .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "HyperLogLog", "rank": 92, "score": 53122 }, { "content": "Title: Multi-surface method Content: The multi-surface method ( MSM ) is a form of decision making using the concept of piecewise-linear separability of datasets to categorize data .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Multi-surface_method", "rank": 93, "score": 53016 }, { "content": "Title: Homogeneity (statistics) Content: For homogeneity of variance see homoscedasticity . In statistics , homogeneity and its opposite , heterogeneity , arise in describing the properties of a dataset , or several datasets . They relate to the validity of the often convenient assumption that the statistical properties of any one part of an overall dataset are the same as any other part . In meta-analysis , which combines the data from several studies , homogeneity measures the differences or similarities between the several studies ( see also Study heterogeneity ) . Homogeneity can be studied to several degrees of complexity . For example , considerations of homoscedasticity examine how much the variability of data-values changes throughout a dataset . However , questions of homogeneity apply to all aspects of the statistical distributions , including the location parameter . Thus , a more detailed study would examine changes to the whole of the marginal distribution . An intermediate-level study might move from looking at the variability to studying changes in the skewness . In addition to these , questions of homogeneity apply also to the joint distributions . The concept of homogeneity can be applied in many different ways and , for certain types of statistical analysis , it is used to look for further properties that might need to be treated as varying within a dataset once some initial types of non-homogeneity have been dealt with .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Homogeneity_(statistics)", "rank": 94, "score": 52934 }, { "content": "Title: Storage Resource Manager Content: The Storage Resource Management ( SRM ) technology was initiated by the Scientific Data Management Group at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( LBNL ) and developed in response to growing needs of managing large datasets on a variety of storage systems . Dynamic storage management is essential to ensure : prevention of data loss , decrease of error rates of data replication , and decrease of the analysis time by ensuring that analysis tasks have the storage space to run to completion . There are already numerous examples where data from simulations running on leadership class machines were lost because they were not moved in time to a mass storage system . Storage Resource Managers ( SRMs ) address such issues by coordinating storage allocation , streaming the data between sites , and enforcing secure interfaces to the storage systems ( i.e. dealing with special security requirements of each storage system at its home institution . ) For example , in a production environment , using SRMs has reduced error rates of large-scale replication from 1 % to 0.02 % in the STAR project . Furthermore , SRMs can prevent job failures . When running jobs on clusters some of the local disks get filled before the job finishes , resulting in loss of productivity , and therefore a delay in analysis . This occurs because space was not dynamically allocated and previous unneeded files were not removed . While there are tools for dynamically allocating compute and network resources , SRMs are the only tool available for providing dynamic space reservation , guaranteeing secure file availability with lifetime support , and automatic garbage collection that prevents clogging of storage systems . The SRM specification has evolved into an international de facto standard , and many projects have committed to use this technology , especially in the HEP and HENP communities , such as the World-wide Large Hadron Collider ( LHC ) Computing Grid ( WLCG ) that supports ATLAS and CMS . The SRM approach is to develop a uniform standard interface that allows multiple implementations by various institutions to interoperate . This approach removes the dependence on a single implementation , and permits multiple groups to develop SRM systems for their specific storage resources . This approach became crucial to the interoperation of storage systems for such large scale projects that have to manage and distribute massive amounts of data efficiently and securely . Without such a unifying technology , such projects can not scale , and are bound to fail . This problem will only grow over time as computing facilities move into the petascale regime . Another important problem that SRMs address is storage clogging . Storage clogging is a critical problem for large scale shared storage systems , since the removal of files after they are used is not automated . This increases the cost of storage , and slows the analysis and discovery process . SRMs help unclog temporary storage systems , by providing lifetime management of accessed files . This capability is crucial to efficient usage of storage under cost constraints . SRMs also serve as gateways to secure data access . By limiting external access to all storage systems through a standard SRM interface , one can assure not only authenticated access , but also the enforcement of authorized access to files . The SRM technology was highly successful in SciDAC-1 , and is currently used in production in several large collaborations . SRM implementations that interoperate have been developed at LBNL , FNAL and TJNAF , as well as several sites in Europe . Furthermore , this technology increases the scientist 's productivity by eliminating the tedious and time consuming tasks of managing storage , performing robust data movement , and dealing with security requirements at various storage sites . In addition to leading the SRM standard development by coordinating with multiple institutions , the LBNL team has developed SRM systems to disk storage and mass storage systems , including HPSS . These SRMs have been used in several application domains , including multiple projects at the SDM center , Earth System Grid , the STAR experiment , and the Open Science Grid ( OSG ) . As data sets continue to grow and become ever more complex , these projects depend on the continued development and support of the SRM implementations from LBNL . It is essential to capitalize on the SciDAC-1 successes and sustain current projects that depend on the SRM technology , further improving and deploying SRMs in additional projects and application domains , and continued evolution of the SRM standard . Specifically , based on past experience , we have identified important features that require further development and coordination . These include sophisticated aspects of resource monitoring that can be used for performance estimation , authorization enforcement , and accounting tracking and reporting for the purpose of enforcing quota usage in SRMs . Another aspect that needs further development is SRMs for multi-component storage systems . Such systems , made of a combination of multiple disk arrays , parallel file systems , and archival storage are becoming more prevalent as the volume of data that need to be managed grow exponentially with petascale computing .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Storage_Resource_Manager", "rank": 95, "score": 52905 }, { "content": "Title: Interpolation Content: In the mathematical field of numerical analysis , interpolation is a method of constructing new data points within the range of a discrete set of known data points . In engineering and science , one often has a number of data points , obtained by sampling or experimentation , which represent the values of a function for a limited number of values of the independent variable . It is often required to interpolate ( i.e. , estimate ) the value of that function for an intermediate value of the independent variable . A different problem which is closely related to interpolation is the approximation of a complicated function by a simple function . Suppose the formula for some given function is known , but too complex to evaluate efficiently . A few known data points from the original function can be used to create an interpolation based on a simpler function . Of course , when a simple function is used to estimate data points from the original , interpolation errors are usually present ; however , depending on the problem domain and the interpolation method used , the gain in simplicity may be of greater value than the resultant loss in precision . In the examples below if we consider x as a topological space and the function f forms a different kind of Banach spaces then the problem is treated as `` interpolation of operators '' . The classical results about interpolation of operators are the Riesz -- Thorin theorem and the Marcinkiewicz theorem . There are also many other subsequent results .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Interpolation", "rank": 96, "score": 52868 }, { "content": "Title: Loop inversion Content: In computer science , loop inversion is a compiler optimization and loop transformation in which a while loop is replaced by an if block containing a do . . while loop . When used correctly , it may improve performance due to instruction pipelining .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Loop_inversion", "rank": 97, "score": 52759 }, { "content": "Title: National lidar dataset Content: A national lidar dataset refers to a high-resolution lidar dataset comprising most -- and ideally all -- of a nation 's terrain . Datasets of this type typically meet specified quality standards and are publicly available for free ( or at nominal cost ) in one or more uniform formats from government or academic sources . National LiDAR datasets are used primarily in LIDAR Contour Mapping , and also for forestry , urban and rural planning , recreational , environmental , engineering , and geological studies and planning , among others . Countries with national lidar datasets either completed or in progress include :", "qid": "2903", "docid": "National_lidar_dataset", "rank": 98, "score": 52717 }, { "content": "Title: Uncertain data Content: In computer science , uncertain data is data that contains noise that makes it deviate from the correct , intended or original values . In the age of big data , uncertainty or data veracity is one of the defining characteristics of data . Data is constantly growing in volume , variety , velocity and uncertainty ( 1/veracity ) . Uncertain data is found in abundance today on the web , in sensor networks , within enterprises both in their structured and unstructured sources . For example , there may be uncertainty regarding the address of a customer in an enterprise dataset , or the temperature readings captured by a sensor due to aging of the sensor . In 2012 IBM called out managing uncertain data at scale in its global technology outlook report that presents a comprehensive analysis looking three to ten years into the future seeking to identify significant , disruptive technologies that will change the world . In order to make confident business decisions based on real-world data , analyses must necessarily account for many different kinds of uncertainty present in very large amounts of data . Analyses based on uncertain data will have an effect on the quality of subsequent decisions , so the degree and types of inaccuracies in this uncertain data can not be ignored . Uncertain data is found in the area of sensor networks ; text where noisy text is found in abundance on social media , web and within enterprises where the structured and unstructured data may be old , outdated , or plain incorrect ; in modeling where the mathematical model may only be an approximation of the actual process . When representing such data in a database , some indication of the probability of the correctness of the various values also needs to be estimated . There are three main models of uncertain data in databases . In attribute uncertainty , each uncertain attribute in a tuple is subject to its own independent probability distribution . For example , if readings are taken of temperature and wind speed , each would be described by its own probability distribution , as knowing the reading for one measurement would not provide any information about the other . In correlated uncertainty , multiple attributes may be described by a joint probability distribution . For example , if readings are taken of the position of an object , and the x - and y-coordinates stored , the probability of different values may depend on the distance from the recorded coordinates . As distance depends on both coordinates , it may be appropriate to use a joint distribution for these coordinates , as they are not independent . In tuple uncertainty , all the attributes of a tuple are subject to a joint probability distribution . This covers the case of correlated uncertainty , but also includes the case where there is a probability of a tuple not belonging in the relevant relation , which is indicated by all the probabilities not summing to one . For example , assume we have the following tuple from a probabilistic database : Then , the tuple has 10 % chance of not existing in the database .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "Uncertain_data", "rank": 99, "score": 52710 }, { "content": "Title: New Tecumseth Content: New Tecumseth is a town in Simcoe County , in south-central Ontario , Canada . While it is not officially a part of the Greater Toronto Area , it is counted , in terms of the census , as being a part of the Toronto Census Metropolitan Area .", "qid": "2903", "docid": "New_Tecumseth", "rank": 100, "score": 52591 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback", "rank": 1, "score": 145385 }, { "content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Deglaciation", "rank": 2, "score": 145300 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 3, "score": 145098 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 4, "score": 144117 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal", "rank": 5, "score": 139181 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 6, "score": 138743 }, { "content": "Title: Active layer Content: In environments containing permafrost , the active layer is the top layer of soil that thaws during the summer and freezes again during the autumn . In all climates , whether they contain permafrost or not , the temperature in the lower levels of the soil will remain more stable than that at the surface , where the influence of the ambient temperature is greatest . This means that , over many years , the influence of cooling in winter and heating in summer ( in temperate climates ) will decrease as depth increases . If the winter temperature is below the freezing point of water , a frost front will form in the soil . This `` frost front '' is the boundary between frozen and unfrozen soil , and with the coming of spring and summer , the soil is thawed , always from the top down . If the heating during summer exceeds the cooling during winter , the soil will be completely thawed during the summer and there will be no permafrost . This occurs when the mean annual temperature is above 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) , but also occurs when the mean annual temperature is slightly below 0 ° C on sites exposed to the sun with coarse-textured parent materials ( vegetation ) . When there is not sufficient heat to thaw the frozen soil completely , permafrost forms . The active layer in this environment consists of the top layers of soil which thaws during the summer , while the inactive layer refers to the soil below which is frozen year-round because the heat fails to penetrate . Liquid water can not flow below the active layer , with the result that permafrost environments tend to be very poorly drained and boggy .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Active_layer", "rank": 7, "score": 138458 }, { "content": "Title: Melt pond Content: Melt ponds are pools of open water that form on sea ice in the warmer months of spring and summer . The ponds are also found on glacial ice and ice shelves . Ponds of melted water can also develop under the ice . Melt ponds are usually darker than the surrounding ice , and their distribution and size is highly variable . They absorb solar radiation rather than reflecting it as ice does and , thereby , have a significant influence on Earth 's radiation balance . This differential , which had not been scientifically investigated until recently , has a large effect on the rate of ice melting and the extent of ice cover . Melt ponds can melt through to the ocean 's surface . Seawater entering the pond increases the melt rate because the salty water of the ocean is warmer than the fresh water of the pond . The increase in salinity also depresses the water 's freezing point . Water from melt ponds over land surface can run into crevasses or moulins -- tubes leading under ice sheets or glaciers -- turning into meltwater . The water may reach the underlying rock . The effect is an increase in the rate of ice flow to the oceans , as the fluid behaves like a lubricant in the basal sliding of glaciers .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Melt_pond", "rank": 8, "score": 137665 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Antarctic_sea_ice", "rank": 9, "score": 137494 }, { "content": "Title: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean Content: The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean ( SHEBA ) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean , where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time . The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models , which scientists use to study global climate change .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Surface_Heat_Budget_of_the_Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 10, "score": 137204 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 11, "score": 137051 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic ice pack Content: The Arctic ice pack is the ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity . The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring and summer , reaches a minimum around mid-September , then increases during fall and winter . Summer ice cover in the Arctic is about 50 % of winter cover . Some of the ice survives from one year to the next . Currently 28 % of Arctic basin sea ice is multi-year ice , thicker than seasonal ice : up to 3 - thick over large areas , with ridges up to 20 m thick . As well as the regular seasonal cycle there has been an underlying trend of declining sea ice in the Arctic in recent decades .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Arctic_ice_pack", "rank": 12, "score": 136732 }, { "content": "Title: Cold blob (North Atlantic) Content: The cold blob in the North Atlantic describes a cold temperature anomaly of ocean surface waters , affecting the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation ( AMOC ) which is part of the thermohaline circulation , possibly related to global warming-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Cold_blob_(North_Atlantic)", "rank": 13, "score": 134685 }, { "content": "Title: Dimictic lake Content: Dimictic lakes mix from the surface to bottom twice each year . Dimictic lakes are holomictic , a category which includes all lakes which mix one or more times per year . During winter , they are covered by ice . During summer , they are thermally stratified , with temperature-derived density differences separating the warm surface waters ( the epilimnion ) , from the colder bottom waters ( the hypolimnion ) . Mixing ( overturning ) typically occurs during the spring and autumn , when the lake is `` isothermal '' ( i.e. at the same temperature from the top to the bottom ) . At this time , the water throughout the lake is about 4 ° C , and , in the absence of any temperature or density differences , the lake readily mixes from top to bottom . These lakes are common in regions with temperate climates .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Dimictic_lake", "rank": 14, "score": 134572 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal low Content: Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Thermal_low", "rank": 15, "score": 134111 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 16, "score": 130349 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 17, "score": 128943 }, { "content": "Title: Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 Content: The Great Arctic Cyclone , or `` Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 , '' was an extratropical cyclone which centered on the Arctic Ocean in early August , 2012 . Such storms are rare in the Arctic summer , although common in the winter . The Great Arctic Cyclone was the strongest summer storm and the 13th strongest storm observed at any time since satellite observations began in 1979 . Although the Great Arctic Cyclone did not cause the record melting of sea ice which occurred in 2012 , turbulence resulting from the storm is believed to have contributed to melting of sea ice due to the rise of warmer saltier water from below .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Great_Arctic_Cyclone_of_2012", "rank": 18, "score": 127166 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic dipole anomaly Content: The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America , and a low pressure on the Eurasia region . This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation . It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change . The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic ocean resulting in more ice melting . The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September . The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe , but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia , Europe and the eastern half of North America .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Arctic_dipole_anomaly", "rank": 19, "score": 126030 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 20, "score": 125535 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet", "rank": 21, "score": 125259 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 22, "score": 125098 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of the Arctic Content: The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer . The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Climate_of_the_Arctic", "rank": 23, "score": 124892 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska", "rank": 24, "score": 123421 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 25, "score": 122816 }, { "content": "Title: 2013 extreme weather events Content: The 2013 extreme weather events included several all-time temperature records in Northern and Southern Hemisphere . The February extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North America was above average , while the extent of Arctic ice in the same month was 4,5 % below the 1981 -- 2010 average . The Northern Hemisphere weather extremes have been linked to the melting of Arctic sea ice , which alters atmospheric circulation in a way that leads to more snow and ice . By January 11 , 233 weather-related deaths were reported in India . Elsewhere , particularly in Russia , the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom , low temperatures affected wildlife , delaying bird breeding and disrupting the bird migration . On January 10 Bangladesh faced the lowest temperature since country 's independence , at 3.0 ° C in Saidpur . While Finland and most of Northern European countries got the record high , and even the highest temperatures at Europe during May and June , Western - and Middle Europe faced much cooler weather and even their wettest May and June ever . During summer prolonged heat waves in the Northern Hemisphere set new record high temperatures . On March 24 , 2014 , the secretary-general of the World Meteorological Organization Michel Jarraud announced that `` many of the extreme events of 2013 were consistent with what we would expect as a result of human-induced climate change '' .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "2013_extreme_weather_events", "rank": 26, "score": 122726 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 27, "score": 122558 }, { "content": "Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate", "rank": 28, "score": 122505 }, { "content": "Title: Meltwater Content: Meltwater is water released by the melting of snow or ice , including glacial ice , tabular icebergs and ice shelves over oceans . Meltwater is often found in the ablation zone of glaciers , where the rate of snow cover is reducing . Meltwater can be produced during volcanic eruptions , in a similar way in which the more dangerous lahars form . When meltwater pools on the surface rather than flowing , it forms melt ponds . As the weather gets colder meltwater will often re-freeze . Meltwater can collect or melt under the ice 's surface . These pools of water , known as subglacial lakes can form due to geothermal heat and friction .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Meltwater", "rank": 29, "score": 122141 }, { "content": "Title: Polar climate Content: The polar climate regions are characterized by a lack of warm summers . Every month in a polar climate has an average temperature of less than 10 C. Regions with polar climate cover more than 20 % of the Earth . The sun shines for long hours in the summer , and for many fewer hours in the winter . A polar climate results in treeless tundra , glaciers , or a permanent or semi-permanent layer of ice . It has cool summers and very cold winters .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Polar_climate", "rank": 30, "score": 121863 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 31, "score": 121541 }, { "content": "Title: Freshet Content: The term freshet is most commonly used to describe a spring thaw resulting from snow and ice melt in rivers located in the northern latitudes of North America . A spring freshet can sometimes last several weeks on large river systems , resulting in significant inundation of flood plains as the snowpack melts in the river 's catchment area . Freshets occur with generally diminishing strength and duration depending upon the snowpacks having large accumulations and then the local average rates of warming temperatures ; late spring melts allowing faster flooding from the relatively longer days and higher solar angle against more southerly latitudes and elevations reaching average melting temperatures sooner where earlier and generally lesser seasonal snow piles melt more gradually spread over a longer melt period . Serious flooding from southern freshets are more often related to rain storms of large tropical weather systems rolling in from the South Atlantic or Gulf of Mexico , to add their powerful heating capacity to lesser snow packs . Tropically induced rainfall influenced quick melts can also affect snow cover to latitudes as far north as southern Canada , so long as the generally colder air mass is not blocking northward movement of low pressure systems . In the eastern part of the continent , annual freshets occur from the Canadian Taiga ranging along both sides of the Great Lakes then down through the heavily forested Appalachian mountain chain and St. Lawrence valley from Northern Maine into barrier ranges in North Carolina and Tennessee . In the western part of the continent , freshets occur throughout the generally much higher elevations of the various west coast mountain ranges that extend southward down from Alaska even into the northern parts of Arizona and New Mexico . The term can also refer to the following : A flood resulting from heavy rain or a spring thaw . Whereas heavy rain often causes a flash flood , a spring thaw event is generally a more incremental process , depending upon local climate and topography . A stream , river or flood of fresh water which empties into the ocean , usually flowing through an estuary . A small stream of fresh water , irrespective of its outflow . A pool of fresh water , according to Samuel Johnson and followed in Thomas Sheridan 's dictionary , but this might have been a misinterpretation on Johnson 's part , and it is at best not a common usage .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Freshet", "rank": 32, "score": 121222 }, { "content": "Title: Cabbeling Content: Cabbeling is when two separate water parcels mix to form a third which sinks below both parents . The combined water parcel is denser than the original two water parcels . The two parent water parcels may have the same density , but they have different properties ; for instance , different salinities and temperatures . Seawater almost always gets more dense if it gets either slightly colder or slightly saltier . But medium-warm , medium-salty water can be denser than both fresher , colder water and saltier , warmer water ; in other words , the equation of state for seawater is monotonic , but non-linear . See diagram . Cabbeling may also occur in fresh water , since pure water is densest at about 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) . A mixture of 1 ° C water and 6 ° C water , for instance , might have a temperature of 4 ° C , making it denser than either parent . Ice is also less dense than water , so although ice floats in warm water , meltwater sinks in warm water . The densification of the new mixed water parcel is a result of a slight contraction upon mixing ; a decrease in volume of the combined water parcel . A new water parcel that has the same mass , but is lower in volume , will be denser . Denser water sinks or downwells in the otherwise neutral surface of the water body , where the two initial water parcels originated .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Cabbeling", "rank": 33, "score": 120658 }, { "content": "Title: Winter storm Content: A winter storm is an event in which varieties of precipitation are formed that only occur at low temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are low enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . In temperate continental climates , these storms are not necessarily restricted to the winter season , but may occur in the late autumn and early spring as well . Very rarely , they may form in summer , though it would have to be an abnormally cold summer , such as the summer of 1816 in the Northeast United States of America .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Winter_storm", "rank": 34, "score": 120524 }, { "content": "Title: Global storm activity of 2006 Content: Global storm activity of 2006 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2006 to December 31 , 2006 . Winter storms are events in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Other major non winter events such as large dust storms , Hurricanes , cyclones , tornados , gales , flooding and rainstorms are also caused by such phenomena to a lesser or greater existent . Very rarely , well-defined winter storms may form during the summer , though it would usually have to be an abnormally cold summer , such as the Summer of 1816 in the Northeastern United States . In many locations in the Northern Hemisphere , the most powerful winter storms usually occur in March and , in regions where temperatures are cold enough , April .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Global_storm_activity_of_2006", "rank": 35, "score": 120003 }, { "content": "Title: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature Content: The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Effect_of_radiation_on_perceived_temperature", "rank": 36, "score": 119821 }, { "content": "Title: Sea surface temperature Content: Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Sea_surface_temperature", "rank": 37, "score": 119087 }, { "content": "Title: Sea ice Content: Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Sea_ice", "rank": 38, "score": 118921 }, { "content": "Title: Winter Content: Winter is the coldest season of the year in polar and temperate climates , between autumn and spring . Winter is caused by the axis of the Earth in that hemisphere being oriented away from the Sun . Different cultures define different dates as the start of winter , and some use a definition based on weather . When it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere , it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere , and vice versa . In many regions , winter is associated with snow and freezing temperatures . The moment of winter solstice is when the sun 's elevation with respect to the North or South Pole is at its most negative value ( that is , the sun is at its farthest below the horizon as measured from the pole ) , meaning this day will have the shortest day and the longest night . The earliest sunset and latest sunrise dates outside the polar regions differ from the date of the winter solstice , however , and these depend on latitude , due to the variation in the solar day throughout the year caused by the Earth 's elliptical orbit ( see earliest and latest sunrise and sunset ) .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Winter", "rank": 39, "score": 118457 }, { "content": "Title: Amictic lake Content: Amictic lakes are `` perennially sealed off by ice from most of the annual seasonal variations in temperature . '' Amictic lakes exhibit inverse cold water stratification whereby water temperature increases with depth below the ice surface 0 ° C ( less-dense ) up to a theoretical maximum of 4 ° C ( at which the density of water is highest ) . Hutchinson -- Löffler ( 1956 ) classified amictic and other types of lakes based on physical/thermal processes . These processes are influenced by solar radiation and wind . They are strongly tied with seasonality and thus associated with latitude and altitude . Amictic lakes occur in Arctic , Antarctic , and alpine regions and due to permanent ice-cover , these physical/thermal influences have a limited effect on circulation in the water column . For this reason , amictic lakes are commonly referred to as lakes that never mix . `` Mixing '' in this context , however , refers to homogenization of the water column and so the term `` amictic '' is not meant to imply that the lake water is stagnant . With the rare exception of lakes near the edges of the permanent icecaps in Greenland and Antarctica , amictic lakes do experience melting around the lake 's perimeter during summer , resulting in a `` moat '' of water surrounding a thick pan of ice that remains in the centre of the lake . This melting occurs as a result of heat absorbed by water and sediments below the ice , particularly in the shallow-water areas , when snow does not cover the ice , and also by heat flow and meltwater runoff from the surrounding land . Mixing below the ice occurs due to density currents generated by heat from direct solar radiation and from meltwater runoff which may differ in density from the lake water due to both temperature and suspended sediment content , depending on its source and flow path . Despite these processes , the effects of wind at the lake surface are highly reduced due to the ice cover , and so vertical mixing of the water column may be incomplete . This may result in anoxic conditions , which has implications for biogeochemical processes within the lake .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Amictic_lake", "rank": 40, "score": 117298 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-curtain effect Content: The zero-curtain effect occurs in cold ( particularly periglacial ) environments where the phase transition of water to ice is slowed down due to latent heat release . The effect is notably found in arctic and alpine permafrost sediments , and occurs where the air temperature falls below 0 ° C ( the freezing point of water ) followed by a rapid drop in soil temperature . Because of this effect , the lowering of temperature in moist , cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate . The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes , and latent heat is released . This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen , at which point temperatures can continue to fall . Therefore , for as long as water is available to the system ( for example , through cryosuction/capillary action ) the temperature of the sediment will remain at a constant temperature .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Zero-curtain_effect", "rank": 41, "score": 116126 }, { "content": "Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Neoglaciation", "rank": 42, "score": 115623 }, { "content": "Title: Tidal heating Content: Tidal heating ( also known as tidal working or tidal flexing ) occurs through the tidal friction processes : orbital and rotational energy are dissipated as heat in either the surface ocean or interior of a planet or satellite . Io , a moon of Jupiter , is the most volcanically active body in the solar system , evidenced by active volcanos and no impact craters surviving on its surface . Io 's heating is a result of the tug between Jupiter and the other Galilean moons . The eccentricity of Io 's orbit ( a consequence of its participation in a Laplace resonance ) causes the height of Io 's tidal bulge to vary significantly ( by up to 100 m ) over the course of an orbit ; the friction from this tidal flexing then heats up its interior . A similar but weaker process is theorised to have melted the lower layers of the ice surrounding the rocky mantle of Jupiter 's next large moon , Europa . Saturn 's moon Enceladus is similarly thought to have a liquid water ocean beneath its icy crust . The water vapor geysers which eject material from Enceladus are thought to be powered by friction generated within this moon 's shifting ice crust . The total amount of tidal heating in a satellite that is spin-synchronous and has an eccentric orbit is given by : where , , and are respectively the satellite 's mean radius , mean orbital motion , and eccentricity . is the imaginary portion of the second order Love number which measures the efficiency of body dissipation within the satellite . This imaginary portion is a function of the satellite 's bulk shear modulus and viscosity . These in turn are dependent upon temperature and melting of the satellite 's interior .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Tidal_heating", "rank": 43, "score": 115481 }, { "content": "Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Last_Glacial_Maximum", "rank": 44, "score": 115312 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Ocean Content: The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean . Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 45, "score": 114253 }, { "content": "Title: Lake-effect snow Content: Lake-effect snow is produced during cooler atmospheric conditions when a cold air mass moves across long expanses of warmer lake water , warming the lower layer of air which picks up water vapor from the lake , rises up through the colder air above , freezes and is deposited on the leeward ( downwind ) shores . The same effect also occurs over bodies of salt water , when it is termed ocean-effect or bay-effect snow . The effect is enhanced when the moving air mass is uplifted by the orographic influence of higher elevations on the downwind shores . This uplifting can produce narrow but very intense bands of precipitation , which deposit at a rate of many inches of snow each hour , often resulting in a large amount of total snowfall . The areas affected by lake-effect snow are called snowbelts . These include areas east of the Great Lakes , the west coasts of northern Japan , the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia , and areas near the Great Salt Lake , Black Sea , Caspian Sea , Baltic Sea , and parts of the northern Atlantic Ocean . A lake-effect blizzard is the blizzard-like conditions resulting from lake-effect snow . Under certain conditions , strong winds can accompany lake-effect snows creating blizzard-like conditions ; however the duration of the event is often slightly less than that required for a blizzard warning in both the US and Canada . If the air temperature is low enough to keep the precipitation frozen , it falls as lake-effect snow . For lake-effect rain or snow to form , the air moving across the lake must be significantly cooler than the surface air ( which is likely to be near the temperature of the water surface ) . Specifically , the air temperature at an altitude where the air pressure is 850 mbar ( roughly 1.5 km vertically ) should be 13 ° C-change lower than the temperature of the air at the surface . Lake-effect occurring when the air at 850 mbar is much colder than the water surface can produce thundersnow , snow showers accompanied by lightning and thunder ( caused by larger amounts of energy available from the increased instability ) .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Lake-effect_snow", "rank": 46, "score": 114013 }, { "content": "Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation", "rank": 47, "score": 113779 }, { "content": "Title: Martian polar ice caps Content: The planet Mars has two permanent polar ice caps . During a pole 's winter , it lies in continuous darkness , chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25 -- 30 % of the atmosphere into slabs of CO2 ice ( dry ice ) . When the poles are again exposed to sunlight , the frozen CO2 sublimes , creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h . These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor , giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds . Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004 . The caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice . Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only , while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about 8 m thick . The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 km during the northern Mars summer , and contains about 1.6 million cubic km of ice , which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 km thick . ( This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic km ( km3 ) for the Greenland ice sheet . ) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km . The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km . Both polar caps show spiral troughs , which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of roughly perpendicular katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect . The seasonal frosting of some areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 m thick slabs of dry ice above the ground . With the arrival of spring , sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO2 builds up under a slab , elevating and ultimately rupturing it . This leads to geyser-like eruptions of CO2 gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust . This process is rapid , observed happening in the space of a few days , weeks or months , a rate of change rather unusual in geology -- especially for Mars . The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spider-like pattern of radial channels under the ice .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Martian_polar_ice_caps", "rank": 48, "score": 113728 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Antarctica", "rank": 49, "score": 113586 }, { "content": "Title: Global storm activity of 2007 Content: Global storm activity of 2007 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2007 to December 31 , 2007 . Winter storms are events in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Other major non winter events such as large dust storms , Hurricanes , cyclones , tornados , gales , flooding and rainstorms are also caused by such phenomena to a lesser or greater existent . Very rarely , they may form in summer , though it would have to be an abnormally cold summer , such as the summer of 1816 in the Northeast United States of America . In many locations in the Northern Hemisphere , the most powerful winter storms usually occur in March and , in regions where temperatures are cold enough , April .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Global_storm_activity_of_2007", "rank": 50, "score": 113488 }, { "content": "Title: 50th parallel north Content: The 50th parallel north is a circle of latitude that is 50 degrees north of the Earth 's equatorial plane . It crosses Europe , Asia , the Pacific Ocean , North America , and the Atlantic Ocean . At this latitude the sun is visible for 16 hours , 22 minutes during the summer solstice and 8 hours , 4 minutes during the winter solstice . The maximum altitude of the sun on the summer solstice is 63.5 degrees and on the winter solstice it is 16.5 degrees . At this latitude , the average sea surface temperature between 1982 and 2011 was about 8.5 ° C ( 47.3 ° F ) .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "50th_parallel_north", "rank": 51, "score": 112854 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Antarctica Content: The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Climate_of_Antarctica", "rank": 52, "score": 112827 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Volcanic_winter", "rank": 53, "score": 112783 }, { "content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm", "rank": 54, "score": 112530 }, { "content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Abrupt_climate_change", "rank": 55, "score": 112366 }, { "content": "Title: Dew Content: Dew is water in the form of droplets that appears on thin , exposed objects in the morning or evening due to condensation . As the exposed surface cools by radiating its heat , atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate greater than that at which it can evaporate , resulting in the formation of water droplets . When temperatures are low enough , dew takes the form of ice ; this form is called frost . Because dew is related to the temperature of surfaces , in late summer it forms most easily on surfaces that are not warmed by conducted heat from deep ground , such as grass , leaves , railings , car roofs , and bridges . Dew should not be confused with guttation , which is the process by which plants release excess water from the tips of their leaves .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Dew", "rank": 56, "score": 112019 }, { "content": "Title: Glaze (ice) Content: Glaze or glaze ice , also called glazed frost , is a smooth , transparent and homogeneous ice coating occurring when freezing rain or drizzle hits a surface . It is similar in appearance to clear ice , which forms from supercooled water droplets . It is a relatively common occurrence in temperate climates in the winter when precipitation forms in warm air aloft and falls into below-freezing temperature at the surface .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Glaze_(ice)", "rank": 57, "score": 111681 }, { "content": "Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Polar_High", "rank": 58, "score": 111016 }, { "content": "Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Glacier_mass_balance", "rank": 59, "score": 111011 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment", "rank": 60, "score": 110851 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 61, "score": 110772 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic resources race Content: The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) . The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Arctic_resources_race", "rank": 62, "score": 110372 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 63, "score": 110361 }, { "content": "Title: Global storm activity of 2009 Content: Global storm activity of 2009 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2009 to December 31 , 2009 . Wintery storms are events in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Summer storms including flooding , severe thunderstorms and extratropical cyclones ( which can occur in summer or winter ) are also included in this list to a certain extent . As this occurred a heat wave and/or unforeseen monsoon weather also hit parts of Australia in 2009 and 2010 . Victoria , the scene of horrific bushfires the year before , had a far colder summer , with hot weather arriving more than a month later than usual in 2009 . August 17 saw a dust storm at Laguna Mar Chiquita as a major drought hit Argentina , and flooding and hailstorms hit southeastern Australia and Queensland in March 2010 . The lack of winter precipitation in parts of China , however , contributed to a severe drought in the southwest . Bolivia , Venezuela , Mali , Mauritania , Morocco and Spain have also seen periods of drought in 2009 and 2010 . On between May 12 and 26 , both Mauritania , the Sénégal River Area and neighbouring parts of both Senegal and Mali faced both a drought and famine in 2010 . A storm ( from Proto-Germanic * sturmaz `` noise , tumult '' ) is any disturbed state of an astronomical body 's atmosphere , especially affecting its surface , and strongly implying severe weather . Storms are created when a centre of low pressure develops , with a system of high pressure surrounding it . This combination of opposing forces can create winds and result in the formation of storm clouds , such as the cumulonimbus . Small , localized areas of low pressure can form from hot air rising off hot ground , resulting in smaller meteorological disturbances such as dust devils and whirlwinds .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Global_storm_activity_of_2009", "rank": 64, "score": 110148 }, { "content": "Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Climate_oscillation", "rank": 65, "score": 109784 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 66, "score": 109754 }, { "content": "Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Impact_winter", "rank": 67, "score": 109524 }, { "content": "Title: Cold-weather warfare Content: Cold-weather warfare , also known as Arctic warfare or winter warfare , encompasses military operations affected by snow , ice , thawing conditions or cold , both on land and at sea . Cold-weather conditions occur year-round at high elevation or at high latitudes , and elsewhere materialise seasonally during the winter period . Mountain warfare often takes place in cold weather or on terrain that is affected by ice and snow , such as the Alps and the Himalayas . Historically , most such operations have been during winter in the Northern Hemisphere . Some have occurred above the Arctic Circle where snow , ice and cold may occur throughout the year . At times , cold or its aftermath -- thaw -- has been a decisive factor in the failure of a campaign , as with Napoleon 's invasion of Russia in 1812 and the Nazi invasion of Russia .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Cold-weather_warfare", "rank": 68, "score": 109432 }, { "content": "Title: 2001 Eastern North America heat wave Content: A rather cool and uneventful summer along the East Coast of the United States ( with a more average heat pattern occurring in the Midwest/Great Lakes regions ) changed abruptly when a ridge of high pressure centered off the coast of South Carolina strengthened in late July . It began in early August for areas of the Midwest and western Great Lakes before spreading eastward and intensifying . It waned in most areas by the middle of the month , and although fairly short in duration compared with some other continental heat waves , it was very intense at its peak . The high humidity and high temperatures led to major heat wave that overtook the major Northeast Megalopolis . Temperatures in Central Park , New York City reached a peak of 103 F . The temperature reached 105 F in Newark , New Jersey . Meanwhile , in Ontario and Quebec , extreme temperatures were also reported daily during the first week of August . Ottawa recorded its second-hottest day ever when the mercury approached 37 C on August 9 and at the Toronto Airport it hit 38 C on the same day , the hottest day there since 1955 with four straight days topping 35 C. Numerous records were shattered during the heatwave . Even in Nova Scotia , surrounded by the relatively cool waters of the Atlantic Ocean , temperatures still broke 35 C in some locations . Glace Bay , which has a sub-Arctic climate reached a record-breaking 35.5 C on August 10 . At least four New Yorkers died of hyperthermia . Chicago had at least 21 deaths .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "2001_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave", "rank": 69, "score": 108970 }, { "content": "Title: Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process Content: The Wegener -- Bergeron -- Findeisen process ( after Alfred Wegener , Tor Bergeron and Walter Findeisen ) , ( or `` cold-rain process '' ) is a process of ice crystal growth that occurs in mixed phase clouds ( containing a mixture of supercooled water and ice ) in regions where the ambient vapor pressure falls between the saturation vapor pressure over water and the lower saturation vapor pressure over ice . This is a subsaturated environment for liquid water but a supersaturated environment for ice resulting in rapid evaporation of liquid water and rapid ice crystal growth through vapor deposition . If the number density of ice is small compared to liquid water , the ice crystals can grow large enough to fall out of the cloud , melting into rain drops if lower level temperatures are warm enough . The Bergeron process , if occurring at all , is much more efficient in producing large particles than is the growth of larger droplets at the expense of smaller ones , since the difference in saturation pressure between liquid water and ice is larger than the enhancement of saturation pressure over small droplets ( for droplets large enough to considerably contribute to the total mass ) . For other processes affecting particle size , see rain and cloud physics .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen_process", "rank": 70, "score": 108718 }, { "content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850", "rank": 71, "score": 108659 }, { "content": "Title: Coudersport Ice Mine Content: The Coudersport Ice Mine is an ice cave located in Sweden Township , Pennsylvania ( east of Coudersport ) that forms icicles in the spring and summer but not in the winter . Ice formations appear in the shaft during the spring of the year , continue through the hot weather , and disappear in winter . Ice appears in various shapes and forms , often as huge icicles measuring from 1 to 3 ft in thickness , and from 15 to 25 ft in length ; the ice is generally clear and sparkling . A theory about the origin of this mine states that during the winter , cold air over the hilltop sinks into rock openings in the Lock Haven Formation ( Devonian age ) and slowly expels the warm air that had penetrated these openings during the preceding summer . Ordinarily this process takes place locally , but here the interconnection of the rock crevices tends to be so arranged that the air circulation over a wide region is focused on one spot . Thus , from April or May to September , cold air comes in contact with percolating groundwater , forming ice during the hot months of the year ; from September to late spring , warm air trapped in the rocks from the preceding summer , escapes and melts the ice . Discovered in 1894 , the cave is about 40 ft deep , about 8 ft wide , and 10 ft long . The cave was open to the public for many decades The ice mine property was purchased by new owners who began a restoration in 2013 . After being closed for nearly a quarter of a century , the Coudersport Ice Mine was re-opened in 2014 .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Coudersport_Ice_Mine", "rank": 72, "score": 108541 }, { "content": "Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Climate_model", "rank": 73, "score": 108317 }, { "content": "Title: Polar mesospheric summer echoes Content: Polar mesospheric summer echoes ( PMSE ) is the phenomenon of anomalous radar echoes found between 80-90 km in altitude from May through early August in the Arctic , and from November through to February in the Antarctic . These strong radar echoes are associated with the extremely cold temperatures that occur above continental Antarctica during the summer . Rocket and radar measurements indicate that a partial reflection from a multitude of ion layers and constructive interference causes at least some of the PMSE . Generally PMSE exhibits dramatic variations in height and intensity as well as large variations in Doppler shift . PMSE exhibit strong signal power enhancements of scattering cross section at VHF radar frequencies in the range 50 MHz to 250 MHz , at times even to over 1 GHz , that occur in summer at high latitudes . The peak PMSE height is slightly below the summer mesopause temperature minimum at 88 km , and above the noctilucent cloud ( NLC ) and/or polar mesospheric cloud ( PMC ) layer at 83 -- 84 km . The usual instrument for observing PMSE is the a VHF Mesosphere-Stratosphere-Troposphere ( MST ) radar , although LIDARs and sounding rockets have also been used . PMSE is believed to be caused by structural irregularities in the ionospheric electron density at lower altitudes . The exact cause of PMSE is not yet known , although theorists have proposed steep electron density gradients , heavy positive ions , dressed aerosols , gravity waves and turbulence as possible explanations . PMSE occurs in both the Arctic and Antarctic regions , and is sometimes accompanied by noctilucent clouds .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Polar_mesospheric_summer_echoes", "rank": 74, "score": 107922 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 75, "score": 107681 }, { "content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2", "rank": 76, "score": 107327 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice ecology and history Content: The Arctic sea ice covers less area in the summer than in the winter . The multi-year ( i.e. perennial ) sea ice covers nearly all of the central deep basins . The Arctic sea ice and its related biota are unique , and the year-round persistence of the ice has allowed the development of ice endemic species , meaning species not found anywhere else . There are differing scientific opinions about how long perennial sea ice has existed in the Arctic . Estimates range from 120,000 , 700,000 or 4 million years ago .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_ecology_and_history", "rank": 77, "score": 107190 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 78, "score": 107144 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Content: Ice is water frozen into a solid state . Depending on the presence of impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles of air , it can appear transparent or a more or less opaque bluish-white color . In the Solar System , ice is abundant and occurs naturally from as close to the Sun as Mercury to as far away as the Oort cloud objects . Beyond the Solar System , it occurs as interstellar ice . It is abundant on Earth 's surfaceparticularly in the polar regions and above the snow lineand , as a common form of precipitation and deposition , plays a key role in Earth 's water cycle and climate . It falls as snowflakes and hail or occurs as frost , icicles or ice spikes . Ice molecules can exhibit seventeen or more different phases ( packing geometries ) that depend on temperature and pressure . When water is cooled rapidly ( quenching ) , up to three different types of amorphous ice can form depending on the history of its pressure and temperature . When cooled slowly correlated proton tunneling occurs below 20 K giving rise to macroscopic quantum phenomena . Virtually all the ice on Earth 's surface and in its atmosphere is of a hexagonal crystalline structure denoted as ice I ( spoken as `` ice one h '' ) with minute traces of cubic ice denoted as ice I . The most common phase transition to ice I occurs when liquid water is cooled below at standard atmospheric pressure . It may also be deposited directly by water vapor , as happens in the formation of frost . The transition from ice to water is melting and from ice directly to water vapor is sublimation . Ice is used in a variety of ways , including cooling , winter sports and ice sculpture .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Ice", "rank": 79, "score": 106953 }, { "content": "Title: Firn Content: Firn ( -LSB- fɪərn -RSB- from Swiss German firn `` last year 's '' , cognate with before ) is partially compacted névé , a type of snow that has been left over from past seasons and has been recrystallized into a substance denser than névé . It is ice that is at an intermediate stage between snow and glacial ice . Firn has the appearance of wet sugar , but has a hardness that makes it extremely resistant to shovelling . Its density generally ranges from 0.4 g/cm ³ to 0.83 g/cm ³ , and it can often be found underneath the snow that accumulates at the head of a glacier . Snowflakes are compressed under the weight of the overlying snowpack . Individual crystals near the melting point are semiliquid and slick , allowing them to glide along other crystal planes and to fill in the spaces between them , increasing the ice 's density . Where the crystals touch they bond together , squeezing the air between them to the surface or into bubbles . In the summer months , the crystal metamorphosis can occur more rapidly because of water percolation between the crystals . By summer 's end , the result is firn . The minimum altitude that firn accumulates on a glacier is called the firn limit , firn line or snowline .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Firn", "rank": 80, "score": 106952 }, { "content": "Title: Summer melt Content: Summer melt is the phenomenon of prospective college students ' motivation to attend college `` melting '' away during the summer between the end of high school and beginning of college . This phenomenon is especially prevalent in low-income minority communities , where students who qualify for college and in some cases even register for classes ultimately end up not attending college because they lack resources , support , guidance , and encouragement . Causes include the costs associated with college and a lack of support . Support programs , particularly by colleges , have been found to reduce summer melt . Most recently , Georgia State University partnered with artificial intelligence startup AdmitHub to create an AI-powered chatbot to engage prospective college students over the summer , decreasing summer melt 21.4 % .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Summer_melt", "rank": 81, "score": 106586 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 82, "score": 106184 }, { "content": "Title: Ice cricket Content: An international ice cricket tournament has been played on Lake St. Moritz since 1988 and now in Estonia every year since 2004 . The invention of the Estonian version is credited to Barry Jason , a British ex-pat and former Estonian cricket president who was determined to increase the visibility of Estonian cricket throughout the year . The summer game of cricket is applied to some of the harshest , most wintry conditions . The difference between Ice Cricket and other forms of cricket played in the winter is that Ice Cricket is played directly on the ice , no mat is laid down . The results are a little more unpredictable and provide more fun and variety . The ball is the same as an indoor cricket ball , a composite plastic red ball which makes it relatively easy to find if it gets hit into a snowdrift . The Ice Cricket World Championship is held annually in the Estonian city of Tallinn . With winter temperatures of minus 10 to minus 25 , the tournaments are played on Harku boating lake , which freezes over rapidly in early January .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Ice_cricket", "rank": 83, "score": 106078 }, { "content": "Title: Ice core Content: An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet , most commonly from the polar ice caps of Antarctica , Greenland or from high mountain glaciers elsewhere . As the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow , lower layers are older than upper , and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years . The properties of the ice and the recrystallized inclusions within the ice can then be used to reconstruct a climatic record over the age range of the core , normally through isotopic analysis . This enables the reconstruction of local temperature records and the history of atmospheric composition . Ice cores contain an abundance of information about climate . Inclusions in the snow of each year remain in the ice , such as wind-blown dust , ash , pollen , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . The length of the record depends on the depth of the ice core and varies from a few years up to 800 kyr ( 800,000 years ) for the EPICA core . The time resolution ( i.e. the shortest time period which can be accurately distinguished ) depends on the amount of annual snowfall , and reduces with depth as the ice compacts under the weight of layers accumulating on top of it . Upper layers of ice in a core correspond to a single year or sometimes a single season . Deeper into the ice the layers thin and annual layers become indistinguishable . An ice core from the right site can be used to reconstruct an uninterrupted and detailed climate record extending over hundreds of thousands of years , providing information on a wide variety of aspects of climate at each point in time . It is the simultaneity of these properties recorded in the ice that makes ice cores such a powerful tool in paleoclimate research .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Ice_core", "rank": 84, "score": 106041 }, { "content": "Title: Subtropical Countercurrent Content: The subtropical countercurrent ( STCC ) is a narrow eastward ocean current in the central North Pacific Ocean ( 20 -- 30 ° N ) where the Sverdrup theory predicts a broad westward flow . It originates in the western North Pacific around 20 ° N , and flows eastward against the northeast trade winds and stretches northeastward to the north of Hawaii . It is accompanied by a subsurface temperature and density front called the subtropical front , in thermal wind relation with the STCC . Furthermore , the STCC maintains a sea surface temperature front during winter and spring . During April and May when the SST front is still strong , the seasonal warming makes the region conductive to atmospheric convection , and surface wind stress curls turn weakly positive along the front on the background of negative curls that drive the subtropical gyre . On the weather timescale , positive wind curls are related to low-pressure systems of a subsynoptic scale in space , energized by surface baroclinicity and latent heat release along the STF front . The SST front also anchors a meridional maximum in column-integrated water vapor , indicating a deep structure of the atmosphere response .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Subtropical_Countercurrent", "rank": 85, "score": 105916 }, { "content": "Title: Pressure melting point Content: The pressure melting point is the temperature at which ice melts at a given pressure . The pressure melting point is a constant 0 ° C at pressures above the triple point at 611.7 Pa , where water can exist in only the solid or liquid phases , through atmospheric pressure ( 100 kPa ) until about 10 MPa . With increasing pressure above 10 MPa , the pressure melting point decreases to a minimum of − 21.9 ° C at 209.9 MPa . Thereafter , the pressure melting point rises rapidly with pressure , passing back through 0 ° C at 632.4 MPa .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Pressure_melting_point", "rank": 86, "score": 105862 }, { "content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period", "rank": 87, "score": 105850 }, { "content": "Title: Pacific decadal oscillation Content: The Pacific Decadal Oscillation ( PDO ) is a robust , recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin . The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean , north of 20 ° N. Over the past century , the amplitude of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales ( meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades ) . There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity ( meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters within the region ) of the oscillation occurring around 1925 , 1947 , and 1977 ; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in salmon production regimes in the North Pacific Ocean . This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from Alaska to California . During a `` warm '' , or `` positive '' , phase , the west Pacific becomes cooler and part of the eastern ocean warms ; during a `` cool '' or `` negative '' phase , the opposite pattern occurs . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation was named by Steven R. Hare , who noticed it while studying salmon production pattern results in 1997 . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation index is the leading empirical orthogonal function ( EOF ) of monthly sea surface temperature anomalies ( SST-A ) over the North Pacific ( poleward of 20 ° N ) after the global average sea surface temperature has been removed . This PDO index is the standardized principal component time series . A PDO ` signal ' has been reconstructed to 1661 through tree-ring chronologies in the Baja California area .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Pacific_decadal_oscillation", "rank": 88, "score": 105711 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 89, "score": 105678 }, { "content": "Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Ice_cap_climate", "rank": 90, "score": 105543 }, { "content": "Title: Sudden stratospheric warming Content: A sudden stratospheric warming ( SSW ) is an event where the polar vortex of westerly winds in the winter hemisphere slows down or even reverses direction over the course of a few days . The change is accompanied by a rise of stratospheric temperature by several tens of kelvins .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Sudden_stratospheric_warming", "rank": 91, "score": 105500 }, { "content": "Title: Fluvioglacial landform Content: Fluvioglacial landforms are landforms molded by glacial meltwater . This discharge of glacial streams , both over the surface ( supraglacial ) and beneath the ice sheet ( subglacial ) , is higher in the warmer summer months . As subglacial water often flows under pressure , it has a high velocity and is very turbulent . This high velocity enables it to transport a large amount of material which would not normally be transported in a regular stream of similar size ; boulders thus transported may remain as glacial erratics in the post-glacial terrain . As this material is transported it makes contact with the underside of a glacier and erodes vertically from below by abrasion . This erosion creates subglacial valleys . When there is a decrease in discharge of the glacial steams , deposition occurs , and is responsible for large groupings of landforms like eskers and drumlins in glaciated areas . Pro-glacial lakes leave their own passive impress on the glaciated landscape , recognizable by the flatness of the former lakebed and raised terraces that mark former shorelines . More active massive scouring occurs when ice dams of pro-glacial lakes fail catastrophically in a glacial lake outburst flood ; the results can be seen , for example in the Channeled Scablands in the U.S. state of Washington , created by the cataclysmic Missoula Floods that swept periodically across eastern Washington and down the Columbia River Plateau during the Pleistocene epoch . The Shonkin Sag along the northern edge of the Highwood Mountains , Montana , is a channel formed by the Missouri River and glacial meltwater pouring from Glacial Lake Great Falls ; it is one of the most famous prehistoric meltwater channels in the world .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Fluvioglacial_landform", "rank": 92, "score": 105474 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 93, "score": 105293 }, { "content": "Title: Melting point Content: The melting point ( or , rarely , liquefaction point ) of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure . At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium . The melting point of a substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure . When considered as the temperature of the reverse change from liquid to solid , it is referred to as the freezing point or crystallization point . Because of the ability of some substances to supercool , the freezing point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance . When the `` characteristic freezing point '' of a substance is determined , in fact the actual methodology is almost always `` the principle of observing the disappearance rather than the formation of ice '' , that is , the melting point .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Melting_point", "rank": 94, "score": 105169 }, { "content": "Title: Sea smoke Content: Sea smoke , frost smoke , or steam fog , is fog which is formed when very cold air moves over warmer water . Arctic sea smoke is sea smoke forming over small patches of open water in sea ice . It forms when a light wind of very cold air mixes with a shallow layer of saturated warm air immediately above the warmer water . The warmer air is cooled beyond the dew point and can no longer hold as much water vapor , so the excess condenses out . The effect is similar to the `` steam '' produced over a hot bath or a hot drink , or even an exercising person . Sea smoke has a turbulent appearance and may form spiralling columns . It is usually not very high and lookouts on ships can usually see over it ( but small boats may have very poor visibility ) because the fog is confined to the layer of warm air above the sea . However , sea smoke columns 20 -- 30 metres high have been observed . Because this type of fog requires very low air temperatures , it is uncommon in temperate climates , but is common in the Arctic and Antarctic .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Sea_smoke", "rank": 95, "score": 105083 }, { "content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Mesopause", "rank": 96, "score": 104998 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment", "rank": 97, "score": 104987 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 98, "score": 104963 }, { "content": "Title: Stamukha Content: A stamukha ( plural : stamukhi ) is a grounded accumulation of sea ice rubble that typically develops along the boundary between fast ice and the drifting pack ice , or becomes incorporated into the fast ice . It is a pressure ridge . Wind , currents and tides contribute to this phenomenon . Stamukhi tend to occur in belts that are parallel to the shoreline , along coastal shoals , at water depths of about 20 m ( 65 ft ) , but that can reach 50 m ( 160 ft ) . They can build up to heights 10 m or more above the waterline . Although they remain pinned to the seabed , these features can be subject to small displacements , either due to thermal expansion or to the pressure exerted by the drifting pack ice onto the fast ice . Because stamukhi tend to be deeply grounded , they may occur as isolated ice features in the open sea during the summer season , after the surrounding ice has melted away . Since stamukhi extend downward into the seabed , they present a risk to submarine pipelines and telecommunications cables that cross the shoreline . Seabed penetration by the ice can reach a depth of 5 m.", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Stamukha", "rank": 99, "score": 104884 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "2907", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 100, "score": 104870 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Elliott H. Lieb Content: Elliott Hershel Lieb ( born July 31 , 1932 ) is an American mathematical physicist and professor of mathematics and physics at Princeton University who specializes in statistical mechanics , condensed matter theory , and functional analysis . In particular , his scientific works pertain to : the quantum and classical many-body problem , the stability of matter , atomic structure , the theory of magnetism , and the Hubbard model . He is a prolific author in mathematics and physics with over 300 publications . He received his B.S. in physics from MIT ( 1953 ) and his Ph.D. in mathematical physics from the University of Birmingham in England ( 1956 ) . Lieb was a ( 1956 -- 1957 ) Fulbright Fellow at Kyoto University , Japan and for some time worked as the Staff Theoretical Physicist for IBM . He has been a professor at Princeton since 1975 , following a leave from his professorship at MIT . Lieb has been awarded several prizes in mathematics and physics , including the 1978 Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics of the American Physical Society and the American Institute of Physics ( 1978 ) , the Max Planck Medal of the German Physical Society ( 1992 ) , the Boltzmann medal of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics ( 1998 ) , the Schock Prize ( 2001 ) , and the Henri Poincaré Prize of the International Association of Mathematical Physics ( 2003 ) . He is a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences and has twice served ( 1982 -- 1984 and 1997 -- 1999 ) as the President of the International Association of Mathematical Physics . Lieb was awarded the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art in 2002 . In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society and in 2013 a Foreign Member of the Royal Society . He is married to fellow Princeton professor Christiane Fellbaum .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Elliott_H._Lieb", "rank": 1, "score": 92317 }, { "content": "Title: JMP (statistical software) Content: JMP ( pronounced `` jump '' ) is a suite of computer programs for statistical analysis developed by the JMP business unit of SAS Institute . It was launched in 1989 to take advantage of the graphical user interface introduced by the Macintosh . It has since been significantly rewritten and made available for the Windows operating system . JMP is used in applications such as Six Sigma , quality control , and engineering , design of experiments , and research in science , engineering , and social sciences . The software can be purchased in any of five capability configurations : JMP , JMP Pro , JMP Clinical , JMP Genomics and the JMP Graph Builder App for the iPad . JMP can be automated with its proprietary scripting language , JSL . The software is focused on exploratory visual analytics , where users investigate and explore data . These explorations can also be verified by hypothesis testing , data mining , or other analytic methods . In addition , discoveries made through graphical exploration can inspire a designed experiment that can be both designed and analyzed with JMP .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "JMP_(statistical_software)", "rank": 2, "score": 89626 }, { "content": "Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :", "qid": "2910", "docid": "List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis", "rank": 3, "score": 81359 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of Statistical Physics Content: The Journal of Statistical Physics is a biweekly publication containing both original and review papers , including book reviews . All areas of statistical physics as well as related fields concerned with collective phenomena in physical systems are covered . The Journal of Statistical Physics has an impact factor of 1.20 ( 2014 ) . The journal was established by Howard Reiss . Joel L. Lebowitz is the current editor-in-chief .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Journal_of_Statistical_Physics", "rank": 4, "score": 81337 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical physics Content: Statistical physics is a branch of physics that uses methods of probability theory and statistics , and particularly the mathematical tools for dealing with large populations and approximations , in solving physical problems . It can describe a wide variety of fields with an inherently stochastic nature . Its applications include many problems in the fields of physics , biology , chemistry , neurology , and even some social sciences , such as sociology . Its main purpose is to clarify the properties of matter in aggregate , in terms of physical laws governing atomic motion . In particular , statistical mechanics develops the phenomenological results of thermodynamics from a probabilistic examination of the underlying microscopic systems . Historically , one of the first topics in physics where statistical methods were applied was the field of mechanics , which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a force .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_physics", "rank": 5, "score": 79512 }, { "content": "Title: Judith Herzfeld Content: Judith Herzfeld ( born 12 January 1948 ) is Professor of Biophysical Chemistry at Brandeis University . Known for her work in statistical thermodynamics , solid state NMR and chemical education , she is a fellow of the American Physical Society , the American Association for the Advancement of Science , and the Massachusetts Academy of Sciences . She is the author or coauthor of more than 180 scientific papers and a book .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Judith_Herzfeld", "rank": 6, "score": 78772 }, { "content": "Title: Robert Tibshirani Content: Robert Tibshirani ( born July 10 , 1956 ) is a Professor in the Departments of Statistics and Health Research and Policy at Stanford University . He was a Professor at the University of Toronto from 1985 to 1998 . In his work , he develops statistical tools for the analysis of complex datasets , most recently in genomics and proteomics . His most well-known contributions are the LASSO method , which proposed the use of L1 penalization in regression and related problems , and Significance Analysis of Microarrays . He has also co-authored four well-known books : Generalized Additive Models , An Introduction to the Bootstrap , The Elements of Statistical Learning , and Introduction to Statistical Learning , the last two of which are available for free from the author 's website .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Robert_Tibshirani", "rank": 7, "score": 77700 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical mechanics Content: Statistical mechanics is a branch of theoretical physics using probability theory to study the average behaviour of a mechanical system , where the state of the system is uncertain.The term statistical mechanics is sometimes used to refer to only statistical thermodynamics . This article takes the broader view . By some definitions , statistical physics is an even broader term which statistically studies any type of physical system , but is often taken to be synonymous with statistical mechanics . A common use of statistical mechanics is in explaining the thermodynamic behaviour of large systems . This branch of statistical mechanics , which treats and extends classical thermodynamics , is known as statistical thermodynamics or equilibrium statistical mechanics . Microscopic mechanical laws do not contain concepts such as temperature , heat , or entropy ; however , statistical mechanics shows how these concepts arise from the natural uncertainty about the state of a system when that system is prepared in practice . The benefit of using statistical mechanics is that it provides exact methods to connect thermodynamic quantities ( such as heat capacity ) to microscopic behaviour , whereas , in classical thermodynamics , the only available option would be to just measure and tabulate such quantities for various materials . Statistical mechanics also makes it possible to extend the laws of thermodynamics to cases which are not considered in classical thermodynamics , such as microscopic systems and other mechanical systems with few degrees of freedom . Statistical mechanics also finds use outside equilibrium . An important subbranch known as non-equilibrium statistical mechanics deals with the issue of microscopically modelling the speed of irreversible processes that are driven by imbalances . Examples of such processes include chemical reactions or flows of particles and heat . Unlike with equilibrium , there is no exact formalism that applies to non-equilibrium statistical mechanics in general , and so this branch of statistical mechanics remains an active area of theoretical research .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_mechanics", "rank": 8, "score": 77624 }, { "content": "Title: Physical Review E Content: Physical Review E : Statistical , Nonlinear , Biological , and Soft Matter Physics is a peer-reviewed , scientific journal , published monthly by the American Physical Society . The main field of interest is many-body phenomena . It is currently edited by Eli Ben-Naim of the Los Alamos National Laboratory . While original research content requires subscription , editorials , news , and other non-research content is openly accessible .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Physical_Review_E", "rank": 9, "score": 77048 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical Methods for Research Workers Content: Statistical Methods for Research Workers ( ISBN 0-05-002170-2 ) is a classic 1925 book on statistics by the statistician R.A. Fisher . It is considered by some to be one of the 20th century 's most influential books on statistical methods , together with his The Design of Experiments ( 1935 ) .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_Methods_for_Research_Workers", "rank": 10, "score": 75907 }, { "content": "Title: Eric Rideal Content: Sir Eric Keightley Rideal , ( 11 April 1890 -- 25 September 1974 ) was an English physical chemist . He worked on a wide range of subjects , including electrochemistry , chemical kinetics , catalysis , electrophoresis , colloids and surface chemistry . He is best known for the Eley -- Rideal mechanism , which he proposed in 1938 with Daniel D. Eley . He is also known for the textbook that he authored , An Introduction to Surface Chemistry ( 1926 ) , and was awarded honours for the research he carried out during both World Wars and for his services to chemistry .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Eric_Rideal", "rank": 11, "score": 75594 }, { "content": "Title: The Hidden Game of Football Content: The Hidden Game of Football is an influential book on American football statistics published in 1988 and written by Bob Carroll , John Thorn , and Pete Palmer . It was the first systematic statistical approach to analyzing American football in a book and is still considered the seminal work on the topic .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "The_Hidden_Game_of_Football", "rank": 12, "score": 75117 }, { "content": "Title: George A. Milliken Content: George A. Milliken , Ph.D. is emeritus professor of statistics at Kansas State University . He is a Fellow of the American Statistical Association and has published many papers in various statistical journals . Dr. Milliken is a co-author of the three volume Analysis of Messy Data series ( Volume 1 : Designed Experiments ; Volume 2 : Nonreplicated Experiments ; Volume 3 : Analysis of Covariance ) and the co-author of the book SAS System for Mixed Models . Dr. Milliken 's books are widely referenced in the statistical research community . He has placed a significant emphasis of his professional research on the following areas : Nonlinear mixed models Linear and nonlinear models Design of experiments , appropriate experimental units Mixed models , repeated measures , non-replicated experiments Complex designs from designed experiments and observational studies", "qid": "2910", "docid": "George_A._Milliken", "rank": 13, "score": 74726 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical learning in language acquisition Content: Statistical learning is the ability for humans and other animals to extract statistical regularities from the world around them to learn about the environment . Although statistical learning is now thought to be a generalized learning mechanism , the phenomenon was first identified in human infant language acquisition . The earliest evidence for these statistics learning abilities comes from a study by Jenny Saffran , Richard Aslin , and Elissa Newport , in which 8-month-old infants were presented with nonsense streams of monotone speech . Each stream was composed of four three-syllable `` pseudowords '' that were repeated randomly . After exposure to the speech streams for two minutes , infants reacted differently to hearing `` pseudowords '' as opposed to `` nonwords '' from the speech stream , where nonwords were composed of the same syllables that the infants had been exposed to , but in a different order . This suggests that infants are able to learn statistical relationships between syllables even with very limited exposure to a language . That is , infants learn which syllables are always paired together and which ones only occur together relatively rarely , suggesting that they are parts of two different units . This method of learning is thought to be one way that children learn which groups of syllables form individual words . Since the initial discovery of the role of statistical learning in lexical acquisition , the same mechanism has been proposed for elements of phonological acquisition , and syntactical acquisition , as well as in non-linguistic domains . Further research has also indicated that statistical learning is likely a domain-general and even species-general learning mechanism , occurring for visual as well as auditory information , and in both primates and non-primates .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_learning_in_language_acquisition", "rank": 14, "score": 73677 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical murder Content: When a business or regulator uses limited funds to take an action that saves a limited number of lives , instead of an alternative action that would save more lives , this decision is sometimes called statistical murder . This phrase is currently primarily a term of political advocacy , used to draw attention to unwise decision making that either is not the most effective available or is potentially even harmful . This phrase is a diffuse neologism . The phrase originated in the early 1990s with Professor John D. Graham , a tenured professor of policy and decision sciences at Harvard University 's school of Public Health and director of the Harvard Center for Risk Analysis . This phrase appears in the Congressional Record in February , 1995 where he is quoted thus `` John Graham , a Harvard professor , who said , ` Sound science means saving the most lives and achieving the most ecological protection with our scarce budgets . Without sound science , we are engaging in a form of `` statistical murder , '' where we squander our resources on phantom risks when our families continue to be endangered by real risks . '' In 2001 he was appointed the head of the U.S. Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs in the Office of Management and Budget by George W. Bush , making him the top regulator for the United States . Because the analysis underlying the term was controversial among those interested in U.S. government policy , the senate confirmation process for nomination made the term more widely known . To show that something is statistical murder requires that a comparative risk analysis be done on the available alternatives . This is akin to a cost-benefit analysis but does not entail the translation of lives and health into dollars . However , if other types of benefits are to also be evaluated , the comparative risk analysis approach is not viable , so a cost-benefit analysis must be done . Additionally , the concept implies that the inefficiently spent resources could in fact be transferred to a more effective alternative . This requires that regulators and policy makers with budgetary authority at least allow such transfers and preferably use cost-benefit analysis to plan the budgeting . This was not the practice at the time the phrase was coined , and has not yet become standard practice in the U.S.", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_murder", "rank": 15, "score": 73547 }, { "content": "Title: Statisticians' and engineers' cross-reference of statistical terms Content: The following terms are used by electrical engineers in statistical signal processing studies instead of typical statistician 's terms . In other engineering fields , particularly mechanical engineering , uncertainty analysis examines systematic and random components of variations in measurements associated with physical experiments .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statisticians'_and_engineers'_cross-reference_of_statistical_terms", "rank": 16, "score": 73467 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical thinking Content: Statistical thinking is one of the tools for process analysis . Statistical thinking relates processes and statistics , and is based on the following principles : All work occurs in a system of interconnected processes . Variation exists in all processes Understanding and reducing variation are keys to success . W. Edwards Deming promoted the concepts of statistical thinking , using two powerful experiments , the Red Bead and the Funnel experiment . Statistical thinking is a recognised method used as part of Six Sigma methodologies .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_thinking", "rank": 17, "score": 73283 }, { "content": "Title: Stanley Reiter Content: Stanley Reiter ( April 26 , 1925 -- August 9 , 2014 ) was an American author , economist , and Emeritus Professor at Northwestern University . Reiter was a leading pioneer in the field of mechanism design . In 2006 , he and the 2007 Nobel prize-winning economist Leonid Hurwicz authored the book Designing Economic Mechanisms .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Stanley_Reiter", "rank": 18, "score": 73197 }, { "content": "Title: International Encyclopedia of Statistical Science Content: The International Encyclopedia of Statistical Science is one of the largest international scientific projects ever conducted ( from the number of involved countries perspective ) since it includes contributors coming from 105 countries and six continents . It contains the last papers written by Hirotugu Akaike , Nobel Laureate Sir Clive Granger , John Nelder and Erich Leo Lehmann . The first edition , in three volumes , was edited by Miodrag Lovrić and appeared in December 2010 . It is published by Springer and it is available in print and online form .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "International_Encyclopedia_of_Statistical_Science", "rank": 19, "score": 73072 }, { "content": "Title: Recall Mechanism Content: `` Recall Mechanism '' is a science fiction short story by American author Philip K. Dick , first published in 1959 and later in The Collected Stories of Philip K. Dick , Vol . IV , The Days of Perky Pat ( 1987 ) .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Recall_Mechanism", "rank": 20, "score": 73013 }, { "content": "Title: Takeo Matsubara Content: was a Japanese physicist . Matsubara proposed a method of statistical mechanics related to Green 's function ( many-body theory ) , by applying quantum field theory techniques to statistical physics . He graduated from Osaka Imperial University , and worked as full professor in Hokkaido University , Kyoto University , and Okayama University of Science . He was the winner of the Nishina Memorial Prize in 1961 , and took the directorship of the Physical Society of Japan . His research interests were dielectric materials , superconductivity and superfluidity . He wrote various physics textbooks in Japanese .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Takeo_Matsubara", "rank": 21, "score": 72830 }, { "content": "Title: The Mechanism of the Mind Content: The book The Mechanism of Mind by Edward de Bono details the underpinning model of mind that leads to the many thinking skills developed by its author , including lateral thinking .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "The_Mechanism_of_the_Mind", "rank": 22, "score": 72234 }, { "content": "Title: Exponential mechanism (differential privacy) Content: The exponential mechanism is a technique for designing differentially private algorithms . It was developed by Frank McSherry and Kunal Talwar . Differential privacy is a technique for releasing statistical information about a database without revealing information about its individual entries . Most of the initial research in the field of differential privacy revolved around real-valued functions which have relatively low sensitivity to change in the data of a single individual and whose usefulness is not hampered by small additive perturbations . A natural question is what happens in the situation when one wants to preserve more general sets of properties . The exponential mechanism helps to extend the notion of differential privacy to address these issues . Moreover , it describes a class of mechanisms that includes all possible differentially private mechanisms .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Exponential_mechanism_(differential_privacy)", "rank": 23, "score": 72195 }, { "content": "Title: Marina Tarlinskaja Content: Marina Tarlinskaja ( sometimes transliterated `` Tarlinskaya '' or `` Tarlinskaia '' , Марина Тарлинская ) is a Russian-born American linguist specializing in the statistical analysis of verse . She uses the Russian linguistic-statistical method which , at the most basic level , counts the occurrences of word-stresses in ictic ( strong ) and non-ictic ( weak ) positions in lines of verse . From these , `` stress profiles '' can be built , by which bodies of verse of different periods , authors , genres , and even languages can be compared statistically . In her 2014 book she used twelve parameters of verse analyses including syntactic structure of lines and the use of verse rhythm to emphasize meaning . Tarlinskaja successfully applied her methodology to defining the authorship of questionable Elizabethan poems and plays . Writing in 1981 , T.V.F. Brogan called her English Verse : Theory and History `` the most extensive and most important study of English verse structure produced in this century . '' In 2005 she received the Robert Fitzgerald Prosody Award . In The Times Literary Supplement Sir Brian Vickers called her `` Shakespeare and the Versification of English Drama , 1561-1642 '' ( 2014 ) `` the book of the year '' . Tarlinskaja was born in Moscow and studied at the Foreign Language Institute , Moscow , receiving degrees of kandidat in 1967 and doktor filologicheskikh nauk in 1976 , and teaching there from 1969 to 1981 . She emigrated to the United States in 1981 , smuggling out a draft of her subsequent work Shakespeare 's Verse with the help of her husband , L.K. Coachman . She currently is Professor Emerita in the University of Washington 's Linguistics Department . Tarlinskaja is the author of five books and over 200 scholarly articles .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Marina_Tarlinskaja", "rank": 24, "score": 71525 }, { "content": "Title: Right Where You Are Sitting Now Content: Right Where You Are Sitting Now , fully titled Right Where You Are Sitting Now : Further Tales of the Illuminati , is a 1982 book of philosophical writings written by Robert Anton Wilson . Dedicated to William S. Burroughs and Philip K. Dick , this work covers Emic reality , Negative Entropy , Witch Hunters of the Scientific Establishment , The Jumping Jesus Phenomenon , Is God a Dope , Have Fun with Head , and The Reality Labyrinth . The 1992 edition contains a new introduction by Timothy Leary .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Right_Where_You_Are_Sitting_Now", "rank": 25, "score": 71455 }, { "content": "Title: Jyotirmimamsa Content: In Hindu astronomy , Jyotirmimamsa ( analysis of astronomy ) is a treatise on the methodology of astronomical studies authored by Nilakantha Somayaji ( 1444 -- 1544 ) in around 1504 CE . Nilakantha somayaji was an important astronomer-mathematician of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics and was the author of the much celebrated astronomical work titled Tantrasamgraha . This book stresses the necessity and importance of astronomical observations to obtain correct parameters for computations and to develop more and more accurate theories . It even discounts the role of revealed wisdom and divine intuitions in studying astronomical phenomena . Jyotirmimamsa is sometimes cited as proof to establish that modern methodologies of scientific investigations are not unknown to ancient and medieval Indians . The nature of the astronomical and mathematical work , the divine intuition , the experimental details of the science , corrections to the planetary parameters , reasons for the corrections for the planetary revolutions , Vedic authority for inference in astronomy , relative accuracy of different systems , and correction through eclipses , true motion , position , etc. , of planets are some of the topics discussed in Jyotirmimamsa .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Jyotirmimamsa", "rank": 26, "score": 71038 }, { "content": "Title: Gregory Lawrence Eyink Content: Gregory Lawrence Eyink from the Johns Hopkins University , was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society , after they were nominated by their Topical Group on Statistical and Nonlinear Physics in 2003 , for his work in nonequilibrium statistical mechanics , in particular on the foundation of transport laws in chaotic dynamical systems , on field-theoretic methods in statistical hydrodynamics and on singularities and dissipative anomalies in fluid turbulence .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Gregory_Lawrence_Eyink", "rank": 27, "score": 70612 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical alchemy Content: Statistical alchemy was a term originated by John Maynard Keynes to describe econometrics in 1939 . The phrase has subsequently been used by Alvan Feinstein to describe meta-analysis . It is generally regarded as a deprecatory term which undermines attempts to present such activities as meeting the rigorous standards of science .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_alchemy", "rank": 28, "score": 70595 }, { "content": "Title: Aleksandr Gorban Content: Alexander Nikolaevich Gorban is a scientist of Soviet origin , working in the United Kingdom , professor of the University of Leicester , director of the Mathematical Modeling Centre . Alexander N. Gorban has contributed to many areas of fundamental and applied science , including statistical physics , non-equilibrium thermodynamics , machine learning and mathematical biology . Alexander N. Gorban is the author of about 20 books and 300 scientific publications . He has founded several scientific schools in the areas of physical and chemical kinetics , dynamical systems theory and artificial neural networks . He has organized tens of national and international conferences and workshops . He has founded several regular summer schools for talented children . Alexander N. Gorban has been included into the ranking of the 1000 most cited researchers of Russian originAccording to http://www.scientific.ru/ , 2012 Alexander N. Gorban has supervised 6 habilitation and more than 30 PhD theses .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Aleksandr_Gorban", "rank": 29, "score": 70368 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of Statistical Software Content: The Journal of Statistical Software is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journal that publishes papers related to statistical software . The Journal of Statistical Software was founded in 1996 by Jan de Leeuw of the Department of Statistics at the University of California , Los Angeles . Its current Editors-in-Chief are Achim Zeileis , Bettina Grün , Edzer Pebesma , and Torsten Hothorn . It is published by the Foundation for Open Access Statistics . The journal charges no author fees or subscription fees . The journal publishes peer-reviewed articles about statistical software , together with the source code . It also publishes reviews of statistical software and books ( by invitation only ) . Articles are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License , while the source codes distributed with articles are licensed under the GNU General Public License . Articles are often about free statistical software and coverage includes packages for the R programming language .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Journal_of_Statistical_Software", "rank": 30, "score": 70249 }, { "content": "Title: Stephen Barr Content: Stephen M. Barr ( born 1953 ) is an American author and professor in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Delaware , and a member of its Bartol Research Institute . He is also President of the Society of Catholic Scientists . Barr does research in theoretical particle physics and cosmology . In 2011 , he was elected Fellow of the American Physical Society , the citation reading `` for original contributions to grand unified theories , CP violation , and baryogenesis . '' His notable work includes co-discovering the much studied Flipped SU ( 5 ) scheme of unification , identifying the Barr-Zee diagram as an important source of electric dipole moment for basic particles such as the electron and neutron in many theories , and proposing the so-called Nelson-Barr mechanism as a solution to the Strong CP problem . He is the author of the article on Grand Unified Theories for the Encyclopedia of Physics . He obtained his Ph.D. in physics from Princeton University in 1978 . Princeton awarded him the Charlotte Elizabeth Proctor Fellowship `` for distinguished research '' . He went on to do research at the University of Pennsylvania as a post-doctoral fellow ( 1978 -- 80 ) , the University of Washington as a Research Assistant Professor ( 1980-5 ) , and Brookhaven National Laboratory as an Associate Scientist ( 1985-7 ) , before joining the faculty of the University of Delaware in 1987 . He was elected Director of the Bartol Research Institute of the University of Delaware in 2011 . Barr writes and lectures frequently on the relation of science and religion . Since 2000 , he has served on the Editorial Advisory Board ( now the Advisory Council ) of the ecumenical religious intellectual journal First Things , in which many of his articles and book reviews have appeared since 1995 . His writing has also appeared in Commonweal , National Review , Modern Age , The Public Interest , America , The Wall Street Journal , The Weekly Standard and other publications . In 2002 , he gave the Erasmus Lecture , sponsored by the Institute on Religion and Public Life . In 2007 , he was awarded the Benemerenti Medal by Pope Benedict XVI . In 2010 , he was elected a member of the Academy of Catholic Theology . He is married to Kathleen Whitney Barr . They have five children .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Stephen_Barr", "rank": 31, "score": 69950 }, { "content": "Title: 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers Content: The 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers were written by three teams who proposed related but different approaches to explain how mass could arise in local gauge theories . These three papers were written by Robert Brout and François Englert , Peter Higgs , and Gerald Guralnik , C. Richard Hagen , and Tom Kibble ( GHK ) , and are credited with the theory of the Higgs mechanism and the prediction of the Higgs field and Higgs boson . Together , these provide a theoretical means by which Goldstone 's theorem ( a problematic limitation affecting early modern particle physics theories ) can be avoided . They show how gauge bosons can acquire non-zero masses as a result of spontaneous symmetry breaking within gauge invariant models of the universe . As such , these form the key element of the electroweak theory that forms part of the Standard Model of particle physics , and of many models , such as the Grand Unified Theory , that go beyond it . The papers that introduce this mechanism were published in Physical Review Letters ( PRL ) and were each recognized as milestone papers by PRLs 50th anniversary celebration . All of the six physicists were awarded the 2010 J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics for this work , and in 2013 Englert and Higgs received the Nobel Prize in Physics . On 4 July 2012 , the two main experiments at the LHC ( ATLAS and CMS ) both reported independently the confirmed existence of a previously unknown particle with a mass of about ( about 133 proton masses , on the order of 10 − 25 kg ) , which is `` consistent with the Higgs boson '' and widely believed to be the Higgs boson .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "1964_PRL_symmetry_breaking_papers", "rank": 32, "score": 69814 }, { "content": "Title: Bernd Berg Content: Bernd A. Berg is the Dirac Professor of Physics at the Florida State University . His multicanonical approach to computer simulations is popular in structural biology . He is also author of a computational physics textbook , Markov Chain Monte Carlo Simulations and Their Statistical Analysis . In 2008 , he was chosen to receive Germany 's Humboldt Research Award , given to outstanding academics who are at the peak of their careers . Among other honors , Berg was elected a Fellow of the American Physical Society in 2004 and was awarded the Leibniz Professorship of Leipzig University in 2005 .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Bernd_Berg", "rank": 33, "score": 69541 }, { "content": "Title: Gary Drescher Content: Gary L. Drescher is a scientist in the field of artificial intelligence ( AI ) , author of the book Made-Up Minds : A Constructivist Approach to Artificial Intelligence . His book describes a theory of how a computer program might be implemented to learn and use new concepts that have not been programmed into it . It introduces the Schema Mechanism , a general learning and concept-building mechanism inspired by Jean Piaget 's account of human cognitive development . The Schema Mechanism is intended to replicate key aspects of cognitive development during infancy . It takes Piaget 's theory of human development as source of inspiration for an artificial learning mechanism ; and it extends and tests Piaget 's theory by seeing whether a specific mechanism that works according to Piagetian themes actually exhibits Piagetian abilities . He was a Visiting Fellow at the Center for Cognitive Studies at Tufts University , which is directed by the American philosopher Daniel Dennett . As a result of his studies there , he has written a book , Good and Real : Demystifying Paradoxes from Physics to Ethics , in which he defends a rigorously mechanistic materialism . In this book , he discusses quantum mechanics , defending the Everett or Multiple Worlds Interpretation , against the dominant Copenhagen Interpretation . Among other things , he argues that the Everett Interpretation of quantum mechanics , allows for a completely determinist outlook , and it undermines the views of those ( like Roger Penrose ) who hold that quantum mechanics can give us some special insights into the nature of consciousness . In this book , Drescher also provides treatments of the Prisoner 's Dilemma and Newcomb 's Problem in order to build a defense of the golden rule and Kant 's categorical imperative which does not require that we posit anything beyond the physical world as understood by the natural sciences .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Gary_Drescher", "rank": 34, "score": 69357 }, { "content": "Title: John E. Freund Content: John Ernst Freund ( August 6 , 1921 -- 2004 ) was a prominent author of university level textbooks on statistics . He taught for many years at Arizona State University and had previously studied at the University of London , the University of California at Los Angeles , Columbia University , and the University of Pittsburgh . In 1960 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "John_E._Freund", "rank": 35, "score": 69077 }, { "content": "Title: Rashmi C. Desai Content: Rashmi C. Desai from the University of Toronto , was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society , after they were nominated by their Topical Group on Statistical and Nonlinear Physics in 2001 , for applications of statistical mechanics to materials science , including : phase separation and ordering kinetics in systems with competing interactions , Langmuir films , ferromagnetic films , epitaxially grown solid films , order-order transitions in polymers .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Rashmi_C._Desai", "rank": 36, "score": 69016 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical energy analysis Content: Statistical energy analysis ( SEA ) is a method for predicting the transmission of sound and vibration through complex structural acoustic systems . The method is particularly well suited for quick system level response predictions at the early design stage of a product , and for predicting responses at higher frequencies . In SEA a system is represented in terms of a number of coupled subsystems and a set of linear equations are derived that describe the input , storage , transmission and dissipation of energy within each subsystem . The parameters in the SEA equations are typically obtained by making certain statistical assumptions about the local dynamic properties of each subsystem ( similar to assumptions made in room acoustics and statistical mechanics ) . These assumptions significantly simplify the analysis and make it possible to analyze the response of systems that are often too complex to analyze using other methods ( such as finite element and boundary element methods ) .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_energy_analysis", "rank": 37, "score": 68899 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical Modelling Content: Statistical Modelling is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering statistical modelling . It is published by SAGE Publications on behalf of the Statistical Modelling Society . The editors-in-chief are Brian D. Marx ( Louisiana State University ) , Jeffrey Simonoff ( New York University ) , and Arnošt Komárek ( Charles University in Prague ) .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_Modelling", "rank": 38, "score": 68896 }, { "content": "Title: Christopher Kelk Ingold Content: Sir Christopher Kelk Ingold ( 28 October 1893 -- 8 December 1970 ) was a British chemist based in Leeds and London . His groundbreaking work in the 1920s and 1930s on reaction mechanisms and the electronic structure of organic compounds was responsible for the introduction into mainstream chemistry of concepts such as nucleophile , electrophile , inductive and resonance effects , and such descriptors as SN1 , SN2 , E1 , and E2 . He also was a co-author of the Cahn -- Ingold -- Prelog priority rules . Ingold is regarded as one of the chief pioneers of physical organic chemistry .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Christopher_Kelk_Ingold", "rank": 39, "score": 68482 }, { "content": "Title: Thomas Fink Content: Thomas Fink ( born 1972 ) is an Anglo-American physicist , author and entrepreneur . He has published papers in statistical physics and its applications , written two books and designed an iPhone app . He set up the London Institute for Mathematical Sciences and is a Chargé de Recherche in the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Thomas_Fink", "rank": 40, "score": 68479 }, { "content": "Title: Oliver McGee Content: Oliver McGee is an American analyst , strategist , professor of engineering , and author in the United States . He has written about his switch from being a Democrat to a Republican and about being a Republican in the `` age of Obama '' in his book Jumping the Aisle . He has provided public advocacy on capital , technology , and U.S. competitiveness strategies for several political campaigns including Hillary for President 2008 , McCain-Palin 2008 , Romney-Ryan 2012 , and Trump-Pence 2016 campaigns .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Oliver_McGee", "rank": 41, "score": 68228 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of Physical Chemistry B Content: The Journal of Physical Chemistry B is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers research on several fields of material chemistry ( macromolecules , soft matter , and surfactants ) as well as statistical mechanics , thermodynamics , and biophysical chemistry . It has been published weekly since 1997 by the American Chemical Society . Due to the growing amount of research in the fields it covers , the journal was split into two at the beginning of 2007 , with the Journal of Physical Chemistry C specializing in nanostructures , the structures and properties of surfaces and interfaces , electronics , and related topics .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Journal_of_Physical_Chemistry_B", "rank": 42, "score": 68048 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical stability Content: The phenomenon of statistical stability is one of the most surprising physical phenomena consists in weak dependence of statistics ( i.e. , functions of the sample ) on the sample size , if this size is large . This effect is typical , for example , for relative frequencies ( empirical probabilities ) of mass events and averages . This phenomenon is widespread and so can be regarded as a fundamental natural phenomenon . The physical nature of the statistical stability phenomenon is revealed by observing the mass events . Currently two theories are known that describe this phenomenon . They are the classical probability theory , which has a long history of development , and the theory of hyper-random phenomena , created in recent decades .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_stability", "rank": 43, "score": 67939 }, { "content": "Title: Thomas H. Leonard Content: Thomas Hoskyns Leonard ( born 1948 ) is a British statistician and author . Originally from Devon , he studied for and obtained a doctorate in Statistics at the University of London . He went on to work at the University of Warwick and the University of Wisconsin-Madison , before taking up the Chair of Statistics at the University of Edinburgh . In 1972 , Leonard co-founded the Department of Statistics at the University of Warwick with P.Jeffrey Harrison and Robin Reed , where he helped to design the undergraduate MORSE degree in Mathematics , Operations Research , Statistics and Economics . During Leonard 's tenure ( 1980-1995 ) in the Department of Statistics at the University of Wisconsin-Madison , he is reported as improving the Bayesian components of both the teaching and research programs , with his colleagues Kam Wah Tsui and Michael Newton Retiring in 2001 , he still lives in Edinburgh and continues to write on and engage with statistics . Leonard has published on the Bayesian approach to categorical data analysis , as well as on function smoothing and prior informative density estimation , conditional Laplacian approximations for marginal inference and prediction , and the statistical modelling of log covariance matrices . He is also known for his work concerning the applications of Bayesian methodology in geophysics , medicine , psychometrics and the provision of statistical expertise in legal cases . He was one of the founders , in 1992 , of the International Society for Bayesian Analysis , alongside Arnold Zellner and Gordon Kaufman , and has published a history of the Bayesian approach . Leonard is the co - author of Bayesian Methods : An analysis for Statisticians and Interdisciplinary Researchers with John S. J. Hsu and author of the sci-fi socio-political satire ` The Grand Oligarchs of Qinsatorix ' . Leonard 's collaboration at the University of Edinburgh with Ian Main , Orestis Papasouliotis and their co-authors led to several publications in Geophysics During December 2016 , Leonard 's interview by Diego Andres Peres Ruiz was published by the Bulletin of the International Society for Bayesian Analysis .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Thomas_H._Leonard", "rank": 44, "score": 67903 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical potential Content: In protein structure prediction , a statistical potential or knowledge-based potential is an energy function derived from an analysis of known protein structures in the Protein Data Bank . Many methods exist to obtain such potentials ; two notable methods are the quasi-chemical approximation ( due to Miyazawa and Jernigan ) and the potential of mean force ( due to Sippl ) . Although the obtained energies are often considered as approximations of the free energy , this physical interpretation is incorrect . Nonetheless , they have been applied with a limited success in many cases because they frequently correlate with actual ( physical ) free energy differences .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_potential", "rank": 45, "score": 67646 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical Science Content: Statistical Science is a review journal published by the Institute of Mathematical Statistics . The founding editor was Morris H. DeGroot , who explained the mission of the journal in his 1986 editorial : `` A central purpose of Statistical Science is to convey the richness , breadth and unity of the field by presenting the full range of contemporary statistical thought at a modest technical level accessible to the wide community of practitioners , teachers , researchers and students of statistics and probability . ''", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_Science", "rank": 46, "score": 67359 }, { "content": "Title: Theodore M. Porter Content: Theodore M. Porter is a professor who specializes in the history of science in the Department of History at UCLA . He has authored several books , including The Rise of Statistical Thinking , 1820-1900 ; and Trust in Numbers : The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life . His most recent book , published by Princeton University Press in 2004 , is Karl Pearson : The Scientific Life in a Statistical Age . Dr. Porter graduated from Stanford University with an A.B. in history in 1976 and earned a Ph.D. from Princeton University in 1981 . In 2008 , he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Theodore_M._Porter", "rank": 47, "score": 67290 }, { "content": "Title: Erwin Schrödinger Content: Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger ( -LSB- ˈɛɐ̯viːn ˈʃʁøːdɪŋɐ -RSB- ; 12 August 1887 -- 4 January 1961 ) , sometimes written as or , was a Nobel Prize-winning Austrian physicist who developed a number of fundamental results in the field of quantum theory , which formed the basis of wave mechanics : he formulated the wave equation ( stationary and time-dependent Schrödinger equation ) and revealed the identity of his development of the formalism and matrix mechanics . Schrödinger proposed an original interpretation of the physical meaning of the wave function . In addition , he was the author of many works in various fields of physics : statistical mechanics and thermodynamics , physics of dielectrics , colour theory , electrodynamics , general relativity , and cosmology , and he made several attempts to construct a unified field theory . In his book What Is Life ? Schrödinger addressed the problems of genetics , looking at the phenomenon of life from the point of view of physics . He paid great attention to the philosophical aspects of science , ancient and oriental philosophical concepts , ethics , and religion . He also wrote on philosophy and theoretical biology . He is also known for his `` Schrödinger 's cat '' thought-experiment .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Erwin_Schrödinger", "rank": 48, "score": 67262 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical theory Content: The theory of statistics provides a basis for the whole range of techniques , in both study design and data analysis , that are used within applications of statistics . The theory covers approaches to statistical-decision problems and to statistical inference , and the actions and deductions that satisfy the basic principles stated for these different approaches . Within a given approach , statistical theory gives ways of comparing statistical procedures ; it can find a best possible procedure within a given context for given statistical problems , or can provide guidance on the choice between alternative procedures . Apart from philosophical considerations about how to make statistical inferences and decisions , much of statistical theory consists of mathematical statistics , and is closely linked to probability theory , to utility theory , and to optimization .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_theory", "rank": 49, "score": 67143 }, { "content": "Title: Designing Economic Mechanisms Content: Designing Economic Mechanisms is a 2006 book by economists Leonid Hurwicz and Stanley Reiter . Hurwicz received the 2007 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Eric Maskin and Roger Myerson for their work on mechanism design . In this book , Hurwicz and Reiter presented systematic methods for designing decentralized economics mechanisms whose performance attains specified goals .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Designing_Economic_Mechanisms", "rank": 50, "score": 67089 }, { "content": "Title: Michael Talbot (author) Content: Michael Coleman Talbot ( September 29 , 1953 -- May 27 , 1992 ) was an American author of several books highlighting parallels between ancient mysticism and quantum mechanics , and espousing a theoretical model of reality that suggests the physical universe is akin to a hologram based on the research and conclusions of David Bohm and Karl H. Pribram . According to Talbot ESP , telepathy , and other paranormal phenomena are a product of this holographic model of reality .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Michael_Talbot_(author)", "rank": 51, "score": 67088 }, { "content": "Title: Rob Neyer Content: Rob Neyer ( born June 22 , 1966 ) is a baseball writer known for his use of statistical analysis or sabermetrics . He started his career working for Bill James and STATS and then joined ESPN.com as a columnist from 1996 to 2011 . He was National Baseball Editor for SB Nation from 2011 to 2014 .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Rob_Neyer", "rank": 52, "score": 66771 }, { "content": "Title: Dimensional analysis Content: In engineering and science , dimensional analysis is the analysis of the relationships between different physical quantities by identifying their fundamental dimensions ( such as length , mass , time , and electric charge ) and units of measure ( such as miles vs. kilometers , or pounds vs. kilograms vs. grams ) and tracking these dimensions as calculations or comparisons are performed . Converting from one dimensional unit to another is often somewhat complex . Dimensional analysis , or more specifically the factor-label method , also known as the unit-factor method , is a widely used technique for such conversions using the rules of algebra . The concept of physical dimension was introduced by Joseph Fourier in 1822 . Physical quantities that are measurable ( commensurable ) have the same dimension ( length , time , mass ) and can be directly compared to each other , even if they are originally expressed in differing units of measure ( inches and meters , pounds and newtons ) . If physical quantities have different dimensions ( length verses mass ) , they can not be compared by similar units ( are incommensurable ) and can not be compared in quantity . Hence , it is meaningless to ask whether a kilogram is greater than , equal to , or less than an hour . Any physically meaningful equation ( and likewise any inequality and inequation ) will have the same dimensions on their left and right sides , a property known as `` dimensional homogeneity '' . Checking for dimensional homogeneity is a common application of dimensional analysis . Dimensional analysis is also routinely used as a check of the plausibility of derived equations and computations . It is generally used to categorize types of physical quantities and units based on their relationship to or dependence on other units .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Dimensional_analysis", "rank": 53, "score": 66625 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical shape analysis Content: Statistical shape analysis is an analysis of the geometrical properties of some given set of shapes by statistical methods . For instance , it could be used to quantify differences between male and female Gorilla skull shapes , normal and pathological bone shapes , leaf outlines with and without herbivory by insects , etc. . Important aspects of shape analysis are to obtain a measure of distance between shapes , to estimate mean shapes from ( possibly random ) samples , to estimate shape variability within samples , to perform clustering and to test for differences between shapes . One of the main methods used is principal component analysis ( PCA ) . Statistical shape analysis has applications in various fields , including medical imaging , computer vision , computational anatomy , sensor measurement , and geographical profiling .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_shape_analysis", "rank": 54, "score": 66594 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment Content: The Journal of Statistical Mechanics : Theory and Experiment is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the International School for Advanced Studies and IOP Publishing . The journal is targeted to scientists interested in different aspects of statistical physics . The editor-in-chief is Marc Mezard ( CNRS and University of Paris-Sud ) .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Journal_of_Statistical_Mechanics:_Theory_and_Experiment", "rank": 55, "score": 66570 }, { "content": "Title: Ignorability Content: In statistics , ignorability is a feature of an experiment design whereby the method of data collection ( and the nature of missing data ) do not depend on the missing data . A missing data mechanism such as a treatment assignment or survey sampling strategy is `` ignorable '' if the missing data matrix , which indicates which variables are observed or missing , is independent of the missing data conditional on the observed data . This idea is part of the Rubin Causal Inference Model , developed by Donald Rubin in collaboration with Paul Rosenbaum in the early 1970s . Pearl -LSB- 2000 -RSB- devised a simple graphical criterion , called back-door , that entails ignorability and identifies sets of covariates that achieve this condition .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Ignorability", "rank": 56, "score": 66528 }, { "content": "Title: Raj Pathria Content: Raj Kumar Pathria ( born March 30 , 1933 ) is a theoretical physicist and an Urdu poet . Pathria is known for his work on superfluidity in liquid helium , Lorentz transformation of thermodynamic quantities , a rigorous evaluation of lattice sums and finite-size effects in phase transitions . Pathria is also the author of a graduate textbook , Statistical Mechanics , which has recently appeared in its third edition . He also wrote a book on relativity that has been published in a Dover edition .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Raj_Pathria", "rank": 57, "score": 66493 }, { "content": "Title: Engineering analysis Content: Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of a system , device or mechanism under study . Engineering analysis is decompositional : it proceeds by separating the engineering design into the mechanisms of operation or failure , analysing or estimating each component of the operation or failure mechanism in isolation , and re-combining the components according to basic physical principles and natural laws .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Engineering_analysis", "rank": 58, "score": 66342 }, { "content": "Title: Gerald Guralnik Content: Gerald Stanford `` Gerry '' Guralnik ( -LSB- gʊˈrælnɪk -RSB- September 17 , 1936 -- April 26 , 2014 ) was the Chancellor 's Professor of Physics at Brown University . In 1964 he co-discovered the Higgs mechanism and Higgs boson with C. R. Hagen and Tom Kibble ( GHK ) . As part of Physical Review Letters 50th anniversary celebration , the journal recognized this discovery as one of the milestone papers in PRL history . While widely considered to have authored the most complete of the early papers on the Higgs theory , GHK were controversially not included in the 2013 Nobel Prize in Physics . In 2010 , Guralnik was awarded The American Physical Society 's J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics for the `` elucidation of the properties of spontaneous symmetry breaking in four-dimensional relativistic gauge theory and of the mechanism for the consistent generation of vector boson masses '' . Guralnik received his BS degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1958 and his PhD degree from Harvard University in 1964 . He went to Imperial College London as a postdoctoral fellow supported by the National Science Foundation and then became a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Rochester . In the fall of 1967 Gerry went to Brown University and frequently visited Imperial College and Los Alamos National Laboratory where he was a staff member from 1985 to 1987 . While at Los Alamos , he did extensive work on the development and application of computational methods for Lattice QCD . He died of a heart attack aged 77 in 2014 .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Gerald_Guralnik", "rank": 59, "score": 66256 }, { "content": "Title: Jan Łopuszański (physicist) Content: Jan Łopuszański ( 21 October 1923 -- 30 April 2008 ) was a Polish theoretical physicist and author of several textbooks about classical , statistical and quantum physics . In the field of quantum field theory , he is most famous as co-author of the Haag-Lopuszanski-Sohnius theorem concerning the possibility of supersymmetry in renormalizable QFT 's .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Jan_Łopuszański_(physicist)", "rank": 60, "score": 66160 }, { "content": "Title: Victor Raskin Content: Victor Raskin ( born April 17 , 1944 ) is a distinguished professor of linguistics at Purdue University . He is the author of Semantic Mechanisms of Humor and Ontological Semantics and founding editor ( now editor-at-large ) of Humor , the journal for the International Society for Humor Studies . He is an associate director and founding faculty member of CERIAS at Purdue University along with Gene Spafford and Mikhail Atallah .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Victor_Raskin", "rank": 61, "score": 66158 }, { "content": "Title: Physical Science for Christian Schools Content: Physical Science for Christian Schools is a 1974 work by Emmett L. Williams and George Mulfinger , Jr. . It was the first textbook published by Bob Jones University Press .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Physical_Science_for_Christian_Schools", "rank": 62, "score": 66137 }, { "content": "Title: Anatoly Zhigljavsky Content: Anatoly Aleksandrovich Zhigljavsky ( born 19 November 1953 ) is a professor of statistics in the school of mathematics at Cardiff University . He is the author of 8 research monographs and papers on various topics . His research interests include time series analysis , stochastic global optimisation , probabilistic methods in search and number theory . He is the Director of the Centre for Optimisation and its Applications . His monographs include Stochastic Global Optimization , published in 2008 by Springer , which received some positive comments from reviewers , and Theory of Global Random Search", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Anatoly_Zhigljavsky", "rank": 63, "score": 66109 }, { "content": "Title: Ilse Ipsen Content: Ilse Clara Franziska Ipsen is a German-American mathematician who works as a professor of mathematics at North Carolina State University and as associate director of the Statistical and Applied Mathematical Sciences Institute . She is the author of the book Numerical Matrix Analysis : Linear Systems and Least Squares ( SIAM , 2009 ) . Ipsen earned a diploma from the Kaiserslautern University of Technology in 1977 , and completed her doctorate from the Pennsylvania State University in 1983 under the supervision of Don Heller . After working at Yale University for ten years beginning in 1983 , she joined NCSU in 1993 . In 2011 , she became a fellow of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics `` for contributions to numerical linear algebra , perturbation theory , and applications . ''", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Ilse_Ipsen", "rank": 64, "score": 65936 }, { "content": "Title: Helmut Landsberg Content: Helmut Erich Landsberg ( 1906 -- 1985 ) was a noted and influential climatologist . He was born in Frankfurt , Germany , February 9 , 1906 and died December 6 , 1985 in Geneva , Switzerland while attending a meeting of the World Meteorological Organization . Landsberg was an important figure in meteorology and atmospheric science in education , public service and administration . He authored several notable works , particularly in the field of particulate matter and its influence on air pollution and human health . He is the first to write in English about the use of statistical analysis in the field of climatology and implemented such statistical analysis in aiding military operations during World War II . He received a number of significant honors during his life . Several honors are now bestowed in his name in recognition of his contributions to his field .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Helmut_Landsberg", "rank": 65, "score": 65752 }, { "content": "Title: Bibliometrics Content: Bibliometrics is statistical analysis of written publications , such as books or articles . Bibliometric methods are frequently used in the field of library and information science , including scientometrics . For instance , bibliometrics are used to provide quantitative analysis of academic literature or for evaluating budgetary spending . Citation analysis is a commonly used bibliometric method which is based on constructing the citation graph , a network or graph representation of the citations between documents . Many research fields use bibliometric methods to explore the impact of their field , the impact of a set of researchers , or the impact of a particular paper . Bibliometrics also has a wide range of other applications , such as in descriptive linguistics , the development of thesauri , and evaluation of reader usage .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Bibliometrics", "rank": 66, "score": 65583 }, { "content": "Title: Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics Content: Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics , published in March 1902 , is a work of scientific literature by Josiah Willard Gibbs which is considered to be the foundation of modern statistical mechanics . Its full title was Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics , developed with especial reference to the rational foundation of thermodynamics .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Elementary_Principles_in_Statistical_Mechanics", "rank": 67, "score": 65575 }, { "content": "Title: Ludwig Boltzmann Content: Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann ( February 20 , 1844 -- September 5 , 1906 ) was an Austrian physicist and philosopher whose greatest achievement was in the development of statistical mechanics , which explains and predicts how the properties of atoms ( such as mass , charge , and structure ) determine the physical properties of matter ( such as viscosity , thermal conductivity , and diffusion ) .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Ludwig_Boltzmann", "rank": 68, "score": 65281 }, { "content": "Title: Richard C. Tolman Content: Richard Chace Tolman ( March 4 , 1881 -- September 5 , 1948 ) was an American mathematical physicist and physical chemist who was an authority on statistical mechanics . He also made important contributions to theoretical cosmology in the years soon after Einstein 's discovery of general relativity . He was a professor of physical chemistry and mathematical physics at the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Richard_C._Tolman", "rank": 69, "score": 65017 }, { "content": "Title: AStA Advances in Statistical Analysis Content: AStA Advances in Statistical Analysis is a peer-reviewed mathematics journal published quarterly by Springer Science + Business Media and the German Statistical Society . It was established in 2007 and covers statistical theory , methods , methodological developments , as well as probability and mathematics applications . Coverage is organized into three broad areas : statistical applications , statistical methodology , and review articles . The editor in chiefs are Göran Kauermann and Stefan Lang .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "AStA_Advances_in_Statistical_Analysis", "rank": 70, "score": 65011 }, { "content": "Title: Engineering statistics Content: Engineering statistics combines engineering and statistics : Design of Experiments ( DOE ) is a methodology for formulating scientific and engineering problems using statistical models . The protocol specifies a randomization procedure for the experiment and specifies the primary data-analysis , particularly in hypothesis testing . In a secondary analysis , the statistical analyst further examines the data to suggest other questions and to help plan future experiments . In engineering applications , the goal is often to optimize a process or product , rather than to subject a scientific hypothesis to test of its predictive adequacy . The use of optimal ( or near optimal ) designs reduces the cost of experimentation . Quality control and process control use statistics as a tool to manage conformance to specifications of manufacturing processes and their products . Time and methods engineering use statistics to study repetitive operations in manufacturing in order to set standards and find optimum ( in some sense ) manufacturing procedures . Reliability engineering which measures the ability of a system to perform for its intended function ( and time ) and has tools for improving performance . Probabilistic design involving the use of probability in product and system design System identification uses statistical methods to build mathematical models of dynamical systems from measured data . System identification also includes the optimal design of experiments for efficiently generating informative data for fitting such models .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Engineering_statistics", "rank": 71, "score": 64984 }, { "content": "Title: Mechanography Content: Mechanography ( also referred to as jumping mechanography or Muscle Mechanography ) is a medical diagnostic measurement method for motion analysis and assessment of muscle function and muscle power by means of physical parameters . The method is based on measuring the variation of the ground reaction forces over the time for motion patterns close to typical every day movements ( e.g. chair rise or jumps ) . From these ground reaction forces centre of gravity related physical parameters like relative maximum forces , velocity , power output , kinetic energy , potential energy , height of jump or whole body stiffness are calculated . If the ground reaction forces are measured separately for left and right leg in addition body imbalances during the motions can be analysed . This enables for example to document the results of therapy . The same methodology can also be used for gait analysis or for analysis of stair climbing , grip strength and Posturography . Due to the utilization of every-day movements reproducibility is high over a wide age range", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Mechanography", "rank": 72, "score": 64885 }, { "content": "Title: Rhett Allain Content: Rhett Allain is an American associate professor of physics at Southeastern Louisiana University and the author of the Wired magazine science blog Dot Physics . He received his Ph.D. from North Carolina State University in 2001 and works in the field of physics education research . In his blog , Dot Physics , Allain discusses physical concepts , answers questions related to physics and math , and debunks questionable physical claims . Many of his posts are supported by experiments , calculations and models . Recently , he has analyzed the physics behind the Angry Birds Space video game and behind a now-debunked video which purported to show a man flying with home-made wings . He has also criticized television shows , including Fight Science , that perform poorly controlled experiments which are presented as scientific . In 2008 Allain rejected the concept of sailing dead downwind faster than the wind as a violation of conservation laws , stating that `` this is the same situation as people trying to make energy from nothing '' . When the concept was demonstrated to work in practice by the Blackbird in 2010 , Allain did n't offer further explanations and merely noted : `` If it works , does it matter what I say ? '' .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Rhett_Allain", "rank": 73, "score": 64833 }, { "content": "Title: Norman Breslow Content: Norman Edward Breslow ( February 21 , 1941 -- December 9 , 2015 ) was an American statistician and medical researcher . At the time of his death , he was Professor ( Emeritus ) of Biostatistics in the School of Public Health , of the University of Washington . He is co-author or author of hundreds of published works during 1967 to 2015 . Among his many accomplishments is his work with co-author Nicholas Day that developed and popularized the use of case-control matched sample research designs , in the two-volume work Statistical Methods in Cancer Research . This was with view that matched sample studies have a role within larger program of many types of studies , in making progress on a vast and important problem like cancer . Matched sample studies can quickly and cheaply test some hypothesized relationships , but their apparent findings are not definitive , and there 's much they can not accomplish . Their results , however , can inform the design of slow and expensive longitudinal large-cohort studies that are definitive , for example . Dose-response studies and other studies , too , are elements of a rational scientific program to address cancer . In 2015 , he died of prostate cancer .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Norman_Breslow", "rank": 74, "score": 64387 }, { "content": "Title: Tables of Physical and Chemical Constants and Some Mathematical Functions Content: Tables of Physical and Chemical Constants and Some Mathematical Functions is a reference book compiled by G. W. C. Kaye and T. H. Laby . It was first published in 1911 and is commonly known by the authors ' surnames , Kaye and Laby . It is a standard textbook for scientists and engineers . The final print edition was the 16th in 1995 , after which the entire content was made available online in association with the National Physical Laboratory .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Tables_of_Physical_and_Chemical_Constants_and_Some_Mathematical_Functions", "rank": 75, "score": 64300 }, { "content": "Title: Into The Open Economy Content: Into The Open Economy is a book written by Irish author and social activist Colin R. Turner which sets out proposals for an open economy without money , trade or governance .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Into_The_Open_Economy", "rank": 76, "score": 64298 }, { "content": "Title: Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences Content: The Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences is an encyclopaedia of statistics published by John Wiley & Sons . The first edition , in nine volumes , was edited by Norman Lloyd Johnson and Samuel Kotz and appeared in 1982 . The second edition , in 16 volumes , was published in 2006 . Samuel Kotz was the senior editor .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Encyclopedia_of_Statistical_Sciences", "rank": 77, "score": 64227 }, { "content": "Title: Lo! Content: Lo ! was the third published nonfiction work of the author Charles Fort ( first edition 1931 ) . In it he details a wide range of unusual phenomena . In the final chapter of the book he proposes a new cosmology that the earth is stationary in space and surrounded by a solid shell which is ( in the book 's final words ) '' . . not unthinkably far away . ''", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Lo!", "rank": 78, "score": 64155 }, { "content": "Title: Writer invariant Content: Writer invariant , also called authorial invariant or author 's invariant , is a property of a text which is invariant of its author , that is , it will be similar in all texts of a given author and different in texts of different authors . It can be used to find plagiarism or discover who is real author of anonymously published text . Writer invariant is also an author 's pattern of writing a letter in handwritten text recognition . While it is generally recognised that writer invariants exist , it is not agreed what properties of a text should be used . Among the first ones used was distribution of word lengths ; other proposed invariants include average sentence length , average word length , noun , verb or adjective usage frequency , vocabulary richness , and frequency of function words , or specific function words . Of these , average sentence lengths can be very similar in works of different authors or vary significantly even within a single work ; average word lengths likewise turn out to be very similar in works of different authors . Analysis of function words shows promise because they are used by authors unconsciously .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Writer_invariant", "rank": 79, "score": 64090 }, { "content": "Title: Vladimir A. Zorich Content: Vladimir Antonovich Zorich ( Владимир Антонович Зорич ; born December 16 , 1937 , Moscow ) is a Soviet and Russian mathematician , Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences ( 1969 ) , Professor ( 1971 ) . Honorary Professor of Moscow State University ( 2007 ) . He is the author of the well-known textbook `` Mathematical Analysis '' for students of mathematical , physical and mathematical specialties of higher education , which was reprinted several times and translated into many languages .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Vladimir_A._Zorich", "rank": 80, "score": 64053 }, { "content": "Title: SPSS Content: SPSS Statistics is a software package used for logical batched and non-batched statistical analysis . Long produced by SPSS Inc. , it was acquired by IBM in 2009 . The current versions ( 2015 ) are officially named IBM SPSS Statistics . Companion products in the same family are used for survey authoring and deployment ( IBM SPSS Data Collection ) , data mining ( IBM SPSS Modeler ) , text analytics , and collaboration and deployment ( batch and automated scoring services ) . The software name originally stood for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences ( SPSS ) , reflecting the original market , although the software is now popular in other fields as well , including the health sciences and marketing .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "SPSS", "rank": 81, "score": 64004 }, { "content": "Title: Eric M. Rogers Content: Eric M. Rogers ( 15 August 1902 -- 1 July 1990 ) was a British author and physics educator . He is perhaps best known for his 1960 textbook Physics for the Inquiring Mind . The book , subtitled The Methods , Nature , and Philosophy of Physical Science , was based on courses he gave at Princeton University , where he taught from 1942 to 1971 . Rogers also headed the Nuffield Science Teaching Project program in physics education in the 1960s .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Eric_M._Rogers", "rank": 82, "score": 63950 }, { "content": "Title: Bill James Content: George William `` Bill '' James ( born October 5 , 1949 ) is an American baseball writer , historian , and statistician whose work has been widely influential . Since 1977 , James has written more than two dozen books devoted to baseball history and statistics . His approach , which he termed sabermetrics in reference to the Society for American Baseball Research ( SABR ) , scientifically analyzes and studies baseball , often through the use of statistical data , in an attempt to determine why teams win and lose . His Baseball Abstract books in the 1980s are the modern predecessor to websites using sabermetrics such as Baseball Prospectus and Baseball Primer ( now Baseball Think Factory ) . In 2006 , Time named him in the Time 100 as one of the most influential people in the world . He is a Senior Advisor on Baseball Operations for the Boston Red Sox .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Bill_James", "rank": 83, "score": 63900 }, { "content": "Title: Robin Plackett Content: Robin L. Plackett ( 3 September 1920 -- 23 June 2009 ) was a statistician best known for his contributions to the history of statistics and to experimental design , most notably the Plackett -- Burman designs . He was the first professor of statistics at Newcastle University and held the post until his retirement in 1983 . In 1987 the Royal Statistical Society awarded him the Guy Medal in Gold , having awarded him both the bronze and silver medals earlier in his career . He authored several books on statistics , including Principles of Regression Analysis ( 1960 ) , The Analysis of Categorical Data ( 1974 ) and An Introduction to the Interpretation of Quantal Responses in Biology ( 1979 , with P. S. Hewlett ) .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Robin_Plackett", "rank": 84, "score": 63789 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical Methods in Medical Research Content: Statistical Methods in Medical Research is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes papers in the fields of Health Care and Medical Informatics . The journal 's editor is Brian Everitt ( King 's College London ) . It has been in publication since 1992 and is currently published by SAGE Publications .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_Methods_in_Medical_Research", "rank": 85, "score": 63761 }, { "content": "Title: Jo Marchant Content: Jo Marchant is a freelance journalist specializing in science and history . After gaining a BSc in genetics from Leicester University and a PhD in microbiology she became a science writer , and is the author of Decoding the Heavens , an exploration of the history and significance of the Antikythera mechanism , The Shadow King : The Bizarre Afterlife of King Tut 's Mummy , and Cure : A Journey Into the Science of Mind Over Body ( shortlisted for the Royal Society Insight Investment Science Book Prize 2016 ) . A former editor of the science journal Nature and opinion editor at New Scientist magazine in London , she has written for The Guardian and The Economist . Marchant writes that `` the idea for Decoding the Heavens came about in November 2006 , when I was an editor at the science journal Nature . A research paper was due to be published revealing the workings of a sophisticated ancient device called the Antikythera mechanism . The story grabbed me immediately , and I was desperate to find out more about this mysterious contraption . I travelled to Athens to see the remains of the mechanism , and to meet those who have studied it and hear their stories . ''", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Jo_Marchant", "rank": 86, "score": 63730 }, { "content": "Title: John Mighton Content: John Mighton , OC ( born October 2 , 1957 ) is a Canadian author , film actor , and mathematician . He is the founder of JUMP ( Junior Undiscovered Math Prodigies ) , a charitable organization that works to educate students in mathematics . He is the author of The Myth of Ability ( 2003 ) and The End of Ignorance ( 2007 ) . Mighton is also a playwright , and has been the recipient of two Governor General Awards for his plays which include Possible Worlds , The Little Years , Body & Soul , Scientific Americans , A Short History of Night , and Half Life . He has also been the recipient of the prestigious Siminovitch Prize in Theatre for playwriting . Mighton also advised Gus Van Sant , Matt Damon , and Ben Affleck on the script for Good Will Hunting , and as an actor in the film . His one major line is a reference to his main idea in The Myth of Ability : that most people never get a chance because a teacher does not take the time to show them how to learn . Mighton completed a Ph.D. in mathematics at the University of Toronto and was awarded an NSERC fellowship for postdoctoral research in knot and graph theory . He is currently a Fellow of the Fields Institute for Research in Mathematical Sciences and has also taught mathematics at the University of Toronto . Dr. Mighton also lectured in philosophy at McMaster University , where he received a Masters in philosophy . In 2004 , Mighton was elected as a Fellow of Ashoka in recognition for his work founding JUMP . In 2010 , he was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada . Mighton was born in Hamilton , Ontario on and lives in Toronto , Ontario with partner Pamela Sinha and daughter Chloe .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "John_Mighton", "rank": 87, "score": 63672 }, { "content": "Title: Self-publishing Content: Self-publishing is the publication of any book or other media by its author without the involvement of an established publisher . A self-published physical book is said to have been privately printed . The author is in control of the entire process including , for a book , the design of the cover and interior , formats , price , distribution , marketing , and public relations . The authors can do it all themselves or may outsource some or all the work to companies which offer these services . Self-publishing is not limited to physical books . E-books , pamphlets , brochures , websites , and other media are commonly self-published .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Self-publishing", "rank": 88, "score": 63641 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical Analysis Center Content: Statistical Analysis Centers ( SACs ) are state agencies created by legislation or Executive Order that collect , analyze , and disseminate criminal and juvenile justice data . They contribute to effective state policies through statistical services , research , evaluation , and policy analysis . SACs are nonpartisan and strive to serve all branches of the criminal justice system and all levels of government in a state as well as the general public . Objectivity , independence , and visibility are important considerations in determining their placement in the state government . SACs are located in a variety of different settings in the states ; the majority are a component of the state justice administrative or planning agency . For those located in an agency with line responsibilities in the criminal justice system ( e.g. State Police , Department of Corrections , Office of the Attorney General ) , special provisions are needed to ensure the SACs ' broad mission , objectivity , independence , and visibility . SACs are staffed by professionals skilled in the application of statistical methods and techniques , who are familiar with the factors , issues , and processes involved in crime and the criminal justice system . Currently , there are SACs in all 50 states , the District of Columbia , Puerto Rico , and the Northern Mariana Islands . Most of the state SACs receive funding support from the Bureau of Justice Statistics , U.S. Department of Justice as well as other offices within that agency . Nationally , the SACs are represented through a membership organization , the Justice Research and Statistics Association , a private , nonprofit agency .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_Analysis_Center", "rank": 89, "score": 63587 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical study of energy data Content: Energy statistics refers to collecting , compiling , analyzing and disseminating data on commodities such as coal , crude oil , natural gas , electricity , or renewable energy sources ( biomass , geothermal , wind or solar energy ) , when they are used for the energy they contain . Energy is the capability of some substances , resulting from their physico-chemical properties , to do work or produce heat . Some energy commodities , called fuels , release their energy content as heat when they burn . This heat could be used to run an internal or external combustion engine . The need to have statistics on energy commodities became obvious during the 1973 oil crisis that brought tenfold increase in petroleum prices . Before the crisis , to have accurate data on global energy supply and demand was not deemed critical . Another concern of energy statistics today is a huge gap in energy use between developed and developing countries . As the gap narrows ( see picture ) , the pressure on energy supply increases tremendously . The data on energy and electricity come from three principal sources : Energy industry Other industries ( `` self-producers '' ) Consumers The flows of and trade in energy commodities are measured both in physical units ( e.g. , metric tons ) , and , when energy balances are calculated , in energy units ( e.g. , terajoules or tons of oil equivalent ) . What makes energy statistics specific and different from other fields of economic statistics is the fact that energy commodities undergo greater number of transformations ( flows ) than other commodities . In these transformations energy is conserved , as defined by and within the limitations of the first and second laws of thermodynamics .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_study_of_energy_data", "rank": 90, "score": 63578 }, { "content": "Title: Mental Radio Content: Mental Radio : Does it work , and how ? ( 1930 ) was written by the American author Upton Sinclair and initially self-published . This book documents Sinclair 's test of psychic abilities of Mary Craig Sinclair , his second wife , while she was in a state of profound depression with a heightened interest in the occult . She attempted to duplicate 290 pictures which were drawn by her brother . Sinclair claimed Mary successfully duplicated 65 of them , with 155 `` partial successes '' and 70 failures . The experiments were not conducted in a controlled scientific laboratory environment . The German edition included a preface written by Albert Einstein who admired the book and praised Sinclair 's writing abilities . The psychical researcher Walter Franklin Prince conducted an independent analysis of the results in 1932 . He believed that telepathy had been demonstrated in Sinclair 's data . Prince 's analysis was published as `` The Sinclair Experiments for Telepathy '' in Part I of Bulletin XVI of the Boston Society for Psychical Research in April , 1932 and was included in the addendum for the book .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Mental_Radio", "rank": 91, "score": 63567 }, { "content": "Title: Effective field theory Content: In physics , an effective field theory is a type of approximation to ( or effective theory for ) an underlying physical theory , such as a quantum field theory or a statistical mechanics model . An effective field theory includes the appropriate degrees of freedom to describe physical phenomena occurring at a chosen length scale or energy scale , while ignoring substructure and degrees of freedom at shorter distances ( or , equivalently , at higher energies ) . Intuitively , one averages over the behavior of the underlying theory at shorter length scales to derive what is hoped to be a simplified model at longer length scales . Effective field theories typically work best when there is a large separation between length scale of interest and the length scale of the underlying dynamics . Effective field theories have found use in particle physics , statistical mechanics , condensed matter physics , general relativity , and hydrodynamics . They simplify calculations , and allow treatment of dissipation and radiation effects .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Effective_field_theory", "rank": 92, "score": 63527 }, { "content": "Title: HippoDraw Content: HippoDraw is a powerful object oriented statistical data analysis package written in C++ , with user interaction via a Qt-based GUI and a Python scriptable interface . It is being developed by Paul Kunz at SLAC , primarily for the analysis and presentation of particle physics and astrophysics data , but can be equally well used in other fields where data handling is important . HippoDraw can read and write files in an XML-based format , astrophysics FITS files , data objects produced by ROOT ( optional ) , and via the Python bindings , anything that can be read/written by Python ( HDF5 , for instance , via PyTables ) . HippoDraw can be used as a Python extension module , allowing users to use HippoDraw data objects with the full power of the Python language . This includes other scientific Python extension modules such Numeric and numarray , whose use with HippoDraw can lead to a large increase in processing speed , even for ROOT objects .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "HippoDraw", "rank": 93, "score": 63454 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical hypothesis testing Content: A statistical hypothesis , sometimes called confirmatory data analysis , is a hypothesis that is testable on the basis of observing a process that is modeled via a set of random variables . A statistical hypothesis test is a method of statistical inference . Commonly , two statistical data sets are compared , or a data set obtained by sampling is compared against a synthetic data set from an idealized model . A hypothesis is proposed for the statistical relationship between the two data sets , and this is compared as an alternative to an idealized null hypothesis that proposes no relationship between two data sets . The comparison is deemed statistically significant if the relationship between the data sets would be an unlikely realization of the null hypothesis according to a threshold probability -- the significance level . Hypothesis tests are used in determining what outcomes of a study would lead to a rejection of the null hypothesis for a pre-specified level of significance . The process of distinguishing between the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis is aided by identifying two conceptual types of errors ( type 1 & type 2 ) , and by specifying parametric limits on e.g. how much type 1 error will be permitted . An alternative framework for statistical hypothesis testing is to specify a set of statistical models , one for each candidate hypothesis , and then use model selection techniques to choose the most appropriate model . The most common selection techniques are based on either Akaike information criterion or Bayes factor . Confirmatory data analysis can be contrasted with exploratory data analysis , which may not have pre-specified hypotheses .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Statistical_hypothesis_testing", "rank": 94, "score": 63450 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature jump Content: The temperature jump method is a technique used in chemical kinetics for the measurement of very rapid reaction rates . It is one of a class of chemical relaxation methods pioneered by the German physical chemist Manfred Eigen in the 1950s . In these methods , a reacting system initially at equilibrium is perturbed rapidly and then observed as it relaxes back to equilibrium . In the case of temperature jump , the perturbation involves rapid heating which changes the value of the equilibrium constant , followed by relaxation to equilibrium at the new temperature . The heating usually involves discharging of a capacitor ( in the kV range ) through a small volume ( < 1 mL ) of a conducting solution containing the molecule/reaction to be studied . In some versions of the apparatus used , the solution is heated instead by the output of a pulsed laser which emits in the near infra-red . When laser heating is employed , the solution need not be conducting . In both cases , the temperature of the solution is caused to rise by a small amount in microseconds ( or less in the case of laser heating ) . This allows the study of the shift in equilibrium of reactions that equilibrate in milliseconds ( or microseconds with laser temperature jump ) , these changes most commonly being observed using absorption spectroscopy or fluorescence spectroscopy . Due to the small volumes involved the temperature of the solution returns to that of its surroundings in minutes . The fractional extent of the reaction ( i.e. the percentage change in concentration of a measurable species ) depends on the molar enthalpy change ( ΔH ° ) between the reactants and products and the equilibrium position . If K is the equilibrium constant and dT is the change in temperature then the enthalpy change is given by the Van ' t Hoff equation : where R is the universal gas constant and T is the absolute temperature . When a single step in a reaction is perturbed in a temperature jump experiment , the reaction follows a single exponential decay function with time constant equal to a function of the forward ( ka ) and reverse ( kb ) rate constants . For the perturbation of a simple equilibrium A < = > B which is first order in both directions , the reciprocal of the time constant equals the sum of the two rate constants The two rate constants can be determined from the values of and the equilibrium constant : , yielding two equations for two unknowns . In more complex reaction networks , when multiple reaction steps are perturbed , then the reciprocal time constants are given by the eigenvalues of the characteristic rate equations . The ability to observe intermediate steps in a reaction pathway is one of the attractive features of this technology . Related chemical relaxation methods include pressure jump , electric field jump and pH jump .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Temperature_jump", "rank": 95, "score": 63359 }, { "content": "Title: Joshua Bloch Content: Joshua J. Bloch ( born August 28 , 1961 ) is a software engineer and a technology author , formerly employed at Sun Microsystems and Google . He led the design and implementation of numerous Java platform features , including the Java Collections Framework , the java.math package , and the assert mechanism . He is the author of the programming guide Effective Java ( 2001 ) , which won the 2001 Jolt Award , and is a co-author of two other Java books , Java Puzzlers ( 2005 ) and Java Concurrency In Practice ( 2006 ) . Bloch holds a B.S. in computer science from Columbia University and a Ph.D. in computer science from Carnegie Mellon University . His 1990 thesis was titled A Practical Approach to Replication of Abstract Data Objects and was nominated for the ACM Distinguished Doctoral Dissertation Award . Bloch has worked as a Senior Systems Designer at Transarc , and later as a Distinguished Engineer at Sun Microsystems . In June 2004 he left Sun and became Chief Java Architect at Google . On August 3 , 2012 , Bloch announced that he would be leaving Google . In December 2004 , Java Developer 's Journal included Bloch in its list of the `` Top 40 Software People in the World '' . Bloch has proposed the extension of the Java programming language with two features : Concise Instance Creation Expressions ( CICE ) ( coproposed with Bob Lee and Doug Lea ) and Automatic Resource Management ( ARM ) blocks . The combination of CICE and ARM formed one of the three early proposals for adding support for closures to Java . ARM blocks were added to the language in JDK7 . Bloch is currently a faculty member of the Institute for Software Research at Carnegie Mellon University , where he holds the title `` Professor of the Practice '' . In addition to his research , Bloch teaches coursework in Software Engineering , course 15-214 .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Joshua_Bloch", "rank": 96, "score": 63327 }, { "content": "Title: Sweave Content: Sweave is a function in the statistical programming language R that enables integration of R code into LaTeX or LyX documents . The purpose is `` to create dynamic reports , which can be updated automatically if data or analysis change '' . The data analysis is performed at the moment of writing the report , or more exactly , at the moment of compiling the Sweave code with Sweave ( i.e. , essentially with R ) and subsequently with LaTeX . This can facilitate the creation of up-to-date reports for the author . Because the Sweave files together with any external R files that might be sourced from them and the data files contain all the information necessary to trace back all steps of the data analyses , Sweave also has the potential to make research more transparent and reproducible to others . However , this is only the case to the extent that the author makes the data and the R and Sweave code available . If the author only publishes the resulting PDF document or printed versions thereof , a report created using Sweave is no more transparent or reproducible than the same report created with other statistical and text preparation software .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Sweave", "rank": 97, "score": 63193 }, { "content": "Title: Layer Jump Recording Content: Layer Jump Recording ( LJR ) is a writing method used for DVD-R DL ( Dual Layer ) . It permits recording the disc per increments called session ( see Optical disc authoring ) , a.k.a. multi-session . It also permits a faster closing of the disc by saving extraneous padding when the amount of recorded data does not fill-up the disc . It overcomes these limitations of Sequential Recording ( SR ) , the writing method usually applied to write-once optical media . The layer jump is a switch ( jump ) between the layer closer to the laser head ( referred as L0 ) to the farther layer ( referred as L1 ) , or vice versa . Jumping layers is already necessary for reading multiple layer optical media ( so far market released products are limited to two layers despite some research prototypes having up to eight layers ) , as well as for recording them with Sequential Recording . However the layer jump during the recording occurs only once , at the position called Middle Area , during a Sequential Recording , while it may occur multiple times with Layer Jump Recording . Two different Layer Jump methods are defined : Manual Layer Jump and Regular Layer Jump . The first require the software to specify to the hardware each jump point from layer zero to layer one ( the jump from layer one to layer zero occurring always at the symmetric jump point ) . The latter requires the software to specify to the hardware only once the jumping interval size . This technology was championed by Pioneer Corporation , optical device manufacturer among things , and introduced to the market in 2005 . The physical part of the technology was first specified within DVD Forum , and then a matching device command set was introduced to the Mt Fuji specification ( which eventually was replicated within the MMC specification ) . Later the Layer Jump Recording impacted the UDF file system specification . Unlike most recording methods , Layer Jump Recording was not unanimously adopted by optical driver manufacturers . The limited backward compatibility with legacy optical devices , complexity of device firmware implementation , need of significant software update for support and the slightly awkward writing sequencing , slowed down the adoption . In 2006 , drives supporting the Layer Jump Recording methods were released by Pioneer itself , Plextor , BenQ , Lite-On , and Sony . The technology was also supported by optical drive chipsets from key manufacturer MediaTek . The technology is supported by multiple recording software , but also not unanimously supported . Nero , Sonic/Roxio , CyberLink and Ulead Systems claim support for Layer Jump Recording in their software .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Layer_Jump_Recording", "rank": 98, "score": 63183 }, { "content": "Title: C. R. Hagen Content: Carl Richard Hagen ( -LSB- ˈheigən -RSB- born 2 February 1937 ) is a professor of particle physics at the University of Rochester . He is most noted for his contributions to the Standard Model and Symmetry breaking as well as the 1964 co-discovery of the Higgs mechanism and Higgs boson with Gerald Guralnik and Tom Kibble ( GHK ) . As part of Physical Review Letters 50th anniversary celebration , the journal recognized this discovery as one of the milestone papers in PRL history . While widely considered to have authored the most complete of the early papers on the Higgs theory , GHK were controversially not included in the 2013 Nobel Prize in Physics . In 2010 , Hagen was awarded The American Physical Society 's J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics for the `` elucidation of the properties of spontaneous symmetry breaking in four-dimensional relativistic gauge theory and of the mechanism for the consistent generation of vector boson masses '' . Professor Hagen 's research interests are in the field of theoretical high-energy physics , primarily in the area of quantum field theory . This includes the formulation and quantization of higher spin field theories within the context of Galilean relativity as well as that of Special relativity . Work in recent years has been concerned with such topics as the soluble two dimensional theories , Chern -- Simons field theory , the Aharonov -- Bohm effect , and the Casimir effect . In 2015 , Hagen authored a paper that found the classic 17th century Wallis formula for while calculating energy levels of the Hydrogen atom - the first paper to derive from physics and quantum mechanics . Born and raised in Chicago , Hagen received his B.S. , M.S. , and Ph.D. in physics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . At MIT , his doctoral thesis topic was in quantum electrodynamics . He has been a professor of physics at the University of Rochester since 1963 . Professor Hagen won the Award for Excellence in Teaching , Department of Physics and Astronomy , University of Rochester twice ( in 1996 and 1999 ) . Hagen is a Fellow of the American Physical Society and was named Outstanding Referee by APS in 2008 . Valparaiso University awarded Hagen the degree Honorary Doctor of Science in 2012 for his significant contributions to particle physics and the theory of mass generation .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "C._R._Hagen", "rank": 99, "score": 63130 }, { "content": "Title: Marjorie Hall Harrison Content: Marjorie Hall Harrison ( born 1915 ) was born in Nottingham , England . In 1947 , she authored one of the first scientific books , a dissertation while at the Yerkes Observatory of the University of Chicago , with the word `` model '' in the title . This work describes the processes that fuel stars and is among the first works that endeavored to create detailed mathematical models for complex physical systems . Along with Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar , George Gamow and G. Keller , Harrison published models in 1944 , 1946 and 1947 discussing stars modeled with hydrogen-depleted and isothermal cores . As a doctoral student of S. Chandrasekhar at the University of Chicago , she received a degree in astronomy in 1947 . A brother , Sir Arnold Alexander Hall , was noted for the design of gyroscopic gun-sights for D-day fighter aircraft , the compressor for Frank Whittle 's first jet engine and the 1954 investigation of the various crashes involving the de Havilland Comet 1 . Another brother , Cecil Hall , was one of Eli Franklin Burton 's graduate students who build the first practical electron microscope at the University of Toronto in 1938 .", "qid": "2910", "docid": "Marjorie_Hall_Harrison", "rank": 100, "score": 63102 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Frost (temperature) Content: Frost or freezing occurs when the temperature of air falls below the freezing point of water ( 0 ° C , 32 ° F , 273.15 K ) . This is usually measured at the height of 1.2 m above the ground surface . There is a rather subjective scale to show several degrees of frost severity : slight frost : 0 to moderate frost : − 3.6 to − 6.5 ° C ( 25.6 to 20.3 ° F ) severe frost : − 6.6 to − 11.5 ° C ( 20.2 to 11.3 ° F ) very severe frost : below -11.5 C Frost is not necessary to get ground frost or hoar frost ; they can form even if air temperature is above freezing point if the surfaces have been chilled by heat emission during a cold night .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Frost_(temperature)", "rank": 1, "score": 111256 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of the Arctic Content: The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer . The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Climate_of_the_Arctic", "rank": 2, "score": 109885 }, { "content": "Title: Winter of 2010–11 in Great Britain and Ireland Content: The winter of 2010 -- 2011 was a weather event that brought heavy snowfalls , record low temperatures , travel chaos and school disruption to the islands of Britain and Ireland . It included the UK 's coldest December since Met Office records began in 1910 , with a mean temperature of -1 ° C , breaking the previous record of 0.1 ° C in December 1981 . Also it was the second-coldest December in the narrower Central England Temperature ( CET ) record series which began in 1659 , falling 0.1 ° C short of the all-time record set in 1890 . The winter of 2010 in England saw the earliest widespread winter snowfall since 1993 with snow falling as early as 24 November across Northumberland and North Yorkshire . A maximum snow depth of 30 in was recorded on 1 December in the Peak District , Sheffield , the Cotswold Hills and the Forest of Dean . In this event Scotland and Northern England were most severely affected . On 9 December temperatures recovered across much of the UK , causing a partial thaw . Later , on Thursday 16 December a cold front reintroduced a cold , arctic airstream . This cold spell brought further snow and ice chaos back to the British Isles with Southern England , Wales , the Republic of Ireland ( excluding the westerly coastal regions ) and Northern Ireland bearing the brunt of the wintry conditions . This led to severe disruption to the road and rail network with several airports being closed including London Heathrow Airport for a time . Several local temperature records were broken including a new record low for Northern Ireland of -18.7 ° C recorded at Castlederg on 23 December 2010 . By the new year a thaw had begun , and there was no recurrence of the extreme conditions for the remainder of the winter . There was some snowfall in early January , and there was an anticyclonic spell at the end of the month that brought some cold , frosty days . February was above average in temperature and ended on a mild note , although the snow returned in much of Scotland during March .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Winter_of_2010–11_in_Great_Britain_and_Ireland", "rank": 3, "score": 108760 }, { "content": "Title: Ice River Spring Content: The Ice River Spring on Ellesmere Island , in Nunavut , Canada , is a high discharge perennial spring . As of 2014 , it is the highest latitude perennial spring known . The spring is located at 300 m above sea level , on the south-facing slope of an 800 m mountain . The spring 's discharge has carved a gully , and flows to the Ice River . The spring was originally discovered in 2009 , and observed to gush forth all year round . Analysis of the spring water , shows that it originated from the surface , and circulated deep into the Earth before returning through the cryosphere . The spring flows year-round , even in the middle of winter when surface air temperatures reach -50 C . The gully it carves out is reminiscent of gullies on Mars . The average annual air temperatures in the region is -19.7 C , while the spring 's water 's average is 9 C . The spring discharges 520 L/s , even though it is located in an area with permafrost over 400 m thick .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_River_Spring", "rank": 4, "score": 108727 }, { "content": "Title: Eismitte Content: Eismitte , in English also called Mid-Ice , was the site of an Arctic expedition in the interior of Greenland that took place from July 1930 through August 1931 , and claimed the life of noted German scientist Alfred Wegener . The name `` Eismitte '' means Ice-Center in German , and the campsite was located 402 km from the coast at an estimated altitude of 3,000 meters ( 9,843 feet ) . The coldest temperature recorded during the expedition was − 64.9 ° C ( − 85 ° F ) , while the warmest temperature noted was − 2.8 ° C ( 27 ° F ) . For the 12-month period beginning September 1 , 1930 and ending August 31 , 1931 , the warmest month , July , had a mean monthly temperature of − 12.2 ° C ( 10 ° F ) , while the coldest month , February , averaged − 47.2 ° C ( − 53 ° F ) . Over the same period a total of 110 millimeters ( 4.33 inches ) of water-equivalent precipitation was recorded , with most of it , rather surprisingly , being received in winter . At the latitude of the camp , the sun does not set between May 13 and July 30 each year , and does not rise between November 23 and January 20 .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Eismitte", "rank": 5, "score": 108562 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature in Canada Content:", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Temperature_in_Canada", "rank": 6, "score": 108132 }, { "content": "Title: North Ice Content: North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "North_Ice", "rank": 7, "score": 107949 }, { "content": "Title: Anna Bågenholm Content: Anna Elisabeth Johansson Bågenholm ( born 1970 ) is a Swedish radiologist from Vänersborg , who survived after a skiing accident in 1999 left her trapped under a layer of ice for 80 minutes in freezing water . During this time she became a victim of extreme hypothermia and her body temperature decreased to 13.7 ° C , one of the lowest survived body temperatures ever recorded in a human with accidental hypothermia . Bågenholm was able to find an air pocket under the ice , but suffered circulatory arrest after 40 minutes in the water . After rescue , Bågenholm was transported by helicopter to the Tromsø University Hospital , where a team of more than a hundred doctors and nurses worked in shifts for nine hours to save her life . Bågenholm woke up ten days after the accident , paralyzed from the neck down and subsequently spent two months recovering in an intensive care unit . Although she has made an almost full recovery from the incident , late in 2009 she was still suffering from minor symptoms in hands and feet related to nerve injury . Bågenholm 's case has been discussed in the leading British medical journal The Lancet , and in medical textbooks .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Anna_Bågenholm", "rank": 8, "score": 107761 }, { "content": "Title: Clear ice Content: Clear ice refers to a solid precipitation which forms when air temperature is between 0 C and -3 C and there are supercooled , relatively large drops of water ( from freezing fog ) . A rapid accretion and a slow dissipation of latent heat of fusion favor the formation of a transparent ice coating , without air or other impurities . A similar phenomenon occurs when freezing rain or drizzle hit a surface and is called glaze . Clear ice , when formed on the ground , is often called black ice , and can be extremely hazardous . Clear ice is denser and more homogeneous than hard rime ; like rime , however , clear ice accumulates on branches and overhead lines , where it is particularly dangerous due to its relative high density .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Clear_ice", "rank": 9, "score": 105953 }, { "content": "Title: Needle ice Content: Needle ice is a phenomenon that occurs when the temperature of the soil is above 0 C and the surface temperature of the air is below 0 C . The subterranean liquid water is brought to the surface via capillary action , where it freezes and contributes to a growing needle-like ice column . Needle ice requires a flowing form of water underneath the surface , from that point it comes into contact with air that is below freezing . This area of the process usually occurs at night when temperature peaks its low point . From then on , it produces a needle like structure as we know as `` Needle Ice '' . The ice needles are typically a few centimetres long . While growing , they may lift or push away small soil particles . On sloped surfaces , needle ice may be a factor contributing to soil creep . Alternate names for needle ice are `` frost pillars '' ( `` Säuleneis '' in German ) , `` frost column '' , `` Kammeis '' ( a German term meaning `` comb ice '' ) , `` Stängeleis '' ( another German term referring to the stem-like structures ) , `` shimobashira '' ( 霜柱 , a Japanese term meaning frost pillars ) , or `` pipkrake '' ( from Swedish pipa ( tube ) and krake ( weak , fine ) , coined in 1907 by Henrik Hesselman ) . The similar phenomena of frost flowers and hair ice can occur on living or dead plants , especially on wood .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Needle_ice", "rank": 10, "score": 105161 }, { "content": "Title: Ice cave Content: An ice cave is any type of natural cave ( most commonly lava tubes or limestone caves ) that contains significant amounts of perennial ( year-round ) ice . At least a portion of the cave must have a temperature below 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) all year round , and water must have traveled into the cave 's cold zone .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_cave", "rank": 11, "score": 105029 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Ic Content: Ice Ic ( pronounced `` ice one c '' or `` ice icy '' ) is a metastable cubic crystalline variant of ice . H. König was the first to identify and deduce the structure of ice Ic . The oxygen atoms in ice Ic are arranged in a diamond structure and is extremely similar to ice Ih having nearly identical densities and the same lattice constant along the hexagonal puckered-planes . It forms at temperatures between 130 and 220 K ( − 140 and − 50 ° C ) upon cooling , and can exist up to 240 K upon warming , when it transforms into ice Ih . Apart from forming from supercooled water , ice Ic has also been reported to form from amorphous ice as well as from the high pressure ices II , III and V . It can form in and is occasionally present in the upper atmosphere and is believed to be responsible for the observation of Scheiner 's halo , a rare ring that occurs near 28 degrees from the Sun or the Moon . Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih ( in the Bridgman nomenclature ) . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_Ic", "rank": 12, "score": 104691 }, { "content": "Title: Freezing level Content: The freezing level , or 0 ° C ( zero-degree ) isotherm , represents the altitude in which the temperature is at 0 ° C ( the freezing point of water ) in a free atmosphere ( i.e. allowing reflection of the sun by snow , etc. ) . Any given measure is valid for only a short period of time , often less than a day . Above the freezing altitude , the temperature of the air is below freezing . Below it , the temperature is above freezing . The profile of this frontier , and its variations , are studied in meteorology , and are used for a variety of forecasts and predictions . Whilst not given on general weather forecasts , it is used on bulletins giving forecasts for mountainous areas .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Freezing_level", "rank": 13, "score": 103750 }, { "content": "Title: Siberian High Content: The Siberian High ( also Siberian Anticyclone ) is a massive collection of cold dry air that accumulates in the northeastern part of Eurasia from September until April . It is usually centered on Lake Baikal . It reaches its greatest size and strength in the winter when the air temperature near the center of the high-pressure cell is often lower than -40 ° C . The atmospheric pressure is often above 1040 mbar . The Siberian High is the strongest semi-permanent high in the northern hemisphere and is responsible for both the lowest temperature in the Northern Hemisphere , of -67.8 ° C on 15 January 1885 at Verkhoyansk , and the highest pressure , 1083.8 mbar ( 108.38 kPa , 32.01 inHg ) at Agata , Krasnoyarsk Krai on 31 December 1968 , ever recorded . The Siberian High is responsible both for severe winter cold and attendant dry conditions with little snow and few or no glaciers across Siberia , Mongolia , and China . During the summer , the Siberian High is largely replaced by the Asiatic low .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Siberian_High", "rank": 14, "score": 103196 }, { "content": "Title: Dome A Content: Dome A or Dome Argus is the loftiest ice dome on the Antarctic Plateau , located 1200 km inland . It is thought to be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth ; scientists believe that temperatures can sometimes even drop below -102 ° C in the winter . It is the highest ice feature in Antarctica , consisting of an ice dome or eminence of 4093 m elevation above sea level . It is located near the center of East Antarctica , approximately midway between the enormous head of Lambert Glacier and the geographic South Pole , within the Australian claim .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Dome_A", "rank": 15, "score": 102296 }, { "content": "Title: Ice fog Content: Ice fog is a type of fog consisting of fine ice crystals suspended in the air . It occurs only in cold areas of the world , as water droplets suspended in the air can remain liquid down to -40 ° C . It should be distinguished from diamond dust , a precipitation of sparse ice crystals falling from a clear sky . It should also be distinguished from freezing fog , which is commonly called pogonip in the western United States .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_fog", "rank": 16, "score": 101678 }, { "content": "Title: Lowest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The lowest natural temperature ever directly recorded at ground level on Earth is − 89.2 C , which was at the Soviet Vostok Station in Antarctica by ground measurements . A 2009 study estimated that under exceptional climate conditions similar to those recorded at Vostin 1983 , temperatures higher on the plateau around Dome Argus could potentially drop lower than − 95 C. On August 10 , 2010 , satellite observations measured a surface temperature of − 93.2 C at 81.8 ° S 59.3 ° E , along a ridge between Dome Argus and Dome Fuji , at 3,900 m elevation . The result was reported at the 46th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco , in December 2013 ; it is a provisional figure , and may be subject to revision . The value may not be listed as the record coldest temperature as it was measured by remote sensing satellites and not by ground-based thermometers , unlike the 1983 record . The temperature announced reflects that of the ice surface , while the Vostok readings measured the air above the ice , and so the two are not directly comparable . However , it is most likely that the real temperature on the site was lower than that recorded at Vostok .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Lowest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth", "rank": 17, "score": 100150 }, { "content": "Title: Ice wedge Content: An ice wedge is a crack in the ground formed by a narrow or thin piece of ice that measures up to 3 -- 4 meters in length at ground level and extends downwards into the ground up to several meters . During the winter months , the water in the ground freezes and expands . Once temperatures reach − 17 degrees Celsius or lower , the ice that has already formed acts like a solid and expands to form cracks in the surface known as ice wedges . As this process continues over many years ice wedges can grow , up to the size of a swimming pool . Ice wedges usually appear in a polygonal pattern known as ice wedge polygons . The cracks can also be filled with materials other than ice , especially sand , and then they 're called sand wedges .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_wedge", "rank": 18, "score": 99376 }, { "content": "Title: Frost line (astrophysics) Content: In astronomy or planetary science , the frost line , also known as the snow line or ice line , is the particular distance in the solar nebula from the central protostar where it is cold enough for volatile compounds such as water , ammonia , methane , carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide to condense into solid ice grains . This condensation temperature depends on the volatile substance and the partial pressure of vapor in the protostar nebula . The actual temperature and distance for the snow line of water ice depend on the physical model used to calculate it and on the theoretical solar nebula model : 170 K at 2.7 AU ( Hayashi , 1981 ) 143 K at 3.2 AU to 150 K at 3 AU ( Podolak and Zucker , 2010 ) 3.1 AU ( Martin and Livio , 2012 ) ≈ 150 K for μm-size grains and ≈ 200 K for km-size bodies ( D'Angelo and Podolak , 2015 ) The radial position of the condensation/evaporation front varies over time , as the nebula evolves . Occasionally , the term snow line is also used to represent the present distance at which water ice can be stable ( even under direct sunlight ) . This current snow line distance is different from the formation snow line distance during the formation of Solar System , and approximately equals 5 AU . The reason for the difference is that during the formation of Solar System , the solar nebula was an opaque cloud where temperature were lower close to the Sun , and the Sun itself was less energetic . After formation , the ice got buried by infalling dust and it has remained stable a few meters below the surface . If ice within 5 AU is exposed , e.g. by a crater , then it sublimates on short timescales . However , out of direct sunlight ice can remain stable on the surface of asteroids ( and the Moon ) if it is located in permanently shadowed craters , where temperature may remain very low over the age of the Solar System ( e.g. 30 -- 40 K on the Moon ) . Observations of the asteroid belt , located between Mars and Jupiter , suggest that the water snow line during formation of Solar System was located within this region . The outer asteroids are icy C-class objects ( e.g. Abe et al. 2000 ; Morbidelli et al. 2000 ) whereas the inner asteroid belt is largely devoid of water . This implies that when planetesimal formation occurred the snow line was located at around 2.7 AU from the Sun . For example , the dwarf planet Ceres with semi-major axis of 2.77 AU lies almost exactly on the lower estimation for water snow line during the formation of the Solar System . Ceres appears to have an icy mantle and may even have a water ocean below the surface . Each volatile substance has its own snow line , e.g. carbon monoxide and nitrogen , so it is important to always specify which material 's snow line is meant . The lower temperature in the nebula beyond the frost line makes many more solid grains available for accretion into planetesimals and eventually planets . The frost line therefore separates terrestrial planets from giant planets in the Solar System . However , giant planets have been found inside the frost line around several other stars ( so-called hot Jupiters ) . They are thought to have formed outside the frost line , and later migrated inwards to their current positions . Earth , which lies less than a quarter of the distance to the frost line but is not a giant planet , has adequate gravitation for keeping methane , ammonia , and water vapor from escaping it . Methane and ammonia are rare in the Earth 's atmosphere only because of their instability in an oxygen-rich atmosphere that results from life forms ( largely green plants ) whose biochemistry suggests plentiful methane and ammonia at one time , but of course liquid water and ice , which are chemically stable in such an atmosphere , form much of the surface of Earth . Researchers Rebecca Martin and Mario Livio have proposed that asteroid belts may tend to form in the vicinity of the frost line , due to nearby giant planets disrupting planet formation inside their orbit . By analysing the temperature of warm dust found around some 90 stars , they concluded that the dust ( and therefore possible asteroid belts ) was typically found close to the frost line . The term is borrowed from the notion of `` frost line '' in soil science .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Frost_line_(astrophysics)", "rank": 19, "score": 99223 }, { "content": "Title: Ice storm Content: An ice storm is a type of winter storm characterized by freezing rain , also known as a glaze event or , in some parts of the United States , as a silver thaw . The U.S. National Weather Service defines an ice storm as a storm which results in the accumulation of at least 0.25 in of ice on exposed surfaces . From 1982 to 1994 , ice storms were more common than blizzards and averaged 16 per year . They are generally not violent storms but instead are commonly perceived as gentle rains occurring at temperatures just below freezing .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_storm", "rank": 20, "score": 99058 }, { "content": "Title: Dry ice Content: Dry ice , sometimes referred to as `` cardice '' ( chiefly by British chemists ) , is the solid form of carbon dioxide . It is used primarily as a cooling agent . Its advantages include lower temperature than that of water ice and not leaving any residue ( other than incidental frost from moisture in the atmosphere ) . It is useful for preserving frozen foods where mechanical cooling is unavailable . Dry ice sublimates at − 78.5 ° C ( − 109.3 ° F ) at Earth atmospheric pressures . This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing ( frostbite ) . While generally not very toxic , the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia ( abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood ) due to buildup in confined locations .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Dry_ice", "rank": 21, "score": 97997 }, { "content": "Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_cap_climate", "rank": 22, "score": 97969 }, { "content": "Title: Frost (disambiguation) Content: Frost may refer to two distinct weather phenomena : Frost ( temperature ) , a value of air temperature less or equal than the freezing point of water ( 0 ° C , 32 ° F ) Frost , a solid deposition of ice on surfaces and objects Frost may also refer to :", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Frost_(disambiguation)", "rank": 23, "score": 97103 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Antarctica Content: The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Climate_of_Antarctica", "rank": 24, "score": 96470 }, { "content": "Title: Winter of 1894–95 in the United Kingdom Content: The winter of 1894 -- 95 was severe for the British Isles with a CET of 1.27 C . Many climatologists have come to view this winter as the end of the Little Ice Age and the culmination of a decade of harsh winters in Britain . Whereas the average CET for the ten winters from 1885 -- 86 to 1894 -- 95 was 2.87 C , no winter with a CET under 3.0 C followed for twenty-two years and no month as cold as February or January 1895 until 1940 . In contrast , between 1659 and 1894 no spell with every winter CET above 3.0 C had lasted longer than twelve winters . Although this winter -- which featured the lowest North Atlantic Oscillation index between 1882 and 1962 with lower values recorded only in 1880/1881 , 1962/1963 and 1968/1969 -- affected most of Europe and North America very severely , the difficulties Britain had coping with it vis-à-vis the United States and Germany is seen as marking a beginning in the decline of British hegemony in global affairs . The severe winter led to mass unemployment and severe disruptions to shipping on the River Thames , which froze for the last time on record . Because mass political activism had not yet created the welfare state , most workers were left without sustenance and in industrial centres large soup kitchens were widespread to feed these people . There were also numerous skating festivals organised to take advantage of the unusually cold and sunny weather , with up to fifty thousand people skating on The Serpentine in London 's Hyde Park and speed skating races being widely popular and generating money to be used for relief of the poor , and in some cases to provide them with temporary work as vendors for spectators . Coal supplies dwindled as transporting coal by river was impossible , whilst many recently introduced exotic plants were killed by the cold .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Winter_of_1894–95_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 25, "score": 96257 }, { "content": "Title: Cold-weather warfare Content: Cold-weather warfare , also known as Arctic warfare or winter warfare , encompasses military operations affected by snow , ice , thawing conditions or cold , both on land and at sea . Cold-weather conditions occur year-round at high elevation or at high latitudes , and elsewhere materialise seasonally during the winter period . Mountain warfare often takes place in cold weather or on terrain that is affected by ice and snow , such as the Alps and the Himalayas . Historically , most such operations have been during winter in the Northern Hemisphere . Some have occurred above the Arctic Circle where snow , ice and cold may occur throughout the year . At times , cold or its aftermath -- thaw -- has been a decisive factor in the failure of a campaign , as with Napoleon 's invasion of Russia in 1812 and the Nazi invasion of Russia .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Cold-weather_warfare", "rank": 26, "score": 95608 }, { "content": "Title: Cold Sunday Content: `` Cold Sunday '' was a meteorological event which took place on January 17 , 1982 , when unprecedentedly cold air swept down from Canada and plunged temperatures across much of the United States far below existing all-time record lows . The phenomenon was caused by an unusually strong high pressure system over Saskatchewan with a core pressure of 1055mb ( 31.15 inHg ) , a level rarely seen outside of permanent polar areas such as Siberia and Antarctica . A recent snowfall had left the ground without any way to hold on to its heat and temperatures dropped precipitously . This mass of cold air was so strong that the temperature at Mequon , Wisconsin , dropped to − 40 ° F ( − 40 ° C ) . The previous record was − 28 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) and temperatures below − 20 ° F ( − 29 ° C ) had been felt there only six times in the previous 100 years . The lowest temperature recorded that day in the United States was − 52 ° F ( − 47 ° C ) , measured near Tower , Minnesota . Below is a partial list of cities which set all-time record low temperatures in the United States . This is only a small fraction of all locales setting record low temperatures : Hundreds of towns and cities from North Dakota to New Jersey to Mississippi broke records , and the vast majority of the records set on `` Cold Sunday '' still stand . The cold was not confined to the night , either . In Princeton , New Jersey , and Cincinnati , Ohio , the daytime high temperatures were 2 ° F ( − 17 ° C ) and − 9 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) . The average high temperature in January is 39 ° F ( 4 ° C ) in both cities . While much of South Florida escaped the deep freeze , enough damage was done to citrus crops in Central Florida during the month of January to write off the 1982 harvest as a disaster . International Falls , Minnesota : − 45 ° F ( − 43 ° C ) Saint Cloud , Minnesota : − 35 ° F ( − 37 ° C ) Madison , Wisconsin : − 31 ° F ( − 35 ° C ) Green Bay , Wisconsin : − 28 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) Chicago , Illinois : − 27 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) Milwaukee , Wisconsin : − 26 ° F ( − 32 ° C ) Moline , Illinois : − 23 ° F ( − 31 ° C ) Peoria , Illinois : − 23 ° F ( − 31 ° C ) Akron , Ohio : − 22 ° F ( − 30 ° C ) Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania : − 18 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) Cleveland , Ohio : − 17 ° F ( − 27 ° C ) Jackson , Mississippi : − 5 ° F ( − 21 ° C ) Washington , D.C. : − 5 ° F ( − 21 ° C ) Birmingham , Alabama : − 2 ° F ( − 19 ° C )", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Cold_Sunday", "rank": 27, "score": 95200 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-curtain effect Content: The zero-curtain effect occurs in cold ( particularly periglacial ) environments where the phase transition of water to ice is slowed down due to latent heat release . The effect is notably found in arctic and alpine permafrost sediments , and occurs where the air temperature falls below 0 ° C ( the freezing point of water ) followed by a rapid drop in soil temperature . Because of this effect , the lowering of temperature in moist , cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate . The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes , and latent heat is released . This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen , at which point temperatures can continue to fall . Therefore , for as long as water is available to the system ( for example , through cryosuction/capillary action ) the temperature of the sediment will remain at a constant temperature .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Zero-curtain_effect", "rank": 28, "score": 95081 }, { "content": "Title: Ice cricket Content: An international ice cricket tournament has been played on Lake St. Moritz since 1988 and now in Estonia every year since 2004 . The invention of the Estonian version is credited to Barry Jason , a British ex-pat and former Estonian cricket president who was determined to increase the visibility of Estonian cricket throughout the year . The summer game of cricket is applied to some of the harshest , most wintry conditions . The difference between Ice Cricket and other forms of cricket played in the winter is that Ice Cricket is played directly on the ice , no mat is laid down . The results are a little more unpredictable and provide more fun and variety . The ball is the same as an indoor cricket ball , a composite plastic red ball which makes it relatively easy to find if it gets hit into a snowdrift . The Ice Cricket World Championship is held annually in the Estonian city of Tallinn . With winter temperatures of minus 10 to minus 25 , the tournaments are played on Harku boating lake , which freezes over rapidly in early January .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_cricket", "rank": 29, "score": 95007 }, { "content": "Title: 2013 extreme weather events Content: The 2013 extreme weather events included several all-time temperature records in Northern and Southern Hemisphere . The February extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North America was above average , while the extent of Arctic ice in the same month was 4,5 % below the 1981 -- 2010 average . The Northern Hemisphere weather extremes have been linked to the melting of Arctic sea ice , which alters atmospheric circulation in a way that leads to more snow and ice . By January 11 , 233 weather-related deaths were reported in India . Elsewhere , particularly in Russia , the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom , low temperatures affected wildlife , delaying bird breeding and disrupting the bird migration . On January 10 Bangladesh faced the lowest temperature since country 's independence , at 3.0 ° C in Saidpur . While Finland and most of Northern European countries got the record high , and even the highest temperatures at Europe during May and June , Western - and Middle Europe faced much cooler weather and even their wettest May and June ever . During summer prolonged heat waves in the Northern Hemisphere set new record high temperatures . On March 24 , 2014 , the secretary-general of the World Meteorological Organization Michel Jarraud announced that `` many of the extreme events of 2013 were consistent with what we would expect as a result of human-induced climate change '' .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "2013_extreme_weather_events", "rank": 30, "score": 94980 }, { "content": "Title: Ice IX Content: Ice IX is a form of solid water stable at temperatures below 140 K and pressures between 200 and 400 MPa . It has a tetragonal crystal lattice and a density of 1.16 g/cm ³ , 26 % higher than ordinary ice . It is formed by cooling ice III from 208 K to 165 K ( rapidly -- to avoid forming ice II ) . Its structure is identical to ice III other than being hydrogen-ordered . Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih in the Bridgman nomenclature . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_IX", "rank": 31, "score": 94974 }, { "content": "Title: Hard rime Content: Hard rime is a white ice that forms when the water droplets in fog freeze to the outer surfaces of objects . It is often seen on trees atop mountains and ridges in winter , when low-hanging clouds cause freezing fog . This fog freezes to the windward ( wind-facing ) side of tree branches , buildings , or any other solid objects , usually with high wind velocities and air temperatures between − 2 and .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Hard_rime", "rank": 32, "score": 94792 }, { "content": "Title: Ice accretion indicator Content: The ice accretion indicator is an L-shaped piece of aluminium 38 cm long by 4 to wide . It is used to indicate the formation of ice , frost or the presence of freezing rain or freezing drizzle . It is normally attached to a Stevenson screen , about 1 m above ground , but may be mounted in other areas away from any artificial heat sources . The weather station would have two on site and they would be exchanged after every weather observation . The spare indicator should always be at the outside air temperature to ensure that it is ready for use and would normally be stored inside the screen . If the observer notes the presence of ice or frost on the indicator then a remark to that effect should be sent in the next weather observation . Examples of these are ` rime icing on indicator ' and ` FROIN ' ( frost on indicator ) . As the indicator is at air temperature and is kept horizontal it provides an excellent surface on which to observe freezing precipitation .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_accretion_indicator", "rank": 33, "score": 94756 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Bar Sub-Zero Content: Ice Bar Sub-Zero was the first ice bar in South Korea , now closed . Everything inside the bar was made of ice ; the walls , tables , sculptures , and even the cocktail glasses . The Ice Bar Sub-Zero is built inside a commercial grade freezer which is kept at a constant temperature of -5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) . The bar , now in its third season , has a new incarnation every year with different sculptures and themes . Because not many people come prepared for the cold temperatures the bar supplies patrons with coats , gloves and boots , which is included in the 15,000 entrance fee . The drink list includes Absolut Vodka cocktails and an assortment of beers as well as warmer drinks like coffee and tea .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_Bar_Sub-Zero", "rank": 34, "score": 94509 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric icing Content: Atmospheric icing occurs when water droplets in the atmosphere freeze on objects they contact . This can be extremely dangerous to aircraft , as the built-up ice changes the aerodynamics of the flight surfaces , which can increase the risk of a subsequent stalling of the airfoil . For this reason , ice protection systems are often considered critical components of flight , and aircraft are often deiced prior to take-off in icy environments . Not all water freezes at 0 ° C. Liquid water below this temperature is called supercooled , and such supercooled droplets cause the icing problems on aircraft . Below − 20 ° C , icing is rare because clouds at these temperatures usually consist of ice particles rather than supercooled water droplets . Below − 48 ° C , supercooled water can not exist , therefore icing is impossible . Icing also occurs on towers , wind turbines , boats , oil rigs , trees and other objects exposed to low temperatures and water droplets . Ice loads are a major cause of catastrophic failures of overhead electric power lines . Their estimation is , therefore , crucial in the structural design of power line systems . and can be done by numerical icing models that include meteorological data .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Atmospheric_icing", "rank": 35, "score": 94396 }, { "content": "Title: Hypolimnion Content: The hypolimnion or under lake is the dense , bottom layer of water in a thermally-stratified lake . It is the layer that lies below the thermocline . Typically the hypolimnion is the coldest layer of a lake in summer , and the warmest layer during winter . Being at depth , it is isolated from surface wind-mixing during summer , and usually receives insufficient irradiance ( light ) for photosynthesis to occur . In deep , temperate lakes , the bottom-most waters of the hypolimnion are typically close to 4 ° C throughout the year . The hypolimnion may be much warmer in lakes at warmer latitudes .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Hypolimnion", "rank": 36, "score": 94069 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 37, "score": 93871 }, { "content": "Title: Eoreumgol Content: Eoreumgol or Ice Valley is a valley in Miryang , South Korea . It gets its name and its notoriety from the freezing cold found there even in midsummer . This phenomenon is believed to be due to local airflow patterns , particularly cold air emerging from underground . The valley is situated on the slopes of Cheonhwangsan mountain , at about 600 m above sea level . It lies in Nammyeong-ri , Sannae-myeon , in northern Miryang , and covers a total area that is variously estimated at 9000 and 30000 m ² . The cold water flowing from the valley has traditionally been used for drinking by nearby residents . One of Miryang 's foremost tourist attractions , Eoreumgol is served by regular buses from the city center and is key to plans for boosting local tourism . In 1970 it was designated South Korean natural monument 224 by the national Cultural Heritage Administration .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Eoreumgol", "rank": 38, "score": 93847 }, { "content": "Title: Winter of 1962–63 in the United Kingdom Content: The winter of 1962 -- 1963 ( also known as the Big Freeze of 1963 ) was one of the coldest winters on record in the United Kingdom . Temperatures plummeted and lakes and rivers began to freeze over . In the Central England Temperature ( CET ) record , extending back to 1659 , only the winter ( defined as the months of December , January and February ) of 1683 -- 84 has been significantly colder , with 1739 -- 40 being slightly colder than 1962 -- 63 . Over Scotland and Northern Ireland , where data do not extend back to 1740 , the winters of 1813 -- 14 and 1878 -- 79 were certainly colder than 1962 -- 63 , as was the winter of 1779 -- 80 in Scotland and 1894 -- 95 in Northern Ireland . This winter remains the coldest since at least 1895 in all meteorological districts of the United Kingdom except Scotland North , where the two winters of 1978 -- 79 and 2009 -- 10 were marginally colder .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Winter_of_1962–63_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 39, "score": 93745 }, { "content": "Title: Ground frost Content: Ground frost refers to the various coverings of ice produced by the direct deposition of water vapor on objects and trees , whose surfaces have a temperature below the freezing point of water ( 0 ° C , 32 ° F ) .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ground_frost", "rank": 40, "score": 93692 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Anchorage, Alaska Content: Anchorage , Alaska has a subarctic climate with the code Dfc according to the Köppen climate classification due to its short , cool summers . Average daytime summer temperatures range from approximately 55 to ; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5 to . Anchorage has a frost-free growing season that averages slightly over one hundred days . Average January low and high temperatures at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport ( PANC ) are 11 / with an average winter snowfall of 75.5 in . The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be very unpredictable . Some winters feature several feet of snow and cold temperatures , while others like that of 1976 -- 77 ( in the January of which Anchorage amazingly averaged 2.7 F-change warmer than Atlanta almost 30 degrees closer to the equator ) , just a foot or two of snow and frequent thaws , which put dangerous ice on the streets . On March 17 , 2002 , there was a storm causing 22 inches of snow closing schools for the next two days . The storm broke the city record for the most snowfall in a single day . The storm , which started the evening of March 16 , easily surpassed the old record of 15.6 in recorded on 28 December and 29 December 1955 . On March 17 , 22 in were measured by the National Weather Service , topping the old record of 15.6 in set on December 29 , 1955 . The 2011-2012 winter had 134.5 in , which made it the snowiest winter on record while the least snowiest winter of record was 2014-2015 when 25.1 in of snow fell . The coldest temperature ever recorded at the original weather station located at Merrill Field on the East end of 5th Avenue was -38 F on February 3 , 1947 . Due to its proximity to active volcanoes , ash hazards are a significant , though infrequent , occurrence . The most recent notable incident was an August , 1992 eruption of Mt. Spurr , which is located 78 miles west of the city . The eruption deposited about 3 mm of volcanic ash on the city . The clean-up of ash resulted in excessive demands for water and caused major problems for the Anchorage Water and Wastewater Utility . Summers are typically mild ( although cool compared to the contiguous US and even interior Alaska ) , though it can rain frequently . Average July low and high temperatures are 52 / and the hottest reading ever recorded was 87 F on June 18 , 2013 . The average annual precipitation at the airport is 16.63 in . Because of Anchorage 's latitude , summer days are very long and winter daylight hours are very short . Anchorage is often cloudy during the winter , which decreases the amount of sunlight experienced by residents .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Climate_of_Anchorage,_Alaska", "rank": 41, "score": 93308 }, { "content": "Title: Pressure melting point Content: The pressure melting point is the temperature at which ice melts at a given pressure . The pressure melting point is a constant 0 ° C at pressures above the triple point at 611.7 Pa , where water can exist in only the solid or liquid phases , through atmospheric pressure ( 100 kPa ) until about 10 MPa . With increasing pressure above 10 MPa , the pressure melting point decreases to a minimum of − 21.9 ° C at 209.9 MPa . Thereafter , the pressure melting point rises rapidly with pressure , passing back through 0 ° C at 632.4 MPa .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Pressure_melting_point", "rank": 42, "score": 93166 }, { "content": "Title: Frostbite Content: Frostbite is when exposure to cold temperatures causes freezing to the skin or other tissues . It most commonly affects the hand , feet , and face . The longer areas are exposed to cold , typically the worse the frostbite . Frostbite is classified by degrees of severity , with first degree being superficial damage to surface skin and fourth degree involving bone , muscle and tendon . This causes irreversible damage and often requires amputation . People who are exposed to cold temperatures for prolonged periods are at greatest risk of frostbite , such as winter sports enthusiasts , military personnel , and homeless individuals . People with conditions that impair circulation of blood or ability to seek shelter are also at increased risk . These groups include people with diabetes and those who drink excessive alcohol . Cold temperatures cause blood vessels to narrow , slowing the flow of warm blood from the core of the body to the extremities . With prolonged exposure to cold , ice crystals form in tissues . These ice crystals , in turn , damage cells and blood vessels . Specific tests are not typically required for diagnosis ; the person 's history and physical exam are sufficient . Frostnip , chilblains ( pernio ) , and trench foot can look similar to frostbite . Frostbite is preventable . The Wilderness Medical Society recommends avoiding temperatures below -- 15 ° C , covering the body properly , and avoiding situations that increase heat loss such as exhaustion , intoxication , and starvation . Treatment by rewarming , though necessary , also causes damage to tissues . Non-freezing cold injury causes inflammation of tissues without the formation of ice crystals . Treatment consists of rewarming , when refreezing is not a concern . Increasing the core temperature to above 35C is of critical importance as hypothermia is life-threatening . Aspirin and ibuprofen may prevent damaging inflammation . Wound care , antibiotics , tetanus toxoid , and pain management are often needed . Surgical debridement or amputation are sometimes necessary for severe frostbite , however , these should be delayed for several weeks until the extent of the permanent damage is known .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Frostbite", "rank": 43, "score": 93050 }, { "content": "Title: Winter storm Content: A winter storm is an event in which varieties of precipitation are formed that only occur at low temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are low enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . In temperate continental climates , these storms are not necessarily restricted to the winter season , but may occur in the late autumn and early spring as well . Very rarely , they may form in summer , though it would have to be an abnormally cold summer , such as the summer of 1816 in the Northeast United States of America .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Winter_storm", "rank": 44, "score": 93031 }, { "content": "Title: Early March 2015 United States winter storm Content: The Early March 2015 United States winter storm was a significant snow and ice storm that plowed through much of the United States , bringing 1 -- 2 ft of snow and record cold temperatures behind it . The storm actually occurred in two phases , with the latter bringing the cold temperatures behind it in its wake . Record cold temperatures even spread down to as far as northern Florida .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Early_March_2015_United_States_winter_storm", "rank": 45, "score": 92894 }, { "content": "Title: Winter of 2009–10 in Great Britain and Ireland Content: The winter of 2009 -- 10 in the United Kingdom ( also called The Big Freeze by British media ) was a meteorological event that started on 16 December 2009 , as part of the severe winter weather in Europe . January 2010 was provisionally the coldest January since 1987 across the country . A persistent pattern of cold northerly and easterly winds brought cold , moist air to the United Kingdom with many snow showers , fronts and polar lows bringing snowy weather with it . The first snowfall began on 17 December 2009 , before a respite over the Christmas period . The most severe snowy weather began on 5 January in North West England and west Scotland with temperatures hitting a low of -17.6 ° C in Greater Manchester , England . The snow spread to Southern England on 6 January and by 7 January the United Kingdom was blanketed in snow , which was captured by NASA 's Terra satellite . The thaw came a week later , as temperatures started to increase . The winter weather brought widespread transport disruption , school closures , power failures , the postponement of sporting events and 25 deaths . A low of -22.3 ° C was recorded in Altnaharra , Scotland on 8 January 2010 . Overall it was the coldest winter since 1978 -- 79 , with a mean temperature of 1.5 ° C.", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Winter_of_2009–10_in_Great_Britain_and_Ireland", "rank": 46, "score": 92543 }, { "content": "Title: Global storm activity of 2006 Content: Global storm activity of 2006 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2006 to December 31 , 2006 . Winter storms are events in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Other major non winter events such as large dust storms , Hurricanes , cyclones , tornados , gales , flooding and rainstorms are also caused by such phenomena to a lesser or greater existent . Very rarely , well-defined winter storms may form during the summer , though it would usually have to be an abnormally cold summer , such as the Summer of 1816 in the Northeastern United States . In many locations in the Northern Hemisphere , the most powerful winter storms usually occur in March and , in regions where temperatures are cold enough , April .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Global_storm_activity_of_2006", "rank": 47, "score": 92226 }, { "content": "Title: Degree of frost Content: A degree of frost is a non-standard unit of measure for air temperature meaning degrees below melting point ( also known as `` freezing point '' ) of water ( 0 degrees Celsius or 32 degrees Fahrenheit ) . `` Degree '' in this case can refer to degree Celsius or Fahrenheit . When based on Celsius , 0 degrees of frost is the same as 0 ° C , and any other value is simply the negative of the Celsius temperature . When based on Fahrenheit , the conversion is a bit more complicated , as 0 degrees of frost is equal to 32 ° F. Conversion formulas : T -LSB- degrees of frost -RSB- = 32 ° F - T -LSB- ° F -RSB- T -LSB- ° F -RSB- = 32 ° F - T ( degrees of frost ) The term `` degrees of frost '' was widely used in accounts of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration in the early 20th century . The term appears frequently in Ernest Shackleton 's books South and Heart of the Antarctic , Apsley Cherry-Garrard 's account of his Antarctic adventures in The Worst Journey in the World ( wherein he recorded 109.5 ( Fahrenheit ) degrees of frost , -- 77.5 ° F or -- 60.8 ° C ) , as well as Admiral Richard E. Byrd 's book Alone .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Degree_of_frost", "rank": 48, "score": 92172 }, { "content": "Title: Ice II Content: Ice II is a rhombohedral crystalline form of ice with a highly ordered structure . It is formed from ice Ih by compressing it at temperature of 198 K at 300 MPa or by decompressing ice V . When heated it undergoes transformation to ice III . Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih , ( in the Bridgman nomenclature ) . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures . It is thought that the cores of icy moons like Jupiter 's Ganymede may be made of ice II .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_II", "rank": 49, "score": 92149 }, { "content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Mesopause", "rank": 50, "score": 92055 }, { "content": "Title: Global storm activity of 2007 Content: Global storm activity of 2007 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2007 to December 31 , 2007 . Winter storms are events in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Other major non winter events such as large dust storms , Hurricanes , cyclones , tornados , gales , flooding and rainstorms are also caused by such phenomena to a lesser or greater existent . Very rarely , they may form in summer , though it would have to be an abnormally cold summer , such as the summer of 1816 in the Northeast United States of America . In many locations in the Northern Hemisphere , the most powerful winter storms usually occur in March and , in regions where temperatures are cold enough , April .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Global_storm_activity_of_2007", "rank": 51, "score": 91697 }, { "content": "Title: Crown snow-load Content: Crown snow-load is snow and hard rime accumulating on tree crowns and structures in a cold climate . Hard rime is formed when droplets of fog or low level cloud ( Stratus ) freezes to the windward ( wind-facing ) side of tree branches , buildings , or any other solid objects , usually with high wind velocities and air temperatures between -2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) and -8 ° C ( 18 ° F ) . Especially when a warm front brings wet snow , the surface of the tree is colder than the snowflakes , and the latter attach to the tree crown . In Scandinavia , largest snow-loads accumulate to the trees on top of medium-sized fells . The larger fells and mountains have no trees , and the tops of lowest fells do not reach the cloud bases so often . Also the wind speeds are largest on fell tops . One spruce in Northern Finland can collect 3-4 tonnes of snow . When the crown is loaded with snow , a storm can easily damage the trees . Snow-loaded trees also pose a risk to powerlines .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Crown_snow-load", "rank": 52, "score": 91087 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback", "rank": 53, "score": 90828 }, { "content": "Title: Regelation Content: Regelation is the phenomenon of melting under pressure and freezing again when the pressure is reduced . Many sources state that regelation can be demonstrated by looping a fine wire around a block of ice , with a heavy weight attached to it . The pressure exerted on the ice slowly melts it locally , permitting the wire to pass through the entire block . The wire 's track will refill as soon as pressure is relieved , so the ice block will remain solid even after wire passes completely through . This experiment is possible for ice at − 10 ° C or cooler , and while essentially valid , the details of the process by which the wire passes through the ice are complex . The phenomenon works best with high thermal conductivity materials such as copper , since latent heat of fusion from the top side needs to be transferred to the lower side to supply latent heat of melting . If 1 mm diameter wire is used , over an ice cube 50 mm wide , the area the force is exerted on is 50 mm2 . This is 50 × 10 − 6 m2 . Force ( in newtons ) equals pressure ( in pascals ) multiplied by area ( in square metres ) . If at least 500 atm ( 50 MPa ) is required to melt the ice , a force of ( 50 × 106 Pa ) ( 50 × 10 − 6 m2 ) = 2500 N is required , a force roughly equal to the weight of 250 kg on Earth . Regelation was discovered by Michael Faraday . Regelation occurs only for substances , such as ice , that have the property of expanding upon freezing , for the melting points of those substances decrease with increasing external pressure . The melting point of ice falls by 0.0072 ° C for each additional atm of pressure applied . For example , a pressure of 500 atmospheres is needed for ice to melt at − 4 ° C.", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Regelation", "rank": 54, "score": 90776 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 55, "score": 90620 }, { "content": "Title: Ice VIII Content: Ice VIII is a tetragonal crystalline form of ice formed from ice VII by cooling it below 5 ° C . It is more ordered than ice VII , since the hydrogen atoms assume fixed positions . Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih , ( in the Bridgman nomenclature ) . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_VIII", "rank": 56, "score": 90278 }, { "content": "Title: Snow tire Content: Snow tires -- also called winter tires -- are tires designed for use on snow and ice . Snow tires have a tread design with bigger gaps than those on summer tires , increasing traction on snow and ice . Such tires that have passed a specific winter traction performance test are entitled to display a `` Three-Peak Mountain Snow Flake '' symbol on their sidewalls . Tires designed for winter conditions are optimized to drive at temperatures below 7 ° C . Some snow tires have metal or ceramic studs that protrude from the tire to increase traction on hard-packed snow or ice . Studs abrade dry pavement , causing dust and creating wear in the wheel path . Regulations that require the use of snow tires or permit the use of studs vary by country in Asia and Europe , and by state or province in North America . Related to snow tires are those with an M+S rating , which denotes an `` all-season '' capability -- quieter on clear roads , but less capable on snow or ice than a winter tire .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Snow_tire", "rank": 57, "score": 89560 }, { "content": "Title: Winter Content: Winter is the coldest season of the year in polar and temperate climates , between autumn and spring . Winter is caused by the axis of the Earth in that hemisphere being oriented away from the Sun . Different cultures define different dates as the start of winter , and some use a definition based on weather . When it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere , it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere , and vice versa . In many regions , winter is associated with snow and freezing temperatures . The moment of winter solstice is when the sun 's elevation with respect to the North or South Pole is at its most negative value ( that is , the sun is at its farthest below the horizon as measured from the pole ) , meaning this day will have the shortest day and the longest night . The earliest sunset and latest sunrise dates outside the polar regions differ from the date of the winter solstice , however , and these depend on latitude , due to the variation in the solar day throughout the year caused by the Earth 's elliptical orbit ( see earliest and latest sunrise and sunset ) .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Winter", "rank": 58, "score": 89539 }, { "content": "Title: Global storm activity of 2008 Content: Global storm activity of 2008 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2008 to December 31 , 2008 . A winter storm is an event in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Major dust storms , Hurricanes , cyclones , tornados , gales , flooding and rainstorms are also caused by such phenomena to a lesser or greater existent . A storm ( from Proto-Germanic * sturmaz `` noise , tumult '' ) is any disturbed state of an astronomical body 's atmosphere , especially affecting its surface , and strongly implying severe weather . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Storms are created when a centre of low pressure develops , with a system of high pressure surrounding it . This combination of opposing forces can create winds and result in the formation of storm clouds , such as the cumulonimbus . Small , localized areas of low pressure can form from hot air rising off hot ground , resulting in smaller meteorological disturbances such as dust devils and whirlwinds .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Global_storm_activity_of_2008", "rank": 59, "score": 89268 }, { "content": "Title: Glaze (ice) Content: Glaze or glaze ice , also called glazed frost , is a smooth , transparent and homogeneous ice coating occurring when freezing rain or drizzle hits a surface . It is similar in appearance to clear ice , which forms from supercooled water droplets . It is a relatively common occurrence in temperate climates in the winter when precipitation forms in warm air aloft and falls into below-freezing temperature at the surface .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Glaze_(ice)", "rank": 60, "score": 89151 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Content: Ice is water frozen into a solid state . Depending on the presence of impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles of air , it can appear transparent or a more or less opaque bluish-white color . In the Solar System , ice is abundant and occurs naturally from as close to the Sun as Mercury to as far away as the Oort cloud objects . Beyond the Solar System , it occurs as interstellar ice . It is abundant on Earth 's surfaceparticularly in the polar regions and above the snow lineand , as a common form of precipitation and deposition , plays a key role in Earth 's water cycle and climate . It falls as snowflakes and hail or occurs as frost , icicles or ice spikes . Ice molecules can exhibit seventeen or more different phases ( packing geometries ) that depend on temperature and pressure . When water is cooled rapidly ( quenching ) , up to three different types of amorphous ice can form depending on the history of its pressure and temperature . When cooled slowly correlated proton tunneling occurs below 20 K giving rise to macroscopic quantum phenomena . Virtually all the ice on Earth 's surface and in its atmosphere is of a hexagonal crystalline structure denoted as ice I ( spoken as `` ice one h '' ) with minute traces of cubic ice denoted as ice I . The most common phase transition to ice I occurs when liquid water is cooled below at standard atmospheric pressure . It may also be deposited directly by water vapor , as happens in the formation of frost . The transition from ice to water is melting and from ice directly to water vapor is sublimation . Ice is used in a variety of ways , including cooling , winter sports and ice sculpture .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice", "rank": 61, "score": 89062 }, { "content": "Title: Winter cluster Content: In beekeeping , a winter cluster is a well-defined cluster of honey bees that forms inside a beehive when the air temperature dips below 10 to 14 ° C. Honey bees are one of but a few kinds of insects that survive the winter as a colony . As the outside air temperature decreases the winter cluster becomes tighter and more compact . The bees cling tightly together on the combs in the hive . The temperature within the winter cluster remains remarkably warm regardless of the outside air temperature . Larger clusters ( basketball size ) have a better chance for survival than smaller clusters ( softball size ) . The winter cluster within the hive must move throughout the winter to reach the available honey stored in the combs . Some die-off is expected during the winter . In extended cold weather periods , the incidence of Nosema disease increases and the cluster may weaken as many bees begin dying off .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Winter_cluster", "rank": 62, "score": 89018 }, { "content": "Title: Winter road Content: Winter roads are roads that are built over land on compacted snow ( also called snow roads ) , frozen tundra and bare ground , or on floating ice covers . Segments of a winter road that cross an expanse of floating ice are also referred to as an ice road or an ice bridge . Conversely , a winter road may be built mostly on floating ice , with occasional land crossing called ` portages ' - the Tibbitt to Contwoyto Winter Road is an example . Winter roads facilitate transportation during the winter to , from and within isolated areas in the North where there are no permanent ( or ` all-weather ' ) roads . They enable supplies ( e.g. food , fuel , construction material ) to be brought into communities in these areas . The only other alternative , providing there is a small airstrip nearby , would be to rely on air transportation . However , this can be prohibitively costly , especially for bulk material . In some areas , climate change is observed to affect winter roads , notably by contributing to a significant reduction in their operational lifespan .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Winter_road", "rank": 63, "score": 88797 }, { "content": "Title: Coudersport Ice Mine Content: The Coudersport Ice Mine is an ice cave located in Sweden Township , Pennsylvania ( east of Coudersport ) that forms icicles in the spring and summer but not in the winter . Ice formations appear in the shaft during the spring of the year , continue through the hot weather , and disappear in winter . Ice appears in various shapes and forms , often as huge icicles measuring from 1 to 3 ft in thickness , and from 15 to 25 ft in length ; the ice is generally clear and sparkling . A theory about the origin of this mine states that during the winter , cold air over the hilltop sinks into rock openings in the Lock Haven Formation ( Devonian age ) and slowly expels the warm air that had penetrated these openings during the preceding summer . Ordinarily this process takes place locally , but here the interconnection of the rock crevices tends to be so arranged that the air circulation over a wide region is focused on one spot . Thus , from April or May to September , cold air comes in contact with percolating groundwater , forming ice during the hot months of the year ; from September to late spring , warm air trapped in the rocks from the preceding summer , escapes and melts the ice . Discovered in 1894 , the cave is about 40 ft deep , about 8 ft wide , and 10 ft long . The cave was open to the public for many decades The ice mine property was purchased by new owners who began a restoration in 2013 . After being closed for nearly a quarter of a century , the Coudersport Ice Mine was re-opened in 2014 .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Coudersport_Ice_Mine", "rank": 64, "score": 88624 }, { "content": "Title: Fahrenheit Content: Fahrenheit is a temperature scale based on one proposed in 1724 by Amsterdam-based physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit ( 1686 -- 1736 ) , after whom the scale is named . It uses the degree Fahrenheit ( symbol ° F ) as the unit . Several accounts of how he originally defined his scale exist . The lower defining point , 0 ° F , was established as the temperature of a solution of brine made from equal parts of ice and salt . Further limits were established as the melting point of ice ( 32 ° F ) and his best estimate of the average human body temperature ( 96 ° F , about 2.6 ° F less than the modern value due to a later redefinition of the scale ) . The scale is now usually defined by two fixed points : the temperature at which water freezes into ice is defined as 32 ° F , and the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 ° F , a 180 ° F separation , as defined at sea level and standard atmospheric pressure . By the end of the 20th century , Fahrenheit was used as the official temperature scale only in the United States ( including its unincorporated territories ) , its freely associated states in the Western Pacific ( Palau , the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands ) , the Bahamas , Belize , and the Cayman Islands . All other countries in the world now use the Celsius scale , defined since 1954 by absolute zero being − 273.15 ° C and the triple point of water being at 0.01 ° C.", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Fahrenheit", "rank": 65, "score": 88332 }, { "content": "Title: Bacterial ice-nucleation proteins Content: Bacterial ice-nucleation proteins is a family of proteins that enable Gram-negative bacteria to promote nucleation of ice at relatively high temperatures ( above -5 C ) . These proteins are localised at the outer membrane surface and can cause frost damage to many plants . The primary structure of the proteins contains a highly repetitive domain that dominates the sequence . The domain comprises a number of 48-residue repeats , which themselves contain 3 blocks of 16 residues , the first 8 of which are identical . It is thought that the repetitive domain may be responsible for aligning water molecules in the seed crystal . -LSB- ... 48 . residues.repeated.domain ... -RSB- / / | | \\ \\ AGYGSTxTagxxssli AGYGSTxTagxxsxlt AGYGSTxTaqxxsxlt -LSB- 16 . residues ... -RSB- -LSB- 16 . residues ... -RSB- -LSB- 16 . residues ... -RSB-", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Bacterial_ice-nucleation_proteins", "rank": 66, "score": 88107 }, { "content": "Title: Carburetor icing Content: Carburetor Icing , or carb icing , is an icing condition which can affect any carburetor under certain atmospheric conditions . The problem is most notable in certain realms of aviation . Carburetor icing occurs when there is humid air , and the temperature drop in the venturi causes the water vapor to freeze . The venturi effect can drop the ambient air temperature by 30-40 degrees F , therefore carburetor icing often occurs when the outside air temperature is in the 60-70 degree F range . Unfortunately , the warm air temperature often causes pilots to overlook the possibility of carb icing . The ice will form on the surfaces of the carburetor throat , further restricting it . This may increase the Venturi effect initially , but eventually restricts airflow , perhaps even causing a complete blockage of air to the carburetor . The engine begins to run more rich as ice formation increases . Without intervention ( carb heat or leaning ) this can only continue until the mixture is outside of the `` chemically correct '' range for combustion . Icing may also cause jamming of the mechanical parts of the carburetor , such as the throttle , typically a butterfly valve . While it applies to all carburetors , carburetor icing is of particular concern in association with piston-powered aircraft , especially small , single-engine , light aircraft . Aircraft powered by carbureted engines are equipped with carburetor heat systems to overcome the icing problem . In cars , carburetor icing can occasionally be a nuisance . The inlet manifold and parts of the carburetor often have warm water from the cooling system or exhaust gas circulating through them to combat this problem . Motorcycles can also suffer from carburetor icing , although some engine designs are more susceptible to it than others . Air-cooled engines may be more prone to icing , due to the absence of warm coolant circulating through the engine .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Carburetor_icing", "rank": 67, "score": 87973 }, { "content": "Title: Winter of 2009–10 in Europe Content: The winter of 2009 -- 2010 in Europe was unusually cold . Globally , unusual weather patterns brought cold , moist air from the north . Weather systems were undergoing cyclogenesis from North American storms moving across the Atlantic Ocean to the west , and saw many parts of Europe experiencing heavy snowfall and record-low temperatures . This led to a number of deaths , widespread transport disruption , power failures and postponed sporting events .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Winter_of_2009–10_in_Europe", "rank": 68, "score": 87812 }, { "content": "Title: Ice VII Content: Ice VII is a cubic crystalline form of ice . It can be formed from liquid water above 3 GPa ( 30,000 atmospheres ) by lowering its temperature to room temperature , or by decompressing heavy water ( D2O ) ice VI below 95 K. Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih , ( in the Bridgman nomenclature ) . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures . Ice VII is metastable over a wide range of temperatures and pressures and transforms into low-density amorphous ice ( LDA ) above 120K . Ice VII has a triple point with liquid water and ice VI at 355 K and 2.216 GPa , with the melt line extending to at least 715 K and 10 GPa . It can also be created by increasing the pressure on ice VI at ambient temperature . Like the majority of ice phases ( including ice Ih ) , the hydrogen atom positions are disordered . In addition , the oxygen atoms are disordered over multiple sites . The structure of ice VII comprises a hydrogen bond framework in the form of two interpenetrating ( but non-bonded ) sublattices . Hydrogen pass through the center of the water hexamers and thus do not connect the two lattices . Ice VII has a density of about 1.65 g cm − 3 ( at 2.5 GPa and 25 ° C ) , which is less than twice the cubic ice density as the intra-network O -- O distances are 8 % longer ( at 0.1 MPa ) to allow for interpenetration . The cubic unit cell has a side length of 3.3501 Å ( for D2O , at 2.6 GPa and 22 ° C ) and contains two water molecules . Ice VII is the only disordered phase of ice that can be ordered by simple cooling , and it forms ( ordered ) ice VIII below 273 K up to ~ 8 GPa . Above this pressure , the VII -- VIII transition temperature drops rapidly , reaching 0 K at ~ 60 GPa . Thus , ice VII has the largest stability field of all of the molecular phases of ice . The cubic oxygen sub-lattices that form the backbone of the ice VII structure persist to pressures of at least 128 GPa ; this pressure is substantially higher than that at which water loses its molecular character entirely , forming ice X . In high pressure ices , protonic diffusion ( movement of protons around the oxygen lattice ) dominates molecular diffusion , an effect which has been measured directly . Scientists hypothesize that ice VII may comprise the ocean floor of Titan as well as extrasolar planets ( such as Gliese 436 b and GJ 1214 b ) that are largely made of water .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_VII", "rank": 69, "score": 87651 }, { "content": "Title: Ice road Content: An ice road ( ice crossing , ice bridge ) is a winter road , or part thereof , that runs on a naturally frozen water surface ( a river , a lake or an expanse of sea ice ) in cold regions . Ice roads allow temporary transport to isolated areas with no permanent road access . They reduce transportation cost of materials that otherwise would ship as expensive air freight , and they allow movement of large or heavy objects for which air freight is impractical . Ice roads may be winter substitutes for summer ferry services . Ferry service and an ice crossing may operate yearly at the same time for several weeks .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_road", "rank": 70, "score": 87441 }, { "content": "Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Polar_High", "rank": 71, "score": 86969 }, { "content": "Title: Snow cave Content: A snow cave is a shelter constructed in snow by certain animals in the wild , human mountain climbers , winter recreational enthusiasts , and winter survivalists . It has thermal properties similar to an igloo and is particularly effective at providing protection from wind as well as low temperatures . A properly made snow cave can be 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) or warmer inside , even when outside temperatures are − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) . A snow cave is constructed by excavating snow so that the tunnel entrance is below the main space to retain warm air . Construction is simplified by building it on a steep slope and digging slightly upwards and horizontally into the slope . The roof is domed to prevent dripping on the occupants . Adequate snow depth , free of rocks and ice , is needed -- generally a depth of 4 to is sufficient . Another kind of snow cave is the quinzhee , which is constructed of snow rather than created by digging a hole out of ( or displacing ) snow . Regardless of construction type , the snow must be consolidated so that it retains its structure . The walls and roof should be at least 1 ft thick . A small pit may be dug deeper into one part of the cave floor to provide a place for the coldest air to gather , away from the occupant ( s ) , and the entrance may be partially blocked with chunks of snow to deflect wind and retain heat , although it is vital to prevent drifting snow from completely plugging the rest of the entrance in order to maintain a constant air supply . Some prefer to place a ski pole or a ski up from the cave out through the roof or side wall . This can provide an emergency air hole should the main entrance become blocked . It is possible to sleep several consecutive nights in a snow cave , but care must be taken since a slight ice surface may develop on the inside of the cave from moisture in the exhaled air of the inhabitants . This is thought to result in reduced air ventilation through the snow cave walls and roof , and thus increase risk of suffocation . As a precaution it is common to scrape off a thin layer from the inside of the cave ceiling each day spent in the cave . A narrow entrance tunnel , a little wider than the occupants of the cave , leads into the main chamber which consists of a flat area , perhaps with elevated sleeping platform ( s ) , also excavated from snow . Most sources agree that using tools such as a shovel and ice axe are vital ; digging by hand is for emergencies only . Digging a snow cave can be very physically demanding . In perfect conditions with good snow , digging a snow cave for 2 or 3 persons often takes 3 to 4 hours to complete . It can be useful to take turns in a group of climbers such that each person works in 5 minute intervals inside the cave , while the others help remove excess snow outside the cave and prepare food and warm liquids for the group .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Snow_cave", "rank": 72, "score": 86851 }, { "content": "Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_age", "rank": 73, "score": 86837 }, { "content": "Title: Under-soil heating Content: Under-soil heating is a method used in various sports stadia ( with a grass surface ) which heats the underside of the pitch to avoid any elements from bad weather , such as snow and ice , from building up and ultimately helps the club avoid having to postpone any matches . Most English Premier League teams now have this installed in their stadia . While it is not an official requirement , it avoids any financial loss that a club might face in having to postpone any matches due to bad weather . The first ground in England to have under-soil heating installed was Goodison Park in 1958 . The pitch at Old Trafford has 18.4 mi of under-soil heating . In Germany under-soil heating is mandatory for division 1 and 2 Fußball-Bundesliga clubs . The first ground to have it installed was the Olympic Stadium of Munich in 1972 . In the Czech Republic , despite the league having a winter break , the Czech First League requires all participating teams to play on surfaces with under-soil heating . Several American football teams in the National Football League also have such a system installed . With American football , it is more a matter of player safety , since NFL games are never postponed on account of cold weather . There have been numerous occasions where under-soil heating 's effectiveness has been questioned . One notable incident happened on December 27 , 2005 when three stadia in the FA Premier League , supposedly equipped with under-soil heating , failed to stop their pitches being covered in thick snow - this led to the matches being postponed . Subsequently , on January 1 , 2006 , the Premier League investigated as to why the pitches at Macron Stadium ( Bolton Wanderers ) , Ewood Park ( Blackburn Rovers ) and St. James ' Park ( Newcastle United ) were not able to repel the snow . In the U.S. , a notable example of the failure of an under-soil heating system occurred in 1967 , when a newly installed system at Lambeau Field in Green Bay , Wisconsin failed before the NFL Championship game . The game would go on to be remembered as the `` Ice Bowl '' .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Under-soil_heating", "rank": 74, "score": 86770 }, { "content": "Title: Subnivean climate Content: Subnivean climate ( From Latin for `` under '' ( sub ) and `` snow '' ( nives ) refers to the zone in and underneath snowpack . This is the environment of many hibernal animals , as it provides protection from predators and insulation . The subnivean climate is formed by three different types of snow metamorphosis : destructive metamorphosis , which begins when snow falls ; constructive metamorphosis , the movement of water vapor to the surface of the snowpack ; and melt metamorphosis , the melting/sublimation of snow to water vapor and its refreezing in the snowpack . These three types of metamorphosis transform individual snowflakes into ice crystals and create spaces under the snow where small animals can move .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Subnivean_climate", "rank": 75, "score": 86689 }, { "content": "Title: Icing (nautical) Content: Icing on ships is a serious hazard where cold temperatures ( below about -10 C ) combined with high wind speed ( typically force 8 or above on the Beaufort scale ) result in spray blown off the sea freezing immediately on contact with the ship . If not frequently knocked off , the ice can soon build up on the ship 's superstructure to a sufficient weight to cause the ship to capsize . It is typically a problem in Arctic and Antarctic seas , but can also occur in other seas such as the Gulf of Saint Lawrence , the Sea of Japan , the Baltic Sea , and very rarely , the North Sea .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Icing_(nautical)", "rank": 76, "score": 86623 }, { "content": "Title: North American ice storm of January 1961 Content: The North American ice storm of January 1961 was a massive ice storm that struck areas of northern Idaho in the United States on January 1 -- 3 , 1961 . The storm set a record for thickest recorded ice accumulation from a single storm in the United States , at 8 inches . The storm 's swath covered areas from Grangeville , in north central Idaho , to the Canada -- United States border . According to the National Weather Service , a combination of dense fog , sub-freezing temperatures , and occasional freezing rain led to the heavy ice accretions . Catastrophic damage to trees and utilities resulted , resulting in widespread power outages . Prior to this storm , previous records of between 4 and 6 inches of ice were recorded in New York City and Texas .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "North_American_ice_storm_of_January_1961", "rank": 77, "score": 86450 }, { "content": "Title: Canadian Ice Service Content: The Canadian Ice Service ( CIS ) is a division of the Meteorological Service of Canada ( MSC ) , and a branch of Canada 's Department of the Environment . The CIS is the leading authority for information about ice in Canada 's navigable waters . Ice affects marine transportation in Canada 's heartland as well as in the North , commercial fishing , offshore resource development , the hunting and fishing patterns of aboriginal peoples , tourism and recreation , and local weather patterns and long-term climate .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Canadian_Ice_Service", "rank": 78, "score": 86230 }, { "content": "Title: Global storm activity of 2009 Content: Global storm activity of 2009 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2009 to December 31 , 2009 . Wintery storms are events in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Summer storms including flooding , severe thunderstorms and extratropical cyclones ( which can occur in summer or winter ) are also included in this list to a certain extent . As this occurred a heat wave and/or unforeseen monsoon weather also hit parts of Australia in 2009 and 2010 . Victoria , the scene of horrific bushfires the year before , had a far colder summer , with hot weather arriving more than a month later than usual in 2009 . August 17 saw a dust storm at Laguna Mar Chiquita as a major drought hit Argentina , and flooding and hailstorms hit southeastern Australia and Queensland in March 2010 . The lack of winter precipitation in parts of China , however , contributed to a severe drought in the southwest . Bolivia , Venezuela , Mali , Mauritania , Morocco and Spain have also seen periods of drought in 2009 and 2010 . On between May 12 and 26 , both Mauritania , the Sénégal River Area and neighbouring parts of both Senegal and Mali faced both a drought and famine in 2010 . A storm ( from Proto-Germanic * sturmaz `` noise , tumult '' ) is any disturbed state of an astronomical body 's atmosphere , especially affecting its surface , and strongly implying severe weather . Storms are created when a centre of low pressure develops , with a system of high pressure surrounding it . This combination of opposing forces can create winds and result in the formation of storm clouds , such as the cumulonimbus . Small , localized areas of low pressure can form from hot air rising off hot ground , resulting in smaller meteorological disturbances such as dust devils and whirlwinds .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Global_storm_activity_of_2009", "rank": 79, "score": 86124 }, { "content": "Title: Ikertivaq Content: Ikertivaq , also known as Ikersuaq or Ikerssuaq , is a bay or fjord in Sermersooq municipality , southeastern Greenland . Tundra climate prevails in the area of the fjord , the average annual temperature in the area being -8 ° C . The warmest month is July when the average temperature rises to 0 ° C and the coldest is January with -14 ° C. This fjord has been labeled as one of the most dangerous fjords in the area because of the abundance of pack ice . Large ice floes encumber its entrance , blocking the fjord and keeping the calf ice inside .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ikertivaq", "rank": 80, "score": 86076 }, { "content": "Title: Interstellar ice Content: Interstellar ice consists of grains of volatiles in the ice phase that form in the interstellar medium . Ice and dust grains form the primary material out of which the Solar System was formed . Grains of ice are found in the dense regions of molecular clouds , where new stars are formed . Temperatures in these regions can be as low as 10 K , allowing molecules that collide with grains to form an icy mantle . Thereafter , atoms undergo thermal motion across the surface , eventually forming bonds with other atoms . This results in the formation of water and methanol . Indeed , the ices are dominated by water and methanol , as well as ammonia , carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide . Frozen formaldehyde and molecular hydrogen may also be present . Found in lower abundances are nitriles , ketones , esters and carbonyl sulfide . The mantles of interstellar ice grains are generally amorphous , only becoming crystalline in the presence of a star . The composition of interstellar ice can be determined through its infrared spectrum . As starlight passes through a molecular cloud containing ice , molecules in the cloud absorb energy . This adsorption occurs at the characteristic frequencies of vibration of the gas and dust . Ice features in the cloud are relatively prominently in this spectra , and the composition of the ice can be determined by comparison with samples of ice materials on Earth . In the sites directly observable from Earth , around 60 -- 70 % of the interstellar ice consists of water , which displays a strong emission at 3.05 μm from stretching of the O -- H bond . In September 2012 , NASA scientists reported that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) , subjected to interstellar medium ( ISM ) conditions , are transformed , through hydrogenation , oxygenation and hydroxylation , to more complex organics - `` a step along the path toward amino acids and nucleotides , the raw materials of proteins and DNA , respectively '' . Further , as a result of these transformations , the PAHs lose their spectroscopic signature which could be one of the reasons `` for the lack of PAH detection in interstellar ice grains , particularly the outer regions of cold , dense clouds or the upper molecular layers of protoplanetary disks . ''", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Interstellar_ice", "rank": 81, "score": 85790 }, { "content": "Title: Early January 2017 North American winter storm Content: The early January 2017 North American winter storm was a major snow and ice storm that affected the Lower 48 of the United States with severe weather . Moving ashore on the West Coast on January 3 , the system produced heavy snowfall in the Sierra Mountains , with nearly 4 feet of snowfall falling in the highest elevations . After impacting the Northwest and Southwest , the winter storm went on to strike the Southeast on January 5 -- 6 with snow and ice , with snowfall accumulations up to 4 in . Afterwards , it began to morph into a nor'easter as it moved off the Southeast coast late on January 6 , while producing blizzard conditions in the Carolinas . It then began to affect the Northeastern United States as it tracked northwards early on January 7 . It produced a swath of moderate snowfall accumulations up the East Coast , with easternmost areas such as parts of Massachusetts receiving up to 1.5 ft of snow . Fearful of another disaster reminiscent of that from late January 2014 , residents of states such as Louisiana , Mississippi , Alabama , and Georgia prepared in advance for the storm . Multiple advisories were issued in advance for winter weather in the affected areas . The storm caused nearly 35,000 or more power outages in the south , with at least five fatalities confirmed .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Early_January_2017_North_American_winter_storm", "rank": 82, "score": 85742 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_clathrate", "rank": 83, "score": 85625 }, { "content": "Title: Cold weather payment Content: Cold weather payments are paid by the United Kingdom government to recipients of certain state benefits in the event of particularly cold weather in the winter . The Social Fund Cold Weather Payments ( General ) Regulations 1988 govern the system under the Social Security Contributions and Benefits Act 1992 . Each time the local temperature is less than 0 ° C for seven consecutive days between 1 November and 31 March then a payment of # 25 is made . This is in addition to the Winter Fuel Payment . Category : Pensions and benefits in the United Kingdom", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Cold_weather_payment", "rank": 84, "score": 85423 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 85, "score": 85421 }, { "content": "Title: Winter swimming Content: Winter swimming is the activity of swimming during the winter season , typically in outdoor locations ( open water swimming ) or in unheated pools or lidos . In colder countries it may be synonymous with ice swimming , when the water is frozen over . This requires either breaking the ice or entering where a spring prevents the formation of ice . It may also be simulated by a pool of water at 0 C , the temperature at which water freezes . In Eastern Europe and Russia winter swimming is part of the celebration of the Epiphany . Competitions for winter swimming also exist . Many winter swimmers swim with standard swimming costumes rather than with wetsuits or other thermal protection . Famous winter swimmers include Ram Barkai , Lynne Cox and Lewis Gordon Pugh . Also , many locations in North America and Western Europe hold polar bear plunges , commonly to celebrate New Year 's Day , although participants are not expected to swim and generally most do not swim .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Winter_swimming", "rank": 86, "score": 85410 }, { "content": "Title: Under the Skin (Ice album) Content: Under the Skin is the debut album of Ice , released in 1993 through Pathological Records .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Under_the_Skin_(Ice_album)", "rank": 87, "score": 85311 }, { "content": "Title: Polar climate Content: The polar climate regions are characterized by a lack of warm summers . Every month in a polar climate has an average temperature of less than 10 C. Regions with polar climate cover more than 20 % of the Earth . The sun shines for long hours in the summer , and for many fewer hours in the winter . A polar climate results in treeless tundra , glaciers , or a permanent or semi-permanent layer of ice . It has cool summers and very cold winters .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Polar_climate", "rank": 88, "score": 85281 }, { "content": "Title: 25 Degrees in Winter Content: 25 Degrees in Winter is a 2004 international comedy-drama film directed by Stéphane Vuillet .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "25_Degrees_in_Winter", "rank": 89, "score": 85156 }, { "content": "Title: Freezing rain Content: Freezing rain is the name given to rain that falls when surface temperatures are below freezing . Unlike sleet , a mixture of rain and snow , ice pellets , or hail , freezing rain is made entirely of liquid droplets . The raindrops become supercooled while passing through a sub-freezing layer of air hundreds of meters above the ground , and then freeze upon impact with any surface they encounter , including the ground , trees , electrical wires , and automobiles . The resulting ice , called glaze , can accumulate to a thickness of several centimeters and cover all exposed surfaces . The METAR code for freezing rain is FZRA . A storm that produces a significant thickness of glaze ice from freezing rain is often referred to as an ice storm . Although these storms are not particularly violent , freezing rain is notorious for causing travel problems on roadways , breaking tree limbs , and downing power lines from the weight of accumulating ice . Downed power lines cause power outages in affected areas while accumulated ice can also pose significant overhead hazards . It is also known for being extremely dangerous to aircraft since the ice can effectively ` remould ' the shape of the airfoil and flight control surfaces . ( See atmospheric icing . )", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Freezing_rain", "rank": 90, "score": 85122 }, { "content": "Title: Ice XI Content: Ice XI is the hydrogen-ordered form of Ih , the ordinary form of ice . Different phases of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures . The total internal energy of ice XI is about one sixth lower than ice Ih , so in principle it should naturally form when ice Ih is cooled to below 72 K . The low temperature required to achieve this transition is correlated with the relatively low energy difference between the two structures . Water molecules in ice Ih are surrounded by four semi-randomly directed hydrogen bonds . Such arrangements should change to the more ordered arrangement of hydrogen bonds found in ice XI at low temperatures , so long as localized proton hopping is sufficiently enabled ; a process that becomes easier with increasing pressure . Correspondingly , ice XI is believed to have a triple point with hexagonal ice and gaseous water at ( ~ 72 K , ~ 0 Pa ) .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_XI", "rank": 91, "score": 84927 }, { "content": "Title: ICER AIR Content: ICER AIR was an urban big-air ski and snowboard event held in 2005 on Fillmore Street in San Francisco and at or near AT&T Park from 2006 through 2008 .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "ICER_AIR", "rank": 92, "score": 84917 }, { "content": "Title: Freezer Bowl Content: In National Football League ( NFL ) lore , the Freezer Bowl was the 1981 American Football Conference ( AFC ) Championship Game between the San Diego Chargers and the Cincinnati Bengals . The game , won by the Bengals , 27 -- 7 , was played in the coldest temperature in NFL history in terms of wind chill . ( The coldest in terms of air temperature was the Ice Bowl . ) Air temperature was -9 ° F , but the wind chill , factoring in a sustained wind of 27 mph , was -37 ° F ( calculated as -59 ° F using the now outdated wind chill formula in place at the time ) . The game was played on January 10 , 1982 at Cincinnati 's Riverfront Stadium , and televised by NBC , with announcers Dick Enberg and Merlin Olsen .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Freezer_Bowl", "rank": 93, "score": 84873 }, { "content": "Title: Winter 1985 cold wave Content: The Winter 1985 cold wave was a meteorological event , the result of the shifting of the polar vortex further south than is normally seen . Blocked from its normal movement , polar air from the north pushed into nearly every section of the eastern half of the United States and Canada , shattering record lows in a number of areas . The event was preceded by unusually warm weather in the eastern U.S. in December 1984 , suggesting that there was a build-up of cold air that was suddenly released from the Arctic , a meteorological event known as a Mobile Polar High , a weather process identified by Professor Marcel Leroux .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Winter_1985_cold_wave", "rank": 94, "score": 84784 }, { "content": "Title: North Siberian Lowland Content: The North Siberian Lowland , also known as Taymyr Lowland , is a lowland plain between the lower reaches of the Yenisey and Olenyok rivers in Krasnoyarsk Krai and Yakutia . It is 1,400 km long and up to 600 km wide . This lowland plain features flat-topped ridges approximately 200-300 m high , which rise over broad and heavily swamped degradations with a large number of thermokarst lakes . The North Siberian Lowland is formed by marine and ice-laid deposits , underlaid with sandstones and argillites . Permafrost is a common phenomenon in this area . The climate is subarctic continental with long ( 7 -- 8 months ) cold winters and short cool summers . Average temperature in January is -30 degrees Celsius in the West and up to -35 -37 degrees Celsius in the East . Temperature in July is around 6-10 degrees Celsius . Snow cover stays for approximately 265 days . Precipitation is 250-300 mm per year . Rivers Pyasina , Taymyra , Kheta and Kotuy flow over the North Siberian Lowland and give rise to Khatanga , Popigay and Anabar . The biggest lake in the North Siberian Lowland is Lake Taymyr . Lichen tundra dominates northern parts of the lowland , while southern parts are full of shrubbery vegetation . Sparse forest in the west consists mainly of Siberian larch . Eastern parts of the lowland are covered with Dahurian larch . The North Siberian Lowland has deposits of oil , natural gas and coal ( Taymyr Basin ) . Category : Plains of Russia Category : Landforms of Krasnoyarsk Krai Category : Landforms of the Sakha Republic", "qid": "2912", "docid": "North_Siberian_Lowland", "rank": 95, "score": 84774 }, { "content": "Title: A Winter amid the Ice Content: `` A Winter amid the Ice '' ( Un hivernage dans les glaces ) is an 1855 short adventure story by Jules Verne . The story was first printed in April -- May 1855 in the magazine Musée des familles . It was later reprinted by Pierre-Jules Hetzel in the collection Doctor Ox ( 1874 ) , as part of the Voyages Extraordinaires series . Three English translations ( `` A Winter amid the Ice '' by George Makepeace Towle , `` A Winter Among the Ice-Fields '' by Abby L. Alger , and `` A Winter 's Sojourn in the Ice '' by Stephen William White ) were published in 1874 .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "A_Winter_amid_the_Ice", "rank": 96, "score": 84749 }, { "content": "Title: Aufeis Content: Aufeis , , ( German for `` ice on top '' ) is a sheet-like mass of layered ice that forms from successive flows of ground water during freezing temperatures . This form of ice is also called overflow , icings , or the Russian term , naled . The term was first used in 1859 by A. T. von Middendorff following his observations of the phenomenon in northern Siberia .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Aufeis", "rank": 97, "score": 84677 }, { "content": "Title: Winter storm warning Content: A winter storm warning ( SAME code : WSW ) is a statement made by the National Weather Service of the United States which means a winter storm is occurring or is about to occur in the area , usually within 36 hours . Generally , a Winter Storm Warning is issued if the following criteria , at least , are forecast : usually between 4 in to 7 in or more of snow or usually 3 in or more of snow with a large accumulation of ice . In the Southern United States , where severe winter weather is much less common and any snow is a more significant event , warning criteria are lower , as low as 1 in in the southernmost areas . ( Thus , as you go from south to north the necessary accumulations get higher . ) A warning can also be issued during high impact events of lesser amounts , usually early or very late in the season when trees have leaves and damage can result . Winter Storm Warnings are issued when winds are less than 35mph ; if the storm has winds above this wind speed , it becomes a blizzard warning . Usually , a large accumulation of ice alone with little to no snow will result in an ice storm warning , or in the case of light freezing rain , a winter weather advisory , a freezing rain advisory , or drizzle advisory . A similar warning is issued by Environment Canada 's Meteorological Service of Canada from their offices . Prior to the 2008 -- 09 winter storm season , there was the heavy snow warning , specific for when only a heavy amount of snow was expected in the warned area . The Winter Storm Warning for Heavy Snow has since replaced it .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Winter_storm_warning", "rank": 98, "score": 84639 }, { "content": "Title: Early 2014 North American cold wave Content: The 2014 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that extended through the late winter months of the 2013 -- 2014 winter season , and was also part of an unusually cold winter affecting parts of Canada and parts of the north-central and upper eastern United States . The event occurred in early 2014 and was caused by a southward shift of the North Polar Vortex . Record-low temperatures also extended well into March . On January 2 , an Arctic cold front initially associated with a nor'easter tracked across Canada and the United States , resulting in heavy snowfall . Temperatures fell to unprecedented levels , and low temperature records were broken across the United States . Business , school , and road closures were common , as well as mass flight cancellations . Altogether , more than 200 million people were affected , in an area ranging from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean and extending south to include roughly 187 million residents of the Continental United States .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Early_2014_North_American_cold_wave", "rank": 99, "score": 84549 }, { "content": "Title: Ice racing Content: Ice racing is a form of racing that uses cars , motorcycles , snowmobiles , all-terrain vehicles , or other motorized vehicles . Ice racing takes place on frozen lakes or rivers , or on groomed frozen lots . As cold weather is a requirement for natural ice , it is usually found at higher latitudes in Canada , the northern United States , and in northern Europe , although limited indoor events are held in warmer climates , typically on ice hockey rinks ( motorcycles and ATVs only ) . Tracks in North America vary from 1/4 mile ( ~ 400 m ) long ovals to several mile-long road course designs .", "qid": "2912", "docid": "Ice_racing", "rank": 100, "score": 84488 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Arctic ice pack Content: The Arctic ice pack is the ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity . The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring and summer , reaches a minimum around mid-September , then increases during fall and winter . Summer ice cover in the Arctic is about 50 % of winter cover . Some of the ice survives from one year to the next . Currently 28 % of Arctic basin sea ice is multi-year ice , thicker than seasonal ice : up to 3 - thick over large areas , with ridges up to 20 m thick . As well as the regular seasonal cycle there has been an underlying trend of declining sea ice in the Arctic in recent decades .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_ice_pack", "rank": 1, "score": 165555 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of the Arctic Content: The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer . The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Climate_of_the_Arctic", "rank": 2, "score": 161660 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Ocean Content: The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean . Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 3, "score": 150301 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback", "rank": 4, "score": 147535 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 5, "score": 146059 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 6, "score": 143486 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 7, "score": 138100 }, { "content": "Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Ice_cap_climate", "rank": 8, "score": 137276 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Content: The Arctic ( -LSB- ˈɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth . The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean , adjacent seas , and parts of Alaska ( United States ) , Canada , Finland , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Iceland , Norway , Russia and Sweden . Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover , with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places . The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems . For example , the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions . In recent years , Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming . Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice , zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds , land animals , plants and human societies . Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic", "rank": 9, "score": 136710 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Basin Marine Ecozone (CEC) Content: The Arctic Basin Marine Ecozone , as defined by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation ( CEC ) , is a Canadian marine ecozone encompassing the northwestern areas of waters on the Arctic continental shelf . It is bitterly cold and permanently covered in ice . Polar nights and the midnight sun may last months in this region , which has come to characterize the stereotype of the north . Its only land contact is with the northern coast of Ellesmere Island . Because of this , there are no inhabitants in this zone . All human activity here involves scientific excursions , petroleum exploration , rare hunting groups and extreme adventurers .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_Basin_Marine_Ecozone_(CEC)", "rank": 10, "score": 132815 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet", "rank": 11, "score": 130551 }, { "content": "Title: Polar seas Content: Polar seas is a collective term for the Arctic Ocean ( about 4-5 percent of Earth 's oceans ) and the southern part of the Southern Ocean ( south of Antarctic Convergence , about 10 percent of Earth 's oceans ) . In the coldest years , sea ice can cover around 13 percent of the Earth 's total surface at its maximum , but out of phase in the two hemispheres . The polar seas contain a huge biome with many organisms . Among the species that inhabit various polar seas and surrounding land areas are polar bear , penguin , reindeer ( caribou ) , muskox , wolverine , ermine , lemming , Arctic hare , Arctic ground squirrel , whale , harp seal , and walrus . These species have unique adaptations to the extreme conditions . Many might be endangered if they can not adapt to changing conditions . Contrary to popular opinion , the World Wildlife Fund studies for polar bears show that this species has prospered since 1950 , attaining five times the numbers found in 1950 . In general , Arctic ecosystems are relatively fragile and slow to recover from serious damage .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Polar_seas", "rank": 12, "score": 128511 }, { "content": "Title: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean Content: The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean ( SHEBA ) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean , where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time . The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models , which scientists use to study global climate change .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Surface_Heat_Budget_of_the_Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 13, "score": 127969 }, { "content": "Title: North American Arctic Content: The North American Arctic comprises the northern portions of Alaska ( USA ) , Northern Canada and Greenland . Major bodies of water include the Arctic Ocean , Hudson Bay , the Gulf of Alaska and North Atlantic Ocean . The western limit is the Seward Peninsula and the Bering Strait . The southern limit is the Arctic Circle latitude of 66 ° 33 'N , which is the approximate limit of the midnight sun and the polar night . The region is defined by environmental limits where the average temperature for the warmest month ( July ) is below 10 C . The northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region . The area has tundra and polar vegetation .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "North_American_Arctic", "rank": 14, "score": 126820 }, { "content": "Title: Sea ice Content: Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Sea_ice", "rank": 15, "score": 125618 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic dipole anomaly Content: The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America , and a low pressure on the Eurasia region . This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation . It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change . The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic ocean resulting in more ice melting . The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September . The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe , but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia , Europe and the eastern half of North America .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_dipole_anomaly", "rank": 16, "score": 125562 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Antarctic_sea_ice", "rank": 17, "score": 124793 }, { "content": "Title: Cold-weather warfare Content: Cold-weather warfare , also known as Arctic warfare or winter warfare , encompasses military operations affected by snow , ice , thawing conditions or cold , both on land and at sea . Cold-weather conditions occur year-round at high elevation or at high latitudes , and elsewhere materialise seasonally during the winter period . Mountain warfare often takes place in cold weather or on terrain that is affected by ice and snow , such as the Alps and the Himalayas . Historically , most such operations have been during winter in the Northern Hemisphere . Some have occurred above the Arctic Circle where snow , ice and cold may occur throughout the year . At times , cold or its aftermath -- thaw -- has been a decisive factor in the failure of a campaign , as with Napoleon 's invasion of Russia in 1812 and the Nazi invasion of Russia .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Cold-weather_warfare", "rank": 18, "score": 123155 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment", "rank": 19, "score": 122627 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice ecology and history Content: The Arctic sea ice covers less area in the summer than in the winter . The multi-year ( i.e. perennial ) sea ice covers nearly all of the central deep basins . The Arctic sea ice and its related biota are unique , and the year-round persistence of the ice has allowed the development of ice endemic species , meaning species not found anywhere else . There are differing scientific opinions about how long perennial sea ice has existed in the Arctic . Estimates range from 120,000 , 700,000 or 4 million years ago .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_ecology_and_history", "rank": 20, "score": 122222 }, { "content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm", "rank": 21, "score": 121159 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 22, "score": 121098 }, { "content": "Title: Eismitte Content: Eismitte , in English also called Mid-Ice , was the site of an Arctic expedition in the interior of Greenland that took place from July 1930 through August 1931 , and claimed the life of noted German scientist Alfred Wegener . The name `` Eismitte '' means Ice-Center in German , and the campsite was located 402 km from the coast at an estimated altitude of 3,000 meters ( 9,843 feet ) . The coldest temperature recorded during the expedition was − 64.9 ° C ( − 85 ° F ) , while the warmest temperature noted was − 2.8 ° C ( 27 ° F ) . For the 12-month period beginning September 1 , 1930 and ending August 31 , 1931 , the warmest month , July , had a mean monthly temperature of − 12.2 ° C ( 10 ° F ) , while the coldest month , February , averaged − 47.2 ° C ( − 53 ° F ) . Over the same period a total of 110 millimeters ( 4.33 inches ) of water-equivalent precipitation was recorded , with most of it , rather surprisingly , being received in winter . At the latitude of the camp , the sun does not set between May 13 and July 30 each year , and does not rise between November 23 and January 20 .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Eismitte", "rank": 23, "score": 120368 }, { "content": "Title: Extreme Cold Weather Clothing Content: Extreme Cold Weather clothing ECW for short , normally refers to clothing for Arctic or mountainous areas on land . The basic approach is to insulate one 's body from heat loss , and keep liquid water or ice out of the insulation .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Extreme_Cold_Weather_Clothing", "rank": 24, "score": 119812 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic resources race Content: The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) . The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_resources_race", "rank": 25, "score": 118945 }, { "content": "Title: Igloo Content: An igloo ( Inuit language : iglu , Inuktitut syllabics ᐃᒡᓗ -LSB- - ikuiɣˈlu -RSB- ( plural : igluit ᐃᒡᓗᐃᑦ -LSB- - ikuiɣluˈit -RSB- ) ) , also known as a snow house or snow hut , is a type of shelter built of snow , typically built when the snow can be easily compacted . Although igloos are stereotypically associated with all Inuit , they were traditionally associated with people of Canada 's Central Arctic and Greenland 's Thule area . Other Inuit people tended to use snow to insulate their houses , which were constructed from whalebone and hides . Snow is used because the air pockets trapped in it make it an insulator . On the outside , temperatures may be as low as -45 C , but on the inside the temperature may range from -7 C to 16 C when warmed by body heat alone .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Igloo", "rank": 26, "score": 118399 }, { "content": "Title: Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 Content: The Great Arctic Cyclone , or `` Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 , '' was an extratropical cyclone which centered on the Arctic Ocean in early August , 2012 . Such storms are rare in the Arctic summer , although common in the winter . The Great Arctic Cyclone was the strongest summer storm and the 13th strongest storm observed at any time since satellite observations began in 1979 . Although the Great Arctic Cyclone did not cause the record melting of sea ice which occurred in 2012 , turbulence resulting from the storm is believed to have contributed to melting of sea ice due to the rise of warmer saltier water from below .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Great_Arctic_Cyclone_of_2012", "rank": 27, "score": 117874 }, { "content": "Title: Polar climate Content: The polar climate regions are characterized by a lack of warm summers . Every month in a polar climate has an average temperature of less than 10 C. Regions with polar climate cover more than 20 % of the Earth . The sun shines for long hours in the summer , and for many fewer hours in the winter . A polar climate results in treeless tundra , glaciers , or a permanent or semi-permanent layer of ice . It has cool summers and very cold winters .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Polar_climate", "rank": 28, "score": 117799 }, { "content": "Title: Measurement of sea ice Content: Measurement of sea ice is important for safety of navigation and for monitoring the environment , particularly the climate . Sea ice extent interacts with large climate patterns such as the North Atlantic oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation , to name just two , and influences climate in the rest of the globe . The amount of sea ice coverage in the arctic has been of interest for centuries , as the Northwest Passage was of high interest for trade and seafaring . There is a longstanding history of records and measurements of some effects of the sea ice extent , but comprehensive measurements were sparse till the 1950s and started with the satellite era in the late 1970s . Modern direct records include data about ice extent , ice area , concentration , thickness , and the age of the ice . The current trends in the records show a significant decline in Northern hemisphere sea ice and a small but statistically significant increase in the winter Southern hemisphere sea ice . Furthermore , current research comprises and establishes extensive sets of multi-century historical records of arctic and subarctic sea ice and uses , among others high-resolution paleo-proxy sea-ice records . The arctic sea ice is a dynamic climate-system component and is linked to the Atlantic multidecadal variability and the historical climate over various decades . There are circular changes of sea ice patterns but so far no clear patterns based on modeling predictions .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Measurement_of_sea_ice", "rank": 29, "score": 117388 }, { "content": "Title: International Arctic Buoy Program Content: The International Arctic Buoy Program is headquartered at the Polar Science Center , Applied Physics Laboratory , University of Washington , in Seattle , Washington , United States . The program 's objectives include to provide meteorological and oceanographic data in order to support operations and research for UNESCO 's World Climate Research Programme and the World Weather Watch Programme of the United Nations ' World Meteorological Organization . IABP participating countries include Canada , China , France , Germany , Japan , Norway , Russia , and the United States . Together , they share the costs of the program . The IABP has deployed more than 700 buoys since it began operations in 1991 , succeeding the Arctic Ocean Buoy Program ( operational since 1979-01-19 ) . Commonly , 25 to 40 buoys operate at any given time and provide real-time position , pressure , temperature , and interpolated ice velocity . In support of the International Polar Year , the IABP will deploy over 120 buoys , at over 80 different locations , during the period of April-August 2008 . The organization 's annual meeting provides discussion on instrumentation , forecasting , observations , and outlook .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "International_Arctic_Buoy_Program", "rank": 30, "score": 116023 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-curtain effect Content: The zero-curtain effect occurs in cold ( particularly periglacial ) environments where the phase transition of water to ice is slowed down due to latent heat release . The effect is notably found in arctic and alpine permafrost sediments , and occurs where the air temperature falls below 0 ° C ( the freezing point of water ) followed by a rapid drop in soil temperature . Because of this effect , the lowering of temperature in moist , cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate . The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes , and latent heat is released . This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen , at which point temperatures can continue to fall . Therefore , for as long as water is available to the system ( for example , through cryosuction/capillary action ) the temperature of the sediment will remain at a constant temperature .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Zero-curtain_effect", "rank": 31, "score": 115686 }, { "content": "Title: 2013 extreme weather events Content: The 2013 extreme weather events included several all-time temperature records in Northern and Southern Hemisphere . The February extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North America was above average , while the extent of Arctic ice in the same month was 4,5 % below the 1981 -- 2010 average . The Northern Hemisphere weather extremes have been linked to the melting of Arctic sea ice , which alters atmospheric circulation in a way that leads to more snow and ice . By January 11 , 233 weather-related deaths were reported in India . Elsewhere , particularly in Russia , the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom , low temperatures affected wildlife , delaying bird breeding and disrupting the bird migration . On January 10 Bangladesh faced the lowest temperature since country 's independence , at 3.0 ° C in Saidpur . While Finland and most of Northern European countries got the record high , and even the highest temperatures at Europe during May and June , Western - and Middle Europe faced much cooler weather and even their wettest May and June ever . During summer prolonged heat waves in the Northern Hemisphere set new record high temperatures . On March 24 , 2014 , the secretary-general of the World Meteorological Organization Michel Jarraud announced that `` many of the extreme events of 2013 were consistent with what we would expect as a result of human-induced climate change '' .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "2013_extreme_weather_events", "rank": 32, "score": 115483 }, { "content": "Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Polar_High", "rank": 33, "score": 114542 }, { "content": "Title: Early 2014 North American cold wave Content: The 2014 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that extended through the late winter months of the 2013 -- 2014 winter season , and was also part of an unusually cold winter affecting parts of Canada and parts of the north-central and upper eastern United States . The event occurred in early 2014 and was caused by a southward shift of the North Polar Vortex . Record-low temperatures also extended well into March . On January 2 , an Arctic cold front initially associated with a nor'easter tracked across Canada and the United States , resulting in heavy snowfall . Temperatures fell to unprecedented levels , and low temperature records were broken across the United States . Business , school , and road closures were common , as well as mass flight cancellations . Altogether , more than 200 million people were affected , in an area ranging from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean and extending south to include roughly 187 million residents of the Continental United States .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Early_2014_North_American_cold_wave", "rank": 34, "score": 113528 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic policy of the United States Content: The Arctic policy of the United States refers to the foreign policy of the United States in regard to the Arctic region . In addition , the United States ' domestic policy toward Alaska is part of its Arctic policy . Since March 30 , 1867 ( when the United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire ) , the United States of America has been one of the eight Arctic nations and one of the five Arctic Ocean littoral countries . The United States has been a member of the Arctic Council since its inception in 1996 and assumed the Chairmanship ( from Canada ) in April 2015 . 4 of the Arctic Council 's 6 Permanent Participant indigenous organizations have representatives in Alaska . The United States is also an observer of the Conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region . Since 1880 , the global temperature has risen 0.8 ° C ; but the temperature in the Arctic has warmed twice as much , leading to much less sea ice coverage and greater accessibility to natural resources , transport passages and fisheries . The goals stated in the United States Arctic Policy released in NSPD-66 on January 9 , 2009 are as follows : Meet national security and homeland security needs relevant to the Arctic region ; Protect the Arctic environment and conserve its biological resources ; Ensure that natural resource management and economic development in the region are environmentally sustainable ; Strengthen institutions for cooperation among the eight Arctic nations ( the United States , Canada , Denmark , Finland , Iceland , Norway , the Russian Federation , and Sweden ) ; Involve the Arctic 's indigenous communities in decisions that affect them ; and Enhance scientific monitoring and research into local , regional , and global environmental issues . On May 10 , 2013 , the Obama White House released the National Strategy for the Arctic Region , emphasizing three areas : advancing U.S. security interests , pursuing responsible Arctic region stewardship , and strengthening international cooperation . Canada is the United States ' closest partner in Arctic affairs , due to geographic proximity and similar Arctic policy directives . The countries work together on scientific research , including mapping the Arctic sea floor . Two significant disagreements are the border dispute in the Beaufort Sea and the legal designation ( international or internal waters ) of the Northwest Passage .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_policy_of_the_United_States", "rank": 35, "score": 112880 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic vegetation Content: In the Arctic , the low tundra vegetation clothes a landscape of wide vistas , lit by the low-angle light characteristic of high latitudes . Much of the Arctic shows little impact from human activities , making it one of the few places on earth one can see intac ecosystems . Arctic plants are adapted to short , cold growing seasons . They have the ability to withstand extremely cold temperatures in the winter ( winter hardiness ) , but what is even more important is the ability to be able to function in limiting summer conditions . Arctic plants have a compressed growing season : they initiate growth rapidly in the spring , and flower and set seed much sooner than plants that grow in warmer conditions . Their peak metabolic rate also occurs at a much lower temperature than plants from farther south . Compact cushions of vegetation keep the plants close to the warm soil and shield the tender central growing shoot . The height of Arctic plants is also governed by snow depth . Plants that protrude above the snow are subject to strong winds , blowing snow , and being eaten by caribou , muskox , or ptarmigan . Mosses and lichens are common in the Arctic . These plants have the ability to stop growth at any time and resume it promptly when conditions improve . They can even survive being covered by snow and ice for over a year .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_vegetation", "rank": 36, "score": 112289 }, { "content": "Title: Amictic lake Content: Amictic lakes are `` perennially sealed off by ice from most of the annual seasonal variations in temperature . '' Amictic lakes exhibit inverse cold water stratification whereby water temperature increases with depth below the ice surface 0 ° C ( less-dense ) up to a theoretical maximum of 4 ° C ( at which the density of water is highest ) . Hutchinson -- Löffler ( 1956 ) classified amictic and other types of lakes based on physical/thermal processes . These processes are influenced by solar radiation and wind . They are strongly tied with seasonality and thus associated with latitude and altitude . Amictic lakes occur in Arctic , Antarctic , and alpine regions and due to permanent ice-cover , these physical/thermal influences have a limited effect on circulation in the water column . For this reason , amictic lakes are commonly referred to as lakes that never mix . `` Mixing '' in this context , however , refers to homogenization of the water column and so the term `` amictic '' is not meant to imply that the lake water is stagnant . With the rare exception of lakes near the edges of the permanent icecaps in Greenland and Antarctica , amictic lakes do experience melting around the lake 's perimeter during summer , resulting in a `` moat '' of water surrounding a thick pan of ice that remains in the centre of the lake . This melting occurs as a result of heat absorbed by water and sediments below the ice , particularly in the shallow-water areas , when snow does not cover the ice , and also by heat flow and meltwater runoff from the surrounding land . Mixing below the ice occurs due to density currents generated by heat from direct solar radiation and from meltwater runoff which may differ in density from the lake water due to both temperature and suspended sediment content , depending on its source and flow path . Despite these processes , the effects of wind at the lake surface are highly reduced due to the ice cover , and so vertical mixing of the water column may be incomplete . This may result in anoxic conditions , which has implications for biogeochemical processes within the lake .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Amictic_lake", "rank": 37, "score": 111915 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 38, "score": 111531 }, { "content": "Title: Beaufort Gyre Content: The Beaufort Gyre is a wind-driven ocean current located in the Arctic Ocean polar region . The gyre contains both ice and water . It accumulates fresh water by the process of melting the ice floating on the surface of the water .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Beaufort_Gyre", "rank": 39, "score": 111205 }, { "content": "Title: West Spitsbergen Current Content: The West Spitsbergen Current ( WSC ) is a warm , salty current that runs poleward just west of Spitsbergen , ( formerly called West Spitsbergen ) , in the Arctic Ocean . The WSC branches off the Norwegian Atlantic Current in the Norwegian Sea . The WSC is of importance because it drives warm and salty Atlantic Water into the interior Arctic . The warm and salty WSC flows north through the eastern side of Fram Strait , while the East Greenland Current ( EGC ) flows south through the western side of Fram Strait . The EGC is characterized by being very cold and low in salinity , but above all else it is a major exporter of Arctic sea ice . Thus , the EGC combined with the warm WSC makes the Fram Strait the northernmost ocean area having ice-free conditions throughout the year in all of the global ocean .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "West_Spitsbergen_Current", "rank": 40, "score": 111185 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic methane emissions Content: Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas . The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits . Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_methane_emissions", "rank": 41, "score": 110889 }, { "content": "Title: Grease ice Content: Grease ice is a very thin , soupy layer of frazil crystals clumped together , which makes the ocean surface resemble an oil slick . Grease ice is the second stage in the formation of solid sea ice after ice floes and then frazil ice . New sea ice formation takes place throughout the winter in the Arctic . The first ice that forms in a polynya are loose ice crystals called frazil ice . If the level of turbulence is sufficient , the frazil ice will be mixed down into the upper layer and form a surface layer of grease ice . The term ` grease ice ' follows World Meteorological Organization nomenclature . Grease ice differs from ` slush ' , where slush is similarly created by snow falling into the top layer of an ocean basin , river , or lake . The two terms are related due to the process of ice crystals being blown into a polynya which can be the initiation of the grease ice layer , given a minimum level of mixing and cooling of the ocean surface .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Grease_ice", "rank": 42, "score": 110707 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska", "rank": 43, "score": 110699 }, { "content": "Title: Frost line Content: The frost line -- also known as frost depth or freezing depth -- is most commonly the depth to which the groundwater in soil is expected to freeze . The frost depth depends on the climatic conditions of an area , the heat transfer properties of the soil and adjacent materials , and on nearby heat sources . For example , snow cover and asphalt insulate the ground and homes can heat the ground ( see also heat island ) . The line varies by latitude , it is deeper closer to the poles . Per Federal Highway Administration Publication Number FHWA-HRT-08-057 , the maximum frost depth observed in the contiguous United States ranges from zero to about eight feet ( 2.4 m ) . Below that depth , the temperature varies , but is always above 0 ° C. Alternatively , in Arctic and Antarctic locations the freezing depth is so deep that it becomes year-round permafrost , and the term `` thaw depth '' is used instead . Finally , in tropical regions , frost line may refer to the vertical geographic elevation below which frost does not occur . Frost front refers to the varying position of the frost line during seasonal periods of freezing and thawing .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Frost_line", "rank": 44, "score": 110593 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Sun medical device Content: The Arctic Sun Temperature Management System is a non-invasive targeted temperature management system , a medical device used to modulate patient temperature with precision by circulating chilled water in pads directly adhered to the patient 's skin . Using varying water temperatures and a sophisticated computer algorithm , a patient 's body temperature can be controlled to the nearest 0.2 ° C . It is produced by Medivance , Inc. of Louisville , Colorado .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_Sun_medical_device", "rank": 45, "score": 110461 }, { "content": "Title: Wiesław Masłowski Content: Wiesław Masłowski is a research professor at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey , California since 2009 . He obtained his MS from the University of Gdańsk in 1987 , and his PhD from the University of Alaska , Fairbanks in 1994 with a dissertation entitled `` Numerical modeling study of the circulation of the Greenland Sea '' . He became well known in 2007 for stating that the Arctic Ocean might be nearly ice free in the summer as early as 2013 , based on projection of the declining ice volume trend . While later revised to 2016 + / - 3 years based on computer modeling , this prediction became controversial when the Arctic was not sea-ice free in 2013 , having increased from the record low set in 2012 .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Wiesław_Masłowski", "rank": 46, "score": 110373 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 47, "score": 110278 }, { "content": "Title: Pingo Content: A pingo , also called a hydrolaccolith , is a mound of earth-covered ice found in the Arctic and subarctic that can reach up to 70 m in height and up to 600 m in diameter . The term originated as the Inuvialuktun word for a small hill . The plural form is `` pingos '' . A pingo is a periglacial landform , which is defined as a nonglacial landform or process linked to colder climates . `` Periglacial '' suggests an environment located on the margin of past glaciers . However , freeze and thaw cycles influence landscapes outside areas of past glaciation . Therefore , periglacial environments are anywhere that freezing and thawing modify the landscape in a significant manner . They are essentially formed by ground ice which develops during the winter months as temperatures fall .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Pingo", "rank": 48, "score": 110139 }, { "content": "Title: Polar see-saw Content: The polar see-saw ( also : Bipolar seesaw ) is the phenomenon that temperature changes in the northern and southern hemispheres may be out of phase . The theory ( or hypothesis ) states that large changes , f.e. when the glaciers are intensely growing or depleting , in the formation of ocean bottom water in both poles take a long time to exert their effect in the other hemisphere . Estimates of the period of delay vary , one typical estimate is 1500 years . This is usually studied in the context of ice-cores taken from Antarctica and Greenland .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Polar_see-saw", "rank": 49, "score": 109447 }, { "content": "Title: Squamish (wind) Content: A squamish ( also known as an Arctic outflow wind in winter months ) is a strong and often violent wind occurring in many of the fjords , inlets and valleys of British Columbia . Squamishes occur in those fjords oriented in a northeast-southwest or east-west direction where cold polar air can be funneled westward , the opposite of how the wind generally flows on the Coast . These winds in winter can create high windchills by coastal standards of -20 to . They are notable in Jervis , Toba , and Bute Inlets and in Dean Channel and the Portland Canal . Squamishes lose their strength when free of the confining fjords and are not noticeable more than 25 km offshore . On the Lower Mainland and Eastern Vancouver Island of British Columbia , where they are mainly referred to as outflow winds , they are noticeable especially in the winter , when a cold Arctic air mass holding in the high plateau country of the interior flows down to the sea through the canyons and lower passes piercing the Coast Mountains and crossing the Strait of Georgia . The town of Squamish , British Columbia , is named for the wind , and upper Howe Sound , just off the Squamish River estuary , is known widely in the sailboarding world for its excellent , steady winds . During the Christmas season of 1996 , a major blizzard which brought record snowfalls to the Lower Mainland and Eastern Vancouver Island was followed up by hurricane-force winds pouring west through the towns of the Fraser Valley , as the coastal system 's strength -- which had brought the snow -- was forced back by the breaking of the interior 's cold air mass . Intense outflow winds are relatively common year-round ( during stormy weather , and sometimes fair ) in the Upper Fraser Valley , particularly on Sumas Prairie between Abbotsford and Chilliwack , and farther upriver towards the mouth of the Fraser Canyon . Known by different names in each region up the Coast , outflow winds or squamishes are also major maritime threats off the openings of the major fjords and up their narrow , deep lengths . Queen Charlotte Strait in particular is known for heavy winds coming out of the mouth of Knight Inlet , at the upper east end of the strait .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Squamish_(wind)", "rank": 50, "score": 109358 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic ecology Content: Arctic ecology is the scientific study of the relationships between biotic and abiotic factors in the arctic , the region north of the Arctic Circle ( 66 33 ' ) . This is a region characterized by stressful conditions as a result of extreme cold , low precipitation , a limited growing season ( 50 -- 90 days ) and virtually no sunlight throughout the winter . The Arctic consists of taiga ( or boreal forest ) and tundra biomes , which also dominate very high elevations , even in the tropics . Sensitive ecosystems exist throughout the Arctic region , which are being impacted dramatically by global warming . The earliest inhabitants of the Arctic were the Neanderthals . Since then , many indigenous populations have inhabited the region , which continues to this day . Since the early 1900s , when Vilhjalmur Stefansson led the first major Canadian Arctic Expedition , the Arctic has been a valued area for ecological research . In 1946 , The Arctic Research Laboratory was established in Point Barrow , Alaska under the contract of the Office of Naval Research . This launched an interest in exploring the Arctic examining animal cycles , permafrost and the interactions between indigenous peoples and the Arctic ecology . During the Cold War , the Arctic became a place where the United States , Canada , and the Soviet Union performed significant research that has been essential to the study of climate change in recent years . A major reason why research in the Arctic is essential for the study of climate change is because the effects of climate change will be felt more quickly and more drastically in higher latitudes of the world as above average temperatures are predicted for Northwest Canada and Alaska . From an anthropological point of view , researchers study the native Inuit peoples of Alaska as they have become extremely accustomed to adapting to ecological and climate variability .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_ecology", "rank": 51, "score": 108650 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 52, "score": 108544 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic front Content: The Arctic front is the semipermanent , semi-continuous weather front between the cold arctic air mass and the warmer air of the polar cell . It can also be defined as the southern boundary of the Arctic air mass . Mesoscale cyclones known as polar lows can form along the arctic front in the wake of extratropical cyclones . Arctic air masses in their wake are shallow with a deep layer of stable air above the shallow cold cool .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_front", "rank": 53, "score": 108275 }, { "content": "Title: Canadian Arctic Archipelago Content: The Canadian Arctic Archipelago , also known as the Arctic Archipelago , is a group of islands north of the Canadian mainland . Situated in the northern extremity of North America and covering about 1424500 km2 , this group of 36,563 islands in the Arctic Sea comprises much of the territory of Northern Canada -- most of Nunavut and part of the Northwest Territories . The Canadian Arctic Archipelago is showing some effects of global warming , with some computer estimates determining that melting there will contribute 3.5 cm to the rise in sea levels by 2100 .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Canadian_Arctic_Archipelago", "rank": 54, "score": 108057 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Lowlands Content: The Arctic Lowlands and Hudson Bay Lowlands are a physiographic division , lying between the Canadian Shield and the Innuitian region To the south of the surfaces and lowland plains . This is a region of tundra , a treeless Plain , with a cold , dry climate and poorly drained soil . Most of the Arctic Lowlands region is located in Nunavut . The Arctic Lowlands are plains located in Canada . Plains are extensive areas of level or gently rolling land . In North America there is a large , flat interior Plain . They are also part of what is commonly referred to as the Arctic Archipelago , occupying much of the central Canadian Arctic . They are made up of a series of islands located in Canada 's far north , and havd remains frozen most of the year . However , the Paleozoic sedimentary rock , from which the Lowlands are formed , contains lignite ( a form of coal ) , oil , and natural gas deposits . Limestone is very abundant as well . The Arctic Lowlands have a small human population . The terrain is mostly ice , snow , rock , and it is full of marshes , especially in the winter . Animals that live in the area include polar bears , char , Arctic hares and Arctic foxes . This region is being affected by global warming . It is very cold and human life may be difficult . Many suffer from lack of food in this region . Commonly known as the Hudson Bay-Arctic Lowlands , the Hudson Bay part is over 50 % water .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_Lowlands", "rank": 55, "score": 107948 }, { "content": "Title: Charlie Paton Content: Charlie Paton ( born 1970 ) , former Royal Marine and personal trainer , is the first Scotsman to walk unsupported to the Geographic North Pole from Canada . After 70 days on the ice , Charlie led by Alan Chambers MBE , raised the Union Jack on top of the world at 23:16 hours on 16 May 2000 . The ten-week expedition left the team ten days overdue , suffering weight loss and without food supplies . Charlie and Alan will attempt another British first commencing February 2007 ; walking unsupported across the frozen Arctic Ocean from Russia to Canada , approximately 2000 kilometres , 100 days on the ice and experiencing temperatures as low as -60 . The project is called Polar Odyssey . Charlie is currently giving people the opportunity to enjoy guided trips to the North and South Poles with his travel company PolarTrex .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Charlie_Paton", "rank": 56, "score": 107279 }, { "content": "Title: Winter of 2010–11 in Great Britain and Ireland Content: The winter of 2010 -- 2011 was a weather event that brought heavy snowfalls , record low temperatures , travel chaos and school disruption to the islands of Britain and Ireland . It included the UK 's coldest December since Met Office records began in 1910 , with a mean temperature of -1 ° C , breaking the previous record of 0.1 ° C in December 1981 . Also it was the second-coldest December in the narrower Central England Temperature ( CET ) record series which began in 1659 , falling 0.1 ° C short of the all-time record set in 1890 . The winter of 2010 in England saw the earliest widespread winter snowfall since 1993 with snow falling as early as 24 November across Northumberland and North Yorkshire . A maximum snow depth of 30 in was recorded on 1 December in the Peak District , Sheffield , the Cotswold Hills and the Forest of Dean . In this event Scotland and Northern England were most severely affected . On 9 December temperatures recovered across much of the UK , causing a partial thaw . Later , on Thursday 16 December a cold front reintroduced a cold , arctic airstream . This cold spell brought further snow and ice chaos back to the British Isles with Southern England , Wales , the Republic of Ireland ( excluding the westerly coastal regions ) and Northern Ireland bearing the brunt of the wintry conditions . This led to severe disruption to the road and rail network with several airports being closed including London Heathrow Airport for a time . Several local temperature records were broken including a new record low for Northern Ireland of -18.7 ° C recorded at Castlederg on 23 December 2010 . By the new year a thaw had begun , and there was no recurrence of the extreme conditions for the remainder of the winter . There was some snowfall in early January , and there was an anticyclonic spell at the end of the month that brought some cold , frosty days . February was above average in temperature and ended on a mild note , although the snow returned in much of Scotland during March .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Winter_of_2010–11_in_Great_Britain_and_Ireland", "rank": 57, "score": 107230 }, { "content": "Title: Tuktoyaktuk Winter Road Content: Tuktoyaktuk Winter Road , an extension of the Dempster Highway , was an ice road on frozen Mackenzie River delta channels and the frozen Arctic Ocean between the Northwest Territories communities of Inuvik and Tuktoyaktuk , in Canada . The road closed permanently on 29 April 2017 at the end of the 2016-2017 winter season . Construction of an all-season highway between Inuvik and Tuktoyaktuk commenced in April 2013 ; it is expected to open in the fall of 2017 . It serviced gas hydrate fields and exploration facilities at Mallik , Aput , and Langley , along with the ice-locked barges Wurmlinger and Arctic Star , which act as bases of operations for ice road crews and exploration personnel . In addition , the road was a key supply line for Tuktoyaktuk and the hamlet of Aklavik .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Tuktoyaktuk_Winter_Road", "rank": 58, "score": 107151 }, { "content": "Title: Vertical distribution of ice in Arctic clouds Content: Vertical Distribution of Ice in Arctic Clouds ( VERDI ) is the name of a German research project on the topic of Arctic clouds . Measurements within this project were conducted in April and May 2012 around Inuvik , Canada , organized by the University of Leipzig . The project aims at an improvement of knowledge about the effects of clouds in the Arctic climate system . The main question within VERDI is the distribution of ice crystals and liquid water droplets within the clouds . That distribution depends on various parameters , such as temperature and the cloud 's life cycle .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Vertical_distribution_of_ice_in_Arctic_clouds", "rank": 59, "score": 107134 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Ocean Conference Content: The inaugural Arctic Ocean Conference was held in Ilulissat , Greenland May 27 -- May 29 , 2008 . Five countries , Canada , Denmark , Norway , Russia and the United States , discussed key issues relating to the Arctic Ocean . The meeting was significant because of its plans for environmental regulation , maritime security , mineral exploration , polar oil oversight , and transportation . Before the conclusion of the conference , the attendees announced the Ilulissat Declaration . The conference was the first ever held at the ministerial level that included the five regional powers . It came at the invitation of Per Stig Møller , Denmark 's Foreign Minister , and Hans Enoksen , Greenlandic Premier in 2007 after several territorial disputes in the Arctic . States Møller , `` We must continue to fulfill our obligations in the Arctic area until the UN decides who will have the right to the sea and the resources in the region . We must agree on the rules and what to do if climate changes make more shipping possible . '' `` We need to send a common political signal to both our own populations and the rest of the world that the five coastal states will address the opportunities and challenges in a responsible manner . '' Ilulissat 's melting glacier was an appropriate backdrop for the landmark conference . The key ministry level attendees were : Canada : Gary Lunn , Canadian Minister for Nature Resources Denmark : Per Stig Møller ; Hans Enoksen Norway : Jonas Gahr Støre , Norwegian Minister for Foreign Affairs Russia : Sergey Lavrov , Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs United States : John D. Negroponte , Deputy Secretary of State", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_Ocean_Conference", "rank": 60, "score": 106839 }, { "content": "Title: Winter-over syndrome Content: The winter-over syndrome is a condition found in individuals who `` winter-over '' throughout the Antarctic ( or Arctic ) winter . It has been observed in inhabitants of research stations in Antarctica , as well as in polar bases such as Thule , Alert and Eureka . It consists of a variety of behavioral and medical disturbances , including irritability , depression , insomnia , absentmindedness , aggressive behavior , and irritable bowel syndrome . Possible contributing causes of winter-over syndrome include stress , social isolation , subsyndromal seasonal affective disorder and polar T3 syndrome .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Winter-over_syndrome", "rank": 61, "score": 106730 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment", "rank": 62, "score": 106631 }, { "content": "Title: Sea smoke Content: Sea smoke , frost smoke , or steam fog , is fog which is formed when very cold air moves over warmer water . Arctic sea smoke is sea smoke forming over small patches of open water in sea ice . It forms when a light wind of very cold air mixes with a shallow layer of saturated warm air immediately above the warmer water . The warmer air is cooled beyond the dew point and can no longer hold as much water vapor , so the excess condenses out . The effect is similar to the `` steam '' produced over a hot bath or a hot drink , or even an exercising person . Sea smoke has a turbulent appearance and may form spiralling columns . It is usually not very high and lookouts on ships can usually see over it ( but small boats may have very poor visibility ) because the fog is confined to the layer of warm air above the sea . However , sea smoke columns 20 -- 30 metres high have been observed . Because this type of fog requires very low air temperatures , it is uncommon in temperate climates , but is common in the Arctic and Antarctic .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Sea_smoke", "rank": 63, "score": 106609 }, { "content": "Title: Boreogadus saida Content: Boreogadus saida , known as the polar cod or as the Arctic cod , is a fish of the cod family Gadidae , related to the true cod ( genus Gadus ) . Another fish species for which both the common names Arctic cod and polar cod are used is Arctogadus glacialis . B. saida has a slender body , a deeply forked tail , a projecting mouth , and a small whisker on its chin . It is plainly coloured with brownish spots and a silvery body . It grows to a length of 40 cm . This species is found further north than any other fish ( beyond 84 ° N ) with a distribution spanning the Arctic seas off northern Russia , Alaska , Canada , and Greenland . This fish is most commonly found at the water 's surface , but is also known to travel at depths greater than 900 m . The polar cod is known to frequent river mouths . It is a hardy fish that survives best at temperatures of 0 -- 4 ° C , but may tolerate colder temperatures owing to the presence of antifreeze protein compounds in its blood . They group in large schools in ice-free waters . B. saida feeds on plankton and krill . It is in turn the primary food source for narwhals , belugas , ringed seals , and seabirds . They are fished commercially in Russia .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Boreogadus_saida", "rank": 64, "score": 106364 }, { "content": "Title: Martian polar ice caps Content: The planet Mars has two permanent polar ice caps . During a pole 's winter , it lies in continuous darkness , chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25 -- 30 % of the atmosphere into slabs of CO2 ice ( dry ice ) . When the poles are again exposed to sunlight , the frozen CO2 sublimes , creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h . These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor , giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds . Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004 . The caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice . Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only , while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about 8 m thick . The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 km during the northern Mars summer , and contains about 1.6 million cubic km of ice , which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 km thick . ( This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic km ( km3 ) for the Greenland ice sheet . ) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km . The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km . Both polar caps show spiral troughs , which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of roughly perpendicular katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect . The seasonal frosting of some areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 m thick slabs of dry ice above the ground . With the arrival of spring , sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO2 builds up under a slab , elevating and ultimately rupturing it . This leads to geyser-like eruptions of CO2 gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust . This process is rapid , observed happening in the space of a few days , weeks or months , a rate of change rather unusual in geology -- especially for Mars . The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spider-like pattern of radial channels under the ice .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Martian_polar_ice_caps", "rank": 65, "score": 106078 }, { "content": "Title: Cold blob (North Atlantic) Content: The cold blob in the North Atlantic describes a cold temperature anomaly of ocean surface waters , affecting the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation ( AMOC ) which is part of the thermohaline circulation , possibly related to global warming-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Cold_blob_(North_Atlantic)", "rank": 66, "score": 105867 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic oscillation Content: The Arctic oscillation ( AO ) or Northern Annular Mode/Northern Hemisphere Annular Mode ( NAM ) is an index ( which varies over time with no particular periodicity ) of the dominant pattern of non-seasonal sea-level pressure variations north of 20N latitude , and it is characterized by pressure anomalies of one sign in the Arctic with the opposite anomalies centered about 37 -- 45N . The AO is believed by climatologists to be causally related to , and thus partially predictive of , weather patterns in locations many thousands of miles away , including many of the major population centers of Europe and North America . NASA climatologist Dr. James E. Hansen explained the mechanism by which the AO affects weather at points so distant from the Arctic , as follows : `` The degree to which Arctic air penetrates into middle latitudes is related to the AO index , which is defined by surface atmospheric pressure patterns . When the AO index is positive , surface pressure is low in the polar region . This helps the middle latitude jet stream to blow strongly and consistently from west to east , thus keeping cold Arctic air locked in the polar region . When the AO index is negative , there tends to be high pressure in the polar region , weaker zonal winds , and greater movement of frigid polar air into middle latitudes . '' This zonally symmetric seesaw between sea level pressures in polar and temperate latitudes was first identified by Edward Lorenz and named in 1998 by David W.J. Thompson and John Michael Wallace . The North Atlantic oscillation ( NAO ) is a close relative of the AO and there exist arguments about whether one or the other is more fundamentally representative of the atmosphere 's dynamics ; Ambaum et al. argue that the NAO can be identified in a more physically meaningful way . Over most of the past century , the Arctic Oscillation alternated between its positive and negative phases . Starting in the 1970s the oscillation has trended to more of a positive phase when averaged using a 60-day running mean , though it has trended to a more neutral state in the last decade . The oscillation still fluctuates stochastically between negative and positive values on daily , monthly , seasonal and annual time scales , although , despite its stochastic nature , meteorologists have attained high levels of predictive accuracy in recent times , at least for the shorter term forecasts . ( The correlation between actual observations and the 7-day mean GFS ensemble AO forecasts is approximately 0.9 , a figure at the high end for that statistic . ) The National Snow and Ice Data Center describes the effects of the AO in some detail : `` In the positive phase , higher pressure at midlatitudes drives ocean storms farther north , and changes in the circulation pattern bring wetter weather to Alaska , Scotland and Scandinavia , as well as drier conditions to the western United States and the Mediterranean . In the positive phase , frigid winter air does not extend as far into the middle of North America as it would during the negative phase of the oscillation . This keeps much of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains warmer than normal , but leaves Greenland and Newfoundland colder than usual . Weather patterns in the negative phase are in general `` opposite '' to those of the positive phase . '' Climatologists are now routinely invoking the Arctic Oscillation in their official public explanations for extremes of weather . The following statement from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Climatic Data Center : State of the Climate December 2010 which uses the phrase `` negative Arctic Oscillation '' four times , is very representative of this increasing tendency : `` Cold arctic air gripped western Europe in the first three weeks of December . Two major snowstorms , icy conditions , and frigid temperatures wreaked havoc across much of the region ... The harsh winter weather was attributed to a negative Arctic Oscillation , which is a climate pattern that influences weather in the Northern Hemisphere . A very persistent , strong ridge of high pressure , or ` blocking system ' , near Greenland allowed cold Arctic air to slide south into Europe . Europe was not the only region in the Northern Hemisphere affected by the Arctic Oscillation . A large snow storm and frigid temperatures affected much of the Midwest United States on December 10 -- 13 ... '' A further , quite graphic illustration of the effects of the negative phase of the oscillation occurred in February 2010 . In that month , the Arctic Oscillation reached its most negative monthly mean value , − 4.266 , in the entire post-1950 era ( the period of accurate record-keeping ) . That month was characterized by three separate historic snowstorms that occurred in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States . The first storm dumped 25 in on Baltimore , Maryland , on February 5 -- 6 , and then a second storm dumped 19.5 in on February 9 -- 10 . In New York City , a separate storm deposited 20.9 in on February 25 -- 26 . This kind of snowstorm activity is as anomalous and extreme as the negative AO value itself . Similarly , the greatest negative value for the AO since 1950 in January was − 3.767 in 1977 , which coincided with the coldest mean January temperature in New York City , Washington , D.C. , Baltimore , and many other mid-Atlantic locations in that span of time . And though the January AO has been negative only 60.6 % of the time between 1950 and 2010 , 9 of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York City since 1950 have coincided with negative AOs . However , the correlation between sharply negative Arctic Oscillations and excessive winter cold and snow in regions vulnerable in that way to these negative AOs should not be overstated . It is by no means a simple , one-to-one equivalence . An extreme Arctic Oscillation does not necessarily mean extreme weather will occur . For example , since 1950 , eight out of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York did not coincide with the 10 lowest January AO values . And the fourth warmest January there since 1950 coincided with one of those 10 most negative AOs . So , although many climatologists believe that the Arctic Oscillation affects the probability of certain weather events occurring in certain places , the heightened chance of a phenomenon by no means assures it , nor does the lessened likelihood exclude it . Further , the precise value of the AO index only imperfectly reflects the severity of the weather associated with it .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_oscillation", "rank": 67, "score": 105690 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic haze Content: Arctic haze is the phenomenon of a visible reddish-brown springtime haze in the atmosphere at high latitudes in the Arctic due to anthropogenic air pollution . A major distinguishing factor of Arctic haze is the ability of its chemical ingredients to persist in the atmosphere for an extended period of time compared to other pollutants . Due to limited amounts of snow , rain , or turbulent air to displace pollutants from the polar air mass in spring , Arctic haze can linger for more than a month in the northern atmosphere .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_haze", "rank": 68, "score": 105596 }, { "content": "Title: Active layer Content: In environments containing permafrost , the active layer is the top layer of soil that thaws during the summer and freezes again during the autumn . In all climates , whether they contain permafrost or not , the temperature in the lower levels of the soil will remain more stable than that at the surface , where the influence of the ambient temperature is greatest . This means that , over many years , the influence of cooling in winter and heating in summer ( in temperate climates ) will decrease as depth increases . If the winter temperature is below the freezing point of water , a frost front will form in the soil . This `` frost front '' is the boundary between frozen and unfrozen soil , and with the coming of spring and summer , the soil is thawed , always from the top down . If the heating during summer exceeds the cooling during winter , the soil will be completely thawed during the summer and there will be no permafrost . This occurs when the mean annual temperature is above 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) , but also occurs when the mean annual temperature is slightly below 0 ° C on sites exposed to the sun with coarse-textured parent materials ( vegetation ) . When there is not sufficient heat to thaw the frozen soil completely , permafrost forms . The active layer in this environment consists of the top layers of soil which thaws during the summer , while the inactive layer refers to the soil below which is frozen year-round because the heat fails to penetrate . Liquid water can not flow below the active layer , with the result that permafrost environments tend to be very poorly drained and boggy .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Active_layer", "rank": 69, "score": 105381 }, { "content": "Title: Weddell Polynya Content: The Weddell Polynya or Weddell Sea Polynya is a polynya or irregular area of open water surrounded by sea ice in the Weddell Sea of the Southern Ocean off Antarctica and near the Maud Rise . The size of New Zealand , it re-occurred each winter between 1974 and 1976 . These were the first three austral winters observed by the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer ( ESMR ) . Since 1976 , the polynya has never been seen again . Since the 1970s , the polar Southern Ocean south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has freshened and stratified , likely a result of anthropogenic climate change . Such stratification may be responsible for suppressing the return of the Weddell Sea polynya .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Weddell_Polynya", "rank": 70, "score": 105008 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Cordillera Content: The Arctic Cordillera is a vast , deeply dissected chain of mountain ranges extending along the northeastern flank of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago from Ellesmere Island to the northeasternmost part of the Labrador Peninsula in northern Labrador and northern Quebec , Canada . It spans most of the eastern coast of Nunavut with high glaciated peaks rising through icefields and some of Canada 's largest ice caps , including the Penny Ice Cap on Baffin Island . It is bounded to the east by Baffin Bay , Davis Strait and the Labrador Sea while its northern portion is bounded by the Arctic Ocean .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_Cordillera", "rank": 71, "score": 104686 }, { "content": "Title: Sympagic ecology Content: A sympagic environment is one where water exists mostly as a solid , ice , such as a polar ice cap or glacier . Solid sea ice is permeated with channels filled with salty brine . These briny channels and the sea ice itself have its ecology , referred to as `` sympagic ecology '' . Residents of temperate or tropical climates often assume , mistakenly , that ice and snow are devoid of life . In fact , a number of varieties of algae such as diatoms engage in photosynthesis in arctic and alpine regions of Earth . Other energy sources include Aeolian dust and pollen swept in from other regions . These ecosystems also include bacteria and fungi , as well as animals like flatworms and crustaceans . A number of sympagic worm species are commonly called ice worms . Additionally , the ocean has abundant plankton , and prolific algal blooms occur in the polar regions each summer as well as in high mountain lakes , bringing nutrients to those parts of the ice in contact with the water . In the spring , krill can scrape off the green lawn of ice algae from the underside of the pack ice .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Sympagic_ecology", "rank": 72, "score": 104589 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Spas Content: Arctic Spas is Blue Falls Manufacturing 's flagship brand of portable electric hot tubs , developed as a niche product for cold climates . The line is made and sold in Canada , and exported to the United States , Australia , and Europe .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_Spas", "rank": 73, "score": 104514 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Glacier Content: Arctic Glacier is a manufacturer of packaged ice in Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada . The company was founded in 1996 and has rapidly grown to become the largest producer of ice for the Canadian market and one of the largest for the American market . The company operates 36 production and 50 distribution facilities , and employs more than 1,100 people year-round . Employment increases to 2,400 employees during the summer to meet the increased seasonal demand . Corporate headquarters are located in Winnipeg and employ 85 people . The company declared bankruptcy in March 2012 . It was delisted from the TSX in October 2011 . In April 2012 , its main rival Reddy Ice also declared bankruptcy in a pre-packaged bankruptcy backed by creditor Centerbridge Partners . H.I.G. Capital agreed to acquire Arctic Glacier in May 2012 . The sale was completed July 27 , 2012 .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_Glacier", "rank": 74, "score": 104497 }, { "content": "Title: Polar desert Content: Polar deserts are areas with annual precipitation less than 250 mm and a mean temperature of less than 10 C during the warmest months . Polar deserts on Earth cover nearly 5,000,000 km2 and consist primarily of hard bedrock or gravel plains . Polar deserts are one of two polar biomes : polar deserts and Arctic tundra . These biomes are located at the poles of the earth , specifically , the Arctic , northernmost North America , Europe , and Asia , and Antarctica . Polar deserts are located in the Arctic and Antarctic . Unlike the tundra that can support plant and animal life in the summer , polar deserts are barren with permanent layers of ice . However , there is evidence of life in this seemingly inhospitable environment.The thick ice contains sediments of organic and inorganic substances which create a habitable environment for microbial organisms . These organisms are closely related to cyanobacteria which have a variety of functions , particularly , fixing carbon dioxide from the melting water . Temperature changes in polar deserts frequently cross the freezing point of water . This `` freeze-thaw '' alternation forms patterned textures on the ground , as much as 5 m in diameter ( as seen in the picture on the right ) . Most of the interior of Antarctica is polar desert , despite the thick ice cover . Conversely , the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica , although they have had no ice for thousands of years due to katabatic wind , are not necessarily polar desert . Polar deserts are relatively common during ice ages , as ice ages tend to be dry . Climate scientists have voiced concerns about the effects of global warming to the ice poles in these polar biomes .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Polar_desert", "rank": 75, "score": 103490 }, { "content": "Title: MV Arctic Content: MV Arctic is an icebreaking cargo ship built in 1978 at the Port Weller Dry Docks in St. Catharines , Ontario , Canada . The ship is owned and operated by the Fednav Group . Designed to carry both oil and ore , the vessel is not only ice strengthened with a Finnish-Swedish ice class 1A Super , but has a CASPPR Class 3 or CAC 4 rating . This means it is powerful enough to navigate through many ice-covered waters without escort . Arctic previously serviced mines in the high Canadian Arctic such as Polaris and Nanisivik . Once those mines closed she was shifted to service the Raglan mine in northern Quebec and the Voisey 's Bay mine in Labrador . Arctic was extensively rebuilt by Port Weller Dry Dock during winter 1985 -- 1986 . The ship received a new icebreaker bow which improved its icebreaking capability and the ice strengthening in the sides and bottom was increased so that the ice class could be upgraded from CAC 2 to CAC 4 .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "MV_Arctic", "rank": 76, "score": 103140 }, { "content": "Title: Pollution in the Arctic Ocean Content: Pollution in the Arctic Ocean is primarily the result of economic activities carried out on land -- such as industrial development in the Arctic region , northern rivers , and the effects of military activities , particularly nuclear activity -- as well as the influx of pollutants from other regions of the world . However , the Arctic Ocean remains relatively clean compared to other marine regions of the world . Economic activity in the Arctic seas is not the only source of pollution . The growing presence of military weapons systems in the region raises concerns of increased pollution . Management of specific risks of marine pollution in the Arctic is governed primarily by national legislation in coastal states , although these take existing international standards into account . Bilateral agreements exist between Arctic states on cooperation in the prevention of marine pollution in the Arctic seas and immediate responses in case of oil spills . Nevertheless , there is no legal framework relating to weapons and other military presence . The first steps in this direction have already been made . After signing the 2010 Treaty on Maritime Delimitation of the continental shelf in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean , Russia and Norway began bilateral consultations on the harmonization of national environmental standards used for the exploration and development of the mineral resources of the shelf . The parties came to an agreement to make a comparative analysis of national legislation and to identify differences concerning measures for preventing the pollution of the environment . A recent report published by the International Council on Clean Transportation ( ICCT ) suggested that the reduction of the polar ice caps and the projected increase in shipping activity in the region could have a severe impact on the levels of pollution experienced across the entire Arctic region but notes that a shift to cleaner sulphur-based fuel could resolve the issue .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Pollution_in_the_Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 77, "score": 103101 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Basin Content: The Arctic Basin ( also North Polar Basin ) is an oceanic basin in the Arctic Ocean , consisting of two main parts separated by the Lomonosov Ridge , a mid-ocean ridge running between north Greenland and the New Siberian Islands . The basin is bordered by the continental shelves of Eurasia and North America . The Eurasian Basin ( also Norwegian Basin ) consists of the Nansen Basin ( formerly : Fram Basin ) and the Amundsen Basin The Amerasian Basin consists of the Canada Basin and the Makarov Basin", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_Basin", "rank": 78, "score": 102718 }, { "content": "Title: Ice dune Content: An ice dune ( also called an ice ridge or an ice foot ) is a formation of ice that accumulates on the shores of many arctic beaches and is also common along the shores of the Great Lakes during the winter .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Ice_dune", "rank": 79, "score": 102630 }, { "content": "Title: Chukchi Plateau Content: The Chukchi Plateau or Chukchi Cap is a large subsea formation extending north from the Alaskan margin into the Arctic Ocean . The ridge is normally covered by ice year-round , and reaches an approximate bathymetric prominence of 3,400 m with its highest point at 246 m below sea level . As a subsea ridge extending from the continental shelf of the United States north of Alaska , the Chukchi Plateau is an important feature in maritime law of the Arctic Ocean and has been the subject of significant geographic research . The ridge has been extensively mapped by the USCGC Healy , and by the Canadian icebreaker CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent ( with the Healy ) in 2011 and RV Marcus Langseth , a National Science Foundation vessel operated by the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Chukchi_Plateau", "rank": 80, "score": 102223 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 81, "score": 102136 }, { "content": "Title: International Arctic Research Center Content: The International Arctic Research Center , or IARC , established in 1999 , is a research institution focused on integrating and coordinating study of climate change in the Arctic . The primary partners in IARC are Japan and the United States . Participants include organizations from Canada , China , Denmark , Germany , Japan , Norway , Russia , the United Kingdom , and the United States . The Center is located at the University of Alaska Fairbanks , in the Syun-Ichi Akasofu Building . The Keith B. Mather Library is the science library housed in the Akasofu Building , serving IARC and the Geophysical Institute of UAF . The building also houses the UAF atmospheric sciences department , the Center for Global Change and the Fairbanks forecast office of the National Weather Service . Study projects are focused within four major themes : Arctic ocean models and observation Arctic atmosphere : feedbacks , radiation , and weather analysis Permafrost/Frozen soil models and observations Arctic biota/vegetation ( ecosystem models ) IARC is devoting specific effort to answering the following three questions : To what extent is climate change due to natural vs man-made causes ? What parameters , processes and interactions are needed to understand and predict future climate change ? What are the likely impacts of climate change ?", "qid": "2914", "docid": "International_Arctic_Research_Center", "rank": 82, "score": 102122 }, { "content": "Title: Poverty in the Arctic Content: The Arctic is a vast polar region comprising the northern most parts of Canada , Norway , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Sweden , Finland , the United States ( Alaska ) , Iceland and Russia . In recent years , the Arctic has been at the forefront of political and social issues . Several matters have risen surrounding the issues of poverty and global warming and their effects on indigenous people in this region . Indigenous people in the Arctic statistically fall below their nation 's poverty line . Indigenous populations that were once largely self-sufficient and relatively food secure in the Arctic 's harsh environment are today struggling to sustain themselves as a result of poverty and also the impacts of climate change . Currently , they are facing an overwhelming amount of issues in relation to poverty including cultural loss , high rates of chronic illness and chronic disease , mental health disorders , lack of basic health needs and housing shortages . In Canada 's arctic region , for example , infant mortality rate is 3.5 times higher than the national rate while life expectancy is 12 years lower . In Greenland , life expectancy is 70 years for women and 65 years for men whereas in Denmark life expectancy for women is 80.59 and 75.8 for men . Specifically , in the territory of Nunavut , unemployment rates range from 15 to 72 % . In 2010 , 9.9 % of Alaskan households fell below their respective poverty thresholds .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Poverty_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 83, "score": 102121 }, { "content": "Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Ice_age", "rank": 84, "score": 102116 }, { "content": "Title: Permafrost Content: In geology , permafrost is ground , including rock or ( cryotic ) soil , at or below the freezing point of water 0 C for two or more years . Most permafrost is located in high latitudes ( in and around the Arctic and Antarctic regions ) , but alpine permafrost may exist at high altitudes in much lower latitudes . Ground ice is not always present , as may be in the case of nonporous bedrock , but it frequently occurs and it may be in amounts exceeding the potential hydraulic saturation of the ground material . Permafrost accounts for 0.022 % of total water on earth and exists in 24 % of exposed land in the Northern Hemisphere . It also occurs subsea on the continental shelves of the continents surrounding the Arctic Ocean , portions of which were exposed during the last glacial period , with global weather implications . A global temperature rise of 1.5 C-change above current levels would be enough to start the thawing of permafrost in Siberia , according to one group of scientists .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Permafrost", "rank": 85, "score": 101976 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Silver Content: Arctic Silver Inc. is a privately owned engineering corporation which develops and manufactures thermally conductive compounds and thermal adhesives for the application of heat sinks to high-powered electronic components such as processors , LEDs , chipsets and other electronic devices . Founded in 1999 , the company 's facilities are located in Visalia , California , US .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_Silver", "rank": 86, "score": 101811 }, { "content": "Title: CCGS Des Groseilliers Content: CCGS Des GroseilliersCCGS stands for Canadian Coast Guard Ship is a in the Canadian Coast Guard . The vessel is named after Médard Chouart des Groseilliers ( 1618 -- 1669 ) a close associate of Pierre-Esprit Radisson in explorations west of the Great Lakes and the founding of the British Hudson 's Bay Company . The ship entered service in 1982 . The vessel has participated in a number of research voyages , including Ice Station SHEBA . As part of the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean experiment conducted in the Arctic Ocean from October 1997 to October 1998 to provide polar input to global climate models , Des Groseilliers was allowed to be frozen into the ice for the Arctic winter , to serve as a base for scientific researchers .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "CCGS_Des_Groseilliers", "rank": 87, "score": 101403 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 88, "score": 101398 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sculpin Content: The Arctic sculpin ( Myoxocephalus scorpioides ) or the northern sculpin , is a predatory species of sculpin in the fish family Cottidae . The species is native to the Arctic Ocean around Canada and Greenland , specifically in James Bay and the Strait of Belle Isle , and towards the Bering Sea . It has the ability to synthesize antifreeze proteins , allowing it to withstand temperatures as low as -2 ° C . It serves as the host for Haemobaphes cyclopterina , a parasitic species of copepod .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_sculpin", "rank": 89, "score": 101056 }, { "content": "Title: Polar low Content: A polar low is a small-scale , short-lived atmospheric low pressure system ( depression ) that is found over the ocean areas poleward of the main polar front in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres . The systems usually have a horizontal length scale of less than 1000 km and exist for no more than a couple of days . They are part of the larger class of mesoscale weather systems . Polar lows can be difficult to detect using conventional weather reports and are a hazard to high-latitude operations , such as shipping and gas and oil platforms . Such winter storms can cause bitter cold and crop freezes . Polar lows have been referred to by many other terms , such as polar mesoscale vortex , Arctic hurricane , Arctic low , and cold air depression . Today the term is usually reserved for the more vigorous systems that have near-surface winds of at least 17 m/s ( 38 mph ) .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Polar_low", "rank": 90, "score": 100959 }, { "content": "Title: Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station Content: The Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station 2007 ( APLIS07 ) is an U.S.A. and Japanese laboratory dedicated to the study of global climate change , located about 300km south of the Arctic Circle , Alaska on the West Ridge of the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Applied_Physics_Laboratory_Ice_Station", "rank": 91, "score": 100856 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Circle Content: The Arctic Circle is the most northerly of the abstract five major circles of latitude as shown on maps of the Earth . It marks the northernmost point at which the noon sun is just visible on the northern winter solstice and the southernmost point at which the midnight sun is just visible on the northern summer solstice . The region north of this circle is known as the Arctic , and the zone just to the south is called the Northern Temperate Zone . North of the Arctic Circle , the sun is above the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore visible at midnight ) and below the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore not visible at noon ) ; this is also true within the equivalent polar circle in the Southern Hemisphere , the Antarctic Circle . The position of the Arctic Circle is not fixed ; as of , it runs north of the Equator . Its latitude depends on the Earth 's axial tilt , which fluctuates within a margin of 2 ° over a 40,000-year period , due to tidal forces resulting from the orbit of the Moon . Consequently , the Arctic Circle is currently drifting northwards at a speed of about 15 m per year .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_Circle", "rank": 92, "score": 100792 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 93, "score": 100703 }, { "content": "Title: Lincoln Sea Content: Lincoln Sea is a body of water in the Arctic Ocean , stretching from Cape Columbia , Canada , in the west to Cape Morris Jesup , Greenland , in the east . The northern limit is defined as the great circle line between those two headlands . It is covered with sea ice throughout the year , the thickest sea ice in the Arctic Ocean , which can be up to 15 m thick . Water depths range from 100 m to 300 m. Water and ice from Lincoln Sea empty into Robeson Channel , the northernmost part of Nares Strait , most of the time . The sea was named after Robert Todd Lincoln , then United States Secretary of War , on Adolphus W. Greely 's 1881 -- 1884 Arctic expedition into Lady Franklin Bay . Alert , the northernmost station of Canada , is the only populated place on the shore of Lincoln Sea . The body of water to the east of Lincoln Sea ( east of Cape Morris Jesup ) is Wandel Sea .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Lincoln_Sea", "rank": 94, "score": 100628 }, { "content": "Title: ICEX: US Navy Mission in Arctic Content: Ice Exercise was a United States Navy mission in the Arctic Ocean . On March 2 , 2016 , the United States Navy set course bound for the Arctic region . Roughly two weeks later two Los Angeles-Class Submarines arrived at US Navy Ice Camp Sargo , which is a temporary camp stationed on top of a floating ice sheet . Their objective was to carry out the US Navy 's Ice X exercise to evaluate the readiness of the Navy 's submarine force and pursue further interest into scientific fields of the Arctic region . The 2016 ICE X took place over a five-week period and included over 200 participants from the four nations : the United States , Canada , United Kingdom , and Norway . The Arctic Submarine Laboratory will also be participating . The Arctic Submarine Laboratory is responsible for the construction of Camp SARGO , conducting tests and evaluations under Arctic operations , and acts as a liaison between the civilian science community and submarine operations . The submarines will conduct Arctic transits in which they will surface and break the ice ( usually 60-90 cm or 2 -- 3 feet thick ) , collect data , and run other training exercise to gain experience working in this region . The United States ' first ICE X exercise in which a submarine surfaced and broke the ice was in 1958 . Since then , the United States has conducted more than 26 Arctic exercises , including the Ice Exercise 2009 . The importance of this exercise is that `` the submarine operations to the North Pole provides the required training broaden our knowledge of an extremely challenging region that is very different than any other ocean in the world , '' said Cmdr. Scott Luers . Other than collecting data and training in this region the ICE X exercise also shows the US Navy 's Arctic defense capabilities and readiness for roles in this region , increases the experience of sailing and working in the area , and gathering broader knowledge about this region .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "ICEX:_US_Navy_Mission_in_Arctic", "rank": 95, "score": 100437 }, { "content": "Title: Icing (nautical) Content: Icing on ships is a serious hazard where cold temperatures ( below about -10 C ) combined with high wind speed ( typically force 8 or above on the Beaufort scale ) result in spray blown off the sea freezing immediately on contact with the ship . If not frequently knocked off , the ice can soon build up on the ship 's superstructure to a sufficient weight to cause the ship to capsize . It is typically a problem in Arctic and Antarctic seas , but can also occur in other seas such as the Gulf of Saint Lawrence , the Sea of Japan , the Baltic Sea , and very rarely , the North Sea .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Icing_(nautical)", "rank": 96, "score": 100318 }, { "content": "Title: Sea ice thickness Content: Sea ice thickness spatial extent , and open water within ice packs can vary rapidly in response to weather and climate . Sea ice concentration are measured by satellites , with the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder ( SSMIS ) , and the European Space Agency 's Cryosat-2 satellite to map the thickness and shape of the Earth 's polar ice cover . The sea ice volume is calculated with the Pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System ( PIOMAS ) , which blends satellite-observed data , such as sea ice concentrations into model calculations to estimate sea ice thickness and volume . Sea ice thickness determines a number of important fluxes such as heat flux between the air and ocean surface -- see below -- as well as salt and fresh water fluxes between the ocean since saline water ejects much of its salt content when frozen -- see sea ice growth processes . It is also important for navigators on icebreakers since there is an upper limit to the thickness of ice any ship can sail through .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Sea_ice_thickness", "rank": 97, "score": 100291 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic (company) Content: Arctic GmbH , formerly known as Arctic Cooling , is a manufacturer of computer cooling components , mainly CPU and graphics card coolers , case fans and thermal compound . Since 2010 , Arctic expanded its business by starting a range of products to cater other consumer demands beyond that of computer cooling hardware . Nowadays , Arctic also offers various consumer products -- spanning audio , home entertainment and computer peripherals . In 2012 , Arctic was nominated as one of the finalists in the annual PCR Awards . Founded in 2001 , Arctic has offices in Germany , Hong Kong , the United States cooperates with different production facilities in China . Arctic products are distributed worldwide through distributors , dealers and retailers . The United States , United Kingdom and Germany are Arctic 's major markets . The company has also collaborated with leading graphics card brands such as HIS , Inno3D , PowerColor VTX3D and Sapphire in the development of OEM cooling equipment .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Arctic_(company)", "rank": 98, "score": 100168 }, { "content": "Title: Bombus polaris Content: Bombus polaris is a common Arctic bumblebee species . B. polaris is one of two bumblebees that live above the Arctic Circle . The other is its social parasite Bombus hyperboreus . B. polaris is a social bee that can survive at near freezing temperatures . It has developed multiple adaptations to live in such cold temperatures . B. polaris has a thicker coat of hair than most bees , utilizes thermoregulation , and makes insulated nests .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Bombus_polaris", "rank": 99, "score": 99960 }, { "content": "Title: Saint Peter Islands Content: The Saint Peter Islands , also known as Saint Petra Islands or Petra Islands ( Острова Петра , Ostrova Petra ) are two islands covered with tundra vegetation , shingle and ice . These islands , as well as some other islands nearby ( Ostrova Andreia , Ostrov Pavla ) were originally named after Christian Apostles . The climate is Arctic and severe with frequent blizzards in the winter . The sea surrounding these Islands is covered with fast ice most of the year and is obstructed by pack ice even in the summer , so that these islands are merged with the mainland and animals can go across the ice . This island group belongs to the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of Russia . None of these islands have had much historical importance , except for the fact that they are located very close to the Northern Sea Route .", "qid": "2914", "docid": "Saint_Peter_Islands", "rank": 100, "score": 99910 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "CO2_is_Green", "rank": 1, "score": 156881 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 2, "score": 139330 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide", "rank": 3, "score": 137326 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-emissions vehicle Content: A zero-emissions vehicle , or ZEV , is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power . Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates ( soot ) , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) definitions , the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds , several air toxics ( most notably 1,3-Butadiene ) , and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles ; gravity racers ; battery electric vehicles , which typically shift emissions to the location where the electricity is generated e.g. coal or natural gas power plant ; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen , which typically shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated . Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions , as they do emit water or water vapor , although they are still usually included in this category . Emissions from the manufacturing process are ignored in this definition , although the emissions that are created during manufacture are of an order of magnitude that is comparable to the one of the emissions that are created during a vehicle 's operating lifetime .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Zero-emissions_vehicle", "rank": 4, "score": 133441 }, { "content": "Title: NOx Content: In atmospheric chemistry , is a generic term for the nitrogen oxides that are most relevant for air pollution , namely nitric oxide ( NO ) and nitrogen dioxide . These gases contribute to the formation of smog and acid rain , as well as tropospheric ozone . gases are usually produced from the reaction among nitrogen and oxygen during combustion of fuels , such as hydrocarbons , in air ; especially at high temperatures , such as occur in car engines . In areas of high motor vehicle traffic , such as in large cities , the nitrogen oxides emitted can be a significant source of air pollution . gases are also produced naturally by lightning . The term is chemistry shorthand for molecules containing one nitrogen and one or more oxygen atom . It is generally not meant to include nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , a fairly inert oxide of nitrogen that has many uses as an oxidizer for rockets and car engines , an anesthetic , and a propellant for aerosol sprays and whipped cream . Nitrous oxide plays hardly any role in air pollution , although it may have a significant impact on the ozone layer . ( reactive , odd nitrogen ) is defined as the sum of plus the compounds produced from the oxidation of which include nitric acid .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "NOx", "rank": 5, "score": 130328 }, { "content": "Title: Smog Content: Smog is a type of air pollutant . The word `` smog '' was coined in the early 20th century as a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog , its opacity , and odour . The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog , a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid 20th century . This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , ozone , smoke or particulates among others ( less visible pollutants include carbon monoxide , CFCs and radioactive sources ) . Human-made smog is derived from coal emissions , vehicular emissions , industrial emissions , forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions . Modern smog , as found for example in Los Angeles , is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog . In certain other cities , such as Delhi , smog severity is often aggravated by stubble burning in neighboring agricultural areas . The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles , Beijing , Delhi , Mexico City , Tehran and other cities are increased by inversion that traps pollution close to the ground . It is usually highly toxic to humans and can cause severe sickness , shortened life or death .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Smog", "rank": 6, "score": 128845 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 7, "score": 128412 }, { "content": "Title: Pollutant Content: A pollutant is a substance or energy introduced into the environment that has undesired effects , or adversely affects the usefulness of a resource . A pollutant may cause long - or short-term damage by changing the growth rate of plant or animal species , or by interfering with human amenities , comfort , health , or property values . Some pollutants are biodegradable and therefore will not persist in the environment in the long term . However , the degradation products of some pollutants are themselves polluting such as the products DDE and DDD produced from degradation of DDT .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Pollutant", "rank": 8, "score": 125808 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 9, "score": 125664 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 10, "score": 124230 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_retirement", "rank": 11, "score": 122616 }, { "content": "Title: Air pollution in the United States Content: Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals , particulate matter , or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms , or damages the natural environment into the atmosphere . Ever since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the United States , America has had much trouble with environmental issues , air pollution in particular . According to a 2009 report , around `` 60 percent of Americans live in areas where air pollution has reached unhealthy levels that can make people sick '' . Pollution in the United States has plummeted in the recent decade , with pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide decreasing despite the fact the number of vehicles on the road is n't . This is due to better regulations , economic shifts , and technological innovations . With respect to nitrogen dioxide , NASA reported a 32 % decrease in New York City and a 42 % decrease in Atlanta between the periods of 2005-2007 and 2009-2011 . Air pollution can cause a variety of health problems including , but not limited to infections , behavioral changes , cancer , organ failure , and even premature death . These health effects are not equally distributed in terms of race , ethnicity , socioeconomic status , education , and more in the United States . California has the worst air quality of any state , and in most surveys the cities in California rank in the top 5 or top 10 of most polluted air in the United States .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Air_pollution_in_the_United_States", "rank": 12, "score": 122344 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 13, "score": 121931 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 14, "score": 121313 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 15, "score": 121233 }, { "content": "Title: Pollution Content: Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change . Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy , such as noise , heat or light . Pollutants , the components of pollution , can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants . Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Pollution", "rank": 16, "score": 120565 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning", "rank": 17, "score": 120436 }, { "content": "Title: Soil gas Content: Soil gases are the gases found in the air space between soil components . The primary natural soil gases include nitrogen , carbon dioxide and oxygen . The oxygen is critical because it allows for respiration of both plant roots and soil organisms . Other natural soil gases are atmospheric methane and radon . Some environmental contaminants below ground produce gas which diffuses through the soil such as from landfill wastes , mining activities , and contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons which produce volatile organic compounds . Soil gases can diffuse into buildings , the chief concerns among these pollutants are radon which is radioactive and causes cancer and methane which can be flammable at only 4.4 % concentration . Gases fill soil pores in the soil structure as water drains or is removed from a soil pore by evaporation or root absorption . The network of pores within the soil aerates , or ventilates , the soil . This aeration network becomes blocked when water enters soil pores . Not only are both soil air and soil water very dynamic parts of soil , but both are often inversely related . Composition of air in soil and atmosphere : Nitrogen : Soil Air : 79.2 % Atmosphere : 79.0 % Oxygen : Soil Air : 20.6 % Atmosphere : 20.9 % Carbon Dioxide : Soil Air : 0.25 % Atmosphere : 0.04 % Gas molecules in soil are in continuous thermal motion according to the kinetic theory of gases , there is also collision between molecules - a random walk . In soil , a concentration gradient causes net movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration , this gives the movement of gas by diffusion . Numerically , it is explained by Fick 's law of diffusion .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Soil_gas", "rank": 18, "score": 120337 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 19, "score": 119621 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_sequestration", "rank": 20, "score": 119210 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental aspects of the electric car Content: Although electric cars have several benefits over conventional internal combustion engine automobiles , they are still subject to environmental regulation due to heavy reliance of rare earth elements such as neodymium , most of which are from China . However , several key environmental benefits includes a significant reduction of local air pollution , especially in cities , as they do not emit harmful tailpipe pollutants such as particulates ( soot ) , volatile organic compounds , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . The amount of carbon dioxide emitted depends on the emission intensity of the power sources used to charge the vehicle , the efficiency of the said vehicle and the energy wasted in the charging process . For mains electricity the emission intensity varies significantly per country and within a particular country , and on the demand , the availability of renewable sources and the efficiency of the fossil fuel-based generation used at a given time .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Environmental_aspects_of_the_electric_car", "rank": 21, "score": 118683 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon-neutral_fuel", "rank": 22, "score": 118627 }, { "content": "Title: Emission intensity Content: An emission intensity is the average emission rate of a given pollutant from a given source relative to the intensity of a specific activity ; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced , or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to gross domestic product ( GDP ) . Emission intensities are used to derive estimates of air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions based on the amount of fuel combusted , the number of animals in animal husbandry , on industrial production levels , distances traveled or similar activity data . Emission intensities may also be used to compare the environmental impact of different fuels or activities . The related terms emission factor and carbon intensity are often used interchangeably , but `` factors '' exclude aggregate activities such as GDP , and `` carbon '' excludes other pollutants . One commonly used figure is carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour , or CIPK , which is used to compare different sources of electrical power .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Emission_intensity", "rank": 23, "score": 118048 }, { "content": "Title: Nonpoint source pollution Content: Nonpoint source ( NPS ) pollution is a term used to describe pollution resulting from many diffuse sources , in direct contrast to point source pollution which results from a single source . Nonpoint source pollution generally results from land runoff , precipitation , atmospheric deposition , drainage , seepage , or hydrological modification ( rainfall or snowmelt ) where tracing the pollution back to a single source is difficult . Non-point source water pollution affects a water body from sources such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas draining into a river , or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea . Non-point source air pollution affects air quality from sources such as smokestacks or car tailpipes . Although these pollutants have originated from a point source , the long-range transport ability and multiple sources of the pollutant make it a non-point source of pollution . Non-point source pollution can be contrasted with point source pollution , where discharges occur to a body of water or into the atmosphere at a single location . NPS may derive from many different sources with no specific solution may change to rectify the problem , making it difficult to regulate . Non point source water pollution is difficult to control because it comes from the everyday activities of many different people , such as fertilizing a lawn , using a pesticide , or constructing a road or building . It is the leading cause of water pollution in the United States today , with polluted runoff from agriculture the primary cause . Other significant sources of runoff include hydrological and habitat modification , and silviculture ( forestry ) . Contaminated stormwater washed off parking lots , roads and highways , and lawns ( often containing fertilizers and pesticides ) is called urban runoff . This runoff is often classified as a type of NPS pollution . Some people may also consider it a point source because many times it is channeled into municipal storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to nearby surface waters . However , not all urban runoff flows through storm drain systems before entering water bodies . Some may flow directly into water bodies , especially in developing and suburban areas . Also , unlike other types of point sources , such as industrial discharges , sewage treatment plants and other operations , pollution in urban runoff can not be attributed to one activity or even group of activities . Therefore , because it is not caused by an easily identified and regulated activity , urban runoff pollution sources are also often treated as true non-point sources as municipalities work to abate them .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Nonpoint_source_pollution", "rank": 24, "score": 117742 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 25, "score": 117366 }, { "content": "Title: Air pollutant concentrations Content: Air pollutant concentrations , as measured or as calculated by air pollution dispersion modeling , must often be converted or corrected to be expressed as required by the regulations issued by various governmental agencies . Regulations that define and limit the concentration of pollutants in the ambient air or in gaseous emissions to the ambient air are issued by various national and state ( or provincial ) environmental protection and occupational health and safety agencies . Such regulations involve a number of different expressions of concentration . Some express the concentrations as ppmv ( parts per million by volume ) and some express the concentrations as mg/m3 ( milligrams per cubic meter ) , while others require adjusting or correcting the concentrations to reference conditions of moisture content , oxygen content or carbon dioxide content . This article presents methods for converting concentrations from ppmv to mg/m3 ( and vice versa ) and for correcting the concentrations to the required reference conditions . All of the concentrations and concentration corrections in this article apply only to air and other gases . They are not applicable for liquids .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Air_pollutant_concentrations", "rank": 26, "score": 117355 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 27, "score": 116584 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_profiling", "rank": 28, "score": 116148 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007", "rank": 29, "score": 115954 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_emission_label", "rank": 30, "score": 115783 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_monoxide", "rank": 31, "score": 115658 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Atmosphere", "rank": 32, "score": 115554 }, { "content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Biosequestration", "rank": 33, "score": 114154 }, { "content": "Title: Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy Content: In the United States about 10 % of the population , 35 million people , live within 100 meters of a high traffic road High-traffic roads are commonly identified as being host to more than 50,000 vehicles per day , which is a source of toxic vehicle pollutants . Previous studies have found correlations between exposure to vehicle pollutants and certain diseases such as asthma , lung and heart disease , and cancer among others . Car pollutants include carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , particulate matter ( fine dusts and soot ) , and toxic air pollutants While these pollutants affect the general health of populations , they are known to also have specific adverse effects on expectant mothers and their fetuses . The purpose of this article is to outline how vehicular pollutants affect the health of expectant mothers and the adverse health effects these exposure have on the unborn babies .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy", "rank": 34, "score": 113557 }, { "content": "Title: ISS ECLSS Content: The International Space Station Environmental Control and Life Support System ( ECLSS ) is a life support system that provides or controls atmospheric pressure , fire detection and suppression , oxygen levels , waste management and water supply . The highest priority for the ECLSS is the ISS atmosphere , but the system also collects , processes , and stores waste and water produced and used by the crew -- a process that recycles fluid from the sink , shower , toilet , and condensation from the air . The Elektron system aboard Zvezda and a similar system in Destiny generate oxygen aboard the station . The crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation ( SFOG ) canisters . Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the Russian Vozdukh system in Zvezda , one Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly ( CDRA ) located in the U.S. Lab module , and one CDRA in the U.S. Node 3 module . Other by-products of human metabolism , such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat , are removed by activated charcoal filters or by the Trace Contaminant Control System ( TCCS ) .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "ISS_ECLSS", "rank": 35, "score": 113326 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_scrubber", "rank": 36, "score": 113051 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions", "rank": 37, "score": 112891 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 38, "score": 111666 }, { "content": "Title: Maximilian Auffhammer Content: Maximilian Auffhammer ( born 1973 ) is a UC-Berkeley based environmental economist who has produced some important forecasts of Chinese carbon dioxide releases . Auffhammer is an Associate Professor with a joint appointment in International Area Studies and Agricultural and Resource Economics . He received his Ph.D. in Economics from the University of California at San Diego . His research agenda focuses on forecasting Greenhouse Gas Emissions as well as studying the impacts of air pollution on agriculture . Geographically he is mainly interested in China and India as well as his chosen home -- California . Said Auffhammer regarding China 's carbon pollution output , `` The only solution is for a massive transfer of technology and wealth from the West . ''", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Maximilian_Auffhammer", "rank": 39, "score": 111329 }, { "content": "Title: Methylotroph Content: Methylotrophs are a diverse group of microorganisms that can use reduced one-carbon compounds , such as methanol or methane , as the carbon source for their growth ; and multi-carbon compounds that contain no carbon bonds , such as dimethyl ether and dimethylamine . This group of microorganisms also includes those capable of assimilating reduced one-carbon compounds by way of carbon dioxide using the ribulose bisphosphate pathway . These organisms should not be confused with methanogens which on the contrary produce methane as a by-product from various one-carbon compounds such as carbon dioxide . Some methylotrophs can degrade the greenhouse gas methane , and in this case they are called methanotrophs . The methanotroph Methylococcus capsulatus is used to degrade methane and other pollutants . The abundance , purity , and low price of methanol compared to commonly used sugars make methylotrophs competent organisms for production of amino acids , vitamins , recombinant proteins , single-cell proteins , co-enzymes and cytochromes .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Methylotroph", "rank": 40, "score": 111266 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in Austria Content: The Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection of Austria , established in 1972 , is responsible for the coordination at the national level of all environmental protection efforts , addressing its efforts toward problems including waste disposal , pollution , noise , sulfur dioxide , and carbon monoxide levels , as well as emissions by the iron , steel , and ceramics industries . A toxic waste law enacted in 1984 established strict regulations for the collection , transport , and disposal of dangerous substances . The Austrian government has imposed strict regulations on gas emissions , which helped to reduce sulfur dioxide by two-thirds over an eight-year period beginning in 1980 . In 1992 Austria was among the 50 countries with the highest level of industrial carbon dioxide emissions , producing 56.6 million metric tons of emissions , or 7.29 m tons per capita . In 1996 , the level rose to 59.3 million metric tons . In 2000 , the total was 60.8 million metric tons .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_Austria", "rank": 41, "score": 111092 }, { "content": "Title: Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency Content: Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency , 549 U.S. 497 ( 2007 ) , is a 5-4 U.S. Supreme Court case in which twelve states and several cities of the United States brought suit against the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) to force that federal agency to regulate carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) as pollutants .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Massachusetts_v._Environmental_Protection_Agency", "rank": 42, "score": 110694 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric dispersion modeling Content: Atmospheric dispersion modeling is the mathematical simulation of how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere . It is performed with computer programs that solve the mathematical equations and algorithms which simulate the pollutant dispersion . The dispersion models are used to estimate the downwind ambient concentration of air pollutants or toxins emitted from sources such as industrial plants , vehicular traffic or accidental chemical releases . They can also be used to predict future concentrations under specific scenarios ( i.e. changes in emission sources ) . Therefore , they are the dominant type of model used in air quality policy making . They are most useful for pollutants that are dispersed over large distances and that may react in the atmosphere . For pollutants that have a very high spatio-temporal variability ( i.e. have very steep distance to source decay such as black carbon ) and for epidemiological studies statistical land-use regression models are also used . Dispersion models are important to governmental agencies tasked with protecting and managing the ambient air quality . The models are typically employed to determine whether existing or proposed new industrial facilities are or will be in compliance with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards ( NAAQS ) in the United States and other nations . The models also serve to assist in the design of effective control strategies to reduce emissions of harmful air pollutants . During the late 1960s , the Air Pollution Control Office of the U.S. EPA initiated research projects that would lead to the development of models for the use by urban and transportation planners . A major and significant application of a roadway dispersion model that resulted from such research was applied to the Spadina Expressway of Canada in 1971 . Air dispersion models are also used by public safety responders and emergency management personnel for emergency planning of accidental chemical releases . Models are used to determine the consequences of accidental releases of hazardous or toxic materials , Accidental releases may result in fires , spills or explosions that involve hazardous materials , such as chemicals or radionuclides . The results of dispersion modeling , using worst case accidental release source terms and meteorological conditions , can provide an estimate of location impacted areas , ambient concentrations , and be used to determine protective actions appropriate in the event a release occurs . Appropriate protective actions may include evacuation or shelter in place for persons in the downwind direction . At industrial facilities , this type of consequence assessment or emergency planning is required under the Clean Air Act ( United States ) ( CAA ) codified in Part 68 of Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations . The dispersion models vary depending on the mathematics used to develop the model , but all require the input of data that may include : Meteorological conditions such as wind speed and direction , the amount of atmospheric turbulence ( as characterized by what is called the `` stability class '' ) , the ambient air temperature , the height to the bottom of any inversion aloft that may be present , cloud cover and solar radiation . Source term ( the concentration or quantity of toxins in emission or accidental release source terms ) and temperature of the material Emissions or release parameters such as source location and height , type of source ( i.e. , fire , pool or vent stack ) and exit velocity , exit temperature and mass flow rate or release rate . Terrain elevations at the source location and at the receptor location ( s ) , such as nearby homes , schools , businesses and hospitals . The location , height and width of any obstructions ( such as buildings or other structures ) in the path of the emitted gaseous plume , surface roughness or the use of a more generic parameter `` rural '' or `` city '' terrain . Many of the modern , advanced dispersion modeling programs include a pre-processor module for the input of meteorological and other data , and many also include a post-processor module for graphing the output data and/or plotting the area impacted by the air pollutants on maps . The plots of areas impacted may also include isopleths showing areas of minimal to high concentrations that define areas of the highest health risk . The isopleths plots are useful in determining protective actions for the public and responders . The atmospheric dispersion models are also known as atmospheric diffusion models , air dispersion models , air quality models , and air pollution dispersion models .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling", "rank": 43, "score": 110657 }, { "content": "Title: Coal pollution mitigation Content: Coal pollution mitigation , often referred to by the public relations term clean coal , is a series of systems and technologies that seek to mitigate the pollution and other environmental effects normally associated with the burning ( though not the mining or processing ) of coal , which is widely regarded as the dirtiest of the common fuels for industrial processes and power generation . The preferred industry term `` clean coal '' has been described as `` Orwellian '' , an oxymoron , and a myth . Approaches attempt to mitigate emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and other greenhouse gases , and radioactive materials , that arise from the use of coal , mainly for electrical power generation , using various technologies . Historical efforts to reduce coal pollution focused on flue-gas desulfurization starting in the 1850s and clean burn technologies . More recent developments include carbon capture and storage , which pumps and stores CO2 emissions underground , and integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) involve coal gasification , which provides a basis for increased efficiency and lower cost in capturing CO2 emissions . There are seven technologies deployed or proposed for deployment in the United States : carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) , flue-gas desulfurization , fluidized-bed combustion , integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) , low nitrogen oxide burners , selective catalytic reduction ( SCR ) , and electrostatic precipitators . Of the 22 demonstration projects funded by the U.S. Department of Energy since 2003 , none are in operation as of February 2017 , having been abandoned or delayed due to capital budget overruns or discontinued because of excessive operating expenses .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Coal_pollution_mitigation", "rank": 44, "score": 110401 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 45, "score": 109102 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 46, "score": 109034 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_footprint", "rank": 47, "score": 108892 }, { "content": "Title: Asphyxiant gas Content: An asphyxiant gas is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing air . Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by asphyxiation ( suffocation ) . Because asphyxiant gases are relatively inert and odorless , their presence in high concentration may not be noticed , except in the case of carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) . Toxic gases , by contrast , cause death by other mechanisms , such as competing with oxygen on the cellular level ( e.g. carbon monoxide ) or directly damaging the respiratory system ( e.g. phosgene ) . Far smaller quantities of these are deadly . Notable examples of asphyxiant gases are nitrogen , argon , helium , butane and propane . Along with trace gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone , these compose 79 % of Earth 's atmosphere . The atmosphere is mostly harmless because the remaining 21 % is O2 .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Asphyxiant_gas", "rank": 48, "score": 108461 }, { "content": "Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut", "rank": 49, "score": 108414 }, { "content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change", "rank": 50, "score": 108368 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 51, "score": 108125 }, { "content": "Title: Clean coal technology Content: Clean coal technology is a collection of technologies being developed to attempt to mitigate the environmental impact of coal energy generation and to mitigate climate change . When coal is used as a fuel source , the gaseous emissions generated by the thermal decomposition of the coal include sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ) , nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , mercury , and other chemical byproducts that vary depending on the type of the coal being used . These emissions have been established to have a negative impact on the environment and human health , contributing to acid rain , lung cancer and cardiovascular disease . As a result , clean coal technologies are being developed to remove or reduce pollutant emissions to the atmosphere . Some of the techniques that would be used to accomplish this include chemically washing minerals and impurities from the coal , gasification ( see also IGCC ) , improved technology for treating flue gases to remove pollutants to increasingly stringent levels and at higher efficiency , carbon capture and storage technologies to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas and dewatering lower rank coals ( brown coals ) to improve the calorific value , and thus the efficiency of the conversion into electricity . Clean coal technology usually addresses atmospheric problems resulting from burning coal . Historically , the primary focus was on SO2 and NOx , the most important gases in causation of acid rain , and particulates which cause visible air pollution and deleterious effects on human health . Concerns exist regarding the economic viability of these technologies and the timeframe of delivery , potentially high hidden economic costs in terms of social and environmental damage , and the costs and viability of disposing of removed carbon and other toxic matter .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Clean_coal_technology", "rank": 52, "score": 107738 }, { "content": "Title: Air pollution Content: Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earth 's atmosphere . It may cause diseases , allergies or death in humans ; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops , and may damage the natural or built environment . Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution . Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world 's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World 's Worst Polluted Places report . According to the 2014 WHO report , air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide , an estimate roughly matched by the International Energy Agency .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Air_pollution", "rank": 53, "score": 107509 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_leakage", "rank": 54, "score": 107475 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 55, "score": 107274 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage", "rank": 56, "score": 107151 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 57, "score": 107037 }, { "content": "Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Klaus_Lackner", "rank": 58, "score": 106956 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Engineering Content: Carbon Engineering is a Calgary , Alberta-based company commercializing technology to capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) directly from the atmosphere . The company was founded in 2009 by David Keith , now a professor of public policy and applied physics at Harvard University . It is based on his research conducted at the University of Calgary . Carbon Engineering is funded by several government and sustainability-focused agencies as well as by private investors , including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and oil sands financier N. Murray Edwards .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_Engineering", "rank": 59, "score": 106914 }, { "content": "Title: Continuous emissions monitoring system Content: Continuous emission monitoring systems ( CEMS ) were historically used as a tool to monitor flue gas for oxygen , carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide to provide information for combustion control in industrial settings . They are currently used as a means to comply with air emission standards such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency 's Acid Rain Program , other federal emission programs , or state permitted emission standards . Facilities employ the use of CEMS to continuously collect , record and report the required emissions data . The standard CEM system consists of a sample probe , filter , sample line ( umbilical ) , gas conditioning system , calibration gas system , and a series of gas analyzers which reflect the parameters being monitored . Typical monitored emissions include : sulfur dioxide , nitrogen oxides , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , hydrogen chloride , airborne particulate matter , mercury , volatile organic compounds , and oxygen . CEM systems can also measure air flow , flue gas opacity and moisture . In the U.S. , the EPA requires a data acquisition and handling system to collect and report the data . emissions must be measured in pounds per hour using both an pollutant concentration monitor and a volumetric flow monitor . For NOx , both a NOx pollutant concentration monitor and a diluent gas monitor are required to determine the emissions rate ( lbs/mmBtu ) . Opacity must also be monitored . NOx measuring is not a current requirement , however if monitored , a or oxygen monitor plus a flow monitor should be used . In monitoring these emissions , the system must be in continuous operation and must be able to sample , analyze , and record data at least every 15 minutes and then averaged hourly .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Continuous_emissions_monitoring_system", "rank": 60, "score": 106576 }, { "content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage", "rank": 61, "score": 106250 }, { "content": "Title: Recycled fuel Content: Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Recycled_fuel", "rank": 62, "score": 106225 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_sink", "rank": 63, "score": 106156 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 64, "score": 106058 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Environmental_issue", "rank": 65, "score": 106047 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_offset", "rank": 66, "score": 105870 }, { "content": "Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme", "rank": 67, "score": 105830 }, { "content": "Title: Scrubber Content: Scrubber systems ( aka Chemical Scrubbers , Gas Scrubbers ) are a diverse group of air pollution control devices that can be used to remove some particulates and/or gases from industrial exhaust streams . The first air scrubber was designed to remove carbon dioxide from the air of an early submarine , the Ictineo I , a role for which they continue to be used till today . Traditionally , the term `` scrubber '' has referred to pollution control devices that use liquid to wash unwanted pollutants from a gas stream . Recently , the term has also been used to describe systems that inject a dry reagent or slurry into a dirty exhaust stream to `` wash out '' acid gases . Scrubbers are one of the primary devices that control gaseous emissions , especially acid gases . Scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery from hot gases by flue-gas condensation . They are also used for the high flows in solar , PV , or LED processes . There are several methods to remove toxic or corrosive compounds from exhaust gas and neutralize it .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Scrubber", "rank": 68, "score": 105825 }, { "content": "Title: Cofiring Content: Co-firing is the combustion of two different types of materials at the same time . One of the advantages of co-firing is that an existing plant can be used to burn a new fuel , which may be cheaper or more environmentally friendly . For example , biomass is sometimes co-fired in existing coal plants instead of new biomass plants . Co-firing can also be used to improve the combustion of fuels with low energy content . For example , landfill gas contains a large amount of carbon dioxide , which is non-combustible . If the landfill gas is burned without removing the carbon dioxide , the equipment may not perform properly or emissions of pollutants may increase . Co-firing it with natural gas increases the heat content of the fuel and improves combustion and equipment performance . As long as the electricity or heat produced with the biomass and landfill gas was otherwise going to be produced with non-renewable fuels , the benefits are essentially equivalent whether they are cofired or combusted alone . Also , co-firing can be used to lower the emission of some pollutants . For example , co-firing biomass with coal results in less sulfur emissions than burning coal by itself .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Cofiring", "rank": 69, "score": 105694 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_finance", "rank": 70, "score": 105566 }, { "content": "Title: Useful conversions and formulas for air dispersion modeling Content: Various governmental agencies involved with environmental protection and with occupational safety and health have promulgated regulations limiting the allowable concentrations of gaseous pollutants in the ambient air or in emissions to the ambient air . Such regulations involve a number of different expressions of concentration . Some express the concentrations as ppmv and some express the concentrations as mg/m ³ , while others require adjusting or correcting the concentrations to reference conditions of moisture content , oxygen content or carbon dioxide content . This article presents a set of useful conversions and formulas for air dispersion modeling of atmospheric pollutants and for complying with the various regulations as to how to express the concentrations obtained by such modeling .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Useful_conversions_and_formulas_for_air_dispersion_modeling", "rank": 71, "score": 105447 }, { "content": "Title: 1966 New York City smog Content: The 1966 New York City smog was a historic air-pollution event in New York City that occurred from November 23 -- 26 , that year 's Thanksgiving holiday weekend . It was the third major smog in New York City , following events of similar scale in 1953 and 1963 . On November 23 , a large mass of stagnant air over the East Coast trapped pollutants in the city 's air . For three full days , New York City experienced severe smog with high levels of carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide , smoke , and haze . Smaller pockets of air pollution pervaded the New York metropolitan area throughout other parts of New York , New Jersey , and Connecticut . On November 25 , regional leaders initiated a `` first-stage alert '' in the city , state , and neighboring states . During the alert , leaders of local and state governments asked residents and industry to take voluntary steps to minimize emissions . People with respiratory or heart conditions were advised by health officials to stay indoors . The city 's garbage incinerators were shut off , requiring massive hauling of garbage to landfills . A cold front dispersed the smog on November 26 and the alert ended . A medical research group conducted a study estimating that 10 percent of the city 's population suffered some negative health effects from the smog , such as stinging eyes , coughing , and respiratory distress . City health officials initially maintained that the smog had not caused any deaths . However , a statistical analysis indicated that 168 people likely died because of the smog , and another study found 366 people likely had their lives shortened . The smog served as a catalyst for greater national awareness of air pollution as a serious health problem and political issue . New York City updated its local laws on air pollution control , and a similar weather event passed in 1969 without major smog . Prompted by the smog , President Lyndon B. Johnson and members of Congress worked to pass federal legislation regulating air pollution in the United States , culminating in the 1967 Air Quality Act and the 1970 Clean Air Act . The 1966 smog is a milestone that has been used for comparison with other recent pollution events , including the health effects of pollution from the September 11 attacks and pollution in China .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "1966_New_York_City_smog", "rank": 72, "score": 105340 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by carbon intensity Content: This article lists countries by their carbon intensity . Carbon intensity is defined as a country 's annual carbon dioxide emissions divided by the country 's gross domestic product . National incomes are calculated using market exchange rates ( MER ) and purchasing power parities ( PPP ) . Units are metric tons of carbon dioxide per thousand year 2005 US dollars .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_intensity", "rank": 73, "score": 105056 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 74, "score": 104890 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 75, "score": 104889 }, { "content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Fugitive_emissions", "rank": 76, "score": 104461 }, { "content": "Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Supercritical_carbon_dioxide", "rank": 77, "score": 103941 }, { "content": "Title: Volume source (pollution) Content: A Volume source of pollution is a three-dimensional source of pollutant emissions . Essentially , it is an area source with a third dimension . Examples of a volume source of pollution are : Dust emissions from the wind erosion of uncovered gravel piles , sand piles , limestone piles , coal piles , etc. . Fugitive gaseous emissions from pipe flanges , packed valve seals , gas compressor seals , control valve seals , piping and vessel seals within industrial facilities such as oil refineries and petrochemical plants . Buildings , containing air pollutant emission sources , with no singular emission vent ( i.e. , buildings with multiple roof vents or multiple open windows ) .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Volume_source_(pollution)", "rank": 78, "score": 103905 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_monitoring", "rank": 79, "score": 103847 }, { "content": "Title: Air pollution sensor Content: Air pollution sensors are devices that detect and monitor the presence of air pollution in the surrounding area . They can be used for both indoor and outdoor environments . These sensors can be built at home , or bought from certain manufactures . Although there are various types of air pollution sensors , and some are specialized in certain aspects , the majority focuses on five components : ozone , particulate matter , carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide , and nitrous oxide . The sensors were very expensive in the past , but with technological advancements these sensors are becoming more affordable and more widespread throughout the population . These sensors can help serve many purposes and help bring attention to environmental issues beyond the scope of the human eye . The EPA maintains a repository of air quality data through the Air Quality System ( AQS ) , where it stores data from over 10,000 monitors in the United States . While use of these sensors was expensive in the past , the 2010s saw a recent trend towards the development of cheaper portable air-quality sensors that can be worn by individuals to monitor local air quality levels . These sensors , can then , in turn , help measure the spatiotemporal coverage and variety of chemical species , and empower individuals and communities to better understand their exposure environments and risks from air pollution . A research group led by William Griswold at UCSD handed out portable air pollution sensors to 16 commuters , and found `` urban valleys '' where buildings trapped pollution . The group also found that passengers in buses have higher exposures compared to those in automobiles .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Air_pollution_sensor", "rank": 80, "score": 103806 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_shifting", "rank": 81, "score": 103743 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita", "rank": 82, "score": 103726 }, { "content": "Title: Summer smog Content: Summer smog , which is common in major cities such as London , Birmingham , New York City and Los Angeles , is caused by pollutants , mainly ozone , which collect in large cities , especially during the summer . It is formed when radiation from the sun causes ozone to build up in the lower atmosphere ( troposphere ) , by combining nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds . At this point , ozone , which is protective in the upper atmosphere , can become harmful to humans , crops , other living creatures and buildings . In the Northern hemisphere , summer smog builds up mainly between April and October . It causes reduced visibility in cities and a visible layer , similar to fog . It also causes a health hazard to people and pollutes the troposphere 's air .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Summer_smog", "rank": 83, "score": 103293 }, { "content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Kaya_identity", "rank": 84, "score": 103242 }, { "content": "Title: BLUES Content: BLUES is the abbreviation for the German `` Bremer Luft UEberwachungs System '' ( which means literally `` Air monitoring system of Bremen '' ) . It is a monitoring system for air pollution and is being managed by the environmental authority in the German federal state of Bremen . Currently there are ten fixed locations in the state of Bremen to collect meteorological data and the following measurements : Particulates Nitrogen oxides Ozone Sulfur dioxide Carbon monoxide These measurements are automatically detected and sent to the Network Management Centre . After the data processing , they are sent to the Federal Environment Agency in Germany . As part of the Bremer Environmental Information System , the results are also published in the Internet since 1999 . The monitoring network was set up in 1987 following the German smog directive . Two fixed stations were operated to monitor the emissions of traffic . There was also a measuring vehicle in use until 2005 .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "BLUES", "rank": 85, "score": 102807 }, { "content": "Title: Peroxyacetyl nitrate Content: Peroxyacetyl nitrate is a peroxyacyl nitrate . It is a secondary pollutant present in photochemical smog . It is thermally unstable and decomposes into peroxyethanoyl radicals and nitrogen dioxide gas . It is a lachrymatory substance . Peroxyacetyl nitrate , or PAN , is an oxidant that is more stable than ozone . Hence , it is more capable of long-range transport than ozone . It serves as a carrier for oxides of nitrogen ( NOx ) into rural regions and causes ozone formation in the global troposphere .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Peroxyacetyl_nitrate", "rank": 86, "score": 102655 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding", "rank": 87, "score": 102647 }, { "content": "Title: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion Content: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion refers to the combustion-product gas resulting from the burning of fossil fuels . Most fossil fuels are combusted with ambient air ( as differentiated from combustion with pure oxygen ) . Since ambient air contains about 79 volume percent gaseous nitrogen ( N2 ) , which is essentially non-combustible , the largest part of the flue gas from most fossil-fuel combustion is uncombusted nitrogen . Carbon dioxide , the next largest part of flue gas , can be as much as 10 − 25 volume percent or more of the flue gas . This is closely followed in volume by water vapor ( H2O ) created by the combustion of the hydrogen in the fuel with atmospheric oxygen . Much of the ` smoke ' seen pouring from flue gas stacks is this water vapor forming a cloud as it contacts cool air . A typical flue gas from the combustion of fossil fuels contains very small amounts of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) and particulate matter . The nitrogen oxides are derived from the nitrogen in the ambient air as well as from any nitrogen-containing compounds in the fossil fuel . The sulfur dioxide is derived from any sulfur-containing compounds in the fuels . The particulate matter is composed of very small particles of solid materials and very small liquid droplets which give flue gases their smoky appearance . The steam generators in large power plants and the process furnaces in large refineries , petrochemical and chemical plants , and incinerators burn considerable amounts of fossil fuels and therefore emit large amounts of flue gas to the ambient atmosphere . The table below presents the total amounts of flue gas typically generated by the burning of fossil fuels such as natural gas , fuel oil and coal . The data were obtained by stoichiometric calculations . It is of interest to note that the total amount of flue gas generated by coal combustion is only 10 percent higher than the flue gas generated by natural-gas combustion . Note : m ³ are standard cubic meters at 0 ° C and 101.325 kPa , and scf is standard cubic feet at 60 ° F and 14.696 psia .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_combustion", "rank": 88, "score": 102627 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_clathrate", "rank": 89, "score": 102558 }, { "content": "Title: Emission Content: Emission may refer to : Emission of chemical products : Emission of air pollutants , notably : Flue gas , gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue Exhaust gas , flue gas generated by fuel combustion Emission of greenhouse gases , which absorb and emit radiation in the thermal infrared range Emission intensity , a measure of the emission rate of a given pollutant from a given source Emission standards , requirements that set specific limits on the amount of certain pollutants that can be released into the environment Emissions trading , a market-based approach used to pollution control Emission of electromagnetic radiation : Emission spectrum , a process by which energy is released in the form of photons , photoemission spectroscopy , atomic emission spectroscopy and other types of spectroscopy List of light sources Emission ( radiocommunications ) , a radio signal ( usually modulated ) emitted from a radio transmitter Emission coefficient , a coefficient in the power output per unit time of an electromagnetic source Emission line , or `` spectral line '' , a dark or bright line in an otherwise uniform and continuous spectrum Emission nebula , a cloud of ionized gas emitting light of various colors Emission theory , a competing theory for the special theory of relativity , explaining the results of the Michelson-Morley experiment Emission theory ( vision ) , the proposal that visual perception is accomplished by rays of light emitted by the eyes Other uses : Thermionic emission , the flow of charged particles called thermions from a charged metal or a charged metal oxide surface , archaically known as the Edison effect Ejaculation , the ejecting of semen from the penis ; also , specifically : Nocturnal emission , ejaculation experienced during sleep Noise emission Exhalation of air , especially in the context of musical instruments", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Emission", "rank": 90, "score": 102019 }, { "content": "Title: Nutrient pollution Content: Nutrient pollution , a form of water pollution , refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients . It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters , in which excess nutrients , usually nitrogen or phosphorus , stimulate algal growth . Sources of nutrient pollution include surface runoff from farm fields and pastures , discharges from septic tanks and feedlots , and emissions from combustion . Excess nutrients have been summarized as potentially leading to : Population effects : excess growth of algae ( blooms ) ; Community effects : species composition shifts ( dominant taxa ) ; Ecological effects : food web changes , light limitation ; Biogeochemical effects : excess organic carbon ( eutrophication ) ; dissolved oxygen deficits ( environmental hypoxia ) ; toxin production ; Human health effects : excess nitrate in drinking water ( blue baby syndrome ) ; disinfection by-products in drinking water . In a 2011 United States Environmental Protection Agency report , the agency 's Science Advisory Board succinctly stated : `` Excess reactive nitrogen compounds in the environment are associated with many large-scale environmental concerns , including eutrophication of surface waters , toxic algae blooms , hypoxia , acid rain , nitrogen saturation in forests , and global warming . ''", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Nutrient_pollution", "rank": 91, "score": 101837 }, { "content": "Title: List of least carbon efficient power stations Content: This is a list of least carbon efficient power stations in selected countries . Lists were created by the WWF and lists the most polluting power stations in terms of the level of carbon dioxide produced per unit of electricity generated . In 2005 WWF created list of power stations from 30 industrialised countries , also list for EU , in 2007 WWF published updated EU list . In 2009 European Commission list with absolute emissions only , also in 2014 Climate Action Network Europe , WWF , European Environmental Bureau , Health and Environment Alliance and Climate Alliance Germany .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "List_of_least_carbon_efficient_power_stations", "rank": 92, "score": 101798 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia", "rank": 93, "score": 101540 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_sensor", "rank": 94, "score": 101361 }, { "content": "Title: Integrated gasification combined cycle Content: An integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) is a technology that uses a high pressure gasifier to turn coal and other carbon based fuels into pressurized gas -- synthesis gas ( syngas ) . It can then remove impurities from the syngas prior to the power generation cycle . Some of these pollutants , such as sulfur , can be turned into re-usable byproducts through the Claus process . This results in lower emissions of sulfur dioxide , particulates , mercury , and in some cases carbon dioxide . With additional process equipment , a water-gas shift reaction can increase gasification efficiency and reduce carbon monoxide emissions by converting it to carbon dioxide . The resulting carbon dioxide from the shift reaction can be separated , compressed , and stored through sequestration . Excess heat from the primary combustion and syngas fired generation is then passed to a steam cycle , similar to a combined cycle gas turbine . This process results in improved thermodynamic efficiency compared to conventional pulverized coal combustion .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Integrated_gasification_combined_cycle", "rank": 95, "score": 101004 }, { "content": "Title: Multi-effect Protocol Content: The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification , Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone ( known as the Multi-effect Protocol or the Gothenburg Protocol ) is a multi-pollutant protocol designed to reduce acidification , eutrophication and ground-level ozone by setting emissions ceilings for sulphur dioxide , nitrogen oxides , volatile organic compounds and ammonia to be met by 2010 . As of August 2014 , the Protocol had been ratified by 26 parties , which includes 25 states and the European Union . The Protocol is part of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution . The Convention is an international agreement to protect human health and the natural environment from air pollution by control and reduction of air pollution , including long-range transboundary air pollution . The geographic scope of the Protocol includes Europe , North America and countries of Eastern Europe , Caucasus and Central Asia ( EECCA ) . On May 4 , 2012 , at a meeting at the United Nations Office at Geneva , the Parties to the Gothenburg Protocol agreed on a substantial number of revisions , most important are the inclusion of commitments of the Parties to further reduce their emissions until 2020 . These amendments now need to be ratified by Parties in order to make them binding .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Multi-effect_Protocol", "rank": 96, "score": 100943 }, { "content": "Title: CMAQ Content: CMAQ is an acronym for the Community Multi-scale Air Quality Model , a sophisticated atmospheric dispersion model developed by the US EPA to address regional air pollution problems . An example of a regional air pollution problem is a multi-state area where ozone or fine particulate levels exceed the US health standards . In addition to simulating the emission , advection , diffusion , and deposition of air pollutants , CMAQ treats a wide array of chemical reactions that occur throughout the lower atmosphere . For example , ozone forms in the atmosphere when nitrogen oxides interact with volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight . Ammonium sulfate is formed in fine particulate matter when sulfuric acid ( formed largely in cloud water ) interacts with gas-phase ammonia . Meteorological conditions such as subsidence inversions , decrease the amount of fresh air available for dilution of air emissions , and increase the rate of production of secondary air pollutants . CMAQ has the capability to accurately predict air pollution concentrations resulting from secondary formation . Like any air dispersion model , CMAQ inputs air pollutant emissions and meteorological data and outputs air pollutant concentrations and deposited totals . Its particular strength is in assessing the efficacy of regional emissions control strategies in reducing regional air pollution levels . CMAQ may also refer to the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program , a program of the United States Department of Transportation .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "CMAQ", "rank": 97, "score": 100896 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme", "rank": 98, "score": 100844 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "2915", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 99, "score": 100775 }, { "content": "Title: Pollution (disambiguation) Content: Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change . Pollution may also refer to : `` Pollution '' ( The Goodies ) , a 1971 episode of the TV series The Goodies Pollution ( album ) , a 1972 album by Franco Battiato , or its title track `` Pollution '' , a song by The Chambers Brothers from their 1971 album New Generation `` Pollution '' , a song by Neurosis from their 1989 EP Aberration `` Pollution '' , a song by Limp Bizkit from their 1997 album Three Dollar Bill , Y' all `` Pollution '' , a song by Caliban from their 1999 album A Small Boy and a Grey Heaven `` Pollution '' , a song by Reset from their 1999 album No Limits `` Pollution '' , a song by Fun-Da-Mental from their 2001 album There Shall Be Love ! `` Pollution '' , a song by Baby Bash from his 2003 album Tha Smokin ' Nephew `` Pollution '' , a song by Tom Lehrer", "qid": "2915", "docid": "Pollution_(disambiguation)", "rank": 100, "score": 100721 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Penny Wong Content: Penelope Ying-Yen `` Penny '' Wong ( born 5 November 1968 ) is an Australian politician who has represented South Australia in the Senate since 2002 , and is the current Leader of the Opposition in the Senate . Wong is a member of the Labor Party and was a member of the Federal Cabinet in both the Gillard Government and the first and second Rudd governments . Born in Malaysia to an Australian mother and Malaysian father , Wong was educated at Scotch College in Adelaide , and then attended the University of Adelaide , graduating with Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws degrees . Prior to entering Federal parliament , Wong worked as a lawyer and political advisor . Wong is the first Asian-born member of an Australian cabinet . She is the first female openly-LGBTI Australian federal parliamentarian and federal government cabinet minister , and supports marriage equality in Australia despite previously opposing it . First elected to the Senate at the 2001 federal election ( and sitting from July 2002 ) , Wong was named Minister for Climate Change and Water following Labor 's victory under Kevin Rudd at the 2007 election . Her appointment was amended on 26 February 2010 to Minister for Climate Change , Energy Efficiency and Water . On 13 September 2010 , she was sworn in as Minister for Finance and Deregulation in the Gillard Government . Wong retained the position after Kevin Rudd 's successful leadership spill in June 2013 , and also gained the position of Leader of the Government in the Senate , holding these roles until Labor 's defeat at the 2013 federal election .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Penny_Wong", "rank": 1, "score": 130240 }, { "content": "Title: Wong Foon Meng Content: Tan Sri Ir . Wong Foon Meng , Malaysian engineer & politician , is a former President of the Malaysian Senate and a former member of the State Legislative Assembly of Terengganu from 1995 to 1999 . He was a civil servant in Ministry of Science , Technology and Environment Malaysia from 1978 to 1990 and later became a Consulting Engineer in 1991 upon leaving the government service . Wong was elected to the Terengganu State Assembly in the 1995 general election but lost his seat in the 1999 election . He was appointed to the Senate in April 2004 , and elected as the Deputy President of the Senate in July the same year . He became its President on 7 July 2009 . His term ended on 12 April 2010 , and he was succeeded by Abu Zahar Ujang . Wong was also the secretary-general for Malaysian Chinese Association ( MCA ) from 2008 to 2010 who was picked by the former president Ong Tee Keat then . He is currently the Chairman of Bina Puri Holdings Berhad , a Malaysian Main Market public listed company involves in construction , property development , quarrying activities and highway concession .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Wong_Foon_Meng", "rank": 2, "score": 127202 }, { "content": "Title: Elizabeth Wong (politician) Content: Wong Keat Ping ( ; born 9 March 1970 ) , professionally known as Elizabeth Wong , is the Bukit Lanjan assemblywoman and Selangor executive council member in charge of tourism , consumer affairs , and environment . She is a member of Parti Keadilan Rakyat . Wong entered the electoral arena as a candidate under the Parti Keadilan Rakyat ( PKR , People 's Justice Party ) during the 12th general election and on 8 March 2008 , Wong created an upset by defeating the incumbent and was elected as the new Selangor State Assemblyman for Bukit Lanjan with a majority of over 5000 , the second largest majority won by PKR state assembly candidates in Selangor . Wong is a human rights activist and was involved in activist environmental campaigns .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Elizabeth_Wong_(politician)", "rank": 3, "score": 123134 }, { "content": "Title: Alice Wong Content: Alice Siu-Ping Chan Wong ( , born June 30 , 1948 ) is a Canadian politician , who was elected to represent the electoral district of Richmond . She is a member of the Conservative Party and formerly served as the Parliamentary Secretary for Multiculturalism . In 2011 , Wong was appointed as the Minister of State for Seniors by Prime Minister Stephen Harper , becoming the first Chinese-Canadian woman to serve in Cabinet . She was reelected in the 2015 election .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Alice_Wong", "rank": 4, "score": 123125 }, { "content": "Title: Respiratory exchange ratio Content: The respiratory exchange ratio ( RER ) is the ratio between the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) produced in metabolism and oxygen ( O2 ) used . Humans typically inhale more molecules of oxygen than they exhale of carbon dioxide because air contains much more oxygen by volume . The ratio is determined by comparing exhaled gases to room air . Measuring this ratio can be used for estimating the respiratory quotient ( RQ ) , an indicator of which fuel ( carbohydrate or fat ) is being metabolized to supply the body with energy . This estimation is only valid if metabolism is in a steady state . RER is about 0.8 at rest with a modern diet . This value however , can exceed 1 during intense exercise , as CO2 production by the working muscles becomes greater and more of the inhaled O2 gets used rather than being expelled . During moderate or higher intensity aerobic exercise and anaerobic exercise , using RER for estimating RQ loses accuracy because of factors including bicarbonate buffering of hydrogen ions , which affects the CO2 levels being expelled by the respiratory system . Calculation of RER is commonly done in conjunction with exercise tests such as the VO2 Max Test and can be used as an indicator that the participants are nearing exhaustion and the limits of their cardio-respiratory system . An RER greater than or equal to 1.15 is often used as a secondary endpoint criterion of a VO2 Max Test . An RER of 0.70 indicates that fat is the predominant fuel source , RER of 0.85 suggests a mix of fat and carbohydrates , and a value of 1.00 or above is indicative of carbohydrate being the predominant fuel source . Oxidation of a molecule of Carbohydrate 6 O2 + C6H12O6 = > 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 6 CO2/6 O2 = 1.0 Oxidation of a molecule of Fatty Acid 23 O2 + C16H32O2 = > 16 CO2 + 16 H2O + 129 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 16 CO2/23 O2 = 0.7", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Respiratory_exchange_ratio", "rank": 5, "score": 122156 }, { "content": "Title: Mun Charn Wong Content: Mun Charn Wong ( Chinese : 黄门赞 ; Pinyin : Huáng Ménzàn ; January 24 , 1918 - September 17 , 2002 ) was an American businessman . Wong served in the U.S. Air Force during World War II along with his friend , Wah Kau Kong , the first Chinese American fighter pilot . He played football on the Air Force team and was a noted quarterback . After the war , Wong became a successful life insurance executive for the Transamerica Corporation . In 1989 , the company recognized him as a `` Legend of Transamerica '' , the highest honor awarded by the company . Wong was active in his community , serving as president of several Chinese cultural organizations and on the board of the Cerebral Palsy Association . In his free time , Wong enjoyed playing with celebrity golfers , and his amateur team won the '87 U.S. Open Preview Pro Am golf tournament with the help of Larry Ziegler . Throughout the years , Wong kept Kong 's memory alive , publishing an educational booklet , working with U.S. Senator Daniel Akaka to educate the public , participating in a television program about Kong on KHON-TV , and giving interviews to historians . To preserve Kong 's memory , Wong helped establish the Wah Kau Kong Memorial Award Scholarship in Aerospace Studies at the University of Hawaii .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Mun_Charn_Wong", "rank": 6, "score": 117361 }, { "content": "Title: Pansy Wong Content: Pansy Yu Fong Wong ( ; pinyin : Huáng Xú Yùfāng ) ( born 1955 ) is a former New Zealand politician . She was New Zealand 's first Asian MP , serving as a member of parliament for the National Party from 1996 to 2011 . She was also New Zealand 's first Asian Cabinet Minister , serving as Minister for Ethnic Affairs , Minister of Women 's Affairs , Associate Minister for ACC , and Associate Minister of Energy and Resources in the Fifth National Government . Wong resigned from Parliament in January 2011 after misusing her Parliamentary travel perks .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Pansy_Wong", "rank": 7, "score": 117298 }, { "content": "Title: Martha Wong Content: Dr. Martha Jee Wong , born Martha Jee , ( 1939 -- ) is a Texas politician who was the first Asian American woman to be elected to the Texas House of Representatives , representing Houston 's District 134 .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Martha_Wong", "rank": 8, "score": 116241 }, { "content": "Title: Dead space (physiology) Content: In physiology , dead space is the volume of air which is inhaled that does not take part in the gas exchange , either because it ( 1 ) remains in the conducting airways , or ( 2 ) reaches alveoli that are not perfused or poorly perfused . In other words , not all the air in each breath is available for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide . Mammals breathe in and out of their lungs , wasting that part of the inspiration which remains in the conducting airways where no gas exchange can occur . Benefits do accrue to a seemingly ( but not actually ) `` wasteful '' design for ventilation that includes dead space . Carbon dioxide is retained , making a bicarbonate-buffered blood and interstitium possible . Inspired air is brought to body temperature , increasing the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen , improving O2 uptake . Particulate matter is trapped on the mucus that lines the conducting airways , allowing its removal by mucociliary transport . Inspired air is humidified , improving the quality of airway mucus . In humans , about a third of every resting breath has no change in O2 and CO2 levels . In adults , it is usually in the range of 150 mL . Dead space can be increased ( and better envisioned ) by breathing through a long tube , such as a snorkel . Even though one end of the snorkel is open to the air , when the wearer breathes in , they inhale a significant quantity of air that remained in the snorkel from the previous exhalation . Thus , a snorkel increases the person 's dead space by adding even more `` airway '' that does n't participate in gas exchange .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Dead_space_(physiology)", "rank": 9, "score": 115474 }, { "content": "Title: Obesity hypoventilation syndrome Content: Obesity hypoventilation syndrome ( also known as Pickwickian syndrome ) is a condition in which severely overweight people fail to breathe rapidly enough or deeply enough , resulting in low blood oxygen levels and high blood carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels . Many people with this condition also frequently stop breathing altogether for short periods of time during sleep ( obstructive sleep apnea ) , resulting in many partial awakenings during the night , which leads to continual sleepiness during the day . The disease puts strain on the heart , which eventually may lead to the symptoms such as heart failure , leg swelling and various other related symptoms . The most effective treatment is weight loss , but it is often possible to relieve the symptoms by nocturnal ventilation with positive airway pressure ( CPAP ) or related methods . Obesity hypoventilation syndrome is defined as the combination of obesity ( body mass index above 30 kg/m2 ) , hypoxemia ( falling oxygen levels in blood ) during sleep , and hypercapnia ( increased blood carbon dioxide levels ) during the day , resulting from hypoventilation ( excessively slow or shallow breathing ) . The disease has been known since the 1950s , initially as `` Pickwickian syndrome '' in reference to a Dickensian character but currently under a more descriptive name .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Obesity_hypoventilation_syndrome", "rank": 10, "score": 114949 }, { "content": "Title: Flossie Wong-Staal Content: Flossie Wong-Staal ( born August 27 , 1947 ) , née Wong Yee Ching , is a Chinese-American virologist and molecular biologist . She was the first scientist to clone HIV and determine the function of its genes , a major step in proving that HIV is the cause of AIDS . From 1990 to 2002 , she held the Florence Riford Chair in AIDS Research at the University of California , San Diego ( UCSD ) . She was co-founder and , after retiring from UCSD , Chief Scientific Officer of Immusol , which was renamed iTherX Pharmaceuticals in 2007 when it transitioned to a drug development company focused on hepatitis C , and where she remains Chief Scientific Officer .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Flossie_Wong-Staal", "rank": 11, "score": 114358 }, { "content": "Title: Breathing in/breathing out Content: Breathing In , Breathing Out was performed twice , in Belgrade ( 1977 ) and Amsterdam ( 1978 ) . For this performance the two artists , Marina Abramović and Ulay , blocked their nostrils with cigarette filters and pressed their mouths together , so that one could n't inhale anything else but the exhalation of the other . As the carbon dioxide filled their lungs , they began to sweat , move vehemently and wear themselves out ; the viewers could sense their agony through the projected sound of breathing , which was augmented via microphones attached to their chests . It took them nineteen minutes in the first performance and fifteen in the second to consume all the oxygen in that one breath and reach the verge of passing out . During the 19 minutes of the Performance at the Studenski Kulturni Centar in Belgrade , one hears the noise of their breathing in and out . Ulay commented on the Performance : `` I breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide . '' Abramović : `` I breathe in carbon dioxide and breathe out carbon dioxide '' , and Ulay repeated Marina 's sentence . The second part of the Performance took place in November of the same year at the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam . Here , breath as the giver of life becomes a symbol of keeping one another alive , of interdependence and of the interchange between male and female principle .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Breathing_in/breathing_out", "rank": 12, "score": 114016 }, { "content": "Title: Permissive hypercapnia Content: Permissive hypercapnia is hypercapnia , ( i.e. high concentration of carbon dioxide in blood ) , in respiratory insufficient patients in which oxygenation has become so difficult that the optimal mode of mechanical ventilation ( with oxygenation in mind ) is not capable of exchanging enough carbon dioxide . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . In acute respiratory distress syndrome ( ARDS ) , decreasing the tidal volume on the ventilator ( usually 8-12 mL/kg ) to 4-6 mL/kg may decrease barotrauma by decreasing ventilatory peak airway pressures and leads to improved respiratory recovery . Hypercapnia ( increased pCO2 ) sometimes needs to be tolerated in order to achieve these lower tidal volumes . The permissive hypercapnia leads to respiratory acidosis which might have negative side effects , but given that the patient is in ARDS , improving ventilatory function is more important . Since hypoxemia is a major life-threatening condition and hypercapnia is not , one might choose to accept the latter . Hence the term , `` permissive hypercapnia . '' Altogether , the negative side effects of permissive hypercapnia may outweigh the benefits . For that reason , the implementation of extracorporeal CO2 removal ( iLA Membrane Ventilator , Novalung ) at an early stage of ARDS , has become a well established standard to allow for protective ventilation and avoid respiratory acidosis .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Permissive_hypercapnia", "rank": 13, "score": 113522 }, { "content": "Title: Adeline Wong Content: Adeline Wong Ching-man ( , born 1964 ) is a businesswoman and a former Hong Kong politician and civil servant who is the former Undersecretary of the Constitutional and Mainland Affairs Bureau from 2009 to 2012 . As a retired politician , she currently serves as the chief executive officer of the Chinese Manufacturers ' Association of Hong Kong . Adeline became an Administrative Officer of the Hong Kong Government in 1990 . She served as an administrative assistant to former Chief Secretary Rafael Hui prior to his appointment as Undersecretary of the Constitutional and Mainland Affairs Bureau .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Adeline_Wong", "rank": 14, "score": 112041 }, { "content": "Title: Wong Yan-lung Content: Wong Yan-lung , SC , JP ( born 1963 ) is a barrister and politician of Hong Kong . He has previously served as the second Secretary for Justice of Hong Kong between 20 October 2005 and 30 June 2012 .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Wong_Yan-lung", "rank": 15, "score": 111750 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 16, "score": 111679 }, { "content": "Title: Helena Wong (weightlifter) Content: Helena Wong Kar Mun ( born 11 April 1988 ; simplified Chinese : 黄嘉汶 ; pinyin : Huáng Jiāwèn ) is a Singapore weightlifter . Wong competes in the female 53 kg weight class . She debuted at the 2010 Commonwealth Games which was held in Delhi in Oct 2010 . She made history at the Games by becoming the first ever woman weightlifter to be selected by Singapore to take part in a major athletic event . She was placed 8th at the Games , her first international competition .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Helena_Wong_(weightlifter)", "rank": 17, "score": 111450 }, { "content": "Title: Wong Pei Tty Content: Wong Pei Tty ( born 11 November 1981 in Ipoh , Perak ) is a former elite female doubles badminton player from Malaysia . Wong competed in badminton at the 2004 Summer Olympics in women 's doubles with partner Chin Eei Hui . They defeated Shizuka Yamamoto and Seiko Yamada of Japan in the first round but were defeated by Huang Sui and Gao Ling of China in the round of 16 . Together , Wong and Chin achieved much success by winning super series and super series finals titles . They also clinched gold and bronze medals in 2010 and 2002 Commonwealth Games . Although not well-known as a mixed doubles player , Wong created history for Malaysia as the only female player to have won a medal in mixed doubles at the World Championships and Asian Games in the same year ( 2006 ) , with different partners . Currently , she works as a coach for Malaysia 's national doubles players .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Wong_Pei_Tty", "rank": 18, "score": 111223 }, { "content": "Title: Kenneth Wong Content: Kenneth K. Wongis an American political scientist , currently the Walter and Leonore Annenberg Professor of Education Policy , Chair of Education , Professor of Urban Studies and Professor of International and Public Affairs , Professor of Political Science at Brown University . He has been listed in Who 's Who in American Education , Who 's Who in the Midwest , Who 's Who Among Asian Americans , Who 's Who in th e World .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Kenneth_Wong", "rank": 19, "score": 111203 }, { "content": "Title: Emma Wong Mar Content: Emma Wong Mar ( September 7 , 1926 -- September 16 , 2015 ) was a California-based political activist and socialist , best known for her organizing efforts and campaigns for political office with the Peace and Freedom Party .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Emma_Wong_Mar", "rank": 20, "score": 110203 }, { "content": "Title: Wong Chin-chu Content: Wong Chin-chu ( ; born 31 January 1947 ) is a Taiwanese educator and politician . She was a member of the Legislative Yuan from 1993 to 2001 . Wong stepped down in the midst of her third term , as she was elected magistrate of Changhua County later that year . She served as magistrate until 2005 . In 2007 , Wong was named the minister of the Council for Cultural Affairs , a position she left in 2008 to be reelected to the legislature .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Wong_Chin-chu", "rank": 21, "score": 109878 }, { "content": "Title: Durhane Wong-Rieger Content: Durhane Wong-Rieger is a Chinese-born , American-raised , Canadian with a Ph.D. in psychology . She is best known for her role as an advocate of patients who contracted diseases such as HIV and hepatitis C from tainted blood transfusions , in particular from the Health Management Associates scandal . Wong-Rieger served on the board of directors for Canadian Blood Services before resigning in 1999 ; as well , she has been the president of the Canadian Hemophilia Society , the Anemia Institute , and the Canadian Organization for Rare Disorders . She was the Progressive Conservative candidate for the riding of Toronto Centre-Rosedale during the 1999 Ontario election , but lost to George Smitherman . She has two children .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Durhane_Wong-Rieger", "rank": 22, "score": 109793 }, { "content": "Title: Elizabeth Wong (author) Content: This page is about the novelist and former politician . For the Malaysian politician and human rights activist , please see Elizabeth Wong . Elizabeth `` Libby '' Wong Chien Chi-lien , CBE , ISO , JP ( Traditional Chinese : 黃錢其濂 ) is a former civil servant and politician from Hong Kong , born in Shanghai , China . Wong holds New Zealand citizenship , and is currently residing in Sydney . She is now a popular fiction writer . Her novels in English and Chinese are Rainbow City and its sequel Flower Mountain . Wong served in the Hong Kong Government as the Director of Social Welfare from March 1987 to February 1990 , and Secretary for Health and Welfare from February 1990 to 1994 . She was a member of the Legislative Council from 1995 to 1997 . In 1997 , she quit politics to write .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Elizabeth_Wong_(author)", "rank": 23, "score": 109174 }, { "content": "Title: Soo Wong Content: Soo Wong ( born ) is a politician in Ontario , Canada . She is a Liberal member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario who was elected in 2011 . She represents the riding of Scarborough -- Agincourt in Toronto .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Soo_Wong", "rank": 24, "score": 109160 }, { "content": "Title: 100,000 Whys Content: Sapmaan go Waisammo ? or One Hundred Thousand Whys ? is a 1993 Cantonese album recorded by Chinese Cantopop singer Faye Wong as 王靖雯 Wong Ching Man , when she was based in Hong Kong . It is named after a popular Chinese science book by Ye Yonglie . The album included several hit singles : `` Flow Not Fly '' , `` Summer Of Love '' , `` Like Wind '' , `` Cold War '' , `` Tempted Heart '' and `` Tempt Me '' . `` Flow Not Fly '' , a lively pop number , became an unofficial anthem for Faye Wong , with the repeated chorus line `` Fei Fei '' being a pun on the singer 's name . `` Cold War '' is a Cantonese cover of `` Silent All These Years '' by Tori Amos ; a Mandarin version followed on Mystery . The song was a departure from mainstream C-pop , and Wong followed this markedly with further experiments in `` alternative music '' for her next Cantonese album , Random Thoughts . The album included four more cover songs . `` Summer of Love '' is the Cantonese version of Helen Hoffner 's 1993 hit . `` Like Wind '' is a cover of the Mandarin song 猜心 ( `` Guess my Heart '' ) by One-Fang . `` Rainy Days Without You '' covers Love Unlimited 's `` Walking in the Rain ( With The One I Love ) '' , and `` Do Do Da Da '' is The Police 's `` De Do Do Do , De Da Da Da '' . `` Do We Really Care '' was Faye Wong 's second song recorded wholly in English , after `` Kisses in the Wind '' on Coming Home . The Japanese version of the album released in April 1994 included three bonus tracks : another version of `` Like Wind '' , a Mandarin version of `` Fragile Woman '' ( from Coming Home ) , and `` Forgetting You Is Like Forgetting Me '' , the theme from The Bride with White Hair 2 . `` Tempted Heart '' was the theme for the TVB series Eternity , in which Wong also appeared . `` Tempt Me '' was the theme tune for Joan Chen 's 1993 film Temptation of a Monk , and won a Best Movie Song award . Wong 's 1994-95 series of concerts at the Hong Kong Coliseum included five songs from the album : the first four , and `` Tempt Me '' which was extended with a prelude .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "100,000_Whys", "rank": 25, "score": 109151 }, { "content": "Title: Zhenya Wang Content: Zhenya Wang ( ; born 20 January 1981 ) , also known as Dio Wang , is a former Australian senator and civil engineer . He was the CEO of Australasian Resources from July 2010 until 20 June 2014 , when he resigned in preparation for his role as Senator for Western Australia ( WA ) . He did not retain his seat at the 2016 double dissolution election recording 0.38 % of the WA primary senate vote .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Zhenya_Wang", "rank": 26, "score": 109068 }, { "content": "Title: Control of ventilation Content: Control of ventilation refers to the physiological mechanisms involved in the control of physiologic ventilation , which refers to the movement of air into and out of the lungs . Ventilation facilitates respiration . Respiration refers to the utilization of oxygen and production of carbon dioxide by the body as a whole , or by individual cells . The most important function of breathing is blood gas homeostasis , i.e. the regulation of the partial pressures of oxygen , , and carbon dioxide , , in the arterial blood ) . The effector of this homeostat is centered primarily on the manner in which the lungs are ventilated . Under most conditions , the partial pressure of carbon dioxide controls the rate of pulmonary ventilation . The sensors for the arterial blood gas regulator are situated in the aortic and carotid bodies , which are primarily sensitive to the partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood , and the anterior and lateral surfaces of the medulla oblongata in the brain stem which measures the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and pH of the cerebrospinal fluid and consequently the arterial blood . Information from these sensors is conveyed along nerves to the respiratory center in the brain stem . The respiratory center is situated in the reticular formation and other parts of the brainstem , and consists of 4 interconnected and interacting components : Inspiratory center - reticular formation , medulla oblongata Expiratory center - reticular formation , medulla oblongata Pneumotaxic center - various nuclei of the pons Apneustic center - nucleus of the pons From the respiratory center the skeletal muscles of ventilation , in particular the diaphragm , are alternately activated to cause air to move in and out of the lungs .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Control_of_ventilation", "rank": 27, "score": 109058 }, { "content": "Title: Lisa Wong Content: Lisa A. Wong is an American politician who served as the mayor of Fitchburg , Massachusetts . She was the city 's first minority mayor , as well as the first Asian American mayor in the state of Massachusetts .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Lisa_Wong", "rank": 28, "score": 109048 }, { "content": "Title: Nicole Wong Content: Nicole A. Wong is an American attorney , specializing in Internet , media and intellectual property law . In May 2013 , she was selected by the Barack Obama administration to be the White House deputy chief technology officer ( CTO ) of the United States . She earned the nickname `` the Decider '' while she was vice president and deputy general counsel at Google , where she was responsible for arbitrating issues of censorship for Google . Wong stepped down as Deputy US CTO on August 16 , 2014 to return with her family to California .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Nicole_Wong", "rank": 29, "score": 108905 }, { "content": "Title: Helena Wong (politician) Content: Helena Wong Pik-wan ( , born 21 March 1959 ) is a member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong for Kowloon West constituency . She is also an academic staff at Hong Kong Polytechnic University .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Helena_Wong_(politician)", "rank": 30, "score": 108646 }, { "content": "Title: Rosanna Wong Content: Dr Dame Rosanna Wong Yick-ming , DBE , JP ( born 15 August 1952 ) , ( also known by her married name Mrs Rosanna Tam Wong Yick-ming in her former marriage from 1979 lasting until 1992 , and primarily known as Dr Rosanna Wong in public occasions after 1997 , is a Hong Kong social work administrator and politician who has served as the Executive Director of the Hong Kong Federation of Youth Groups since 1980 . Before the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong , she was appointed as unofficial member of the Legislative Council from 1985 to 1991 and of the Executive Council from 1988 to 1991 . She briefly retired from politics in 1991 but was successful to return as unofficial Executive Councillor for a second time in 1992 , and was also appointed chairperson of the Hong Kong Housing Authority in the following year . Wong was trusted by the last British colonial Governor of Hong Kong , Chris Patten ( later Lord ) , who chose her to replace Baroness Dunn as the Convenor of the Executive Council ( equivalent to the Senior Unofficial Member of the Executive Council ) in 1995 , thus rising as an influential figure in the final years of the colonial government . In 1997 , she was made Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire and became the second Chinese woman , after Baroness Dunn , to be made a Dame in history . After the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997 , Wong was one of the two colonial unofficial members who remained in the new Executive Council under the Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region . Nevertheless , when the Housing Authority Short-piling Scandal broke out in 1999 , Wong , as the chairperson of the Housing Authority , was heavily blamed by the general public of not taking any responsibility . Under public pressure , she subsequently decided to resign from the Housing Authority four days before the Legislative Council passing the motion of no confidence on her and the Director of Housing , Tony Miller in June 2000 . However , her resignation did not prevent her and some other government officials from receiving censure in the short-piling scandal investigation report released by the Legislative Council later in January 2003 . Following the scandal , Wong ceased to be an unofficial member of the Executive Council in 2002 but was appointed chairperson of the Education Commission from 2001 to 2007 . Since 2003 , she has also been a Hong Kong member of the CPPCC National Committee of the People 's Republic of China . Besides , Wong plays a role in the business sector in Hong Kong . She has been a non-executive director of the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation since 1996 and has also been an independent non-executive director of Sir Ka-shing Li 's Cheung Kong Holdings since 2001 .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Rosanna_Wong", "rank": 31, "score": 108061 }, { "content": "Title: One Breath (The X-Files) Content: `` One Breath '' is the eighth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files . It premiered on the Fox network on . It was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , directed by R. W. Goodwin , and featured guest appearances by Melinda McGraw , Sheila Larken and Don S. Davis . The episode helped to explore the series ' overarching mythology . `` One Breath '' earned a Nielsen household rating of 9.5 , being watched by 9.1 million households in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X-Files . In the episode , Scully is found comatose in hospital after her abduction in the earlier episode `` Ascension '' . Mulder attempts to investigate what has happened to her , but finds himself hindered by a man he had believed to be an ally . Anderson returned to the series only days after having given birth , missing the previous episode due to her pregnancy . Morgan and Wong attempted to create a version of the earlier episode `` Beyond the Sea '' , this time centered on Duchovny 's character Mulder . The episode also introduced the character of Melissa Scully , an attempt to provide a romantic lead for Mulder which was later dropped .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "One_Breath_(The_X-Files)", "rank": 32, "score": 107756 }, { "content": "Title: Kristyn Wong-Tam Content: Kristyn Wong-Tam ( born ) is a Canadian politician . She is a city councillor in Toronto , Ontario , Canada . She is councillor for the Toronto Centre-Rosedale electoral district ( Ward 27 ) . She was elected to Toronto City Council in the 2010 city council election to replace Kyle Rae who had chosen to retire , defeating opponent Ken Chan in the heated race by just 400 plus votes . She was re-elected in 2014 .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Kristyn_Wong-Tam", "rank": 33, "score": 107415 }, { "content": "Title: Ricardo Wong Content: Ricardo Wong Kuoman is a Peruvian politician . He is of Chinese Peruvian background . He was Y se llama Perú 's presidential candidate for the 2006 national election . He announced his withdrawal from the race due to lack of support , claiming unequal media coverage and opportunities , but retracted a few days later . Three days before the election , he announced that he dropped the race again and expressed his support for Alan García 's candidacy , but there was no change in the official ballot . He received 0.086 % of the vote and came in 19th place .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Ricardo_Wong", "rank": 34, "score": 107404 }, { "content": "Title: Breath carbon monoxide Content: Breath carbon monoxide is the level of carbon monoxide in a person 's exhalation . It can be measured in a breath carbon monoxide test , generally by using a carbon monoxide breath monitor ( breath CO monitor ) , such as for motivation and education for smoking cessation and also as a clinical aid in assessing carbon monoxide poisoning . The breath carbon monoxide level has been shown to have a close relationship with the level of CO in the blood known as carboxyhaemoglobin ( % COHb ) or `` blood CO '' . This correlation allows for the level of CO in the blood to be indirectly measured through a breath sample .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Breath_carbon_monoxide", "rank": 35, "score": 107096 }, { "content": "Title: Isheau Wong Content: Isheau Wong ( 汪亦岫 , Pinyin : Wāng Yìxiù ; born February 12 , 1989 in Taipei , Taiwan ) is a Taiwanese equestrian who competes in show jumping . She represented Chinese Taipei at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Jeniero , Brazil where she competed in the Equestrian Jumping Individual event . She finished in 68th place . Wong was the flagbearer for the Chinese Taipei Olympic Team in the 2016 Summer Olympics Parade of Nations . She is the first athlete to compete in the Equestrian events in the history of the country . Wong qualified for the Rio 2016 Games in the Group G FEI qualifier in Hagen , Germany on August 25 , 2015 . Her horse is an 11-year-old Dutch Warmblood mare named Zadarijke V. Wong also trains with a Dutch gelding named Quinlan . Wong 's sister is artist Ilyn Wong .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Isheau_Wong", "rank": 36, "score": 106639 }, { "content": "Title: Andrea Wong Content: Andrea Wong serves on the boards of Liberty Media Corporation , Liberty Interactive Corporation and Hudson 's Bay Company . She is also a Governor of the British Film Institute , and a Trustee of the Royal Academy of Arts . Wong was most recently President , International Production for Sony Pictures Television and President , International for Sony Pictures Entertainment based in London . She oversaw Sony Pictures Television 's 18 overseas production companies , creating nearly 1,300 hours of entertainment around the world each year . Among her many achievements in this role , Wong brought The Crown to Sony , winner of Golden Globes for Best Drama Television Series and Best Performance by an Actress in a Television Series along with numerous other accolades . As President , International for Sony Pictures Entertainment , Wong guided the company on matters impacting international production and championed the studio 's interests abroad . Previously , Wong served as president and CEO of Lifetime Networks , where she oversaw the day-to-day operations of Lifetime Television , Lifetime Movie Network , Lifetime Real Women , and Lifetime Digital , including programming , marketing , advertising sales , affiliate sales , public affairs , business and legal affairs , strategic planning , operations and research . During her time there she saw Army Wives become Lifetime 's top-rated original series ever and spearheaded Lifetime 's acquisition of Project Runway . Prior to that , Wong was executive vice president , alternative programming , specials and late night at ABC where she developed shows such as The Bachelor , the U.S. version of Dancing With the Stars and the Emmy-award winning Extreme Makeover : Home Edition . Wong graduated MIT with a degree in electrical engineering and received an MBA from Stanford University . She is a Henry Crown Fellow of the Aspen Institute , and serves on the Stanford Graduate School of Business Advisory Council .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Andrea_Wong", "rank": 37, "score": 106634 }, { "content": "Title: Wong Ah Kiu Content: Wong Ah Kiu ( 1918 -- 19 January 2006 ) , legally known as Nyonya binti Tahir , was a Malaysian woman born to a Muslim family but raised Buddhist . The court case which arose after her death over whether she should receive an Islamic funeral or a Buddhist one brought up various issues regarding freedom of religion in Malaysia .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Wong_Ah_Kiu", "rank": 38, "score": 105805 }, { "content": "Title: Brenda Burns Content: Brenda Burns ( born November 22 , 1950 ) is an American politician , real estate agent and member of the Republican Party from the state of Arizona who served as a member of the Arizona Corporation Commission from 2011 to 2015 . Elected in 2010 , she was eligible to run for re-election to a second term in 2014 but chose not to . Before entering politics , Burns worked as a real estate agent and helped run a family business . She served in the Arizona House of Representatives from 1987 to 1995 , also serving as Majority Leader from 1993 to 1995 . She then served in the Arizona Senate from 1995 to 2003 , also serving as Senate President from 1997 to 2003 . She was the first woman to ever serve in either leadership position . Burns ran for the Corporation Commission in 2010 , for one of the two seats to which the top two finishers on the ballot are elected . In the Republican primary , she received 300,698 votes ( 36.89 % ) , behind incumbent Commissioner Gary Pierce 's 323,751 ( 39.72 % ) and ahead of former Commissioner Barry Wong 's 190,576 ( 23.38 % ) . Burns and Pierce supported each other and campaigned against the controversial Wong . Wong , who served temporarily on the Commission in 2006 , campaigned on using the Commission to cut off the electricity , natural gas , water and telephone lines to the homes of illegal immigrants . In the general election , Burns received 862,546 votes ( 29.09 % ) , just ahead of Pierce , who was re-elected in second place with 833,541 votes ( 28.11 % ) . She was sworn in on January 3 , 2011 , succeeding term-limited Republican Kristin Mayes . Burns said that she wanted to work with the Arizona State Legislature , which had previously proposed legislation that would have stripped many of the powers from the Commission . During her tenure in the legislature , she had fought for limited regulations and remarked that some of her friends found it funny that she had been elected to the regulatory body . She clarified : `` I never said we do n't need rules and regulations . I said they need to make sense . '' She also called for a `` reasonable balance '' between economic growth and conserving the state 's natural resources . She served alongside Bob Burns , who is no relation . In April 2013 , Burns announced that she would not be running for re-election in 2014 . She had been encouraged by supporters to consider running for Governor of Arizona in 2014 , but after talking to her husband , decided not to , saying that it `` became apparent to us that this was not the right course for me to take . '' They will instead pursue `` several interests , priorities and causes . '' She and the term-limited Pierce were succeeded by Republicans Doug Little and Thomas Forese , respectively . In September 2013 , Burns published an op-ed in The Arizona Republic , bemoaning the decision by three of her fellow Commissioners to shut down an investigation into electric retail competition . She lamented that Arizona had `` hit the `` stop '' button on 21st century modernization and -LSB- we -RSB- are stuck with , for now , a 19th-century model of electric service . ''", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Brenda_Burns", "rank": 39, "score": 105748 }, { "content": "Title: Wong Chen Content: Wong Chen ( ; born 18 December 1968 ) is a Malaysian politician and is the Member of the Parliament of Malaysia for the Kelana Jaya constituency in Selangor . He is a member of Parti Keadilan Rakyat ( PKR ) in the Pakatan Rakyat opposition coalition . Wong Chen was first elected to Parliament in the 2013 election , winning the seat of Kelana Jaya by defeating Barisan Nasional candidate Loh Seng Kok .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Wong_Chen", "rank": 40, "score": 105395 }, { "content": "Title: Respiratory minute volume Content: Respiratory minute volume ( or minute ventilation or minute volume ) is the volume of gas inhaled ( inhaled minute volume ) or exhaled ( exhaled minute volume ) from a person 's lungs per minute . It is an important parameter in respiratory medicine due to its relationship with blood carbon dioxide levels . It can be measured with devices such as a Wright respirometer or can be calculated from other known respiratory parameters . Although minute volume can be viewed as a unit of volume , it is usually treated in practice as a flow rate ( given that it represents a volume change over time ) . Several symbols can be used to represent minute volume . They include ( V̇ or V-dot ) or Q ( which are general symbols for flow rate ) , MV , and VE .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Respiratory_minute_volume", "rank": 41, "score": 105274 }, { "content": "Title: Jessica Wong Content: Jessica Wong ( born March 29 , 1991 ) is an ice hockey player from Baddeck , Nova Scotia , who currently plays for the Calgary Inferno of the Canadian Women 's Hockey League . Wong played for Canada 's under-18 team , winning silver at the world championships . In 2010 and 2011 she played for Canada 's women 's under-22 team , winning gold at the Meco Cup both years . In 2010 , Wong scored the winning goal for the Minnesota-Duluth Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I Women 's Championship . In 2010 , Wong was named Female Team Athlete of the Year by Sport Nova Scotia . Wong was named athlete of the year by the Cape Breton Post in 2009 , 2010 , and 2011 .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Jessica_Wong", "rank": 42, "score": 105146 }, { "content": "Title: Capnography Content: Capnography is the monitoring of the concentration or partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the respiratory gases . Its main development has been as a monitoring tool for use during anesthesia and intensive care . It is usually presented as a graph of expiratory ( measured in millimeters of mercury , `` mmHg '' ) plotted against time , or , less commonly , but more usefully , expired volume . The plot may also show the inspired , which is of interest when rebreathing systems are being used . The capnogram is a direct monitor of the inhaled and exhaled concentration or partial pressure of , and an indirect monitor of the partial pressure in the arterial blood . In healthy individuals , the difference between arterial blood and expired gas partial pressures is very small . In the presence of most forms of lung disease , and some forms of congenital heart disease ( the cyanotic lesions ) the difference between arterial blood and expired gas increases and can exceed 1 kPa .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Capnography", "rank": 43, "score": 105017 }, { "content": "Title: Kathleen Wong Mei Yin Content: Kathleen Wong Mei Yin ( ; born 12 October 1970 ) is a political activist promoting unity and harmony in Perak , Malaysia . Previously , she served as an Economic and Political Officer for the Australian High Commission in Malaysia . She acts as a liaison for the Australian and Malaysian government .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Kathleen_Wong_Mei_Yin", "rank": 44, "score": 104978 }, { "content": "Title: Asphyxiant gas Content: An asphyxiant gas is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing air . Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by asphyxiation ( suffocation ) . Because asphyxiant gases are relatively inert and odorless , their presence in high concentration may not be noticed , except in the case of carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) . Toxic gases , by contrast , cause death by other mechanisms , such as competing with oxygen on the cellular level ( e.g. carbon monoxide ) or directly damaging the respiratory system ( e.g. phosgene ) . Far smaller quantities of these are deadly . Notable examples of asphyxiant gases are nitrogen , argon , helium , butane and propane . Along with trace gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone , these compose 79 % of Earth 's atmosphere . The atmosphere is mostly harmless because the remaining 21 % is O2 .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Asphyxiant_gas", "rank": 45, "score": 104951 }, { "content": "Title: Wong Poh San Content: Wong Poh San ( born 5 December 1996 in Johor ) is a Malaysian rhythmic gymnast . She won one silver and two bronze medal at the 2014 Commonwealth Games . She was part of the Malaysian team to win the bronze medal in the women 's rhythmic team all-around event at the 2014 Commonwealth Games .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Wong_Poh_San", "rank": 46, "score": 104836 }, { "content": "Title: Wong Wo Bik Content: Wong Wo Bik is a fine arts photographer and one of the few active female photographers in Hong Kong . She is best known for her photographic documentation of buildings and architecture with historical and cultural significance in Hong Kong . Her work also involves artistic manipulations , as these photographs retell her experience and stories at the sites . In 2013 , she received an award from the Hong Kong Women Excellence in the Six Arts , Hong Kong Federation of Women . Wong also has a long and active career as a curator , researcher and art educator .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Wong_Wo_Bik", "rank": 47, "score": 104816 }, { "content": "Title: Barry Wong (politician) Content: Barry Wong is a Republican attorney and politician who previously served on the Arizona Corporation Commission and as a member of the Arizona House of Representatives representing the 18th district .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Barry_Wong_(politician)", "rank": 48, "score": 104781 }, { "content": "Title: James Elam Content: James Otis Elam , ( May 31 , 1918 -- July 10 , 1995 ) was a U.S. M.D. and respiratory researcher . Based on his research at the Roswell Park Memorial Institute in Buffalo , New York for understanding carbon dioxide absorption , he developed a prototype ventilator device that efficiently could absorb carbon dioxide during surgery , dubbed the Roswell Park ventilator . This was further developed into the Air-Shields Ventimeter ventilator that were used for a period of almost 50 years . Elam contributed significantly to the development and understanding of modern rescue breathing , cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( CPR ) , and brought it to the attention of the medical community and the general public . In 1954 , Elam was the first to demonstrate experimentally that cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( CPR ) was a sound technique , and together with Dr. Peter Safar he demonstrated its superiority to previous methods . Elam wrote the instructional booklet Rescue Breathing , which was distributed throughout the U.S. in 1959 . He also participated in producing films demonstrating the life-saving technique and contributed with Peter Safar in the development of a mannequin called Resusci Anne , produced by Laerdal of Norway , that allowed the public to learn the technique in a safe manner . Elam received his medical doctorate from Johns Hopkins School of Medicine in 1945 . For his achievements in emergency medicine , Elam received a United States Army Certificate of Achievement , and in 1962 , the Albion O. Bernstein Award , the Medical Society of the state of New York 's highest honor . In 1968 , Elam , together with Robert Bauer , founded of the Society for Obstetric Anesthesia and Perinatology ( SOAP ) .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "James_Elam", "rank": 49, "score": 104482 }, { "content": "Title: José Mario Wong Content: José Mario Wong Pérez ( 25 November 1951 15 September 2015 ) was a Mexican politician affiliated with the Institutional Revolutionary Party . He served as a Deputy of the LIX Legislature of the Mexican Congress ( 2003 -- 2006 ) representing Chihuahua .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "José_Mario_Wong", "rank": 50, "score": 104358 }, { "content": "Title: Helena Wong Content: Helena Wong may refer to : Helena Wong ( weightlifter ) ( born 1988 ) , Singapore weightlifter Helena Wong ( politician ) , member of Hong Kong legislative council", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Helena_Wong", "rank": 51, "score": 104054 }, { "content": "Title: Carmen Rita Wong Content: Carmen Rita Wong is an American radio , television & online journalist , and personal finance expert at CNBC where she was the former host of the 2005 version of On the Money , a personal finance program . She is currently a contributor to The Dr. Oz Show and iVillage . Wong also writes a blog for CNBC.com that focuses on taking control of your personal finances . In October 2013 , she was named host of the weekly radio program Marketplace Money , produced by American Public Media , beginning with the program of November 2 , 2013 . While giving financial advice on the Marketplace Money program of October 26 , 2013 , she also revealed that she is now divorced and a single mother . As of February , 2014 , Marketplace 's website refers to her as a `` Former Host . '' Wong 's blog made its debut on Qvisory.com and her advice columns appear monthly in Glamour , Men 's Health and Latina as well as online . Wong also makes contributions to Essence and Diversity Women magazines . She has been making her name as a money expert appearing on CNN , The Rachael Ray Show , and Oprah Winfrey 's XM radio network . Business Pundit named Wong one of the 25 Hottest Women of Business in January 2009 . And in March 2009 Wong 's accomplishments were honored at the eighth annual New York City Women 's History Month Celebration .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Carmen_Rita_Wong", "rank": 52, "score": 104020 }, { "content": "Title: Respiratory system Content: The respiratory system ( called also respiratory apparatus , ventilatory system ) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an organism . The respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the environment . In air-breathing vertebrates like human beings , respiration takes place in the respiratory organs called lungs . The passage of air into the lungs to supply the body with oxygen is known as inhalation , and the passage of air out of the lungs to expel carbon dioxide is known as exhalation ; this process is collectively called breathing or ventilation . In humans and other mammals , the anatomical features of the respiratory system include trachea , bronchi , bronchioles , lungs , and diaphragm . Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged , by diffusion , between the gaseous external environment and the blood . This exchange process occurs in the alveoli ( air sacs ) in the lungs . In fish and many invertebrates , respiration takes place through the gills . Other animals , such as insects , have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features , and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange . Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals . The respiratory system in plants also includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Respiratory_system", "rank": 53, "score": 103792 }, { "content": "Title: Robyn Wong Content: Robyn Marie Wong ( born 23 November 1970 ) is a New Zealand cyclist . She competed at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , in the women 's cross-country . Wong was born in 1970 at Lower Hutt to Chinese parents . The family moved to the Wairarapa early in 1971 , where Wong grew up . She is married to Dave Hicks and they have one son together , Jack , who was born in 2012 .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Robyn_Wong", "rank": 54, "score": 103701 }, { "content": "Title: Donald Wong Content: Donald H. Wong ( born January 15 , 1952 ) is an American businessman and state legislator serving in the Massachusetts House of Representatives . He represents the Ninth Essex District , consisting of parts of Lynn , Lynnfield , Wakefield and Saugus . He is also the President of Mandarin House , Inc. , which manages the Kowloon Restaurant . Wong is a `` third generation '' Chinese American . Wong served as a member of Saugus Town Meeting from 2005 to 2007 and as Chairman of the Saugus Board of Selectmen from 2007 to 2011 . He has also been a member of the Massachusetts Asian American Commission . On November 2 , 2010 , Wong defeated Democratic incumbent Mark Falzone by 382 votes . He and 2nd Norfolk District Representative Tackey Chan were the first Asian-Americans elected to the Massachusetts Legislature . Wong is a member of the House Ways and Means Committee , a ranking member of the Joint Committee on Transportation , and a member of the House Committee on Personnel and Administration . He was reelected unopposed in 2012 and defeated Democrat Christopher Finn in 2014 , 60.5 % to 39.4 % .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Donald_Wong", "rank": 55, "score": 103561 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Wong (Canadian politician) Content: Peter Wong ( July 8 , 1931 -- June 6 , 1998 ) was a Canadian politician , who served as mayor of Sudbury , Ontario from 1982 to 1991 , and chair of the Regional Municipality of Sudbury from 1997 until his death the following year .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Peter_Wong_(Canadian_politician)", "rank": 56, "score": 103453 }, { "content": "Title: Breathing Content: Breathing is the process that moves air in and out of the lungs , to allow the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the external environment into and out of the blood . `` Breathing '' sometimes also refers to the equivalent process using other respiratory organs such as gills in fish and spiracles in certain arthropods . For organisms with lungs , breathing is also called ventilation , which consists of inhalation ( breathing in ) and exhalation ( breathing out ) . Breathing is one part of physiological respiration required to sustain life . Aerobic organisms ( all animals , most plants and many micro-organisms ) require oxygen at cellular level to release energy by metabolizing energy-rich molecules such as fatty acids and glucose . This is often referred to as cellular respiration . Breathing is only one of the processes that delivers oxygen to where it is needed in the body and removes excess carbon dioxide . After breathing , the next process in this chain of events is the transport of these gases throughout the body by the circulatory system , and then their uptake or release from the respiring cells . Breathing fulfills another vital function : that of regulating the pH of the extracellular fluids of the body . It is , in fact , this homeostatic function which determines the rate and depth of breathing . The medical term for normal relaxed breathing is eupnea . At the end of each exhalation the adult human lungs still contain 2.5 -- 3.0 liters of air , termed the functional residual capacity ( FRC ) . Breathing replaces only about 15 % of this volume of gas with moistened ambient air with each breath . This ensures that the composition of the FRC changes very little during the breathing cycle , and remains significantly different from the composition of the ambient air . The partial pressures of the gases in the blood flowing through the alveolar capillaries equilibrate with the partial pressures of the gases in the FRC , ensuring that the partial pressures of carbon dioxide , and oxygen of the arterial blood , and therefore its pH , remain constant . The equilibration of the gases in the alveolar blood with those in the alveolar air ( i.e. the gas exchange between the two ) occurs by passive diffusion . Breathing is used for a number of subsidiary functions , such as speech , expression of the emotions ( e.g. laughing . yawning etc. ) , self-maintenance activities ( coughing and sneezing etc. ) and , in animals that can not sweat through the skin , panting .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Breathing", "rank": 57, "score": 103102 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Hypercapnia", "rank": 58, "score": 103060 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Wong (Australian politician) Content: Peter Hon Jung Wong ( born 12 October 1942 ) is an Australian politician . A prominent figure in the Sydney Chinese community and former member of the Liberal Party of Australia , he became concerned over the Liberal Party 's refusal to oppose strongly the rise of Pauline Hanson and her One Nation Party , and ultimately went on to found the Unity Party . He served as their leader from 1998 to 1999 and represented the party in the New South Wales Legislative Council from March 1999 until March 2007 .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Peter_Wong_(Australian_politician)", "rank": 59, "score": 102904 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 60, "score": 102757 }, { "content": "Title: Wong Chin Huat Content: Wong Chin Huat is a Malaysian political scientist , a political activist and a columnist .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Wong_Chin_Huat", "rank": 61, "score": 102722 }, { "content": "Title: Debra Wong Yang Content: Debra Wong Yang ( ; pinyin : Yáng Huáng Jīnyù ) was the United States Attorney for the Central District of California . She was appointed in May 2002 by President George W. Bush , who made her the first Asian American woman to serve as a United States Attorney . In 2009 , Los Angeles Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa nominated Yang to a vacancy on the Los Angeles Police Commission . In 2016 , she was listed as the potential choice for SEC Chief in Donald Trump 's cabinet . Yang was born in 1959 to Cantonese parents in Los Angeles . Her father was a successful CPA . The family later moved to Eagle Rock . Yang received her Juris Doctor from Boston College Law School .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Debra_Wong_Yang", "rank": 62, "score": 102425 }, { "content": "Title: Linda Wong (pornographic actress) Content: Linda Wong ( September 13 , 1951 -- December 7 , 1987 ) was an American pornographic actress and one of the first Asians to become a star in the adult film industry . In 1999 , she was inducted into the XRCO Hall of Fame .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Linda_Wong_(pornographic_actress)", "rank": 63, "score": 102137 }, { "content": "Title: Respiratory failure Content: Respiratory failure results from inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system , meaning that the arterial oxygen , carbon dioxide or both can not be kept at normal levels . A drop in the oxygen carried in blood is known as hypoxemia ; a rise in arterial carbon dioxide levels is called hypercapnia . Respiratory failure is classified as either Type I or Type II , based on whether there is a high carbon dioxide level . The definition of respiratory failure in clinical trials usually includes increased respiratory rate , abnormal blood gases ( hypoxemia , hypercapnia , or both ) , and evidence of increased work of breathing . The normal partial pressure reference values are : oxygen PaO2 more than 80 mmHg , and carbon dioxide PaCO2 lesser than 45 mmHg .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Respiratory_failure", "rank": 64, "score": 102079 }, { "content": "Title: Alyssa Wong Content: Alyssa Wong is an American speculative fiction author of Chinese and Filipino descent . She has published short fiction and poetry , and studies fiction at North Carolina State University . She was a finalist for the 2016 John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer . Her novelette `` You 'll Surely Drown Here If You Stay '' was nominated for the 2016 Nebula Award for Best Novelette and the Hugo Award for Best Novelette . Her short story `` A Fist of Permutations in Lightning and Wildflowers '' was nominated for the 2016 Nebula Award for Best Short Story and the Hugo Award for Best Short Story . Her short story `` Hungry Daughters of Starving Mothers '' won the 2015 Nebula Award for Best Short Story , and was a finalist for the 2015 Shirley Jackson Award , the 2016 Locus Award for Best Short Story , and the 2015 Bram Stoker Award for Short Fiction . Her short story `` The Fisher Queen '' was a finalist for the 2014 Nebula Award for Best Short Story , the 2014 Shirley Jackson Award , and the 2015 World Fantasy Award for Best Short Story .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Alyssa_Wong", "rank": 65, "score": 102072 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007", "rank": 66, "score": 101885 }, { "content": "Title: Liquid breathing Content: Liquid breathing is a form of respiration in which a normally air-breathing organism breathes an oxygen-rich liquid ( such as a perfluorocarbon ) , rather than breathing air . Perfluorochemical ( perfluorocarbon ) molecules have very different structures that impart different physical properties such as respiratory gas solubility , density , viscosity , vapor pressure , and lipid solubility . Thus , it is critical to choose the appropriate PFC for a specific biomedical application , such as liquid ventilation , drug delivery or blood substitutes . The physical properties of PFC liquids vary substantially ; however , the one common property is their high solubility for respiratory gases . In fact , these liquids carry more oxygen and carbon dioxide than blood . In theory , liquid breathing could assist in the treatment of patients with severe pulmonary or cardiac trauma , especially in pediatric cases . Liquid breathing has also been proposed for use in deep diving and space travel . Despite some recent advances in liquid ventilation , a standard mode of application has not yet been established .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Liquid_breathing", "rank": 67, "score": 101861 }, { "content": "Title: Andrew Wong (politician) Content: Andrew Wong Wang Fat OBE , JP , ( ; born 11 December 1943 ) was the last president of the Legislative Council during British rule . He was the only person of Chinese ethnicity to have served in the position during British rule , supported by the pan-democracy camp . Andrew Wong was born in Shanghai , Republic of China . He attended Wah Yan College , an all-male Jesuit secondary school in Hong Kong , after which studied at the University of Hong Kong , Syracuse University in the United States and completed an MPhil at the London School of Economics and Political Science ( LSE ) in the United Kingdom . Wong is often referred to by the nickname `` Uncle Fat '' . First elected into the Legislative Council of Hong Kong in 1985 , Wong was elected by his fellow members of the Council to the position of its president in 1995 . He held the position until 30 June 1997 , when the sovereignty of Hong Kong was transferred from the United Kingdom to the People 's Republic of China . He served in the Provisional Legislative Council from 1997 to 1998 , and was re-elected to the Legislative Council in 1998 , and in 2000 , after the transfer of sovereignty . He lost his seat at the 2004 Legislative Council elections . Wong served in the Sha Tin District Board from 1981 to 1991 . He was also a lecturer in the Department of Government and Public Administration of the Chinese University of Hong Kong .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Andrew_Wong_(politician)", "rank": 68, "score": 101839 }, { "content": "Title: Hinaleimoana Wong-Kalu Content: Hinaleimoana Kwai Kong Wong-Kalu , also known as Kumu Hina , is a native Hawaiian māhū - a Hawaiian term referring to individuals who embody both male and female spirit - as well as a modern transgender woman . She is known for her work as a kumu hula ( Hawaiian for `` hula teacher '' ) , cultural practitioner , and community leader . She has been described as a `` powerful performer with a clear , strong voice '' . Hinaleimoana was born in the Nuuanu district of Oʻahu . She attended Kamehameha School ( 1990 ) and the University of Hawaiʻi at Manoa ( 1996 -- 2004 ) where she started her service and leadership to the Hawaiian community . She was a founder of the Kulia Na Mamo transgender health project , cultural director of a Hawaiian public charter school , and candidate for the Office of Hawaiian Affairs , one of the first transgender candidates for statewide political office in the United States . She also served as the Chair of the O'ahu Island Burial Council , which oversees the management of Native Hawaiian burial sites and ancestral remains . Wong-Kalu was the subject of the feature documentary film Kumu Hina , directed by Dean Hamer and Joe Wilson . Kumu Hina premiered as the closing night film in the Hawaii International Film Festival in 2014 and won several awards including best documentary at the Frameline Film Festival and the GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Documentary . It was nationally broadcast on PBS in 2015 where it won the Independent Lens Audience Award . An educational children 's version of the film , A Place in the Middle premiered at the Berlin International Film Festival and Toronto International Film Festival for Kids and is featured on PBS learning media .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Hinaleimoana_Wong-Kalu", "rank": 69, "score": 101669 }, { "content": "Title: James Wong (politician) Content: Datuk Amar James Wong Kim Min ( 6 August 1922 -- 18 July 2011 ) was a Malaysian politician active in the politics of Sarawak for decades . Wong holds the record as the longest serving assemblyman in the history of the state of Sarawak , holding the office for nearly fifty years . Wong served as the first Deputy Chief Minister of Sarawak and the president of the Sarawak National Party ( SNAP ) . He held several other ministries of Sarawak politics until his retirement in 2001 .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "James_Wong_(politician)", "rank": 70, "score": 101563 }, { "content": "Title: Tony Wong (Canadian politician) Content: Tony Chih Wah Wong ( Wong Chi-wah or 黃志華 , Hanyu Pinyin : Huáng Zhìhuá , Cantonese Yale : Wong4 Ji3Wa4 ) ( 1948 -- June 17 , 2009 ) was a politician in Ontario , Canada . He was a Liberal member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario from 2003 to 2006 representing the Greater Toronto Area riding of Markham . He was a municipal councillor for the city of Markham from 1997 to 2004 and served as a York Region Councillor from 2006 to 2009 .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Tony_Wong_(Canadian_politician)", "rank": 71, "score": 101542 }, { "content": "Title: Barbara Jean Wong Content: Barbara Jean Wong ( March 3 , 1924 -- November 13 , 1999 ) was an American actress and primarily a radio actress . She was a fourth-generation Chinese-American born in Los Angeles , California , to produce market owners Thomas and Maye Wong . She began her performance career at the age of five , as she could read and had a clear voice , and was soon dubbed the Chinese-American Shirley Temple because of her long black hair curled into ringlets and her charming persona . In 1937 , as a voice actress , she began performing in programs for CBS . She played Judy Barton , one of the twins in the children 's Christmas old time radio show The Cinnamon Bear . She was heard on several episodes of the Lux Radio Theater , Hallmark Playhouse/Hallmark Hall of Fame , Cavalcade of America , Three Thirds of a Nation , and many other shows . Her biggest radio role was on the comedy show Amos 'n' Andy , in which she played Amos ' daughter Arbadella . She attended the University of Southern California ( USC ) and Columbia University to earn degrees in drama and English . After college , Jean ( she used her middle name ) began working in the movies and worked in 20 films , including The Good Earth , The Man from Button Willow , and the Charlie Chan movie Charlie Chan in Honolulu , in which she played the part of Charlie Chan 's Number Three daughter . Her last role was uncredited , a nurse in the epic motion picture Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing . Her featured-part movie career lasted from 1938 to 1955 . In most of her movies , she was a backdrop , serving only as part of the scenery . When Barbara Jean was married , she retired from acting and earned her teaching credentials from Cal State Los Angeles to begin serving her community as a teacher . She died of respiratory illness on November 13 , 1999 , in Tarzana , California , aged 75 .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Barbara_Jean_Wong", "rank": 72, "score": 101258 }, { "content": "Title: Elizabeth Wong (playwright) Content: Elizabeth Wong ( born June 6 , 1958 in Los Angeles , California ) is an award-winning contemporary American playwright , television writer , librettist , theatrical director , college professor , social essayist , and a writer of plays for young audiences . Her critically acclaimed plays include China Doll ( An Imagined Life of an American Actress ) is a fictional tale of the actress , Anna May Wong ; and Letters to A Student Revolutionary , a story of two friends during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 . Wong has written for television on All American Girl , starring Margaret Cho , and is a visiting lecturer at the College of Creative Studies , University of California at Santa Barbara , where her papers are archived , and she is an adjunct professor at the University of Southern California , USC School of Theater . She holds a Master of Fine Arts degree from New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts ( 1991 ) and a Bachelor of Arts degree in English and Broadcast Journalism from the University of Southern California ( 1980 ) . She studied playwriting with Tina Howe and Mac Wellman .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Elizabeth_Wong_(playwright)", "rank": 73, "score": 101047 }, { "content": "Title: Ernest Wong Content: Ernest Kwok Chung Wong is an Australian politician and Australian Labor Party member of the New South Wales Legislative Council . Wong has been a member of the Council since 24 May 2013 .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Ernest_Wong", "rank": 74, "score": 101013 }, { "content": "Title: Lyen Wong Content: Lyen Wong ( born August 5 , 1974 ) is a German-Cuban fitness athlete . Since her competitive debut in 2005 , she has won a number of national and international titles in the fitness and figure categories .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Lyen_Wong", "rank": 75, "score": 100810 }, { "content": "Title: Eleanor Wong (musician) Content: Eleanor Wong Yee-lun is a pianist and professor in Hong Kong . Wong studied at the Royal Academy of Music in London on an Associated Board Scholarship with Frederic Jackson and Max Pirani . She graduated with both the Graduate Diploma ( G.R.S.M. ) and Recital Diploma , the Walter Macfarren Gold medal , and Majorie Whyte Memorial Award for the most outstanding students . Later , as a Boise Scholar , she studied in Paris with Vlado Perlemuter and in New York with Artur Balsam . Winner of the silver medal at the Viotti International Competition Italy , she has given broadcasts and recitals in the UK ( including the Wigmore Hall and Purcell Room in London ) , Hong Kong , and the U.S. Eleanor Wong is recognised as one of Hong Kong 's foremost piano teachers , with many of her pupils winning top prizes in major international and local competitions . She hosts lectures and workshops and has given master-classes in China , Poland , Singapore , Taiwan , Thailand , Uruguay and the USA . Wong is a frequent juror for various international piano competitions . Wong took up the position of Artist-in-Residence ( keyboard ) at the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts in 1998 , she is also a visiting professor at the Shenzhen School of Arts and Wu Han Music Conservatory . In 2006 , she received an Honorary Professorship from Tian Jin Music Conservatory , China . She is a Steinway Artist and the Chairperson of the Piano Teachers ' Association in Hong Kong . Wong is co-director of the Hong Kong Summer Music Institution , and the Chairperson of the Piano Teachers ' Association in Hong Kong .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Eleanor_Wong_(musician)", "rank": 76, "score": 100766 }, { "content": "Title: Patrick Wong Content: Patrick Wong ( ; born c. 1949 ) is a former politician in British Columbia , Canada . He was a member of the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia from 2001 through 2005 . He represented the riding of Vancouver - Kensington . He served as the Minister of State for Immigration and Multicultural Services from September 2004 to April 2005 . He is a member of the Liberal Party of Canada . A native of Hong Kong , Wong is a chartered accountant and a partner in an accounting firm specializing in tax and business consulting services . He is married with four children .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Patrick_Wong", "rank": 77, "score": 100722 }, { "content": "Title: Wangga Content: Wangga ( sometimes spelled Wongga ) is an indigenous Australian genre of traditional music and ceremony which originated in northern areas of the country from South Alligator River south east towards Ngukurr , south to the Katherine region of Northern Territory and west into the Kimberley of Western Australia . The Yolngu peoples of Arnhem Land created the genre . In 1938 , Australian anthropologist , A. P. Elkin described Wangga , '' -LSB- It -RSB- starts as a sudden high note , then descends in regular intervals to a low pitch , after which the songman just beats his sticks to the accompaniment of the didgeridoo . Twenty seconds or more later , the melody is sung as before and so on '' and lyrics tend to be syllables . Typically , the songs and dances express themes related to death and regeneration . The songs are performed publicly . The singers compose from their daily lives or while dreaming of a nyuidj ( dead spirit ) .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Wangga", "rank": 78, "score": 100574 }, { "content": "Title: Wong Sze Phin Content: Jimmy Wong Sze Phin ( born 1 March 1950 ) is a Malaysian politician who is a Member of the Parliament of Malaysia for Kota Kinabalu . He currently holds the position of state chairman for Sabah and also a central executive committee ( CEC ) in Democratic Action Party . He was elected to Parliament in the 2013 election , defeating his opponents in a three-cornered fight .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Wong_Sze_Phin", "rank": 79, "score": 100532 }, { "content": "Title: Bob Wong Content: Robert Charles Wong ( ; born April 27 , 1941 ) is a former politician in Ontario , Canada . He was a Liberal member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario from 1987 to 1990 who represented the downtown Toronto riding of Fort York . He served as a cabinet minister in the provincial government of David Peterson .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Bob_Wong", "rank": 80, "score": 100531 }, { "content": "Title: Panipak Wongpattanakit Content: Panipak `` Tennis '' Wongpattanakit ( พาณิภัค วงศ์พัฒนกิจ ; born 8 August , 1997 ) is a Thai taekwondo athlete . In May 2015 , Wongpattanakit competed in the women 's finweight ( under 46kg ) in the 2015 World Taekwondo Championships in May 2015 . She made the final where she beat Ukrainian Iryna Romoldanova .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Panipak_Wongpattanakit", "rank": 81, "score": 100524 }, { "content": "Title: Keri Wong Content: Keri Wong ( born December 25 , 1989 in Jackson , Mississippi ) is an American tennis player . Wong has won seven doubles titles on the ITF tour in her career . On August 3 , 2015 , she reached her best singles ranking of world number 902 . On April 21 , 2014 , she peaked at world number 156 in the doubles rankings . Wong made her WTA tour debut at the 2013 Citi Open , partnering María Fernanda Álvarez Terán in doubles . The pair won their first round and quarterfinal matches , only to lose in the semifinals to eventual tournament champions Shuko Aoyama and Vera Dushevina .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Keri_Wong", "rank": 82, "score": 100512 }, { "content": "Title: Deborah Wong Content: Deborah Anne Wong ( born 1959 ) is an American academic , educator , and public musicologist . Her scholarship is in the field of ethnomusicology , where she is known for her studies of Asian American and Thai music . She identifies herself as Chinese-American , Asian-American , and multi-ethnic . Wong was born on the East Coast of the US , and now lives in California . Wong earned her Bachelor of Arts in anthropology and music at the University of Pennsylvania in 1982 . Wong later attended the University of Michigan where she earned her master 's degree and then her Ph.D. in 1991 .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Deborah_Wong", "rank": 83, "score": 100485 }, { "content": "Title: Parts & Labor Content: Parts & Labor was an American experimental rock/noise rock band . The group was formed in 2002 by B.J. Warshaw and Dan Friel in Brooklyn , NY . Drummer Joe Wong joined the band in 2007 . Parts & Labor has released five albums , two EPs , one split album ( with Tyondai Braxton ) , and numerous 7 `` s and compilation tracks . Their music is influenced by DIY punk , experimental/psychedelic rock , and lo-fi electronic music . Drummer Christopher Weingarten left the band in 2008 but they quickly recruited new drummer Joe Wong and added guitarist Sarah Lipstate , turning them into a four-piece band . This lineup recorded Receivers , the band 's fourth album , which was released on October 21 , 2008 in North America and November 3 , 2008 in the UK through Jagjaguwar . Also released in 2008 was Escapers Two , a record which featured 51 songs in around 29 minutes . On July 10 , 2009 , Lipstate announced via her website she had left the band . The band played their 10th anniversary and final show on Friday , February 24 , 2012 . Friel and Warshaw also run Cardboard Records , an independent record label that has released music by Pterodactyl , Gowns , Ecstatic Sunshine and others . Former members of Parts & Labor include Christopher Weingarten , Sarah Lipstate , Joel Saladino and Jim Sykes .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Parts_&_Labor", "rank": 84, "score": 100363 }, { "content": "Title: Jan Wong controversy Content: The Jan Wong controversy refers to a claim made by Jan Wong on September 16 , 2006 , three days after the shooting at Dawson College in Montreal . Canada 's nationally distributed newspaper of record , The Globe & Mail , published a front-page article titled , `` Get under the desk , '' by Jan Wong . In the article , Ms. Wong controversially linked all three Quebec school shootings of the last two decades -- 1989 École Polytechnique Massacre ( 15 deaths ) , 1992 Concordia University Massacre ( 4 deaths ) , and 2006 Dawson College Shooting ( 2 deaths ) -- to the purported alienation brought about by `` the decades-long linguistic struggle '' within the province . Public outcry and political condemnation soon followed in many venues . In response , a Globe and Mail editorial attempted to minimize the controversy as a `` small uproar '' over journalistic freedom , but this caused further condemnation . Jan Wong maintained her perspective and wrote extensively about the whole experience in her book Out of the Blue , A Memoir of Workplace Depression , Recovery , Redemption and , Yes , Happiness .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Jan_Wong_controversy", "rank": 85, "score": 100291 }, { "content": "Title: Beal Wong Content: Beal Wong was an Asian American actor who acted in films from 1933 to 1962 . some of the films he appeared in were The Big Bluff , China , Women in the Night , Little Tokyo , U.S.A. . He also appeared in The Secret Code . He played the Chinese Radio Listener in Earth vs. the Flying Saucers . He died in Los Angeles , California on February 6 , 1962 aged 55 .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Beal_Wong", "rank": 86, "score": 100239 }, { "content": "Title: Samuel Wong (politician) Content: Samuel Wong Ping-wai , MBE , JP ( 2 November 1937 , Hong Kong -- 4 June 1997 , Hong Kong ) was a member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong ( 1991 -- 97 ) and also the Urban Council of Hong Kong .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Samuel_Wong_(politician)", "rank": 87, "score": 100143 }, { "content": "Title: Hypoventilation Content: In medicine , hypoventilation ( also known as respiratory depression ) occurs when ventilation is inadequate ( hypo meaning `` below '' ) to perform needed gas exchange . By definition it causes an increased concentration of carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) and respiratory acidosis . Hypoventilation is not synonymous with respiratory arrest , in which breathing ceases entirely and death occurs within minutes due to hypoxia and leads rapidly into complete anoxia , although both are medical emergencies . Hypoventilation can be considered a precursor to hypoxia and its lethality is attributed to hypoxia with carbon dioxide toxicity .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Hypoventilation", "rank": 88, "score": 100011 }, { "content": "Title: Wong Kam-sing Content: Wong Kam-sing ( , born 1963 ) is an architect and politician in Hong Kong . He is the current Secretary for the Environment .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Wong_Kam-sing", "rank": 89, "score": 100002 }, { "content": "Title: Pio Wong Content: Pio Iowane Wong is a Fijian politician of Fijian and Chinese descent . He served in the Cabinet from 2004 to 2006 as Minister for Local Government , Housing , Squatter Settlement , and the Environment . In the election held in September 2001 , Wong , a former Army officer with the rank of Colonel , won the Serua Navosa Open Constituency for the Soqosoqo Duavata ni Lewenivanua ( SDL ) , defeating Adi Kuini Speed , who had held the seat for many years . ( Wong had previously contested the seat , unsuccessfully , as an independent candidate in the parliamentary election of 1999 ) . He was appointed Minister for Local Government , Housing , Squatter Settlement , and Environment in 2004 . The SDL did not nominate Wong for another Parliamentary term . He stood as independent candidate in the 2006 general election and was defeated .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Pio_Wong", "rank": 90, "score": 99913 }, { "content": "Title: Georgette Wong Content: Georgette Wong ( born October 24 , 1969 ) is an American investment entrepreneur , a pivotal figure in the burgeoning field of mission-related investing , and the related fields of cause marketing and social entrepreneurship , sometimes referred to as impact Investing . Wong is the Curator of the Take Action ! Impact Investing Conference Series and CEO of Correlation Consulting . both of which are credited with catalyzing the increasing popularity of impact investing . The conferences bring together leading foundations , among them , the W.K. Kellogg Foundation , , and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation , , families and pension plans , to explore with their fellow decision-makers how they may achieve both positive returns and desired social and environmental impact . Her work has been published in Community Development Investment Review , produced by the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco : Solutions for Impact Investors : From Strategy to Implementation , produced by Rockefeller Philanthropy Advisors and Financial Planning Magazine . Over the last eighteen years , Wong has : advised families , foundations Private foundation and Fortune 100 businesses Fortune 100 on public and private investments ; developed and funded early-stage companies ; and created organizations focused on strategic philanthropy and partnerships between the business and social sectors . Before starting Correlation Consulting , she was a Director of Client Relationships for Sterling Stamos , a multibillion-dollar private investment firm . Prior to that , she was a Financial Advisor at Piper Jaffray and the Development Director for the Asian Law Caucus , the nation 's oldest legal and civil rights organization for Asian Pacific Americans . Georgette earned her MBA from the Anderson School of Management at the University of California , Los Angeles and her BA magna cum laude from Amherst College . She lives in San Mateo , California with her husband Charles Beadnall and their son , Emmett .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Georgette_Wong", "rank": 91, "score": 99893 }, { "content": "Title: Wong Kan Seng Content: Wong Kan Seng ( ; born 1946 ) is a former Singaporean politician . A member of the governing People 's Action Party ( PAP ) , He is a Member of Parliament ( MP ) representing the Bishan-Toa Payoh Group Representation Constituency . Wong served as the country 's Deputy Prime Minister from 2005 to 2011 . He also held the Cabinet portfolios of Minister for Community Development ( 1987 -- 91 ) , Minister for Foreign Affairs ( 1988 -- 94 ) , Minister for Home Affairs ( 1994 -- 2010 ) and Co-ordinating Minister for National Security ( 2010 -- 11 ) .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Wong_Kan_Seng", "rank": 92, "score": 99893 }, { "content": "Title: Tso Wong Man-yin Content: Marianne Tso Wong Man-yin BBS FRSC ( born 30 October 1944 , Beijing ) is a Hong Kong chemist . Graduated from the Chinese University of Hong Kong , she obtained her master 's degree at the University of Miami and doctoral degree at the University of Wisconsin-Madison . She continued her post-doctoral study at the Stanford University Medical Center . She is a fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry and worked as the director of the Radioisotope Unit at the University of Hong Kong . She was also the member of the Provisional Legislative Council ( 1996 -- 98 ) , member of the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference National Committee and the executive committee member of the pro-Beijing political party Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong . Her husband , Tso Wung-Wai , is also a well-known chemist and politician .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Tso_Wong_Man-yin", "rank": 93, "score": 99838 }, { "content": "Title: Wong Sai Hou Content: Datuk Dr.Wong Sai Hou is a former state assemblyman for Kampung Tunku , Malaysia . He is also state vice-chairman and a veteran member of Malaysian Chinese Association ( MCA ) ( 34 years ) . His wife , Datin Jennifer Wong ( Goh Beng Lan ) is the former Principal of SMK La Salle Brickfields . His house was attacked and burned with a gasoline bomb in 2005 but was put out by his wife , Datin Jennifer Wong .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Wong_Sai_Hou", "rank": 94, "score": 99676 }, { "content": "Title: When I Was Growing Up Content: When I Was Growing Up is an autobiographical poem written by revolutionary feminist activist , Nellie Wong in 1973 , describing her struggle to identify as an Asian-American girl growing up in the United States . Wong reflects on the universal representations of Western ideals of beauty advertised in American popular culture ; from which , Wong expresses her desire to be white , to be normal . She states '' ... to become/a woman , a desirable woman , I began to wear/imaginary pale skin . '' The lack of and negative stereotypical representations of Asian-American women in Western popular culture denied Nellie Wong the agency to privilege her intersectional identity . The result of this patriarchal tool made Wong shameful of her Chinese heritage : `` when I was growing up , I felt/dirty . I thoughts that god/made white people clean/and no matter how much I bathed/I could not change , I could not shed/my skin in the gray water . '' Nellie Wong 's piece identifies the invisibilization of racial issues in the second-wave feminist movement . Her work , particularly this piece , is often cited in the works of feminists or advocates of feminisms with intersectional frameworks like This Bridge Called My Back . Although some argue that we live in a post-feminist society , that women have achieved equality , today this poem still speaks great volumes regarding the ways in which hegemonic femininity is still perceived and the tokenism people of various racial , sexual , religious , class , socio-economic status are portrayed as in Western popular culture and media . The last section of the poem , `` I know now that once I longed to be white . How many more ways ? you ask . Have n't I told you enough ? '' has its last line indicated in the Columbia Granger 's Index to Poetry in Anthologies . The poem has been frequently anthologized in educational curricula .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "When_I_Was_Growing_Up", "rank": 95, "score": 99530 }, { "content": "Title: Nellie Wong Content: Nellie Wong ( born 12 September 1934 ) is a poet and activist for feminist and socialist causes .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Nellie_Wong", "rank": 96, "score": 99412 }, { "content": "Title: Elizabeth Wong Content: Elizabeth Wong may refer to : Elizabeth Wong ( author ) ( born 1937 ) , writer and former civil servant and politician Elizabeth Wong ( playwright ) ( born 1958 ) , American playwright and writer Elizabeth Wong ( politician ) ( born 1972 ) , Malaysian politician", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Elizabeth_Wong", "rank": 97, "score": 99330 }, { "content": "Title: Marion E. Wong Content: Marion E. Wong ( January 2 , 1895 - February 4 , 1969 ) was a Chinese American company director , costume designer , director , actress , producer , music performer and screenwriter .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Marion_E._Wong", "rank": 98, "score": 99251 }, { "content": "Title: Hypocapnia Content: Hypocapnia or hypocapnea ( from the Greek words υπό and καπνός kapnós ) , also known as hypocarbia , sometimes incorrectly called acapnia , is a state of reduced carbon dioxide in the blood . Hypocapnia usually results from deep or rapid breathing , known as hyperventilation . Hypocapnia is the opposite of hypercapnia .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Hypocapnia", "rank": 99, "score": 98935 }, { "content": "Title: Kawai Wong Content: Kawai Wong ( born Wong Ka Wai ; 4 February 1986 ) is a magazine editor , writer and fashion stylist . She started her Hong Kong journalism career with Time Out Hong Kong in 2010 and went on to edit the Shopping & Style section . Wong helped to re-invent the section by adding new regular fixtures such as Things We Love About ... and Style Agenda . Her notable works include a one-on-one interview with Tom Ford in 2011 and a six-hour interview with the `` King of Asian Pop '' Eason Chan in 2012 . Wong also contributed to the official website of Hong Kong Tourism Board and translated articles for the arts webzine City Reborn . She had worked with Sasha Slater at London Evening Standard and Hilary Alexander at The Daily Telegraph . Wanderlister + dubbed Wong a `` tough as nail interviewer '' in 2012 .", "qid": "2916", "docid": "Kawai_Wong", "rank": 100, "score": 98854 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: March 2012 North American heat wave Content: In March 2012 , one of the greatest heat waves was observed in many regions of North America . Very warm air pushed northward west of the Great Lakes region , and subsequently spread eastward . The intense poleward air mass movement was propelled by an unusually intense low level southerly jet that stretched from Louisiana to western Wisconsin . Once this warm surge inundated the area , a remarkably prolonged period of record setting temperatures ensued . NOAA 's National Climate Data Center reported that over 7,000 daily record high temperatures were tied or broken from 1 March through 27 March . In some places the temperature exceeded 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) . For instance , in Grand Rapids , Michigan , the highest temperature recorded was 87 ° F on March 21 ; in Chicago a high of 87 ° F was also recorded on that same day . Records were broken in unusual ways . Chicago , for example , saw temperatures above 80 ° F every day between March 14 -- 18 , breaking records on all five days . Chicago would go on to record eight days at or above 80 ° F during the month , with many suburban areas recording an additional day in the 80s on March 19 ( that day , the city only tied its record high of 78 ° F ) . In context , the National Weather Service 's Chicago branch noted that Chicago typically averages only one day in the 80 's in April . And only once in 140 years of weather observations has April produced as many 80 ° F days as this March . In Traverse City , Michigan one day began with a low temperature ( 67 ° F ) higher than the previous record high for the day . Temperature records across much of southern Canada also were shattered . Some of the most impressive readings came from Nova Scotia on March 22 , when the mercury climbed to 30.0 C at a climate station in Lake Major , making it the highest March temperature recorded in Nova Scotia , and the third highest March temperature recorded in Canada . That same day , the temperature hit 29.2 C at Western Head , Nova Scotia . The heat reached as far east as Cape Breton Island , with the temperature climbing to 24.0 C at Sydney , Nova Scotia on March 22 , a place historically surrounded by ice-jammed waters , frigid winds , and snow in March . The week of March 18 also set record temperatures in Manitoba and much of Ontario as well as into the Maritime Provinces . Non-severe thunderstorms were reported on the evening hours of March 21 , through to the early morning hours March 22 into northern Ontario . In addition , NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data show that the atmospheric pattern was so persistent that much of the Midwest and Northeast , and up into Ontario , had temperature departures over periods of several days to a week or more of magnitudes which would be unusual even for a single day . Averaged over the seven-day period from March 16 to March 22 inclusive , nearly the entire area of the Midwest and Northeast U.S. and most of Ontario and Quebec had temperatures 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) or more above the 1981-2010 average . Even more dramatically , most of Iowa and Minnesota , all of Wisconsin and Michigan , and most of southeastern Ontario had seven-day mean temperatures more than 15 ° C ( 27 ° F ) above the climatological average for the same period . An 84 ° F high at Madison , WI in early March was 43 ° F above average and followed an overnight low of 60 ° F , 35 degrees above normal the daily high being more than seven standard deviations above the mean . The absolute temperature and departure statistically would be equivalent to a mid-July high at that station in excess of 125 ° F or more ; the highest temperature recorded there was 107 ° at least once during the heat waves of the middle 1930s . This mild warm spell brought out spring peepers in northern Ontario on 23 March , which are usually not heard until mid-to-late April , or sometimes early May . The warm weather was also responsible for several early-season tornado touchdowns , such as the EF3 that struck Dexter , Michigan , near Ann Arbor .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "March_2012_North_American_heat_wave", "rank": 1, "score": 127332 }, { "content": "Title: List of Michigan weather records Content: These are the extremes in weather records for Michigan , a state in the Great Lakes region of the Midwestern United States .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "List_of_Michigan_weather_records", "rank": 2, "score": 116774 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes region Content: The Great Lakes region of North America is a bi-national Canadian-American region that includes portions of the eight U.S. states of Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Minnesota , New York , Ohio , Pennsylvania and Wisconsin as well as the Canadian province of Ontario . The region borders the Great Lakes and forms a distinctive historical , economic , and cultural identity . A portion of the region also encompasses most of the Great Lakes Megalopolis , which extends outside the region to St. Louis , Missouri . The Great Lakes Commission , authorized by the region 's American states and Province of Ontario , and the additional Canadian Province of Quebec , comprises a bi-national authority with specified powers to protect and preserve the water and environmental resources of the Great Lakes and surrounding waterways and aquifers . The Commission 's authorities are confirmed by the Canadian and American federal governments , and by its constituent states and provinces . The states and provinces are represented in the Conference of Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Governors and Premiers . The Great Lakes region takes its name from the corresponding geological formation of the Great Lakes Basin , a narrow watershed encompassing The Great Lakes , bounded by watersheds to the region 's north ( Hudson Bay ) , west ( Mississippi ) , east and south ( Ohio ) . To the east , the rivers of St. Lawrence , Richelieu , Hudson , Mohawk and Susquehanna form an arc of watersheds east to The Atlantic . The Great Lakes region , as distinct from the Great Lakes Basin , defines a unit of sub-national political entities defined by the U.S. states and the Canadian Province of Ontario encompassing the Great Lakes watershed , and the states and Province bordering one or more of the Great Lakes .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_region", "rank": 3, "score": 107922 }, { "content": "Title: 2001 Eastern North America heat wave Content: A rather cool and uneventful summer along the East Coast of the United States ( with a more average heat pattern occurring in the Midwest/Great Lakes regions ) changed abruptly when a ridge of high pressure centered off the coast of South Carolina strengthened in late July . It began in early August for areas of the Midwest and western Great Lakes before spreading eastward and intensifying . It waned in most areas by the middle of the month , and although fairly short in duration compared with some other continental heat waves , it was very intense at its peak . The high humidity and high temperatures led to major heat wave that overtook the major Northeast Megalopolis . Temperatures in Central Park , New York City reached a peak of 103 F . The temperature reached 105 F in Newark , New Jersey . Meanwhile , in Ontario and Quebec , extreme temperatures were also reported daily during the first week of August . Ottawa recorded its second-hottest day ever when the mercury approached 37 C on August 9 and at the Toronto Airport it hit 38 C on the same day , the hottest day there since 1955 with four straight days topping 35 C. Numerous records were shattered during the heatwave . Even in Nova Scotia , surrounded by the relatively cool waters of the Atlantic Ocean , temperatures still broke 35 C in some locations . Glace Bay , which has a sub-Arctic climate reached a record-breaking 35.5 C on August 10 . At least four New Yorkers died of hyperthermia . Chicago had at least 21 deaths .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "2001_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave", "rank": 4, "score": 107780 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes tectonic zone Content: The Great Lakes tectonic zone is bounded by South Dakota at its tip and heads northeast to south of Duluth , Minnesota , then heads east through northern Wisconsin , Marquette , Michigan , and then trends more northeasterly to skim the northern-most shores of lakes Michigan and Huron before ending in the Sudbury , Ontario , Canada , area . During the Late Archean Era the Algoman orogeny added landmass to the Superior province by volcanic activity and continental collision along a boundary that stretches from present-day South Dakota , U.S. , into the Lake Huron region near Sudbury , Ontario , Canada . This crustal boundary is the Great Lakes tectonic zone . It is 1400 km long , and separates the older Archean gneissic terrane to the south from younger Late Archean greenstone-granite terrane to the north . The zone is characterized by active compression during the Algoman orogeny ( about ) , a pulling-apart ( extensional ) tectonics ( 2,450 to 2,100 million years ago ) , a second compression during the Penokean orogeny ( 1,900 to 1,850 million years ago ) , a second extension during Middle Proterozoic time ( 1,600 million years ago ) and minor reactivation during Phanerozoic time ( the past 500 million years ) . Collision began along the Great Lakes tectonic zone ( GLTZ ) with the Algoman mountain-building event and continued for tens of millions of years . During the formation of the GLTZ , the gneissic Minnesota River Valley subprovince was thrust up onto the Superior province 's edge as it consumed the Superior province 's oceanic crust . Fragmentation of the Kenorland supercontinent began and was completed by . The Wyoming province is the continental landmass that is hypothesized to have rifted away from the southern Superior province portion of Kenorland , before moving rapidly west and docking with the Laurentia supercontinent 1,850 to 1,715 million years ago . Sedimentation from the GLTZ-rifting environment continued into the Penokean orogeny , which is the next major tectonic event in the Great Lakes region . Several earthquakes have been documented in Minnesota , Michigan 's Upper Peninsula and Sudbury in the last 120 years along the GLTZ .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_tectonic_zone", "rank": 5, "score": 101748 }, { "content": "Title: Snowbelt Content: Snowbelt is a term describing a number of regions near the Great Lakes in North America where heavy snowfall in the form of lake-effect snow is particularly common . Snowbelts are typically found downwind of the lakes , principally off the eastern and southern shores . Lake-effect snow occurs when cold air moves over warmer water , taking up moisture that later precipitates as snow when the air moves over land and cools . The lakes produce snowsqualls and persistently cloudy skies throughout the winter months , as long as air temperatures are colder than water temperatures , or until a lake freezes over . In the United States , snowbelts are located southeast of Lake Erie from Cleveland , Ohio , to Buffalo , New York , and south of Lake Ontario stretching roughly from Rochester , New York , to Utica , New York , and northward to Watertown , New York . Other snowbelts are located on the eastern shore of Lake Michigan from Gary , Indiana , northward through Western Michigan and Northern Michigan to the Straits of Mackinac , and on the eastern and southern shores of Lake Superior from northwest Wisconsin through the northern half of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan . Portions of the snowbelt are located in Ontario , Canada , which includes the eastern shore of Lake Superior from Sault Ste. Marie northward to Wawa , as well as the eastern and southern shores of Lake Huron and Georgian Bay from Parry Sound to London . During the winter season , north-westerly winds cause frequent road closures , with Highway 21 on the Lake Huron coast and Highway 26 south of Georgian Bay as far east as Barrie , Ontario , being strongly affected . The Niagara Peninsula and the north-eastern shores of Lake Ontario are especially hard-hit by heavy snowfall when south-western winds are predominant . Lake Erie is the second smallest of the five Great Lakes and the most shallow . It can completely freeze over during winter . Once frozen , lake-effect snow over land to the east and south of Lake Erie is temporarily alleviated . This does not end the possibility of a damaging winter storm . The Great Lakes Blizzard of 1977 that struck metropolitan Buffalo was a direct result of powder snow blown by high winds off Lake Erie , which had frozen earlier than normal . There was , for the region , no significant snowfall during the duration of the blizzard . Healthy skiing industries have been established in snowbelt regions located near major cities such as Buffalo and Toronto . The Erie/Ontario snowbelt , which extends to the northern slopes of the Allegheny Plateau , has lent the region its nickname : ski country . To the south of Georgian Bay , ski resorts are found on the Niagara Escarpment at Blue Mountain and on the Oro Moraine . Snowbelt conditions also are found on the west side of the Japanese island of Hokkaido and the west side of Russia 's Kamchatka Peninsula . Here , cold winds blowing outward from the Siberian winter high pressure system pick up moisture while crossing the Sea of Japan and the Sea of Okhotsk and release it as heavy snowfall over the respective land areas . Sweden 's east coast can be affected by snowbelt conditions , particularly in the early winter when there is little ice on the Baltic Sea .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Snowbelt", "rank": 6, "score": 101324 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Integrated Sciences and Assessments Content: The Great Lakes Integrated Sciences and Assessments Center ( GLISA ) is a collaboration of the University of Michigan and Michigan State University funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . GLISA ( pronounced Glee-suh ) is part of a national network of NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments ( RISA ) centers that focus on adaptation to climate change and variability . GLISA is the NOAA RISA for the Great Lakes region .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Integrated_Sciences_and_Assessments", "rank": 7, "score": 99843 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Content: The Great Lakes ( les Grands-Lacs ) , also called the Laurentian Great Lakes and the Great Lakes of North America , are a series of interconnected freshwater lakes located primarily in the upper mid-east region of North America , on the Canada -- United States border , which connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lawrence River . Consisting of Lakes Superior , Michigan , Huron ( or Michigan -- Huron ) , Erie , and Ontario , they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth by total area , and second largest by total volume containing 21 % of the world 's surface fresh water by volume . The total surface is 94250 sqmi , and the total volume ( measured at the low water datum ) is 5439 cumi . Due to their sea-like characteristics ( rolling waves , sustained winds , strong currents , great depths , and distant horizons ) the five Great Lakes have also long been referred to as inland seas . Lake Superior is the second largest lake in the world by area , and Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country . The southern half of the Great Lakes is bordered by the Great Lakes Megalopolis . The Great Lakes began to form at the end of the last glacial period around 14,000 years ago , as retreating ice sheets exposed the basins they had carved into the land which then filled with meltwater . The lakes have been a major highway for transportation , migration and trade , and they are home to a large number of aquatic species . Many invasive species have been introduced due to trade , and some threaten the region 's biodiversity .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes", "rank": 8, "score": 99445 }, { "content": "Title: Great Blizzard of 1978 Content: The Great Blizzard of 1978 , also known as the White Hurricane , was a historic winter storm that struck the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes regions from Wednesday , January 25 through Friday , January 27 , 1978 . The 956.0 mb barometric pressure measurement recorded in Mount Clemens , Michigan was the third lowest non-tropical atmospheric pressure recorded in the mainland United States and the lowest in the Central United States . The lowest confirmed pressure for a non-tropical system in the continental United States was set by a January 1913 Atlantic coast storm . The lowest central pressure for the 1978 blizzard was 955.5 mb measured in Sarnia , Ontario , Canada . On rare occasions , extra-tropical cyclones with central pressures below 28 inches of mercury or about 95 kPa ( 950 mb ) have been recorded in Wiscasset , Maine ( 27.9 '' ) and Newfoundland ( 27.76 '' ) .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Blizzard_of_1978", "rank": 9, "score": 99340 }, { "content": "Title: Upper Great Lakes severe weather outbreak of August 23, 1998 Content: The Upper Great Lakes severe weather outbreak of August 23 , 1998 was a severe weather outbreak that affected parts of Wisconsin , and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan . The outbreak occurred on August 23 , 1998 and caused millions of dollars in damage to the region . One fatality is attributed to this severe weather event , when a severe thunderstorm knocked a tree onto a camper killing its sole occupant . A supercell spawned a F3 tornado that ripped across Door County causing $ 6.5 million in damages . It was the 8th most costly tornado in Wisconsin history injuring two people , destroying multiple structures and disrupting the regional economy and tourism . Two storms moved through the Fox Valley producing a minimal F0 tornado , but devastating amounts of hail . Damages from the hail were estimated to be around $ 5 million and damaged many structures and vehicles . Wisconsin Governor Tommy Thompson requested a Presidential Disaster Declaration from President Bill Clinton for the disaster , but was denied .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Upper_Great_Lakes_severe_weather_outbreak_of_August_23,_1998", "rank": 10, "score": 98557 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Megalopolis Content: The Great Lakes Megalopolis consists of the group of metropolitan areas in North America largely in the Great Lakes region and along the Saint Lawrence Seaway . It lies mainly within the Midwestern United States , but extends into western Pennsylvania and Upstate New York , as well as Southern Ontario and the southern part of Quebec areas in Canada . It is the largest and most populated megalopolis in North America . At its most inclusive , the region cuts a wide swath from the Twin Cities in Minnesota to Pittsburgh and Rochester , New York . On the Canadian side , it extends as far east as Quebec City . Further south , the region is commonly considered to include Kansas City , Cincinnati , Indianapolis , Louisville , Kentucky , and Columbus , Ohio . Within this broad region , there is a smaller core area that includes Chicago , Milwaukee , Detroit , Cleveland , and Pittsburgh , which has sometimes been nicknamed Chipitts . The larger region , including fringe areas , had an estimated population of 59,144,461 as of 2011 . It is projected to reach a population of approximately 65 million by 2025 . There is substantial overlap between the broader megalopolis and the once-heavily industrialized region known as the Rust Belt ; however , the megalopolis and the Rust Belt are not entirely coextensive , and some metropolitan areas may be considered part of one region but not the other , depending on how they are defined geographically .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Megalopolis", "rank": 11, "score": 95671 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Basin Content: The Great Lakes Basin consists of the Great Lakes and the surrounding lands of the states of Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Minnesota , New York , Ohio , Pennsylvania , and Wisconsin in the United States , and the province of Ontario in Canada , whose direct surface runoff and watersheds form a large drainage basin that feeds into the lakes . It is generally considered to also include a small area around and beyond Wolfe Island , Ontario , at the east end of Lake Ontario , which does not drain into the Great lakes , but into the Saint Lawrence River .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Basin", "rank": 12, "score": 94402 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Charter Content: The Great Lakes Charter is a good-faith agreement among the Governors of the U.S. states of Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Minnesota , New York , Ohio , Pennsylvania and Wisconsin , and the Premiers of the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec . The charter outlines a series of principles to collectively manage the use of the Great Lakes Basin 's water supply . It also includes a notice and consultation process for proposals to divert large amounts of water out of the Basin and for large in-Basin uses . It was signed on February 11 , 1985 . In 2001 , the Great Lakes Governors and Premiers signed an Annex to the Great Lakes Charter . This led to the Great Lakes-St . Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement of 2005 and the Great Lakes Compact which became effective in 2008 . The Council of Great Lakes Governors serves as secretariat to the Governors ' and Premiers ' Regional Body created by the Agreement and the Governors ' Compact Council created by the Compact .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Charter", "rank": 13, "score": 92624 }, { "content": "Title: Little League World Series (Great Lakes Region) Content: The Little League World Series ( LLWS ) competes in the Great Lakes Region which is one of eight United States regions that currently sends teams to the LLWS , the largest youth baseball competition in the world . The region 's participation in the LLWS dates back to 1957 , when it was known as the Central Region . However , when the LLWS was expanded in 2001 from eight teams ( four U.S. teams and four `` International '' teams from the rest of the world ) to 16 teams ( eight U.S. and eight International ) , the Central Region was split into the Great Lakes and Midwest Regions . The Great Lakes Region has a unique definition that does not correspond with the normally understood definition of the `` Great Lakes '' area , even when the context is restricted to the U.S. Although eight U.S. states ( and the Canadian province of Ontario ) border on the Great Lakes , only five of the U.S. states are in Little League 's Great Lakes Region : One state that does not border any of the Great Lakes , and in fact has no territory within the Great Lakes watershed , is included in this region : Two states that border on the Great Lakes , New York and Pennsylvania are part of the Mid-Atlantic region . The remaining U.S. state that borders on the Great Lakes , Minnesota , is in the Midwest region . All of Canada , including Ontario , forms a single Little League region .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Little_League_World_Series_(Great_Lakes_Region)", "rank": 14, "score": 92112 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Council Content: Great Lakes Council was a local government area in the Mid North Coast region of New South Wales , Australia . The area is situated adjacent to the shores of Port Stephens , Myall Lakes and Wallis Lake and the Pacific Highway and the Lakes Way . On 12 May 2016 the Council was dissolved and the area included in the Mid-Coast Council , along with City of Greater Taree and Gloucester Shire . The Great Lakes area is home to the globally significant , Ramsar Convention listed Myall Lakes wetlands . These wetlands are an important foundation for the economies of the former suburbs of the Great Lakes Council local government area , particularly the recreational fisheries and tourism sectors .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Council", "rank": 15, "score": 91951 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Global_temperature_record", "rank": 16, "score": 91284 }, { "content": "Title: Conference of Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Governors and Premiers Content: The Conference of Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Governors and Premiers is a North American organization led by the government chief executives from the Canadian provinces Ontario and Québec and the US states Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Minnesota , New York , Ohio , Pennsylvania , and Wisconsin . Through the Conference , they seek to grow the region 's economy and protect the Great Lakes . The Conference began in the 1980s as the Council of Great Lakes Governors to encourage and facilitate environmentally responsible economic development . The Council now serves as secretariat to the Governors ' Compact Council and the Governor and Premiers ' Regional Body", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Conference_of_Great_Lakes_and_St._Lawrence_Governors_and_Premiers", "rank": 17, "score": 90628 }, { "content": "Title: International Conference on the Great Lakes Region Content: International Conference on the Great Lakes Region ( ICGLR ) is an intergovernmental organization of African countries in the African Great Lakes region .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "International_Conference_on_the_Great_Lakes_Region", "rank": 18, "score": 90509 }, { "content": "Title: Western Great Lakes forests Content: The Western Great Lakes forests is a terrestrial ecoregion as defined by the World Wildlife Fund . It is within the Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests ecozone of North America , in the United States ' states of Michigan , Wisconsin and Minnesota , and the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Manitoba .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Western_Great_Lakes_forests", "rank": 19, "score": 90403 }, { "content": "Title: Fruit Belt Content: A Fruit Belt is an area where a microclimate provides good conditions for fruit growing . Fruit Belts are prominent around the North American Great Lakes region , notably West Michigan ( Fruit Ridge ) and western Northern Lower Michigan in tandem , and the southern shore of Lake Erie . The conditions that produce a micro-climate favorable to fruit cultivation are the same that produce lake-effect snow ; therefore , Fruit Belts and snowbelts are often concurrent . The map at right shows Great Lakes snowbelts which cover a somewhat larger area than the fruit belt . Notably , there are no fruit belts in Michigan 's Upper Peninsula . A Fruit Belt also exists in Central Washington State . Berries are grown on the West Coast .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Fruit_Belt", "rank": 20, "score": 89935 }, { "content": "Title: The Great Lakes (album) Content: The Great Lakes is an album by Emm Gryner , `` written , recorded , mixed , printed , hand-stamped , stapled , embossed , cut , burned and packaged especially for you by me -LSB- Emm -RSB- '' . A creative companion to Gryner 's `` The Great Lakes Living Room Tour '' , the album was only available via pre-order directly from Dead Daisy Records , and did not appear in retail outlets . Each CD booklet is numbered in a limited sequence . Along with the disc itself , a purchaser also received a hand-written thank-you note from Gryner on her personal letterhead . The songs on the album do not represent a musical departure from Gryner 's other work , in spite of the more unusual album creation and distribution process .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "The_Great_Lakes_(album)", "rank": 21, "score": 89371 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 22, "score": 88954 }, { "content": "Title: Hockham Mere Content: The Hockham Mere pollen data shows the rates of change in levels of vegetation using pollen samples from within the Holocene period . Hockham Mere is the site of a former lake , > 400 metres diameter , in Norfolk , East Anglia . Its biogenic sediments contain a late-Devensian & Holocene pollen record . This data can be analysed using temperature proxies to help determine climate change in the area at that time . These proxies can be the amount of pollen found in the sample , as more pollen would indicate higher flora productivity which would suggest a warmer climate . The same can be seen if data shows negligible amounts of pollen which would suggest a cooler climate . These are proxies for temperature , and not an accurate record as there are many variances that can not be monitored easily .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Hockham_Mere", "rank": 23, "score": 88862 }, { "content": "Title: Lake Superior Content: Lake Superior ( Lac Supérieur ) is the largest of the Great Lakes of North America . The lake is shared by the Canadian province of Ontario to the north , the US state of Minnesota to the west , and Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to the south . It is generally considered the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area . It is the world 's third-largest freshwater lake by volume and the largest by volume in North America .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Lake_Superior", "rank": 24, "score": 88117 }, { "content": "Title: Witch of November Content: The Witch of November , or November Witch , refers to the strong winds that frequently blow across the Great Lakes in autumn . The `` witches '' are caused by intense low atmospheric pressure over the Great Lakes pulling cold Canadian/Arctic air from the north or northwest and warm Gulf air from the south . When these cold and warm air masses collide , they can result in hurricane force winds that stir up large waves on the Lakes . Gordon Lightfoot 's song `` The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald '' makes reference to the Witch of November : the storm that wrecked the Edmund Fitzgerald was 978 mbar , equivalent to a borderline Category 1/2 hurricane . Similar witches have caused numerous shipwrecks over the years . Another storm that hit in November 1998 was 967 mbar , equivalent to a solid Category 2 hurricane . A still stronger storm , of October 2010 , brought Minnesota and Wisconsin record low barometric pressures of , respectively , 954.96 and 961.06 mbar ( both equivalent to a category 3 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson scale ) and lashed Duluth with 81 mph wind gusts and 19-foot seas during the night of October 26 -- 27 , 2010 . When the History Channel featured Great Lakes shipwrecks , they used the term November Witch almost exclusively .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Witch_of_November", "rank": 25, "score": 87882 }, { "content": "Title: Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands (ecoregion) Content: The Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands region extends along the south shores of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River to Lake Champlain , and south down the Hudson River . It is primarily within the state of New York . In the north it meets the Mixedwood Plains Ecozone of Canada . It is mostly temperate deciduous forest and agricultural land . It is one of the 104 Level III ecoregions that occur within the United States , and one of the 35 that comprise the Eastern Temperate Forest Level 1 Ecoregion . This classification system was developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Eastern_Great_Lakes_and_Hudson_Lowlands_(ecoregion)", "rank": 26, "score": 87709 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Minnesota Content: Minnesota has a continental climate , with hot summers and cold winters . Minnesota 's location in the Upper Midwest allows it to experience some of the widest variety of weather in the United States , with each of the four seasons having its own distinct characteristics . The areas near Lake Superior in the Minnesota Arrowhead region experience weather unique from the rest of the state . The moderating effect of Lake Superior keeps the surrounding area relatively cooler in the summer and relatively warmer in the winter , giving that region a smaller yearly temperature range . On the Köppen climate classification , much of the southern third of Minnesota -- roughly from the Twin Cities region southward -- falls in the hot summer humid continental climate zone ( Dfa ) , and the northern two-thirds of Minnesota falls in the warm summer great continental climate zone ( Dfb ) . Winter in Minnesota is characterized by cold ( below freezing ) temperatures . Snow is the main form of winter precipitation , but freezing rain , sleet , and occasionally rain are all possible during the winter months . Common storm systems include Alberta clippers or Panhandle hooks ; some of which develop into blizzards . Annual snowfall extremes have ranged from over 170 in in the rugged Superior Highlands of the North Shore to as little as 10 in in southern Minnesota . Temperatures as low as -60 ° F have occurred during Minnesota winters . Spring is a time of major transition in Minnesota . Snowstorms are common early in the spring , but by late-spring as temperatures begin to moderate the state can experience tornado outbreaks , a risk which diminishes but does not cease through the summer and into the autumn . In summer , heat and humidity predominate in the south , while warm and less humid conditions are generally present in the north . These humid conditions initiate thunderstorm activity 30 -- 40 days per year . Summer high temperatures in Minnesota average in the mid-80s F ( 30 ° C ) in the south to the upper-70s F ( 25 ° C ) in the north , with temperatures as hot as 114 ° F possible . The growing season in Minnesota varies from 90 days per year in the Iron Range to 160 days in southeast Minnesota . Tornadoes are possible in Minnesota from March through November , but the peak tornado month is June , followed by July , May , and August . The state averages 27 tornadoes per year . Minnesota is the driest state in the Midwest . Average annual precipitation across the state ranges from around 35 in in the southeast to 20 in in the northwest . Autumn weather in Minnesota is largely the reverse of spring weather . The jet stream -- which tends to weaken in summer -- begins to re-strengthen , leading to a quicker changing of weather patterns and an increased variability of temperatures . By late October and November these storm systems become strong enough to form major winter storms . Autumn and spring are the windiest times of the year in Minnesota .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Climate_of_Minnesota", "rank": 27, "score": 87626 }, { "content": "Title: Central England temperature Content: The Central England Temperature ( CET ) record is a meteorological dataset originally published by Professor Gordon Manley in 1953 and subsequently extended and updated in 1974 , following many decades of painstaking work . The monthly mean surface air temperatures , for the Midlands region of England , are given ( in degrees Celsius ) from the year 1659 to the present . This record represents the longest series of monthly temperature observations in existence . It is a valuable dataset for meteorologists and climate scientists . It is monthly from 1659 , and a daily version has been produced from 1772 . The monthly means from November 1722 onwards are given to a precision of 0.1 ° C . The earliest years of the series , from 1659 to October 1722 inclusive , for the most part only have monthly means given to the nearest degree or half a degree , though there is a small ` window ' of 0.1 degree precision from 1699 to 1706 inclusive . This reflects the number , accuracy , reliability and geographical spread of the temperature records that were available for the years in question .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Central_England_temperature", "rank": 28, "score": 87010 }, { "content": "Title: Lake Michigan Content: Lake Michigan is one of the five Great Lakes of North America and the only one located entirely within the United States . The other four Great Lakes are shared by the U.S. and Canada . It is the second-largest of the Great Lakes by volume and the third-largest by surface area , after Lake Superior and Lake Huron ( and is slightly smaller than the U.S. state of West Virginia ) . To the east , its basin is conjoined with that of Lake Huron through the wide Straits of Mackinac , giving it the same surface elevation as its easterly counterpart ; the two are technically a single lake . Lake Michigan is shared , from west to east , by the U.S. states of Wisconsin , Illinois , Indiana , and Michigan . Ports along its shores include Chicago ; Milwaukee ; Green Bay , Wisconsin ; Gary , Indiana ; and Benton Harbor , Michigan . The word `` Michigan '' originally referred to the lake itself , and is believed to come from the Ojibwa word mishigami meaning `` great water '' .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Lake_Michigan", "rank": 29, "score": 86774 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Life Magazine Content: Great Lakes Life Magazine was a regional magazine that was published in Westfield , New York . It was founded by editor-in-chief and publisher Rena Tran and began publication in February 2008 under the title Erie Life Magazine , but went out of production in 2011 . The magazine was available in over 750 retail locations in Pennsylvania , Ohio , western New York , eastern Michigan , and southern Ontario and circulated to over 25,000 readers .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Life_Magazine", "rank": 30, "score": 86378 }, { "content": "Title: Great Salt Lake effect Content: The Great Salt Lake effect is a small but detectable influence on the local climate and weather around the Great Salt Lake in Utah , United States . In particular , snowstorms are a common occurrence over the region and have major socio-economic impacts due to their significant precipitation amounts . The Great Salt lake never freezes and can warm rapidly which allows lake-effect precipitation to occur from September through May . Lake-enhanced snowstorms are often attributed to creating what is locally known as `` The Greatest Snow on Earth . ''", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Salt_Lake_effect", "rank": 31, "score": 86337 }, { "content": "Title: Christina Lake (British Columbia) Content: Christina Lake is a lake located along the Crowsnest Highway in the south-central area of British Columbia known as Boundary Country , which separates the Okanagan region from the West Kootenays . It is located 23 kilometers east of Grand Forks , just 1 km north of the United States border . The region experiences very hot , dry summers which results in July and early August water temperatures averaging in the 23 ° C ( 73.4 Degrees Fahrenheit ) range . Divers will experience thermoclines beginning at a depth of approximately 10 feet in the summer . The lake is renowned as the warmest tree-lined lake in British Columbia .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Christina_Lake_(British_Columbia)", "rank": 32, "score": 86279 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Science Center Content: thumb | 300px | The Great Lakes Science Center is located at North Coast Harbor in Downtown Cleveland . The Great Lakes Science Center is a museum and educational facility in downtown Cleveland , Ohio , United States . Many of the exhibits document the features of the natural environment in the Great Lakes region of the United States . The facility includes signature ( permanent ) and traveling exhibits , meeting space , a cafe , and an IMAX Dome theater . Great Lakes Science Center is funded by the citizens of Cuyahoga County through Cuyahoga Arts and Culture , grants , funds , and corporate and individual gifts . The museum opened in July 1996 . The center 's exhibits support STEM ( science , technology , engineering , math ) with exhibits including the BioMedTech Gallery , advanced energy , science phenomena and space . The Science Center is home to the NASA Glenn Visitor Center , one of only 11 such Visitor Centers in the country . Also , Science Center staff conduct daily science demonstrations . Throughout the school year , the Science Center provides STEM education to field trip students each year with programs and exhibits supporting classroom curriculum by meeting Ohio Revised Standards in Science . It also provides educator professional development programming . Homeschool workshops and programs are offered October through February . During the summer , the Science Center offers educational and fun camps for preschoolers through 12th graders that occur in various locations throughout Northeast Ohio . Year round , the Science Center provides classes , workshops , sleepovers and scout programs , as well as seasonal events for families , kids and adults . The Science Center installed a wind turbine in its front yard in summer 2006 . The wind turbine provides approximately 7 % of the Science Center 's annual electrical needs . A year later , it completed the installation of a 300-foot solar array canopy featuring 156 photovoltaic panels that provide enough power to light all of the Science Center 's 65,000 square feet of exhibition space for one hour . During the course of a year , the solar array produces an average of 100 kWh per day , the equivalent of the average electrical usage of four homes . The Science Center also offers opportunities alternative energy exhibitions for guests to interact with a touch-screen kiosk displaying both real-time and historical data . The Great Lakes Science Center is located between FirstEnergy Stadium and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame at North Coast Harbor on the shore of Lake Erie . Discounted parking is available for guests in the attached 500-car garage .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Science_Center", "rank": 33, "score": 85298 }, { "content": "Title: 2007 North America South and Eastern heatwave Content: The 2007 North America South and Eastern heatwave was a continuation and eastward expansion of the 2007 Western North American heat wave which began in late June 2007 . The heatwave expanded eastward starting at the very end of July and lasting into the first weeks of August . This heat wave was notable for both associated severe drought over a large swath of the southeastern United States , and parts of the Great Lakes region , and its late season ending , with temperatures continuing , although more sporadically , well into the 90s ° F ( 30s ° C ) into September and October in the mid-Atlantic region .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "2007_North_America_South_and_Eastern_heatwave", "rank": 34, "score": 85253 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Areas of Concern Content: Great Lakes Areas of Concern are designated geographic areas within the Great Lakes Basin that show severe environmental degradation . There are a total of 43 areas of concern within the Great Lakes , 26 being in the United States , 17 in Canada , with five shared by the two countries . The Great Lakes , the largest system of fresh water lakes in the world , are shared by the United States and Canada . They make up 95 % of the surface freshwater in the contiguous United States and have 10,000 miles of coastline ( including connecting channels , mainland and islands ) -- more than the contiguous United States ' Pacific and Atlantic coastlines combined . The lakes are a system of transport and shipping , as well as a place of recreation .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Areas_of_Concern", "rank": 35, "score": 85064 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes (band) Content: Great Lakes is an American rock band formed in Athens , Georgia , in 1996 . They have been based out of Brooklyn since 2002 . The group 's original lineup consisted of Ben Crum , James Huggins and Dan Donahue . Huggins ' involvement dwindled over time , and Donahue and Crum split acrimoniously in 2008 . Crum is the only original member remaining , and he continues to perform and record as Great Lakes , with various supporting members . Donahue and Huggins are both currently releasing new material with various groups as well as their principle songwriting outlets , Dream Boat and James Husband respectively . Donahue has contributed lyrics to several other bands ' albums , including Of Montreal 's City Bird , Elf Power 's The Taking Under , and Bear In Heaven 's Space Remains . Donahue has designed art , album covers , and videos for the bands MGMT , Pavement , Belle and Sebastian , and R.E.M.", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_(band)", "rank": 36, "score": 84449 }, { "content": "Title: 2008 Lake Kivu earthquake Content: The 2008 Lake Kivu earthquake shook several countries in Africa 's Great Lakes region at 07:34:12 ( GMT ) on February 3 . It measured 5.9 on the moment magnitude scale . The epicentre was 20 km north of Bukavu at Lake Kivu in the Democratic Republic of Congo .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "2008_Lake_Kivu_earthquake", "rank": 37, "score": 84174 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Storm of 1913 Content: The Great Lakes Storm of 1913 , historically referred to as the `` Big Blow , '' the `` Freshwater Fury , '' or the `` White Hurricane , '' was a blizzard with hurricane-force winds that devastated the Great Lakes Basin in the Midwestern United States and the province of Ontario in Canada from November 7 through November 10 , 1913 . The storm was most powerful on November 9 , battering and overturning ships on four of the five Great Lakes , particularly Lake Huron . Deceptive lulls in the storm and the slow pace of weather reports contributed to the storm 's destructiveness . The deadliest and most destructive natural disaster to hit the lakes in recorded history , the Great Lakes Storm killed more than 250 people , destroyed 19 ships , and stranded 19 others . The financial loss in vessels alone was nearly US $ 5 million ( or about $ in today 's dollars ) . This included about $ 1 million at current value in lost cargo totalling about 68,300 tons , such as coal , iron ore , and grain . The storm , an extratropical cyclone , originated as the convergence of two major storm fronts , fueled by the lakes ' relatively warm waters -- a seasonal process called a `` November gale '' . It produced 90 mph ( 145 km/h ) wind gusts , waves over 35 feet ( 11 m ) high , and whiteout snowsqualls . Analysis of the storm and its impact on humans , engineering structures , and the landscape led to better forecasting and faster responses to storm warnings , stronger construction ( especially of marine vessels ) , and improved preparedness .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Storm_of_1913", "rank": 38, "score": 83798 }, { "content": "Title: Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries Content: The Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries ( ECGLC ) ( in French CEPGL - Communauté Économique des Pays des Grand Lacs ) is a sub-regional organization with multiple vocation created by the signing of the Agreement of Gisenyi in Rwanda on September 20 , 1976 , aiming at insuring the safety of member states , at favoring the creation and the development of activities of public interest , at promoting the trades and the traffic of the persons and the possessions , at establishing the cooperation in a narrow way in all the domains of the political , economic and social life . It has three members : Burundi , Democratic Republic of the Congo ( formerly known as Zaire ) , and Rwanda . Its purpose is to promote regional economic cooperation and integration . The CEPGL controls the following institutions : the Bank of Development of the States of the Great Lakes ( BDEGL ) the Comité Permanent Inter-Compagnies ( COPIC ) the Institute of the Agronomic Researches and Zootechniques ( IRAZ ) the Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries Organization for Energy ( EGL ) the International Society for Electricity in the Great Lakes Region ( SINELAC ) the Research Center for the Development of the Mining Resources in Central Africa ( CRDRMAC ) . Category : Trade blocs", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Economic_Community_of_the_Great_Lakes_Countries", "rank": 39, "score": 83616 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes College Content: Great Lakes College is a co-educational public secondary school , located in Forster/Tuncurry , in the Mid North Coast region of New South Wales . Formed in 2003 from a split of students and staff of Forster High School , Great Lakes College has three campuses ( Forster Campus , Tuncurry Campus and a Senior Campus ) on two sites at Forster and Tuncurry . The college currently caters for approximately 1700 students from years 7 to 12 . It is a school of the New South Wales Department of Education and Communities , and prepares students for the Higher School Certificate ( Year 12 ) and post school destinations .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_College", "rank": 40, "score": 83597 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lake (Tasmania) Content: The Great Lake is a natural lake and man-made reservoir that is located in the central northern region of Tasmania , Australia .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lake_(Tasmania)", "rank": 41, "score": 83495 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes–Saint Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement Content: The Great Lakes -- Saint Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement is a good-faith agreement among the Governors of the U.S. states of Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Minnesota , New York , Ohio , Pennsylvania and Wisconsin , and the Premiers of the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec . The agreement details how the States and Provinces will manage the use of the Great Lakes Basin 's water supply and builds on the 1985 Great Lakes Charter and its 2001 Annex . It was signed on December 13 , 2005 .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes–Saint_Lawrence_River_Basin_Sustainable_Water_Resources_Agreement", "rank": 42, "score": 83461 }, { "content": "Title: Columbia Lake, Wisconsin Content: Columbia Lake is a lake near Portage in Columbia County , Wisconsin , United States . It is fed by the Wisconsin River and receives warm water discharged from a nearby power plant . As a result , the portion of the lake to the west of a dividing bank of earth is 70 to 85 ° F or circa 20 to 30 ° C year round , with a dense cover of fog in colder weather . This temperature prevents many types of lake weeds from growing . The lake is stocked with various types of fish and contains an uncommon hybrid bass . Four pacus , a South American fish similar to the piranha , which were thrown into the lake survived until they were caught and removed from the lake .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Columbia_Lake,_Wisconsin", "rank": 43, "score": 83258 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Commission Content: The Great Lakes Commission is a United States interstate agency established in 1955 through the Great Lakes Compact , in order to `` promote the orderly , integrated and comprehensive development , use and conservation of the water resources of the Great Lakes Basin , '' which includes the Saint Lawrence River . The commission provides policy development , coordination , and advocacy on issues of regional concern , as well as communication and research services . The commission , in a cooperative venture with other Great Lakes agencies and organizations , hosts the Great Lakes Information Network ( GLIN ) , an Internet-based network that serves as a decision-support tool for those who make , implement or otherwise influence public policy in the region . The GLIN website contains data and information about the region 's environment , economy , tourism , education , and more ; and provides access to GLIN-Announce , an email list that covers news and information about the region . Another Commission project , Great Lakes GIS Online , involves creating an online spatial data library , including the Great Lakes shoreline , soils , land use and land cover , hazardous waste sites , demographics , watersheds and transport . The project is planned to include an online mapping system that will enable users to perform GIS analysis and other tasks over the Internet . As of summer 1998 , the project was under development . The eight member states are Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Minnesota , New York , Ohio , Pennsylvania , and Wisconsin . The Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec are associate members . There is a separate and distinct entity with a similar brief , the International Joint Commission , which exists between the federal levels of the US and Canada .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Commission", "rank": 44, "score": 83240 }, { "content": "Title: List of ports on the Great Lakes Content: Below is a list of port in the Great Lakes region . This includes the main 5 great lakes as well as Lake St. Clair , Lake of the Woods and Lake Champlain .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "List_of_ports_on_the_Great_Lakes", "rank": 45, "score": 83003 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 46, "score": 82967 }, { "content": "Title: East North Central States Content: The East North Central States form one of the nine geographic divisions within the United States which are officially recognized by the United States Census Bureau . The division contains five states : Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Ohio , and Wisconsin . It is one of two divisions used to categorize the region of the U.S. generally called the `` Midwest '' or `` Great Lakes region '' ; the other such division is the West North Central States ( The Great Plains States ) . The region closely matches the area of the Northwest Territory , excepting a portion of Minnesota . The East North Central division is a large part of the Great Lakes region , although the latter also includes Minnesota , New York , Pennsylvania , and the Canadian province of Ontario . It has a low rate of population growth and the estimated population as of 2015 is 46,787,011 . The region is part of the Great Lakes Megalopolis with an estimated 54 million people . The Great Lakes provide access to the Atlantic Ocean via the Great Lakes Waterway and St. Lawrence Seaway , or by the New York State Barge Canal and the Hudson River or via the Gulf of Mexico from the Mississippi River and the Illinois Waterway . Chicago and Detroit , two of the division 's largest cities , are among the major ports of the United States .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "East_North_Central_States", "rank": 47, "score": 82937 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Theater Content: Great Lakes Theater is Cleveland , Ohio 's professional classic theater company . Founded in 1962 , Great Lakes is the second-largest regional theater in Northeast Ohio . It specializes in large-cast classic plays with a strong foundation in the works of Shakespeare and features an educational outreach program . The company performs its main stage productions in rotating repertory at its state-of-the-art new home at the Hanna Theatre , Playhouse Square , which reopened on September 20 , 2008 . The organization shares a resident company of artists with the Idaho Shakespeare Festival . On its main stage and through its education programs , GLT connects approximately 85,000 adults and students to the classics each season . GLT 's artistic directors have included Arthur Lithgow , Lawrence Carra , Vincent Dowling , Gerald Freedman , James Bundy ( present Dean of the Yale School of Drama ) and Charles Fee , who engineered the company 's production-sharing partnership with the Idaho Shakespeare Festival ) . In 2010 , Great Lakes Theater completed a $ 19.2 M dollar capital campaign to renovate the Hanna Theatre as a new and permanent home for Great Lakes while creating an endowment for the theater company - preserving the legacy of the classics in Cleveland . The honorary chair of the campaign was actor Tom Hanks , who credits the Great Lakes Theater Festival for beginning his acting career . Great Lakes Theater was formerly known as Great Lakes Theater Festival , which continues to be its legal name . `` Festival '' was dropped from the classic theater company 's business name to better reflect its September through May season , and programming format .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Theater", "rank": 48, "score": 82930 }, { "content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years", "rank": 49, "score": 82879 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Transmission Content: Great Lakes Transmission is a natural gas pipeline that brings gas from western Canada through Minnesota , Wisconsin and Michigan before re-entering Canada . Along the way it provides gas to ANR Pipeline . Its FERC code is 51 .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Transmission", "rank": 50, "score": 82566 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Water Authority Content: The Great Lakes Water Authority ( GLWA ) is a regional water authority in the U.S. state of Michigan . It provides water and sewer services for the Southeast Michigan communities , including Wayne , Oakland , and Macomb counties , among others .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Water_Authority", "rank": 51, "score": 82500 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Colleges Association Content: The Great Lakes Colleges Association ( GLCA ) is a consortium of 13 liberal arts colleges located in the states around the Great Lakes . The 13 schools are located in Michigan , Ohio , Pennsylvania and Indiana . It was chartered in the state of Michigan and incorporated as a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization in 1962 , the consortium extended its first offer of membership in 46 years to Allegheny College in 2008 . The GLCA offices are located in Ann Arbor , Michigan . Member institutions are : Albion College Antioch College Allegheny College Denison University DePauw University Earlham College Hope College Kalamazoo College Kenyon College Oberlin College Ohio Wesleyan University Wabash College College of Wooster", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Colleges_Association", "rank": 52, "score": 82498 }, { "content": "Title: The Great Lakes Book Project Content: The Great Lakes Book Project is a collection of creative nonfiction edited by Walter Blake Knoblock . Published by Felix Exi in 2013 , The Great Lakes Book Project consists of 25 works of prose and poetry about The Great Lakes Region . It has been featured in AwesomeMItten.com , Lake4Life.com and TC Art Blog .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "The_Great_Lakes_Book_Project", "rank": 53, "score": 82347 }, { "content": "Title: Early December 2007 North American winter storm Content: The Early December 2007 North American winter storm was a major winter storm which affected the majority of the United States and portions of southern Canada from November 29 to December 5 , hitting the Intermountain West and Midwestern United States , the Great Lakes region and the Northeast . The storm brought significant snows to portions of the Upper Midwest , Great Plains and Great Lakes regions of the United States and Canada on December 1 with a major winter storm for Quebec , Ontario and parts of the Northeast region on December 2 and 3 as well as the Canadian Maritimes on December 4 and 5 . The system was also responsible for a major ice storm across the Midwestern states which caused disruptions to several major cities including Des Moines , Chicago , Detroit , Milwaukee and Toronto . The storm was blamed for at least 16 deaths across nine US states and one Canadian province . 10 traffic deaths had been reported , as of 2 December 2007 .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Early_December_2007_North_American_winter_storm", "rank": 54, "score": 82301 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Summer Collegiate League Content: The Great Lakes Summer Collegiate League ( GLSCL ) is a collegiate summer baseball league in the Great Lakes region of the United States . It is affiliated with the National Alliance of Collegiate Summer Baseball and comprises teams with college baseball players from around North America . The league is sanctioned and supported by Major League Baseball . Players are not paid so as to maintain their NCAA eligibility , and the league follows NCAA rules . Many of the teams play in baseball stadiums that are normally occupied by college teams . The Great Lakes Summer Collegiate League uses wooden bats to ease the transition to professional baseball for collegiate players .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Summer_Collegiate_League", "rank": 55, "score": 82240 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory Content: The Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory ( GLERL ) is a laboratory in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . It is headquartered in Ann Arbor , Michigan , with a subsidiary field station in Muskegon , Michigan . GLERL is a multidisciplinary environmental research laboratory that provides scientific understanding to inform the use and management of Great Lakes and coastal marine environments . It is one of seven NOAA Research Laboratories ( RLs ) .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Environmental_Research_Laboratory", "rank": 56, "score": 82186 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Junior Hockey League Content: For the Canadian Junior C league , Great Lakes Junior C Hockey League . The Great Lakes Junior Hockey League ( GLJHL ) was an American inline hockey league . Sanctioned by the AAU , the league is based in the Great Lakes region of the Midwestern United States . From 2008 until 2012 , the league was a USA Hockey-sanctioned junior ice hockey league . It elected to leave USA Hockey and switch to inline in the summer of 2012 .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Junior_Hockey_League", "rank": 57, "score": 82152 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Compact Content: The Great Lakes -- St. Lawrence River Basin Water Resources Compact is a legally binding interstate compact among the U.S. states of Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Minnesota , New York , Ohio , Pennsylvania and Wisconsin . The compact details how the states manage the use of the Great Lakes Basin 's water supply and builds on the 1985 Great Lakes Charter and its 2001 Annex . The compact is the means by which the states implement the governors ' commitments under the Great Lakes -- St. Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement that also includes the Premiers of Ontario and Quebec . The Council of Great Lakes Governors , which guided the negotiations that resulted in the Compact , now serves as secretariat to the Governors ' Compact Council created by the Compact , and now operates as the Conference of Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Governors and Premiers .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Compact", "rank": 58, "score": 82113 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 59, "score": 81608 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Curling Association Content: The Great Lakes Curling Association is a regional association of the United States Curling Association encompassing the states of Michigan , Ohio , Indiana , Kentucky and Tennessee .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Curling_Association", "rank": 60, "score": 81520 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Lacrosse League Content: The Great Lakes Lacrosse League ( GLLL ) is a regional organization of non-varsity men 's club field lacrosse programs in the Midwestern United States . The GLLL was founded in 2004 to provide a competitive league for teams in the Midwest who want to play in a well-organized league outside of NCAA restrictions and without the expense of being a `` virtual varsity . '' The GLLL has grown to 44 teams , from eight different states including : Illinois , Indiana , Iowa , Michigan , Minnesota , North Dakota , South Dakota , and Wisconsin . The league is divided into six geographic divisions . Members of the GLLL strive to find a greater balance between athletics , personal life and academics . The season culminates each year with a championship tournament .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Lacrosse_League", "rank": 61, "score": 81463 }, { "content": "Title: Dimictic lake Content: Dimictic lakes mix from the surface to bottom twice each year . Dimictic lakes are holomictic , a category which includes all lakes which mix one or more times per year . During winter , they are covered by ice . During summer , they are thermally stratified , with temperature-derived density differences separating the warm surface waters ( the epilimnion ) , from the colder bottom waters ( the hypolimnion ) . Mixing ( overturning ) typically occurs during the spring and autumn , when the lake is `` isothermal '' ( i.e. at the same temperature from the top to the bottom ) . At this time , the water throughout the lake is about 4 ° C , and , in the absence of any temperature or density differences , the lake readily mixes from top to bottom . These lakes are common in regions with temperate climates .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Dimictic_lake", "rank": 62, "score": 81419 }, { "content": "Title: List of Minnesota weather records Content: The following is a list of Minnesota weather records observed at various stations across the state during the last 130 years . Minnesota is a state in the Upper Midwestern region of the United States . Due to its location in the northern plains of the United States its climate is one of extremes . Minnesota 's history of nearly continuous meteorological record keeping stretches back nearly two centuries to 1819 when Fort Snelling was settled . By 1871 the first official government observations were taking place in the Twin Cities and by the early 20th century most statewide stations that exist today were in operation .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "List_of_Minnesota_weather_records", "rank": 63, "score": 81413 }, { "content": "Title: Deer Lake (Michigan) Content: Deer Lake is a lake in the U.S. state of Michigan , located north of the city of Ishpeming . In the 1980 , the lake was identified by the US and Canadian governments as one of 43 Areas of Concern ( AOC ) in the Great Lakes region . High levels of mercury had been detected in the lake and efforts have been made to reduce the amount of mercury going into the lake . As a result of contamination , Deer Lake was designated as a catch and release site , as fish caught in the lake were unsafe for consumption . In late 2014 , the lake was delisted as an AOC , one of the first two lakes to be delisted in the state and one of only three AOCs to achieve the status . According to the EPA , the restrictions on fishing were removed as well .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Deer_Lake_(Michigan)", "rank": 64, "score": 81347 }, { "content": "Title: Nipissing Great Lakes Content: Nipissing Great Lakes was a prehistoric proglacial lake . Parts of the former lake are now Lake Superior , Lake Huron , Georgian Bay and Lake Michigan . It formed about 7,500 years before present ( YBP ) . The lake occupied the depression left by the Labradorian Glacier . This body of water drained eastward from Georgian Bay to the Ottawa valley . This was a period of isostatic rebound raising the outlet over time , until it opened the outlet through the St. Clair valley .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Nipissing_Great_Lakes", "rank": 65, "score": 81313 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Exposition Content:", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Exposition", "rank": 66, "score": 81222 }, { "content": "Title: Inland Northern American English Content: Inland Northern ( American ) English , also known in the United States as the Inland North or Great Lakes dialect , is an American English dialect spoken in a geographic band reaching from Central New York westward along the Erie Canal , through most of the U.S. Great Lakes region , to eastern Iowa . The most advanced Inland Northern accents are spoken in the cities of Chicago , Illinois ; Milwaukee , Wisconsin ; Detroit , Michigan ; Cleveland , Ohio ; and Buffalo , Rochester , and Syracuse , New York . A geographic corridor that extends across a section of Illinois , reaching from Chicago into St. Louis , Missouri , has also been infiltrated by features of the Inland Northern accent , though not historically part of the Inland North dialect region . The Inland North geographic region was once the home of a standard American pronunciation in the early 20th century , though the regional dialect has since altered away from General American speech since the 1960s , due to its now-defining , innovative , mid-20th century `` Northern cities '' vowel shift .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Inland_Northern_American_English", "rank": 67, "score": 81213 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Paper Content: The Great Lakes Paper Company was the operator of the largest and most modern pulp and paper manufacturing facility in the world . The Company employed over 4,000 in Northern Ontario , starting in 1924 as a pulp mill at Fort William , Ontario ( now Thunder Bay , Ontario Canada ) . Great Lakes had a highly developed social network within the company , including a children 's Christmas party held at a local arena , and an annual picnic held at a local park , as well as many sports teams and other social groups . Great Lakes fell victim to trends in the pulp and paper industry in Northern Ontario over the past 15 -- 20 years . Factors in the decline of Great Lakes and the pulp and paper industry in general included trends in advertising , electronic data transmission and storage and the Internet , all of which continue to have adverse effects on traditional print media . Newspaper , magazine and catalog publishing customers increasingly use other forms of media and advertising and electronic data transmission and storage , including television and the Internet , instead of paper products . North American newsprint demand has been in decline for several ( annual declines of 5.6 % in 2005 , 6.1 % in 2006 , 10.3 % in 2007 , 11.2 % in 2008 and 25.3 % in 2009 ) . Forecasts indicate that these declines in newsprint demand could continue for several years . As well , negative impacts on the survival of the Company included increases in global newsprint capacity , particularly in China and Europe , which resulted in lower prices , volumes or both for the Canadian industry 's exported products . The relationship between industry supply and demand for forest products , rather than changes in the cost of raw materials , determines the industry 's ability to increase prices . Consequently , the industry has been unable to pass along increases in operating costs to its customers . The major factors contributing to the ultimate merger and demise of the Company are : • Energy prices , particularly for electricity , natural gas and fuel oil , which have been volatile in recent years . • Wood fiber costs -- wood fiber is the principal raw material used in the business . The primary source for wood fiber is timber . Environmental litigation and regulatory developments have caused significant reductions in the amount of timber available for commercial harvest in Canada . The Province of Ontario has been reluctant to approve new cutting rights pursuant to the Company 's forest licenses and forest management agreements . Legislation and litigation advanced by Aboriginal groups and litigation concerning the use of timberlands , the protection of endangered species , the promotion of forest biodiversity and the response to and prevention of catastrophic wildfires have also affected timber supplies . Control of the Great Lakes Paper , a long-standing publicly owned company changed over the years and in 1974 was acquired by Canadian Pacific Limited ( `` CP '' ) . CP changed the Company 's name to Great Lakes Forest Products . It was later amalgamated with Canadian International Paper Company becoming Canadian Pacific Forest Products and later spun off as Avenor . In 1998 the Company was acquired by Bowater becoming Bowater Forest Products . In 2007 Bowater and Abitibi-Consolidated merged forming AbitibiBowater . In 2009 the newsprint portion of the Thunder Bay plant was idled indefinitely leaving only one line of the kraft mill operating and forcing the layoffs of several hundred employees . On April 16 , 2009 , Bowater filed for bankruptcy protection in the United States and underwent a restructuring . In February 2010 , the largest remaining paper machine ( # 5 ) was restarted . In addition , the company renegotiated labor agreements ; resized the workforce ; rolled out a wage reduction across the woodlands operations ; and renegotiated its power agreement . The combined changes resulted in a cash cost savings at the mill of over $ 150 per ton and AbitibiBowater believes Thunder Bay is now one of the lowest cash cost mills in the industry . AbitibiBowater emerged from creditor protection in 2010 , and traded as an over-the-counter stock . It changed its name to Resolute Forest Products in late 2011 and now trades on the NYSE and the TSX .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Paper", "rank": 68, "score": 81057 }, { "content": "Title: Lakelse Hot Springs Content: The Lakelse Hot Springs , also known as the Mount Layton Hot Springs , are a group of hot springs in the Kalum-Kitimat valley of northern British Columbia , Canada , located 30 km south of Terrace along Highway 37 on the eastern shore of Lakelse Lake . With a maximum temperature of 89 ° C , the springs are the hottest in Canada . The formation of the Lakese Hot Springs is interpreted to be water seeping through hot rocks in faults of the fault-bounded Kalum-Kitimat valley . These faults may also have been the source for the Tseax Cone eruption 250 years ago .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Lakelse_Hot_Springs", "rank": 69, "score": 80946 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Relay Content: The Great Lakes Relay ( GLR ) is a three-day race for runners that crosses the northern portion of Michigan 's Lower Peninsula and sometimes part of the Upper Peninsula as well . It is known for its very hilly , sandy course , heat , humidity , and 270 mile length . It has many similarities with the Great Midwest Relay . They differ in that GLR takes place on much more rural routes . The GLR was first run in 1992 , with the finish line being in Mackinac City . Due to disputes with local officials , the finish was later moved to its present location in Empire , Michigan , home of the Sleeping Bear Sand Dunes .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Relay", "rank": 70, "score": 80820 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes WATER Institute Content: Great Lakes WATER Institute ( also known as the WATER Institute , Wisconsin Aquatic Technology and Environmental Research Institute , GLWI ) is a freshwater research center of the University of Wisconsin System administered by the Graduate School of University of Wisconsin -- Milwaukee . Located on Milwaukee 's inner harbor , it is the only major aquatic research institution located on Lake Michigan and the largest of its kind in the Great Lakes region . The WATER Institute is both a UW-Milwaukee Center of Excellence and a UW System Regents Center of Excellence . It became the main component of UW-Milwaukee School of Freshwater Sciences in 2009 with the goal of turning Milwaukee into a world freshwater research hub .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_WATER_Institute", "rank": 71, "score": 80805 }, { "content": "Title: Southern Great Lakes Seismic Zone Content: The Southern Great Lakes Seismic Zone is a zone of low to moderate seismic activity surrounding Lake Erie and Lake Ontario in Canada and the United States .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Southern_Great_Lakes_Seismic_Zone", "rank": 72, "score": 80794 }, { "content": "Title: Little League World Series (Central Region) Content: The Central Region was a region that competed in the Little League World Series between 1957 and 2000 , until it was split into the Midwest and Great Lakes regions in 2001 . The Central Region produced only one world champion , in 1959 , when Hamtramck , Michigan , defeated Auburn , California , 12-0 , in the Final . The Central Region was inaugurated in 1957 -- as the North Region ( until it was renamed the Central Region in 1973 ) -- when the LLWS first gave out Series berths to regional winners . The region consisted of teams from the Dakotas , Illinois , Indiana , Iowa , Kansas , Michigan , Minnesota , Missouri , Nebraska , Oklahoma , Ohio , and Wisconsin . In 2000 , Kentucky replaced Oklahoma in the region . Little League Baseball expanded the LLWS to sixteen teams for the 2001 Little League World Series . The Central Region was split into the Midwest Region ( the Dakotas , Iowa , Kansas , Minnesota , Missouri , and Nebraska ) and the Great Lakes Region ( Illinois , Indiana , Kentucky , Michigan , Ohio , and Wisconsin ) .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Little_League_World_Series_(Central_Region)", "rank": 73, "score": 80781 }, { "content": "Title: Great Salt Lake Content: The Great Salt Lake , located in the northern part of the U.S. state of Utah , is the largest salt water lake in the Western Hemisphere , and the eighth-largest terminal lake in the world . In an average year the lake covers an area of around 1700 sqmi , but the lake 's size fluctuates substantially due to its shallowness . For instance , in 1963 it reached its lowest recorded size at 950 square miles ( 2,460 km ² ) , but in 1988 the surface area was at the historic high of 3300 sqmi . In terms of surface area , it is the largest lake in the United States that is not part of the Great Lakes region . The lake is the largest remnant of Lake Bonneville , a prehistoric pluvial lake that once covered much of western Utah . The three major tributaries to the lake , the Jordan , Weber , and Bear rivers together deposit around 1.1 million tons of minerals in the lake each year . As it is endorheic ( has no outlet besides evaporation ) , it has very high salinity , far saltier than seawater , which makes swimming similar to floating , and its mineral content is steadily increasing . Its shallow , warm waters cause frequent , sometimes heavy lake-effect snows from late fall through spring . Although it has been called `` America 's Dead Sea '' , the lake provides habitat for millions of native birds , brine shrimp , shorebirds , and waterfowl , including the largest staging population of Wilson 's phalarope in the world .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Salt_Lake", "rank": 74, "score": 80659 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Institute of Management Content: Great Lakes Institute of Management ( also known as Great Lakes or GLIM ) is a private business school in India . It was founded in 2004 by Bala V. Balachandran , a professor at Kellogg School of Management with its first campus in Chennai . Great Lakes ' second campus started functioning in Delhi NCR on 2011 . Great Lakes offers full-time and executive post graduate programmes in management . Great Lakes was accredited by AMBA , one of the three main global accreditation bodies . It has two campuses , one on the outskirts of Chennai and one in Gurgaon , Delhi NCR . Great Lakes Institute of Management is among the first business schools in India to offer a one year full-time management programme . Its one year Post-Graduate Program in Management ( PGPM ) became the first one year full-time management programme to be accredited by India 's higher technical education regulator AICTE in 2008 .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Institute_of_Management", "rank": 75, "score": 80539 }, { "content": "Title: Tuttilik Content: Tuttilik ( old spelling Tugtilik ) , also known as Lake Fjord , is a fjord in Sermersooq municipality , southeastern Greenland . Tundra climate prevails in the region of the fjord , the average annual temperature in the area being -6 ° C . The warmest month is July when the average temperature rises to 2 ° C and the coldest is January with -15 ° C . The fjord is free of ice between July and October in average years .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Tuttilik", "rank": 76, "score": 80513 }, { "content": "Title: OWLeS Content: The Ontario Winter Lake-effect Systems ( OWLeS ) was a field project focused on three modes of lake-effect snow : Short-fetch , long-fetch , and downstream coastal and orographic effects . The project was conducted along Lake Ontario in the Great Lakes region and in the Finger Lakes region of upstate New York . OWLeS occurred in two field phases , one in December 2013 and another in January 2014 . The project is a collaborative effort of nine universities and the Center for Severe Weather Research and is funded by the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "OWLeS", "rank": 77, "score": 80488 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes station Content: Great Lakes is one of two railroad stations in North Chicago Illinois , served by Metra 's Union Pacific/North Line . The station is officially located at 3000 South Sheridan Road , is 32.2 mi away from Ogilvie Transportation Center , the inbound terminus of the Union Pacific/North Line , and also serves commuters who travel north to Kenosha , Wisconsin . In Metra 's zone-based fare system , Great Lakes is in zone G. It is named for the Great Lakes Naval Training Base in North Chicago and the City of North Chicago . Parking is available at the end of Ohio Avenue which leads from the southern terminus of the Amstutz Expressway . Like Waukegan Station , Great Lakes Station serves as a stop for the Great Lakes Naval Training Center . Unlike Waukegan Station , however , the Naval training center surrounds much of Great Lakes Station , which is also located near the Shore Acres Country Club . The connection to the Pace bus system has a boarding location near the main entrance to the naval station , it is also a location for taxi pick ups , and drop offs .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_station", "rank": 78, "score": 80412 }, { "content": "Title: Pneumonia front Content: The term Pneumonia front , first coined by Milwaukee Weather Bureau Office in the 1960s , is used to describe a rare meteorological phenomenon observed on the western Lake Michigan , USA , shoreline during the warm season . These fronts are defined as lake-modified synoptic scale cold fronts that result in one-hour temperature drops of 16 ° F ( 8.9 ° C ) or greater . They do not necessarily have to be synoptic , or large scale , cold fronts . Very often in the Spring to early summer the temperature difference between the cold lake waters and the warmer air over land can be as much as 35-40 ° F. Under weak prevailing winds , a density current can often develop in the form of a lake breeze that moves from that water to the adjacent shoreline and several miles inland . This `` lake-breeze cold front '' can drop temperature in places like Chicago , Milwaukee and Green Bay significantly as they cross the area . There has been many a Spring day at Wrigley Field that surprises people who may have travelled from an inland location toward the shore to take in an afternoon game , only to feel the effects of the `` pneumonia front '' as that cold blast of air comes through . The following are eighteen occurrences of a lake modified synoptic scale cold front or `` pneumonia front '' .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Pneumonia_front", "rank": 79, "score": 80372 }, { "content": "Title: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1653 Content: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1653 , adopted unanimously on January 27 , 2006 , after recalling previous resolutions concerning the situations in the African Great Lakes region , Democratic Republic of the Congo and Burundi , particularly resolutions 1625 ( 2005 ) , 1631 ( 2005 ) , 1649 ( 2005 ) and 1650 ( 2005 ) , the Council addressed the stability of the Great Lakes region in Africa . Foreign ministers from more than 10 countries participated in the Security Council discussion prior to the vote .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1653", "rank": 80, "score": 80307 }, { "content": "Title: Licancabur Lake Content: Licancabur Lake is a crater lake in Chile located in the volcano Licancabur in the Antofagasta region , of the Región de Antofagasta , Province of El Loa . It is close to San Pedro de Atacama and also very close to the border of Chile with Bolivia . It is believed to be one of the highest lakes in the world at an elevation of 5900 m. The lake is one among several volcanic lakes in the region at high altitude . The lake is located inside the summit crater of Licancabur and was discovered by climbers in 1953 , when it was 280 ft long . While the lake may have overflowed in the past , presently it is only drained by seepage and evaporation . It covered a surface area of 7000 m2 in 2002 ; lake levels vary otherwise . The lake has clear waters and is slightly saline ; temperatures ranging between 1.4 - and 6 C as recorded at the lake bottom in 2006 suggest it is subject to geothermal heating . The local climate is arid , cold and subject to strong insolation , including strong ultraviolet radiation . This has caused the lake to be compared to the environment of Mars . Despite these conditions , the lake features a biota including bacteria , archaea , crustaceans and even a midge .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Licancabur_Lake", "rank": 81, "score": 80283 }, { "content": "Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Instrumental_temperature_record", "rank": 82, "score": 80241 }, { "content": "Title: Airag Lake Content: Airag Lake ( Айраг нуур , Airag Nuur , lit . `` airag '' ) is a lake in western Mongolia in the Great Lakes Depression . It is in a system of the interconnected lakes : Khar-Us , Khar , Dörgön , and Khyargas . The lake was in the same basin as the Khyargas Lake in ancient times . The depth of the lake generally varies with the inflow river flow . The lake flows into Khyargas Lake along a 5 km long , 200 -- 300 m wide canal , which does not freeze in winter . In summer , the lake warms up almost to the very bottom . Even in winter , the temperature remains fairly constant , 1 - 2.5 ° C. Compared to other lakes , the water is not very clear .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Airag_Lake", "rank": 83, "score": 80177 }, { "content": "Title: Unsalted: A Great Lakes Experience Content: Unsalted : A Great Lakes Experience is a 2005 56-minute film documenting four decades of lake surfing on the Great Lakes , directed by Vince Deur . The film begins with videotape footage Deur recorded in November 1990 , when he nearly drowned while surfing Lake Superior near Whitefish Point . Deur had been caught in a rip current for about an hour , trying futilely to swim to shore , before being suddenly released by the current . Back on dry land , he pledged on camera that he would one day make a film about surfing the great lakes . Unsalted combines home movies of lake surfing going as far back as the 1960s with contemporary footage culled from 150 hours of filming , often with surfing professionals brought in from California . Principal photography wrapped on Jan. 22 , 2005 , when the director and several pro-surfers from the Ocean Pacific surf team reached the tip of Lake Superior , 24 kilometers northeast of Duluth , Minnesota , to encounter the `` biggest , cleanest ... most ocean like wave '' Deur had ever seen on a lake . The conditions that day became the climax of the film . Unsalted premiered on June 10 , 2005 in Newport Beach . It debuted in Canada on June 26 at the Fox Theatre in Toronto . The film would go on to screen at film festivals on four continents , with Deur becoming a contact person for surfers around the world who wanted to experience surfing the Great Lakes . The film was funded and executive produced by fellow surfer David Vander Veen .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Unsalted:_A_Great_Lakes_Experience", "rank": 84, "score": 80134 }, { "content": "Title: Iowa Great Lakes Content: The Iowa Great Lakes are a group of natural glacial lakes in Dickinson County in northwestern Iowa in the United States . The three principal lakes of the group are Big Spirit Lake , West Okoboji Lake , and East Okoboji Lake . They are the largest natural lakes in the state of Iowa . The largest , Spirit Lake , is 5,684 acres ( 2,300 ha ) . The area is often referred to simply as Okoboji . The region is a popular destination for fishermen , both in summer and winter , as well as being one of Iowa 's most popular vacation destinations .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Iowa_Great_Lakes", "rank": 85, "score": 80076 }, { "content": "Title: List of storms on the Great Lakes Content: Ever since people have traveled the Great Lakes storms have taken lives and vessels . The first sailing vessel on the upper lakes , the Le Griffon , was lost on its return from Green Bay in 1679 . Since that time , memorable storms have swept the lakes , often in November taking men and ships to their death . With the advent of modern technology and sturdier vessels , fewer such losses have occurred . The large expanse of the lakes allows waves to build to substantial heights and the open water can alter weather systems ( fog , lake effect snow ) . Storm winds can alter the lakes as well with large systems causing storm surges that lower lake levels several feet on one side while raising it even higher on the other . The shallowest lake , Lake Erie , sometimes sees storm surge rises of 8 or 10 feet . Seiches cause short-term irregular lake level changes , killing people swept off beaches and piers and even sometimes sinking boats The great tolls caused by Great Lakes storms in 1868 and 1869 were one of the main reasons behind establishing a national weather forecasting service , initially run by the U.S. Army Signal Corps using telegraphs to announce approaching storms in a few port cities .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "List_of_storms_on_the_Great_Lakes", "rank": 86, "score": 80052 }, { "content": "Title: Šatorsko Lake Content: Šatorsko Lake or Šatorsko Jezero is a lake in the western regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina at 1488 m a.s.l. below Šator mountain ( 1872 m ) in the Dinaric Alps . The lake has a glacial origin and is 250 metres long and 120 metres wide , with the deepest point being 6 metres . The summer temperature is 17 ° C while the source on the shore , which feeds it , is 6 ° C . A few hundred metres to the north is the Bulino Vrelo spring , which is believed by the local population to have healing powers .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Šatorsko_Lake", "rank": 87, "score": 79950 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Airlines (Canada) Content: Great Lakes Airlines was a regional airline in Canada . It was formed in 1958 in Sarnia , Ontario by John Blunt and by 1983 became Air Ontario Ltd. . In June 1987 Air Ontario Ltd. merged with Austin Airways to form Air Ontario Inc. which in turn subsequently operated Air Canada Connector code sharing passenger flights on behalf of Air Canada with Convair 580 and de Havilland Canada DHC-8 Dash 8 series 100 and 300 turboprops . Air Ontario also operated Fokker F28 Fellowship jets at one point . Aircraft in service with Great Lakes during the 1970s , being Convair 440 propliners and Convair 580 turboprops , were older and subject to vibrations during take-off , resulting in passengers nicknaming the company `` Great Shakes '' . Convair 580 turboprops operated by Air Ontario prompted the nickname `` Scare Ontario '' .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Airlines_(Canada)", "rank": 88, "score": 79900 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Energy Content: Great Lakes Energy is a social enterprise founded by Sam Dargan in 2005 . The company is headquartered in Kigali , Rwanda and primarily serves the East African market . The company provides NGOs , hospitals , and schools with optimized photovoltaic systems . The company has specialized in retrofitting existing off-grid PV solar system designs with optimized versions . In the past the company has also provided jobs for training local Rwandans on how to engineer and install these systems.The company also has provided training to other social entrepreneurs learning to operate in Africa . Great Lakes Energy became the distributor for Sun King lamps by Green Light Energy in 2013 allowing it to provide off the shelf sustainable lighting solutions for rural households in Rwanda . In 2014 Great Lakes Energy partnered with Global Bright Light Foundation to distribute sun king lamps to refugees in the UNHCR Kiziba refugee camp in Rwanda .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Energy", "rank": 89, "score": 79828 }, { "content": "Title: Spanggur Tso Content: The Spanggur Tso ( lake ) , also called Maindung Co or Mandong Cuo , is a saltwater lake in western Tibet Autonomous Region , China . To the west of the lake lies the Spanggur Gap , and to the north is the Pangong Tso . The lake is at an elevation of 4305 meters , and has an area of 61.6 square kilometers . The lake 's average annual temperature is around -4 to -2 ℃ , and the annual precipitation is 50 to 75 mm . The western portion of the lake is in the Aksai Chin region that 's controlled by China but claimed by India . China established a military camp in the Spanggur area in 1959 . During the Sino-Indian War , Chinese troops attacked and overcame four Indian posts in the area in November 1962 .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Spanggur_Tso", "rank": 90, "score": 79799 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Gliding Club Content: Great Lakes Gliding Club ( GLGC ) is a soaring club is located at Tottenham/Ronan Aerodrome , 56.9 km northwest of Toronto , Ontario , Canada . Great Lakes Gliding provided facilities and pilot training for construction and testing of the UTIAS Snowbird , the first human-powered ornithopter to sustain straight and level flight , now undergoing record certification by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale ( FAI ) . GLGC operates on a not-for-profit basis , and flight instruction is provided for free by volunteer instructors .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Gliding_Club", "rank": 91, "score": 79766 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Waterway Content: The Great Lakes Waterway is a system of natural channels and canals which enable navigation between the North American Great Lakes . Though all of the lakes are naturally connected as a chain , water travel between the lakes was impeded for centuries by obstacles such as Niagara Falls and the rapids of the St. Marys River . Its principal civil engineering works are the Welland Canal between Lakes Ontario and Erie , and the huge Soo Locks between Huron and Superior . Dredged channels were constructed in the St. Marys River , the Detroit River , Lake St. Clair and the St. Clair River between Huron and Erie . Usually , one or more U.S. Coast Guard icebreakers help keep the water passage open for part of the fall and early winter , although shipping usually ceases for two to three months thereafter . The Great Lakes Waterway is co-administered by the governments of Canada and the United States of America .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Waterway", "rank": 92, "score": 79586 }, { "content": "Title: Medicine Lake, Montana Content: Medicine Lake is a town in Sheridan County , Montana , United States . The population was 225 at the 2010 census . On July 5 , 1937 , Medicine Lake recorded a temperature of 117 ° F ( 47 ° C ) , setting the record for the highest temperature ever recorded in Montana .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Medicine_Lake,_Montana", "rank": 93, "score": 79523 }, { "content": "Title: McArthur Lake Content: McArthur Lake is located in Northern Ontario , about 40 km south of the city of Timmins . It is located about 10 km south southeast of Papakomeka Lake . The lake consists of 13 islands , three main peninsulas and three main bays . The lake lies in Timiskaming District . Over 20 camps and cottages are built on the west side of McArthur Lake . Popular sports here include fishing for pickerel ( walleye ) and Northern pike as well as kayaking or boating . Blueberry Island is the home to the only blueberries in the lake 's region . The climate is very harsh ; very few deciduous trees are found here . Most of the waterfront is rocky . The lake closes usually around October and re-opens when the snow and ice melt . The lake is approximately 1.5 km ² , and is said to reach a depth of roughly 35 feet , near Blueberry and Maziic islands . The average water temperature ranges from 25 ° C in July , to a chilling 14 ° C by October . Cedar and poplar trees are common here , as well as balsam fir and various types of pines . Various kinds of wildlife include : rabbits , bluejays and chickadees .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "McArthur_Lake", "rank": 94, "score": 79495 }, { "content": "Title: Lake Huron Content: Lake Huron ( Lac Huron ) is one of the five Great Lakes of North America . Hydrologically , it comprises the easterly portion of Lake Michigan -- Huron , having the same surface elevation as its westerly counterpart , to which it is connected by the 5 mi , 20 fathom Straits of Mackinac . It is shared on the north and east by the Canadian province of Ontario and on the south and west by the state of Michigan in the United States . The name of the lake is derived from early French explorers who named it for the Huron people inhabiting the region . The Huronian glaciation was named due to evidence collected from Lake Huron region . The northern parts of the lake include the North Channel and Georgian Bay . Across the lake to the southwest is Saginaw Bay . The main inlet is the St. Marys River and the main outlet is the St. Clair .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Lake_Huron", "rank": 95, "score": 79363 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Higher Education Corporation Content: Great Lakes Higher Education Corporation is one of the largest student loan providers and guarantors in the United States . Headquartered in Madison , Wisconsin , the corporation is a non-profit . The company sometimes gives education-related grants , with a focus on increasing access to higher education . Nationally , Great Lakes guarantees $ 51 billion in loans under FFELP , and works with 6,000 schools , 1,100 lenders and 10,000,000 borrowers .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Higher_Education_Corporation", "rank": 96, "score": 79252 }, { "content": "Title: Lakes Region Facility Content: Lakes Region Facility was a state prison in Laconia , Belknap County , New Hampshire , in the United States . The facility was operated by the New Hampshire Department of Corrections , and has been closed as of June 30 , 2009 as a result of the late-2000s recession . The Lakes Region Facility was a minimum custody transitional facility . Its capacity is 400 inmates but averaged about 300 male inmates . The warden of the facility oversaw inmates housed there as well as inmates in the Calumet and North End Transitional Housing Units , as well as The Transitional Work Center . Lakes Region Facility minimum-security offenders provided over 30,000 hours of community service to state and county agencies and Laconia-area non-profit organizations . The Lakes Region Facility employed 153 people , including 105 corrections officers and 48 non-uniformed employees . Lakes Region was a minimum security transitional prison . In 2004 , it became an entirely male facility : minimum security female prisoners were relocated to the Shea Farm Halfway House in Concord , New Hampshire .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Lakes_Region_Facility", "rank": 97, "score": 78990 }, { "content": "Title: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1097 Content: United Nations Security Council resolution 1097 , adopted unanimously on 18 February 1997 , after expressing concern over the situation in the African Great Lakes region and for the safety of refugees and displaced persons , the Council endorsed a five-point peace plan to address the situation in eastern Zaire . The Security Council underlined the obligation of all countries in the region to uphold international humanitarian law and the need for the countries to respect the sovereignty and territorial integrity of each other and refrain from interfering in each other 's internal affairs . The five-point peace plan for eastern Zaire , as expressed in a letter from the Secretary-General Kofi Annan , were endorsed as follows : The immediate cessation of hostilities ; The withdrawal of mercenaries and other foreign forces ; The respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Zaire and other states in the region ; The protection and security of all refugees and displaced persons , including access to humanitarian aid ; The settlement of the conflict through political dialogue and the convening of an international conference on peace and security in the Great Lakes region . Finally , all governments and parties concerned were urged to co-operate with the joint United Nations/Organisation of African Unity Special Representative for the Great Lakes region , Mohamed Sahnoun , to achieve peace in the region .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1097", "rank": 98, "score": 78785 }, { "content": "Title: SS Edmund Fitzgerald Content: SS Edmund Fitzgerald was an American Great Lakes freighter that sank in a Lake Superior storm on November 10 , 1975 , with the loss of the entire crew of 29 . When launched on June 7 , 1958 , she was the largest ship on North America 's Great Lakes , and she remains the largest to have sunk there . For 17 years Fitzgerald carried taconite iron ore from mines near Duluth , Minnesota , to iron works in Detroit , Toledo , and other Great Lakes ports . As a `` workhorse , '' she set seasonal haul records six times , often breaking her own previous record . Captain Peter Pulcer was known for piping music day or night over the ship 's intercom while passing through the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers ( between Lakes Huron and Erie ) , and entertaining spectators at the Soo Locks ( between Lakes Superior and Huron ) with a running commentary about the ship . Her size , record-breaking performance , and `` DJ captain '' endeared Fitzgerald to boat watchers . Carrying a full cargo of ore pellets with Captain Ernest M. McSorley in command , she embarked on her ill-fated voyage from Superior , Wisconsin , near Duluth , on the afternoon of November 9 , 1975 . En route to a steel mill near Detroit , Fitzgerald joined a second freighter , . By the next day , the two ships were caught in a severe storm on Lake Superior , with near hurricane-force winds and waves up to 35 ft high . Shortly after 7:10 p.m. , Fitzgerald suddenly sank in Canadian ( Ontario ) waters 530 ft deep , about 17 mi from Whitefish Bay near the twin cities of Sault Ste. Marie , Michigan , and Sault Ste. Marie , Ontario -- a distance Fitzgerald could have covered in just over an hour at her top speed . Although Fitzgerald had reported being in difficulty earlier , no distress signals were sent before she sank ; Captain McSorley 's last message to Anderson said , `` We are holding our own . '' Her crew of 29 perished , and no bodies were recovered . The exact cause of the sinking remains unknown , though many books , studies , and expeditions have examined it . Fitzgerald might have fallen victim to the high waves of the storm , suffered structural failure , been swamped with water entering through her cargo hatches or deck , experienced topside damage , or shoaled in a shallow part of Lake Superior . The disaster is one of the best-known in the history of Great Lakes shipping . Gordon Lightfoot made it the subject of his 1976 hit song `` The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald '' after reading an article , `` The Cruelest Month '' , in the November 24 , 1975 , issue of Newsweek . The sinking led to changes in Great Lakes shipping regulations and practices that included mandatory survival suits , depth finders , positioning systems , increased freeboard , and more frequent inspection of vessels .", "qid": "2918", "docid": "SS_Edmund_Fitzgerald", "rank": 99, "score": 78779 }, { "content": "Title: Peninsula Lake (Alberta) Content: Peninsula Lake is a lake in Alberta , Canada . The lake is located 160 km southeast of the city of Edmonton . The salinity of Peninsula Lake causes characteristics such as temperature , nutrient concentrations and plant and animal communities to contrast with those from freshwater lakes . The lake is contains high levels of sulphate , sodium and bicarbonate/carbonate concentrations which , are produced by saline groundwater in the region . In winter , the temperature of water under the ice drops to 0 ° C , extremely low , even for Alberta lakes . Although the lake contains high mineral levels , plant growth is sparse . A few planktonic invertebrates are exceptionally abundant , but there are fewer species than in freshwater lakes . There are no fish living in the lake . Category : Flagstaff County Peninsula Lake", "qid": "2918", "docid": "Peninsula_Lake_(Alberta)", "rank": 100, "score": 78622 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents", "rank": 1, "score": 139191 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 2, "score": 130079 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 3, "score": 125953 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 4, "score": 118806 }, { "content": "Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies", "rank": 5, "score": 117469 }, { "content": "Title: Howard Friel Content: Howard Friel is a U.S. independent scholar and author who wrote The Lomborg Deception : Setting the Record Straight About Global Warming ( Yale University Press , 2010 , ISBN 978-0-300-16103-8 ) , a critique of Bjørn Lomborg 's books The Skeptical Environmentalist and Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming . He also co-authored Israel-Palestine on Record : How the New York Times Misreports Conflict in the Middle East with Richard Falk ( Verso , 2007 ) . He co-authored The Record of the Paper : How the New York Times Misreports US Foreign Policy with Richard Falk ( Verso , 2004 , ISBN 978-1-84467-019-2 ) . In 1995 , Friel edited Guns and the Constitution : The Myth of Second Amendment Protection for Firearms in America with Dennis Henigan .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Howard_Friel", "rank": 6, "score": 115025 }, { "content": "Title: Fahrenheit Content: Fahrenheit is a temperature scale based on one proposed in 1724 by Amsterdam-based physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit ( 1686 -- 1736 ) , after whom the scale is named . It uses the degree Fahrenheit ( symbol ° F ) as the unit . Several accounts of how he originally defined his scale exist . The lower defining point , 0 ° F , was established as the temperature of a solution of brine made from equal parts of ice and salt . Further limits were established as the melting point of ice ( 32 ° F ) and his best estimate of the average human body temperature ( 96 ° F , about 2.6 ° F less than the modern value due to a later redefinition of the scale ) . The scale is now usually defined by two fixed points : the temperature at which water freezes into ice is defined as 32 ° F , and the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 ° F , a 180 ° F separation , as defined at sea level and standard atmospheric pressure . By the end of the 20th century , Fahrenheit was used as the official temperature scale only in the United States ( including its unincorporated territories ) , its freely associated states in the Western Pacific ( Palau , the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands ) , the Bahamas , Belize , and the Cayman Islands . All other countries in the world now use the Celsius scale , defined since 1954 by absolute zero being − 273.15 ° C and the triple point of water being at 0.01 ° C.", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Fahrenheit", "rank": 7, "score": 113820 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 8, "score": 111190 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 9, "score": 111156 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature Content: A temperature is an objective comparative measurement of hot or cold . It is measured by a thermometer . Several scales and units exist for measuring temperature , the most common being Celsius ( denoted ° C ; formerly called centigrade ) , Fahrenheit ( denoted ° F ) , and , especially in science , Kelvin ( denoted K ) . The coldest theoretical temperature is absolute zero , at which the thermal motion of atoms and molecules reaches its minimum -- classically , this would be a state of motionlessness , but quantum uncertainty dictates that the particles still possess a finite zero-point energy . Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K on the Kelvin scale , − 273.15 ° C on the Celsius scale , and − 459.67 ° F on the Fahrenheit scale . The kinetic theory offers a valuable but limited account of the behavior of the materials of macroscopic bodies , especially of fluids . It indicates the absolute temperature as proportional to the average kinetic energy of the random microscopic motions of those of their constituent microscopic particles , such as electrons , atoms , and molecules , that move freely within the material . Temperature is important in all fields of natural science including physics , geology , chemistry , atmospheric sciences , medicine and biology as well as most aspects of daily life .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Temperature", "rank": 10, "score": 110498 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 11, "score": 109789 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Global_warming_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 12, "score": 107250 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Global_temperature_record", "rank": 13, "score": 107223 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 14, "score": 106692 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 15, "score": 105664 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 16, "score": 104036 }, { "content": "Title: Data analysis techniques for fraud detection Content: Fraud is a billion-dollar business and it is increasing every year . The PwC global economic crime survey of 2016 suggests that more than one in three ( 36 % ) of organizations experienced economic crime . Fraud possibilities co-evolve with technology , esp . Information technology Business reengineering , reorganization or downsizing may weaken or eliminate control , while new information systems may present additional opportunities to commit fraud . Traditional methods of data analysis have long been used to detect fraud . They require complex and time-consuming investigations that deal with different domains of knowledge like financial , economics , business practices and law . Fraud often consists of many instances or incidents involving repeated transgressions using the same method . Fraud instances can be similar in content and appearance but usually are not identical . The first industries to use data analysis techniques to prevent fraud were the telephone companies , the insurance companies and the banks ( Decker 1998 ) . One early example of successful implementation of data analysis techniques in the banking industry is the FICO Falcon fraud assessment system , which is based on a neural network shell . Retail industries also suffer from fraud at POS . Some supermarkets have started to make use of digitized closed-circuit television ( CCTV ) together with POS data of most susceptible transactions to fraud . Internet transactions have recently raised big concerns , with some research showing that internet transaction fraud is 12 times higher than in-store fraud . Fraud that involves cell phones , insurance claims , tax return claims , credit card transactions etc. represent significant problems for governments and businesses , but yet detecting and preventing fraud is not a simple task . Fraud is an adaptive crime , so it needs special methods of intelligent data analysis to detect and prevent it . These methods exist in the areas of Knowledge Discovery in Databases ( KDD ) , Data Mining , Machine Learning and Statistics . They offer applicable and successful solutions in different areas of fraud crimes . Techniques used for fraud detection fall into two primary classes : statistical techniques and artificial intelligence . Examples of statistical data analysis techniques are : Data preprocessing techniques for detection , validation , error correction , and filling up of missing or incorrect data . Calculation of various statistical parameters such as averages , quantiles , performance metrics , probability distributions , and so on . For example , the averages may include average length of call , average number of calls per month and average delays in bill payment . Models and probability distributions of various business activities either in terms of various parameters or probability distributions . Computing user profiles . Time-series analysis of time-dependent data . Clustering and classification to find patterns and associations among groups of data . Matching algorithms to detect anomalies in the behavior of transactions or users as compared to previously known models and profiles . Techniques are also needed to eliminate false alarms , estimate risks , and predict future of current transactions or users . Some forensic accountants specialize in forensic analytics which is the procurement and analysis of electronic data to reconstruct , detect , or otherwise support a claim of financial fraud . The main steps in forensic analytics are ( a ) data collection , ( b ) data preparation , ( c ) data analysis , and ( d ) reporting . For example , forensic analytics may be used to review an employee 's purchasing card activity to assess whether any of the purchases were diverted or divertible for personal use . Forensic analytics might be used to review the invoicing activity for a vendor to identify fictitious vendors , and these techniques might also be used by a franchisor to detect fraudulent or erroneous sales reports by the franchisee in a franchising environment . Fraud management is a knowledge-intensive activity . The main AI techniques used for fraud management include : Data mining to classify , cluster , and segment the data and automatically find associations and rules in the data that may signify interesting patterns , including those related to fraud . Expert systems to encode expertise for detecting fraud in the form of rules . Pattern recognition to detect approximate classes , clusters , or patterns of suspicious behavior either automatically ( unsupervised ) or to match given inputs . Machine learning techniques to automatically identify characteristics of fraud . Neural networks that can learn suspicious patterns from samples and used later to detect them . Other techniques such as link analysis , Bayesian networks , decision theory , and sequence matching are also used for fraud detection .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Data_analysis_techniques_for_fraud_detection", "rank": 17, "score": 103837 }, { "content": "Title: Celsius 41.11 Content: Celsius 41.11 is a 2004 political documentary film inspired by , and partially in response to Michael Moore 's film Fahrenheit 9/11 . The title was chosen because , according to the makers of the movie , 41.11 ° C is `` The Temperature at Which the Brain Begins to Die '' , which is the film 's tag-line . The film addresses five charges made against George W. Bush in Moore 's film and criticizes 2004 Democratic Presidential candidate John Kerry . It was released during the run-up to the 2004 United States Presidential general election . It took six weeks to make Celsius 41.11 . The production was funded and the film distributed to a limited number of movie theaters by Citizens United , a conservative political organization . Celsius 41.11 performed less well at the box office than comparable left-leaning documentaries and significantly poorer than Fahrenheit 9/11 . The producer attributed this to voter fatigue and to a timetabling clash with the World Series . The critics ' response was described as `` irk -LSB- ed -RSB- '' by the BBC . A number of critics described the film as a campaign advertisement for George W. Bush . Several believed that the movie would appeal primarily to convinced supporters of George W. Bush and was unlikely to sway undecided voters or change the opinion of Kerry supporters . The critics felt the film shared the flaws of Fahrenheit 9/11 without sharing all of its virtues , in particular it was criticised for a comparative lack of emotion . The reliability of some of the individuals interviewed was questioned by the New York Times and the Boston Globe . Critics frequently compared the style to that of a PowerPoint presentation with some adding that the speed with which the film had been produced was evident in the quality of the finished product . Opinions as to the quality of the arguments advanced varied with Michael Graham of the National Review stating that the film had done a `` solid job '' in answering Moore 's arguments whilst Maitland McDonagh of TV Guide called the film a `` shrill , repetitive screed '' .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Celsius_41.11", "rank": 18, "score": 103641 }, { "content": "Title: Pyrotherapy Content: Pyrotherapy ( artificial fever , therapeutic fever ) is a method of treatment by raising the body temperature or sustaining an elevated body temperature ( caused by a fever ) . In general , the body temperature was maintained at 41 ° Celsius ( 105 ° Fahrenheit ) . Many diseases were treated by this method in the first half of the 20th century . In general , it was done by exposing the patient to hot baths , warm air , or ( electric ) blankets .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Pyrotherapy", "rank": 19, "score": 103587 }, { "content": "Title: 4° Content: 4 ° may refer to : 4 ° , or Quarto a book or pamphlet produced from full ` blanksheets ' , each of which is printed with eight pages of text , four to a side 4 ° , a reference to a 4-degrees Celsius increase in the global average temperature due to climate change , 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference `` 4 ° '' , the third single by the progressive rock band Tool from their 1993 album Undertow `` 4 Degrees '' , the first single by experimental pop singer Anohni from her 2016 album Hopelessness", "qid": "2920", "docid": "4°", "rank": 20, "score": 102461 }, { "content": "Title: 98.6 Content: 98.6 may refer to : Human body temperature , sometimes quoted as 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit when healthy ( although this is , in fact , an average rather than a universal rule ) `` 98.6 '' ( song ) , a song by Keith 98.6 , a novel by Ronald Sukenick 98.6 ZHFM , a Classic Hits FM radio station in New Zealand DRG Class 98.6 , a steam locomotive which has been renamed as Bavarian D VIII 98.6 Degrees : The Art of Keeping Your Ass Alive , a survival book by Cody Lundin", "qid": "2920", "docid": "98.6", "rank": 21, "score": 102140 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 22, "score": 101887 }, { "content": "Title: The Deniers Content: The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "The_Deniers", "rank": 23, "score": 101815 }, { "content": "Title: Basal body temperature Content: Basal body temperature ( BBT ) is the lowest body temperature attained during rest ( usually during sleep ) . It is usually estimated by a temperature measurement immediately after awakening and before any physical activity has been undertaken . This will lead to a somewhat higher value than the true BBT ( see Fig. 1 ) . For more accurate results , it is determined by using internally worn temperature loggers . In women , ovulation causes an increase of one-half to one degree Fahrenheit ( one-quarter to one-half degree Celsius ) in BBT ; monitoring of BBTs is one way of estimating the day of ovulation . The tendency of a woman to have lower temperatures before ovulation , and higher temperatures afterwards , is known as a biphasic pattern . Charting of this pattern may be used as a component of fertility awareness . The BBT of men is comparable to the BBT of women in their follicular phase .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Basal_body_temperature", "rank": 24, "score": 101752 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Turkey", "rank": 25, "score": 101501 }, { "content": "Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet", "rank": 26, "score": 101492 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 27, "score": 100606 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy", "rank": 28, "score": 100368 }, { "content": "Title: Carryover cooking Content: Carryover cooking ( sometimes referred to as resting ) is the phenomenon that food retains heat and continues to cook even after being removed from the source of heat . Carryover cooking is often used as a finishing step in preparation of foods that are roasted or grilled , and must be accounted for in recipes as it can increase the internal temperature of foods by temperatures between 5 and 25 degrees Fahrenheit ( 3 -- 14 ° C ) . The larger and denser the object being heated , the greater the amount of temperature increase due to carryover cooking . Resting , when used as a synonym for carryover cooking , also refers to the process of allowing the liquids in meats to redistribute through the food over a 5 - to 20-minute period . This allows for a more flavorful and juicy finished product .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Carryover_cooking", "rank": 29, "score": 99750 }, { "content": "Title: UAH satellite temperature dataset Content: The UAH satellite temperature dataset , developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from satellite measurements of radiance . It was the first global temperature datasets developed from satellite information and has been used as a tool for research into surface and atmospheric temperature changes . The dataset is published by John Christy et al. and formerly jointly with Roy Spencer .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "UAH_satellite_temperature_dataset", "rank": 30, "score": 99134 }, { "content": "Title: ISO 1 Content: ISO 1 is an international standard set by the International Organization for Standardization that specifies the standard reference temperature for geometrical product specification and verification . The temperature is fixed at 20 ° C , which is equal to 293.15 kelvins and 68 degrees Fahrenheit . Due to thermal expansion , precision length measurements need to be made at ( or converted to ) a defined temperature . ISO 1 helps in comparing measurements by defining such a reference temperature . The reference temperature of 20 ° C was adopted by the CIPM on 15 April 1931 , and became ISO recommendation number 1 in 1951 . It soon replaced worldwide other reference temperatures for length measurements that manufacturers of precision equipment had used before , including 0 ° C , 62 ° F , and 25 ° C. Among the reasons for choosing 20 ° C was that this was a comfortable and practical workshop temperature and that it resulted in an integer value on both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "ISO_1", "rank": 31, "score": 98041 }, { "content": "Title: World's tallest thermometer Content: The World 's Tallest Thermometer is a landmark located in Baker , California , USA . It is an electric sign that commemorates the record 134 degrees Fahrenheit ( 57 degrees Celsius ) recorded in nearby Death Valley on July 10 , 1913 . The sign weighs 76812 lb and is held together by 125 cuyd of concrete . It stands 134 ft tall and is capable of displaying a maximum temperature of 134 F , both of which are a reference to the temperature record .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "World's_tallest_thermometer", "rank": 32, "score": 97644 }, { "content": "Title: Planetary equilibrium temperature Content: The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Planetary_equilibrium_temperature", "rank": 33, "score": 96926 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe", "rank": 34, "score": 96227 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program", "rank": 35, "score": 95831 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska", "rank": 36, "score": 95654 }, { "content": "Title: Monthly Climatic Data for the World Content: Monthly Climatic Data for the World ( MCDW ) is a monthly publication of the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) division of the National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the United States . According to the website , each monthly issue `` contains monthly mean temperature , pressure , precipitation , vapor pressure , and sunshine for approximately 2,000 surface data collection stations worldwide and monthly mean upper air temperatures , dew point depressions , and wind velocities for approximately 500 observing sites . This is the final quality controlled copy and generally has a 4 - 6 month time lag . '' The issues are available for download in portable document format .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Monthly_Climatic_Data_for_the_World", "rank": 37, "score": 95649 }, { "content": "Title: 7800° Fahrenheit Content: 7800 ° Fahrenheit is the second studio album by American rock band Bon Jovi , released on March 27 , 1985 through Mercury Records . The album 's title was a reference to the supposed melting point of rock , equivalent to 4313 ° Celsius ; as the Fahrenheit scale is primarily used only in the United States , 7800 ° Fahrenheit thus suggested `` American hot rock . '' The album introduced the classic 1980s Bon Jovi logo that would later be used on Slippery When Wet and New Jersey . 7800 ° Fahrenheit reached # 37 on the Billboard 200 albums chart and was the band 's first album to be certified gold in the US . It remained charted for 85 weeks and was certified platinum on February 19 , 1987 . The singles `` Only Lonely '' and `` In and Out of Love '' both charted on the Billboard Hot 100 .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "7800°_Fahrenheit", "rank": 38, "score": 95586 }, { "content": "Title: Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy Content: The Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) is a climate change research centre in England . It is hosted jointly by the University of Leeds and the London School of Economics and Political Science ( LSE ) . CCCEP is part of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment , which is chaired by Lord Nicholas Stern of Brentford , former Chief Economist of the World Bank and author of the widely known Stern Review . CCCEP was established in 2008 , and is funded by the ESRC . Its mission is to advance public and private action on climate change through rigorous , innovative research . In pursuit of its mission , CCCEP has five research themes in its phase 2 programme : Understanding green growth and climate-compatible development Advancing climate finance and investment Evaluating the performance of climate policies Managing climate risks and uncertainties and strengthening climate services Enabling rapid transitions in mitigation and adaptation In October 2016 , The Daily mail reported allegations that CCCEP had fraudulently obtained millions of dollars from UK taxpayers by claiming credit for research they did not produce . The organization responded to the claims saying that the alleged fraud was an overreaction to a clerical error .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Centre_for_Climate_Change_Economics_and_Policy", "rank": 39, "score": 95426 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 40, "score": 95180 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 41, "score": 94966 }, { "content": "Title: Fahrenheit (roller coaster) Content: Fahrenheit is a steel roller coaster at Hersheypark in Hershey , Pennsylvania . Located in the Pioneer Frontier section of the park , the roller coaster opened on May 24 , 2008 . It features six inversions and became the steepest roller coaster in the world when it opened with its first drop of 97 degrees . Fahrenheit briefly held the record until Steel Hawg at Indiana Beach , which featured an 111-degree drop , opened several weeks later on July 5 . It is now the 7th steepest roller coaster in the world .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Fahrenheit_(roller_coaster)", "rank": 42, "score": 94856 }, { "content": "Title: Ghrsst-pp Content: The Group for High Resolution SST ( GHRSST ) is a follow on activity form the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment ( GODAE ) high-resolution sea surface temperature pilot project ( GHRSST-PP ) provides a new generation of global high-resolution ( < 10 km ) SST data products to the operational oceanographic , meteorological , climate and general scientific community , in real time and delayed mode . See GHRSST for full details . Sea surface temperature ( SST ) measured from Earth Observation Satellites in considerable spatial detail and at high frequency , is increasingly required for use in the context of operational monitoring and forecasting of the ocean , for assimilation into coupled ocean-atmosphere model systems and for applications in short-term numerical weather prediction and longer term climate change detection . Currently there are many different SST data sets available derived from satellite systems . But , scientists and operational agencies alike are presented with a bewidering set of options in terms of SST product content , coverage , spatial resolution , timeliness , format and accuracy . The international GODAE steering committee realised that SST data products were not adequate for GODAE forecast systems and initiated the GODAE High Resolution SST Pilot Project ( GHRSST-PP ) . User Requirements were collected together to define the optimal SST data products that could be developed to suit the widest possible number of applications . In 2008 the GHRSST-PP Science Team agreed to close the Pilot Project as the GODAE project was completed . A follow on activity called the Group for High Resolution SST is now continuing the coordination of GHRSST activities .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Ghrsst-pp", "rank": 43, "score": 94347 }, { "content": "Title: Global Change Information System Content: The US Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) develops and curates the Global Change Information System ( GCIS ) to establish `` data interfaces and interoperable repositories of climate and global change data which can be easily and efficiently accessed , integrated with other data sets , maintained and expanded over time . '' The initial focus of GCIS is to support the United States Third National Climate Assessment ( NCA3 ) , which is to publish reports that enhance the transparency and ability of decision-makers to understand the conclusions and use of the underlying data for their own purposes .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Global_Change_Information_System", "rank": 44, "score": 93871 }, { "content": "Title: 2000 Southern United States heat wave Content: Aided by drought , a heat wave persisted in late Summer 2000 along the southern tier of the United States from July to early September of that year . Near the end of the period , daily , monthly , and even all-time record high temperatures were broken , with highs commonly peaking well over 100 degrees Fahrenheit . On September 4 , Houston hit 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) and Dallas peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) ; on September 5 , Corpus Christi peaked at 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) , San Antonio peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) while College Station and Austin reached 112 ° F ( 44.4 ° C ) . Damage totaled $ 4 billion , mainly due to wildfires and crop losses , and there were 140 deaths .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "2000_Southern_United_States_heat_wave", "rank": 45, "score": 93775 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 46, "score": 93765 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 47, "score": 93740 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Policy Foundation Content: The Global Warming Policy Foundation ( GWPF ) is a think tank in the United Kingdom , whose stated aims are to challenge `` extremely damaging and harmful policies '' envisaged by governments to mitigate anthropogenic global warming . It promotes climate change denial . In 2014 , when the Charity Commission ruled that the GWPF had breached rules on impartiality , a non-charitable organisation called the `` Global Warming Policy Forum '' or `` GWPF '' was created as a wholly owned subsidiary , to do lobbying that a charity could not . The GWPF website carries an array of articles `` sceptical '' of scientific findings of anthropogenic global warming and its impacts .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Global_Warming_Policy_Foundation", "rank": 48, "score": 93655 }, { "content": "Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "David_Parker_(climatologist)", "rank": 49, "score": 93055 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 50, "score": 92842 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 51, "score": 92773 }, { "content": "Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Instrumental_temperature_record", "rank": 52, "score": 92761 }, { "content": "Title: U.S. state and territory temperature extremes Content: The following table lists the highest and lowest temperatures recorded in the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and the 5 inhabited U.S. territories during the past two centuries, in both Fahrenheit and Celsius. If two dates have the same temperature record (e.g. record low of 40°F in 1911 in Aibonito and 1966 in San Sebastian in Puerto Rico), only the most recent date is shown.", "qid": "2920", "docid": "U.S._state_and_territory_temperature_extremes", "rank": 53, "score": 92242 }, { "content": "Title: Degree of frost Content: A degree of frost is a non-standard unit of measure for air temperature meaning degrees below melting point ( also known as `` freezing point '' ) of water ( 0 degrees Celsius or 32 degrees Fahrenheit ) . `` Degree '' in this case can refer to degree Celsius or Fahrenheit . When based on Celsius , 0 degrees of frost is the same as 0 ° C , and any other value is simply the negative of the Celsius temperature . When based on Fahrenheit , the conversion is a bit more complicated , as 0 degrees of frost is equal to 32 ° F. Conversion formulas : T -LSB- degrees of frost -RSB- = 32 ° F - T -LSB- ° F -RSB- T -LSB- ° F -RSB- = 32 ° F - T ( degrees of frost ) The term `` degrees of frost '' was widely used in accounts of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration in the early 20th century . The term appears frequently in Ernest Shackleton 's books South and Heart of the Antarctic , Apsley Cherry-Garrard 's account of his Antarctic adventures in The Worst Journey in the World ( wherein he recorded 109.5 ( Fahrenheit ) degrees of frost , -- 77.5 ° F or -- 60.8 ° C ) , as well as Admiral Richard E. Byrd 's book Alone .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Degree_of_frost", "rank": 54, "score": 92141 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 55, "score": 91869 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 56, "score": 91749 }, { "content": "Title: Pseudoproxy Content: A pseudoproxy is a synthetic dataset used in paleoclimatology to test methods of reconstruction of global or hemispherical climate change from temperature records , developed for reconstructing the temperature record of the past 1000 years using proxies for periods before the instrumental temperature record . In May 2002 Michael E. Mann and Scott Rutherford published a paper introducing this method of adding artificial noise to actual temperature records or to climate model simulations to produce what they called `` pseudoproxies '' . When the reconstruction algorithms were used with these pseudoproxies , the result was then compared with the original record or simulation to see how closely it had been reconstructed . They discussed the issue that regression methods of reconstruction tended to underestimate the amplitude of variation .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Pseudoproxy", "rank": 57, "score": 91734 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming taxes Content:", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Global_warming_taxes", "rank": 58, "score": 91707 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Hypercane", "rank": 59, "score": 91237 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)", "rank": 60, "score": 91212 }, { "content": "Title: Murry Salby Content: Murry Lewis Salby is an atmospheric scientist who focused on upper atmospheric wave propagation for most of his early career , and who more recently has argued against aspects of the scientific consensus that human activity contributes to climate change . From the mid 1980s , Salby conducted research out of University of Colorado Boulder . In 2005 , the National Science Foundation opened an investigation into Salby 's federal funding arrangements and found that he had displayed `` a pattern of deception -LSB- and -RSB- a lack of integrity '' in his handling of federal grant money . He resigned his position in Colorado in 2008 and became professor of climate risk at Macquarie University in Macquarie Park , New South Wales . In 2013 he was dismissed by the university on grounds of refusal to teach and misuse of university resources . He has written two textbooks , Fundamentals of Atmospheric Physics ( 1996 ) , and Physics of the Atmosphere and Climate ( 2011 ) . The latter textbook , building on his first book , offers an overview of the processes controlling the atmosphere of Earth , weather , energetics , and climate physics .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Murry_Salby", "rank": 61, "score": 91195 }, { "content": "Title: 0° Content: 0 ° or 0 degrees may refer to : prime meridian , longitude equator , latitude freezing point of water ( Celsius ) absolute zero , the lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale 0 ° Fahrenheit , approximately -17.78 ° Celsius", "qid": "2920", "docid": "0°", "rank": 62, "score": 90905 }, { "content": "Title: Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit Content: Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit ( -LSB- ˈfærənˌhaɪt -RSB- -LSB- ˈfaːʀənhait -RSB- ; 24 May 1686 -- 16 September 1736 ) was a Dutch-German-Polish physicist , inventor , and scientific instrument maker . A pioneer of exact thermometry , he is best known for inventing the mercury-in-glass thermometer ( first practical , accurate thermometer ) and for proposing the Fahrenheit scale ( first standardized temperature scale to be widely used ) .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Daniel_Gabriel_Fahrenheit", "rank": 63, "score": 90778 }, { "content": "Title: Christopher Booker Content: Christopher John Penrice Booker ( born 7 October 1937 ) is an English journalist and author . In 1961 , he was one of the founders of the magazine Private Eye , and has contributed to it since then . He has been a columnist for The Sunday Telegraph since 1990 . He has taken a stance which runs counter to the scientific consensus on a number of issues , including global warming , the link between passive smoking and cancer , and the dangers posed by asbestos . In 2009 , he published The Real Global Warming Disaster . In collaboration with Richard North , Booker has written a variety of publications advancing a eurosceptic , though academically disputed , popular historiography of the European Union . The most well-known of these is The Great Deception , a conspiracy theory-laden look at the European Union . In addition there are related books The Castle of Lies ( 1997 ) which look at both European and British bureaucracy . The UK Family Courts and the Social Services often feature in his Sunday Telegraph section .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Christopher_Booker", "rank": 64, "score": 90768 }, { "content": "Title: Fraud (film) Content: Fraud is a 2016 conceptual documentary film directed by Dean Fleischer-Camp . It tells the story of an average white American family of four obsessively shopping at Big Box stores until their increasing mountain of debt leads them to go to extremes in order to wipe the slate clean and keep the money flowing .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Fraud_(film)", "rank": 65, "score": 90130 }, { "content": "Title: Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program Content: The Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program ( GTSPP ) is a cooperative international project that seeks to develop and maintain a global ocean Temperature-Salinity resource with up-to-date and high quality data .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Global_Temperature-Salinity_Profile_Program", "rank": 66, "score": 90078 }, { "content": "Title: Dry-bulb temperature Content: The dry-bulb temperature ( DBT ) is the temperature of air measured by a thermometer freely exposed to the air but shielded from radiation and moisture . DBT is the temperature that is usually thought of as air temperature , and it is the true thermodynamic temperature . It indicates the amount of heat in the air and is directly proportional to the mean kinetic energy of the air molecules . Temperature is usually measured in degrees Celsius ( ° C ) , Kelvin ( K ) , or Fahrenheit ( ° F ) . Unlike wet bulb temperature , dry bulb temperature does not indicate the amount of moisture in the air . In construction , it is an important consideration when designing a building for a certain climate . Nall called it one of `` the most important climate variables for human comfort and building energy efficiency . '' DBT is an important variable in Psychrometrics , being the horizontal axis of a Psychrometric chart .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Dry-bulb_temperature", "rank": 67, "score": 89850 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 68, "score": 89845 }, { "content": "Title: Berkeley Earth Content: Berkeley Earth is a Berkeley , California based independent 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit focused on land temperature data analysis for climate science . Berkeley Earth was founded in early 2010 ( originally called the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature project ) with the goal of addressing the major concerns from outside the scientific community regarding global warming and the instrumental temperature record . The project 's stated aim was a `` transparent approach , based on data analysis . '' In February 2013 , Berkeley Earth became an independent non-profit . In August 2013 , Berkeley Earth was granted 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) tax-exempt status by the US government . The primary product is air temperatures over land , but they also produce a global dataset resulting from a merge of their land data with HadSST . Berkeley Earth founder Richard A. Muller told The Guardian '' ... we are bringing the spirit of science back to a subject that has become too argumentative and too contentious , ... we are an independent , non-political , non-partisan group . We will gather the data , do the analysis , present the results and make all of it available . There will be no spin , whatever we find . We are doing this because it is the most important project in the world today . Nothing else comes close . '' Berkeley Earth has been funded by unrestricted educational grants totaling ( as of December 2013 ) about $ 1,394,500 . Large donors include Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , the Charles G. Koch Foundation , the Fund for Innovative Climate and Energy Research ( FICER ) , and the William K. Bowes , Jr. . Foundation . The donors have no control over how Berkeley Earth conducts the research or what they publish . The team 's preliminary findings , data sets and programs were published in journals operated by OMICS Group , a predatory open access publisher beginning in December 2012 . The study addressed scientific concerns including urban heat island effect , poor station quality , and the risk of data selection bias . The Berkeley Earth group concluded that the warming trend is real , that over the past 50 years ( between the decades of the 1950s and 2000s ) the land surface warmed by 0.91 ± 0.05 ° C , and their results mirror those obtained from earlier studies carried out by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , the Hadley Centre , NASA 's Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) Surface Temperature Analysis , and the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia . The study also found that the urban heat island effect and poor station quality did not bias the results obtained from these earlier studies .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Berkeley_Earth", "rank": 69, "score": 89805 }, { "content": "Title: Highest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The standard measuring conditions for temperature are in the air , 1.5 meters above the ground , and shielded from direct sunlight . The highest confirmed temperature on Earth recorded according to these measures was 56.7 C in Furnace Creek Ranch , California , located in the Death Valley desert in the United States , on July 10 , 1913 . The former highest official temperature on Earth , held for 90 years by ` Aziziya , Libya , was de-certified by the WMO ( World Meteorological Organization ) in January 2012 as the record for the world 's highest surface temperature ( this temperature of 57.8 ° C ( 136 ° F ) , registered on 13 September 1922 , is currently considered to have been a recorder 's error ) . Christopher C. Burt , the weather historian writing for Weather Underground who shepherded the Libya reading 's 2012 disqualification , believes that the 1913 Death Valley reading is `` a myth '' , and is at least four or five degrees Fahrenheit too high , as do other weather historians Dr. Arnold Court and William Taylor Reid . Burt proposes that the highest reliably recorded temperature on Earth is still at Death Valley , but is instead 53.9 C recorded five times : 20 July 1960 , 18 July 1998 , 20 July 2005 , 7 July 2007 , and 30 June 2013 . Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 ° C . A ground temperature of 84 ° C ( 183.2 ° F ) has been recorded in Port Sudan , Sudan . A ground temperature of 93.9 ° C ( 201 ° F ) was recorded also in Furnace Creek Ranch on 15 July 1972 ; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded . The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 ° C for dry , darkish soils of low thermal conductivity . Temperature measurements via satellite also tend to capture occurrence of higher records but are considered less reliable than ground-positioned thermometers . There is a satellite record of 66.8 C measured in the Flaming Mountains of China in 2008 . Other satellite measurements of ground temperature taken between 2003 and 2009 , taken with the MODIS infrared spectroradiometer on the Aqua satellite , found a maximum temperature of 70.7 ° C ( 159.3 ° F ) , which was recorded in 2005 in the Lut Desert , Iran . The Lut Desert was also found to have the highest maximum temperature in 5 of the 7 years measured ( 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 and 2009 ) . These measurements reflect averages over a large region and so are lower than the maximum point surface temperature .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Highest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth", "rank": 70, "score": 89767 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming", "rank": 71, "score": 89673 }, { "content": "Title: Cold Content: Cold is the presence of low temperature , especially in the atmosphere . In common usage , cold is often a subjective perception . A lower bound to temperature is absolute zero , defined as 0.00 K on the Kelvin scale , an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale . This corresponds to 0 K on the Celsius scale , 0 K on the Fahrenheit scale , and 0 K on the Rankine scale . Since temperature relates to the thermal energy held by an object or a sample of matter , which is the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particle constituents of matter , an object will have less thermal energy when it is colder and more when it is hotter . If it were possible to cool a system to absolute zero , all motion of the particles in a sample of matter would cease and they would be at complete rest in this classical sense . The object would be described as having zero thermal energy . Microscopically in the description of quantum mechanics , however , matter still has zero-point energy even at absolute zero , because of the uncertainty principle .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Cold", "rank": 72, "score": 89264 }, { "content": "Title: Planck temperature Content: Planck temperature , denoted by TP , is the unit of temperature in the system of natural units known as Planck units . It serves as the defining unit of the Planck temperature scale . In this scale the magnitude of the Planck temperature is equal to 1 , while that of absolute zero is 0 . Other temperatures can be converted to Planck temperature units . For example , 0 ° C = 273.15 K = 1.9279 × 10 − 30TP . In SI units , the Planck temperature is about 1.417 × 1032 kelvin ( equivalently , degrees Celsius , since the difference is trivially small at this scale ) , or 2.55 × 1032 degrees Fahrenheit or Rankine .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Planck_temperature", "rank": 73, "score": 89192 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change", "rank": 74, "score": 89165 }, { "content": "Title: Degree Day Unit Content: The Degree Day Unit is an inexact unit of measurement generally used by the pest control industry and lawn and landscape services regarding the amount of days , normally in the spring , of temperatures above 50 degrees Fahrenheit . For many years insects and weeds were simply assumed to emerge in the early spring based on only average temperatures of the different areas . If unseasonable temperatures occurred especially extended winter conditions and/or snow the emergence of either would vary considerably . Each weed or insect , is based on studies of how many warm days they need to emerge so each month a total of 50 degree days are totaled and compared to how many are needed for each . Temperature controls the developmental rate of many organisms . Plants and invertebrate animals , including insects and nematodes , require a certain amount of heat to develop from one point in their life cycles to another . This measure of accumulated heat is known as physiological time . Theoretically , physiological time provides a common reference for the development of organisms . The amount of heat required to complete a given organism 's development does not vary -- the combination of temperature ( between thresholds ) and time will always be the same . Physiological time is often expressed and approximated in units called degree-days ( ° D ) . Category : Pest control Category : Units of measurement", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Degree_Day_Unit", "rank": 75, "score": 89120 }, { "content": "Title: Fahrenheit (disambiguation) Content: Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after the physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit . Fahrenheit may also refer to :", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Fahrenheit_(disambiguation)", "rank": 76, "score": 88928 }, { "content": "Title: Controversies in the Canadian federal election, 2011 Content: This article lists the controversies in the Canadian federal election , 2011 . In February 2012 a Conservative Party of Canada staffer resigned among widespread calls of election fraud . This fraud involved both live and robocalls in 39 ridings and were linked to the Conservative government . These calls were aimed at opposition party voters directing them to incorrect or non-existent polling stations . Several employees of a call center have come forward to claiming to have received directions to misinform voters from the Conservatives . Stephen Harper and his government have denied any knowledge of the incidents . RCMP and Elections Canada are investigating these claims . In Vaughan , Deputy Defense Minister and former police chief Julian Fantino has been accused of holding a second bank account for the election , in contravention of electoral law . In Eglinton-Lawrence , 2 700 voters with fraudulent or no addresses voted in the election . Raymond Sturgeon , the Conservative candidate for the federal riding of Algoma -- Manitoulin -- Kapuskasing was until December 2010 a lobbyist for Lockheed Martin Aeronautics , the manufacturer of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II fighter plane -- which the Canadian government agreed to purchase in July 2010 . A former Conservative Party staffer who is under investigation by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police , Sebastien Togneri , was found to be volunteering for Edmonton -- Strathcona Conservative candidate Ryan Hastman . After news of this was released by The Canadian Press , he was removed from the campaign -- although his mere involvement in political affairs was criticized by opposition leaders . Yvon Lévesque , the Bloc Québécois candidate and MP for the riding of Abitibi -- Baie-James -- Nunavik -- Eeyou , was quoted as saying that `` Certain voters will not choose the New Democratic Party now that they 're running an aboriginal candidate '' -- referring to his opponent , New Democratic Party candidate Roméo Saganash who won the election . Cheryl Gallant , the Conservative candidate for Renfrew -- Nipissing -- Pembroke compared Michael Ignatieff to Libyan dictator Muammar Gaddafi . She later apologized . On March 18 , Mark Strahl ( son of incumbent Conservative MP Chuck Strahl ) was nominated as the candidate in his father 's riding of Chilliwack -- Fraser Canyon . The nomination process , which is usually four weeks , lasted only a week . During the nomination Mark Strahl was endorsed by Preston Manning , who said `` Mark Strahl -- by virtue of his family background ... is well prepared for service in the House of Commons . '' This was criticized by members of the Conservative party : former Chilliwack city councillor Casey Langbroek said most Conservative party members from the riding were upset , and Alex Moens said `` High public office should not be like a family business , where it 's passed on from father to son . '' At a tightly controlled event aimed at immigrant communities in Brampton , Ontario , Harper used the phrase `` you people '' to attendees , . Ignatieff and Layton immediately criticized Harper and pointed to his record of reducing family reunification quotas for immigration , and criminal justice policies that allegedly disadvantage non-white populations . Two veterans , including Jim Lowther of the Veterans Emergency Transition Team were not permitted to enter a Harper Halifax news conference nor even watch his speech . During a Conservative rally in London , Ontario an RCMP officer asked two students to leave the event for having supposed ties to the Liberal party . One of the students later complained that the only reason she could think of for being removed was the fact she had a Facebook profile photo showing her posing for a picture with Michael Ignatieff , after having previously attended an NDP and Liberal rally . Their forced removal was immediately criticized by both Jack Layton and Ignatieff . On April 6 , André Forbes , the Liberal candidate for the rural Quebec riding of Manicouagan , was criticized by the NDP for calling First Nations and Inuit people `` featherheads , '' as well as being the founder of the white supremacist group l'Association des Droits des Blancs ( literally the Association for White Rights ) , despite being Métis himself . Liberal leader Michael Ignatieff stated that he was `` shocked '' by the Forbes comments and that `` if he really said that , it 's not possible to remain a candidate for the Liberal Party of Canada '' . Later the same day , Ignatieff announced that Forbes was no longer the Liberal candidate for Manicouagan . While Forbes remained on the ballot as a Liberal , he would not have been allowed to sit with the Liberal caucus had he won . Liberal Party leader Michael Ignatieff 's wife , Zsuzsanna Zsohar , came under attack from conservative lobby group National Citizens Coalition president Peter Coleman over the fact that she is not yet a Canadian citizen , and will therefore be unable to vote for her husband on May 2 . Zsohar explained in the interview that she , like any other immigrant arriving in Canada , was waiting in line for her Citizenship application to be accepted and that the campaign was not about her . The Conservative Party came under heavy fire on April 11 when a draft report for the G8 summit was leaked to the Canadian Press , which indicated that the Tories misled the Parliament of Canada to seek approval for $ 50 million tax dollars to be spread on dubious projects , which over half of it was spent on the riding of Parry Sound -- Muskoka -- Tony Clement 's riding . It prompted calls from the other leaders to release the report now , but the Auditor General of Canada , Sheila Fraser , told reporters the rules forbid her to release it because she has to release it to the Speaker of the House of Commons . A Green Party candidate , Alan Saldanha , resigned after making a rape comment on Facebook . Saldanha , running for a seat in BC 's Fleetwood -- Port Kells riding , has since removed the comment . Two Conservative riding association members ( Richard Lorello and Tracey Kent ) quit their own riding association in Vaughan after money was earmarked for the Vaughan Health Campus of Care ( VHCC ) , which has two key fund-raisers for incumbent Tory candidate Julian Fantino as backers . Liberal leader Michael Ignatieff responded to the incident , saying that `` it does n't sit well , it does n't look right , it does n't feel right and Conservatives themselves are embarrassed by it . '' Canadian Arab Federation president Khaled Mouamar received an email from Etobicoke Centre Conservative campaign staffer Zeljko Zidaric asking him if he had any groups that would like to participate in a Conservative rally `` by having someone at the event in an ethnic costume '' . The email further elaborated that they wanted them for a `` photo-op about all the multicultural groups that support Ted Opitz our local Conservative candidate and the Prime Minister . '' Mouamar took offence to the email . A counter rally was made to protest the email . Conservative candidate Gavan Paranchothy ( previously known as Ragavan Paranchothy ) , who is running in the riding of Scarborough Southwest , has in the past praised the Tamil Tiger movement , including hosting a televised tribute to the Tamil Tigers in November 2010 . When questioned about the candidate Conservative leader Stephen Harper simply stated that his party has `` taken a strong position against the Tamil Tigers '' , but did not comment specifically about the candidate . One-term Penticton city councillor Dan Albas was nominated as the Conservative Party candidate in Okanagan -- Coquihalla , the riding of Stockwell Day , the former Canadian Alliance leader and president of the Treasury Board . The nomination process lasted only a week , causing at least five prospective candidates not to make the nomination deadline . Albas and the two other candidates who managed to file their paperwork in time were both close associates of Stockwell Day and are alleged to have had prior notification of Day 's surprise resignation . The process was criticized by members of the Conservative party including Day 's fundraising chair , who says he ripped up his Conservative Party membership card . One of the candidates who missed the deadline , party veteran Sean Upshaw , ran as an ` independent conservative ' candidate in the riding . The Conservative Party alleged that a special ballot held at the University of Guelph on April 13 , 2011 could in fact be illegal under the Canada Elections Act , claiming that partisan election material was present . Elections Canada , who are responsible for enforcing the act , responded that the ballots were legal . The action by the Conservatives , especially after allegations that a party volunteer attempted to grab the ballot box in an attempt to halt the voting , was criticised by the opposition parties who accused the Conservatives of discouraging youth from voting . Conservative candidate Wally Daudrich had posted on his Facebook page that Barack Obama was the `` worst president that America has ever had '' as well as `` the biggest lying president America has ever had '' . His comments were primarily motivated by the candidate 's stance on abortion , with him being against certain aspects of the President 's health-care reform bill . After his post became widely publicized he deleted the comment . Conservative leader Stephen Harper refused to admonish the candidate , stating instead that he and Obama `` have a very good working relationship '' . Brad Trost , the Conservative incumbent for Saskatoon -- Humboldt , spoke at a Saskatchewan Pro-life Association convention and told the audience that the government had denied funding to Planned Parenthood . Prime Minister Stephen Harper did not comment on Trost 's remarks , instead stating that the Conservative Party does not intend to reopen the abortion debate in Parliament . Conservative Candidate Wai Young ( Vancouver South ) came under fire for being endorsed by the man acquitted in the Air India bombing , Ripudaman Singh Malik , Young said she had no idea that Malik was involved with the Khalsa School . Conservatives condemned a Liberal television ad which wrongly quoted Harper saying he would scrap the Canada Health Act . This was actually a quote from a National Citizens Coalition colleague of Harper 's . The Liberals replaced the quote , which they had found misattributed to Harper in a Globe and Mail story , with another one of Harper 's statements about health care that they said delivered the same message . Michael Ignatieff criticized Conservative candidates for not attending local debates . Later Ignatieff said that he would not attend the debates in his riding because of his duties to campaign nationally as party leader . Stephen Harper also planned not to be attending any debates in his riding because he would be campaigning nationally . A Liberal campaign volunteer for Joe Volpe in Eglinton -- Lawrence was caught on camera removing Green Party pamphlets from mailboxes , throwing them away , and replacing them with Liberal campaign materials , as Volpe looked on . Tampering with mail is a criminal offence in Canada . Volpe has since fired the worker , but only after being caught on camera standing next to the worker as he committed these actions . On April 29 , 2011 , a retired police officer told the Sun News Network and the Toronto Sun newspaper that in 1996 , Layton had been found naked in a massage parlour when police , looking for underage prostitutes , raided the establishment . The police informed Layton of the potentially questionable use of the business and recommended that he avoid it in the future . No charges were laid . The Sun later ran a follow-up piece , in which Toronto city councillor Giorgio Mammoliti criticized Layton . Layton has said there was no wrongdoing in the matter , saying that he simply `` went for a massage at a community clinic '' and did not return after the police advised him not to . He also referred to the release of the police report as a smear campaign against him . Bloc Québécois leader Gilles Duceppe has also dismissed the claim . A subsequent Toronto Star column stated that most contributors to online discussions agreed there was a smear campaign against Layton . As for political damage from this story , that same day 's update of the Nanos Leadership Index , which assesses public opinion on the Canadian federal leaders ' trustworthiness , competence and vision for Canada , Layton rose from 80 % to 97 % , surpassing Harper at 88 % and Ignatieff 39 % . The polling company speculated this improvement is due to strong sympathy by the public for a political candidate they judged as being unfairly maligned . Toronto Police have launched an investigation into how official police notes were leaked to Sun Media . Police notebooks are closely guarded and may contain unfounded and unproven allegations .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Controversies_in_the_Canadian_federal_election,_2011", "rank": 77, "score": 88833 }, { "content": "Title: Deep Decarbonization Pathways Project Content: The Deep Decarbonization Pathways Project ( DDPP ) is a global consortium formed in October 2013 which researches methods to limit the rise of global temperature due to global warming to 2 ° C or less . The focus of the DDPP is on sustainable energy systems , other sectors of the economy , such as agriculture and land-use , are not directly considered .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Deep_Decarbonization_Pathways_Project", "rank": 78, "score": 88766 }, { "content": "Title: Cold and heat adaptations in humans Content: Cold and heat adaptations in humans are a part of the broad adaptability of Homo sapiens . Adaptations in humans can be physiological , genetic , or cultural , which allow people to live in a wide variety of climates . There has been a great deal of research done on developmental adjustment , acclimatization , and cultural practices , but less research on genetic adaptations to cold and heat temperatures . The human body always works to remain in homeostasis . One form of homeostasis is thermoregulation . Body temperature varies in every individual , but the average internal temperature is 37.0 ° C ( 98.6 ° F ) . Stress from extreme external temperature can cause the human body to shut down . When the body becomes hypothermic , the core temperature drops to 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) . Hyperthermia results when the core body temperature rises above 37.5-38 .3 ° C ( 99.5-100 .9 ° F ) . These temperatures commonly result in mortality . Humans have adapted to living in these extreme climates primarily through culture and technology , such as the use of clothing and shelter .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Cold_and_heat_adaptations_in_humans", "rank": 79, "score": 88668 }, { "content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Simon_Tett", "rank": 80, "score": 88522 }, { "content": "Title: 1911 Eastern North America heat wave Content: The 1911 Eastern North America heat wave was an 11-day heat wave in New York City and other Eastern cities that killed 380 people starting on July 4 , 1911 . In Nashua , New Hampshire , the temperature peaked at 106 degrees Fahrenheit ( 41 C ) . In New York City , 146 people and 600 horses died . In Boston , the temperature rose to 104 ° ( 40 ° C ) on July 4 , an all-time record high that still stands today .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "1911_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave", "rank": 81, "score": 88486 }, { "content": "Title: Oregon Petition Content: The Global Warming Petition Project , also known as the Oregon Petition , is a petition urging the United States government to reject the global warming Kyoto Protocol of 1997 and similar policies .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Oregon_Petition", "rank": 82, "score": 88468 }, { "content": "Title: U.S. Global Change Research Information Office Content: The United States Global Change Research Information Office or GCRIO provides access to data and information on climate change research and global change-related educational resources on behalf of the various US Federal Agencies that are involved in the US Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) . The GCRIO handles requests for documents related to USCRP . They also have outreach services to both domestic ( Federal , state , and local ) and international target audiences ( including governments , institutions , researchers , educators , students , and the general public ) in an effort to showcase relevant activities and results of the US Global Change Research Program and to help increase the awareness of the availability of data and information resources of the participating Federal Agencies .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "U.S._Global_Change_Research_Information_Office", "rank": 83, "score": 88448 }, { "content": "Title: Climate stabilization wedge Content: The Climate stabilization Wedges is an approach produced by Princeton University researchers looking at Climate change mitigation scenarios . The project was funded by Ford Motor Company between 2000 and 2009 and has been receiving funding from BP since 2000 . The goal of the approach , Stephen Pacala and Robert H. Socolow , is to demonstrate that global warming is a problem which can be attacked using today 's commercially available technologies to reduce emissions . The objective is to stabilize concentrations under 500ppm for the next fifty years , using wedges from a variety of different strategies which fit into the stabilization triangle . A newer estimate by the original authors indicated that by 2011 , the number of necessary wedges had increased from seven to nine . This was due to the continuing increase in emissions since the original 2004 paper which determined the number of wedges that would have been necessary , if serious action to mitigate climate change had begun then .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Climate_stabilization_wedge", "rank": 84, "score": 88167 }, { "content": "Title: United States temperature extremes Content: For the United States , the extremes are 134 F in Death Valley , California in 1913 and -79.8 F recorded in Prospect Creek , Alaska in 1971 . The largest recorded temperature change in one place over a 24-hour period occurred on January 15 , 1972 in Loma , Montana , when the temperature rose from -54 to . The most dramatic temperature changes occur in North American climates susceptible to Chinook winds . For example , the largest 2-minute temperature change of 49 F-change occurred in Spearfish , South Dakota , a rise from -4 to .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "United_States_temperature_extremes", "rank": 85, "score": 88165 }, { "content": "Title: Negative temperature Content: In physics , certain systems can achieve negative temperature ; that is , their thermodynamic temperature can be expressed as a negative quantity on the Kelvin or Rankine scales . In colloquial usage , `` negative temperature '' may refer to temperatures that are expressed as negative numbers on the more familiar Celsius or Fahrenheit scales , with values that are colder than the zero points of those scales but still warmer than absolute zero . A system with a truly negative temperature on the Kelvin scale is hotter than any system with a positive temperature . If a negative-temperature system and a positive-temperature system come in contact , heat will flow from the negative - to the positive-temperature system . That a system at negative temperature is hotter than any system at positive temperature is paradoxical if absolute temperature is interpreted as an average kinetic energy of the system . The paradox is resolved by understanding temperature through its more rigorous definition as the tradeoff between energy and entropy , with the reciprocal of the temperature , thermodynamic beta , as the more fundamental quantity . Systems with a positive temperature will increase in entropy as one adds energy to the system . Systems with a negative temperature will decrease in entropy as one adds energy to the system . Most familiar systems can not achieve negative temperatures , because adding energy always increases their entropy . The possibility of decreasing in entropy with increasing energy requires the system to `` saturate '' in entropy , with the number of high energy states being small . These kinds of systems , bounded by a maximum amount of energy , are generally forbidden classically . Thus , negative temperature is a strictly quantum phenomenon . Some systems , however ( see the examples below ) , have a maximum amount of energy that they can hold , and as they approach that maximum energy their entropy actually begins to decrease .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Negative_temperature", "rank": 86, "score": 88002 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 87, "score": 87887 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 88, "score": 87711 }, { "content": "Title: 300 Club Content: The 300 Club is the name given to those who have endured a range of temperature of 300 ° Fahrenheit ( 166 ° C ) within a very short time . The practice originated at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica . Participants in the 300 Club wait for a day when the temperature drops to − 100 ° F ( -73 ° C ) for more than a few minutes , generally in the winter . Those taking part first warm up in a sauna heated to 200 ° F ( 93 ° C ) for as long as 10 minutes . Then they run naked in the snow to the Geographic South Pole , running around it in the − 100 ° F weather . After this , they usually warm themselves back in the sauna again , often with the aid of alcoholic beverages . There are several patches made to commemorate the occasion that are entitled to be worn by those who have joined the 300 Club .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "300_Club", "rank": 89, "score": 87485 }, { "content": "Title: Computer fraud Content: Computer fraud is the act of using a computer to take or alter electronic data , or to gain unlawful use of a computer or system . In the United States , computer fraud is specifically proscribed by the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act , which criminalizes computer-related acts under federal jurisdiction . Types of computer fraud include : Distributing hoax emails Accessing unauthorized computers Engaging in data mining via spyware and malware Hacking into computer systems to illegally access personal information , such as credit cards or Social Security numbers Sending computer viruses or worms with the intent to destroy or ruin another party 's computer or system . Phishing , social engineering , viruses , and DDoS attacks are fairly well-known tactics used to disrupt service or gain access to another 's network , but this list is not inclusive .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Computer_fraud", "rank": 90, "score": 87381 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 91, "score": 87071 }, { "content": "Title: AATSR Content: The Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer ( AATSR ) is one of the Announcement of Opportunity ( AO ) instruments on board the European Space Agency ( ESA ) 's Envisat satellite . This instrument is a multi-channel imaging radiometer with the principal objective of providing data concerning global Sea Surface Temperature ( SST ) to the high levels of accuracy and stability required for monitoring and carrying out research into the behaviour of the Earth 's climate . AATSR can measure Earth 's surface temperature to a precision of 0.3 K-change , for climate research . Among the secondary objectives of AATSR is the observation of environmental parameters such as aerosols , clouds , fires , gas flares , water content , biomass , and vegetal health and growth . AATSR is the successor of ATSR-1 and ATSR-2 , payloads of ERS-1 and ERS-2 .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "AATSR", "rank": 92, "score": 87048 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Climate_change_in_West_Virginia", "rank": 93, "score": 87027 }, { "content": "Title: TEMP (meteorology) Content: TEMP ( upper air soundings ) is a set of World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) alphanumerical codes used for reporting weather observations of the upper regions of the atmosphere made by weather balloons released from the surface level ( either at land or at sea ) . The WMO designates the FM-35 numerical code for surface TEMPs and the FM-36 numerical code for ship-based TEMPs . Category : Earth sciences data formats", "qid": "2920", "docid": "TEMP_(meteorology)", "rank": 94, "score": 86954 }, { "content": "Title: Sergei Petrovskii Content: Sergei Petrovskii is a Russian-born British mathematician who researches the modeling of natural phenomena . He is a professor of Applied Mathematics at the University of Leicester . In 2015 , he led a study that found that if the ocean temperature were to increase by about six degrees Celsius due to global warming , phytoplankton might stop producing oxygen . This would lead to shortages of oxygen in the atmosphere , which could be very harmful to humans . Petrovskii said , `` About two thirds of the planet 's total atmospheric oxygen is produced by ocean phytoplankton - and therefore cessation would result in the depletion of atmospheric oxygen on a global scale . This would likely result in the mass mortality of animals and humans . '' Petrovskii 's study appeared in the Bulletin of Mathematical Biology . Another stream of his research is modelling of biological invasions where he discovered a new phenomenon called `` patchy invasion '' . Contrary to a commonly used paradigm of alien species spread by a travelling population front , in the patchy invasion the invasive species spreads into new areas by creating individual patches not preceded by a front propagation . Patchy invasion has been observed in several invasions of insects and birds and has been studied theoretically using a variety of growth-dispersal models .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Sergei_Petrovskii", "rank": 95, "score": 86883 }, { "content": "Title: GT200 Content: The GT200 is a fraudulent `` remote substance detector '' that was claimed by its manufacturer , UK-based Global Technical Ltd , to be able to detect , from a distance , various substances including explosives and drugs . The GT200 was sold to a number of countries for a cost of up to # 22,000 per unit , but the device has been described as little more than `` divining rods '' which lack any scientific explanation for why they should work . After the similar ADE 651 was exposed as a fraud , the UK Government banned the export of such devices to Iraq and Afghanistan in January 2010 and warned foreign governments that the GT200 and ADE 651 are `` wholly ineffective '' at detecting bombs and explosives . The owner of Global Technical , Gary Bolton , was convicted on 26 July 2013 on two charges of fraud relating to the sale and manufacture of the GT200 and sentenced to seven years in prison .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "GT200", "rank": 96, "score": 86663 }, { "content": "Title: A Day's Wait Content: `` A Day 's Wait '' is a short story by Ernest Hemingway published in his 1933 short story collection Winner Take Nothing about a nine-year-old boy who is sick during a cold winter . The story focuses on the boy and his father who calls him Schatz ( German , meaning darling ) . When the boy gets the flu , a doctor is called in and recommends three different medicines and tells the boy 's father that his temperature is 102 degrees Fahrenheit ( 39 degrees Celsius ) . He is very quiet and depressed , finally asking when he will die ; he had thought that a 102 degree temperature was lethal because he heard in France ( where Celsius is used ) that one can not live with a temperature over 44 degrees . When the father explains to him the difference in scales , the boy slowly relaxes , and the next day , `` he cried very easily at little things that were of no importance . '' The story ´ s theme is the boy 's misunderstanding leading to the fear of his death without his father realizing this . analysis : a ) A fateful misunderstanding The misunderstanding between father and son exists because they do not have the same thoughts . The boy thinks he will die but the father thinks his son is only ill . The boy uses the word `` it '' to describe the process of dying . The father also uses the word `` it '' , but to describe that it is no problem for him to stay at home with his son . Since they only use the pronoun `` it '' neither of them knows what the other person is talking about . b ) The hunting scene The landscape is described as frozen because it 's a cold day . The father 's behaviour is also cold because he is shooting birds and killing them . The father 's inability to understand his son is symbolically expressed by the layer of ice separating him from nature ( he is helpless on the icy surface ) ; the same helplessness applies to his relationship to his son . c ) Interdependence between theme and point of view The theme focuses on the misunderstanding between father and son , which is disastrous for the son due to the lack of knowledge as far as the different scales are concerned . The failure in communication leads to the son ´ s being afraid of dying . This is why Hemingway chooses the first person narrator with a limited point of view . He is therefore confined to presenting mere observations and suppositions . `` The boy was evidently holding tight onto himself about something '' , which is only one example of the father ´ s suppositions . The father is only an observer of the scene without realizing the son ´ s fears . He remains detached and can not imagine and feel the son ´ s distress . An observer narrator is the best way of expressing this distance between the two . Hemingway cleverly chooses this point of view as one means of showing the lack of mutual closeness in the relationship between father and son . The father does not imagine the son ´ s fears and can not look into his mind at all .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "A_Day's_Wait", "rank": 97, "score": 86402 }, { "content": "Title: Thermodynamic temperature Content: Thermodynamic temperature is the absolute measure of temperature and is one of the principal parameters of thermodynamics . Thermodynamic temperature is defined by the third law of thermodynamics in which the theoretically lowest temperature is the null or zero point . At this point , absolute zero , the particle constituents of matter have minimal motion and can become no colder . In the quantum-mechanical description , matter at absolute zero is in its ground state , which is its state of lowest energy . Thermodynamic temperature is often also called absolute temperature , for two reasons : one , proposed by Kelvin , that it does not depend on the properties of a particular material ; two that it refers to an absolute zero according to the properties of the ideal gas . The International System of Units specifies a particular scale for thermodynamic temperature . It uses the kelvin scale for measurement and selects the triple point of water at 273.16 K as the fundamental fixing point . Other scales have been in use historically . The Rankine scale , using the degree Fahrenheit as its unit interval , is still in use as part of the English Engineering Units in the United States in some engineering fields . ITS-90 gives a practical means of estimating the thermodynamic temperature to a very high degree of accuracy . Roughly , the temperature of a body at rest is a measure of the mean of the energy of the translational , vibrational and rotational motions of matter 's particle constituents , such as molecules , atoms , and subatomic particles . The full variety of these kinetic motions , along with potential energies of particles , and also occasionally certain other types of particle energy in equilibrium with these , make up the total internal energy of a substance . Internal energy is loosely called the heat energy or thermal energy in conditions when no work is done upon the substance by its surroundings , or by the substance upon the surroundings . Internal energy may be stored in a number of ways within a substance , each way constituting a `` degree of freedom '' . At equilibrium , each degree of freedom will have on average the same energy : where is the Boltzmann constant , unless that degree of freedom is in the quantum regime . The internal degrees of freedom ( rotation , vibration , etc. ) may be in the quantum regime at room temperature , but the translational degrees of freedom will be in the classical regime except at extremely low temperatures ( fractions of kelvins ) and it may be said that , for most situations , the thermodynamic temperature is specified by the average translational kinetic energy of the particles .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Thermodynamic_temperature", "rank": 98, "score": 86399 }, { "content": "Title: Early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave was a heat wave that commenced in late January and led to record-breaking prolonged high temperatures in the region . The heat wave is considered one of the , if not the , most extreme in the region 's history . During the heat wave , fifty separate locations set various records for consecutive , highest daytime and overnight temperatures . The highest temperature recorded during the heat wave was 48.8 ° C in Hopetoun , Victoria , a record for the state . Many locations through the region recorded all-time high temperatures including capital cities Adelaide , which reached its third-highest temperature , 45.7 ° C , and Melbourne , which recorded its highest-ever temperature on record , 46.4 ° C. Both cities broke records for the most consecutive days over 40 ° C , while Mildura , Victoria recorded an all-time record twelve consecutive days over 43 ° C. The exceptional heat wave was caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that settled over the Tasman Sea , with a combination of an intense tropical low located off the North West Australian coast and a monsoon trough over Northern Australia , which produced ideal conditions for hot tropical air to be directed down over southeastern Australia . The heat began in South Australia on 25 January but became more widespread over southeast Australia by 27 January . A weak cool change moved over the southern coastal areas bringing some relief on 30 January , including Melbourne , where the change arrived that evening , dropping temperatures to an average of 30.8 ° C. Higher temperatures returned on the following weekend with Melbourne recording its hottest day since records began in 1855 , 46.4 ° C , also the highest temperature ever recorded in an Australian capital city . The heat wave generated extreme fire conditions during the peak of the 2008 -- 09 Australian bushfire season , causing many bushfires in the affected region , contributing to the extreme bushfire conditions on 7 February , also known as the Black Saturday bushfires , which claimed 173 lives in Victoria . Ten months after this heat wave , a second struck the same region in November 2009 .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Early_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave", "rank": 99, "score": 86389 }, { "content": "Title: Benefit fraud in the United Kingdom Content: Benefit fraud is a form of welfare fraud as found within the system of government benefits paid to individuals by the welfare state in the United Kingdom .", "qid": "2920", "docid": "Benefit_fraud_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 100, "score": 86386 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Integrated Sciences and Assessments Content: The Great Lakes Integrated Sciences and Assessments Center ( GLISA ) is a collaboration of the University of Michigan and Michigan State University funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . GLISA ( pronounced Glee-suh ) is part of a national network of NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments ( RISA ) centers that focus on adaptation to climate change and variability . GLISA is the NOAA RISA for the Great Lakes region .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Integrated_Sciences_and_Assessments", "rank": 1, "score": 229641 }, { "content": "Title: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Content: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ; pronounced -LSB- ˈnoʊ.ə -RSB- , like `` Noah '' ) is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere . NOAA warns of dangerous weather , charts seas , guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources , and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment . In addition to its civilian employees , over 11,000 as of 2015 , NOAA research and operations are supported by 379 uniformed service members who make up the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps . NOAA traces its history to the Coast Survey established by President Thomas Jefferson in 1807 . In its present form , it combined several scientific agencies in 1970 . The Acting Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere at the Department of Commerce and the agency 's interim administrator has been Benjamin Friedman since the end of the Obama administration on January 20 , 2017 .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration", "rank": 2, "score": 197952 }, { "content": "Title: Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research Content: Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) is a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . OAR is also referred to as NOAA Research . NOAA Research is the research and development arm of NOAA and is the driving force behind NOAA environmental products and services aimed at protecting life and property and promoting sustainable economic growth . Research , conducted by programs within NOAA and through collaborations outside NOAA , focuses on enhancing the understanding of environmental phenomena such as tornadoes , hurricanes , climate variability , changes in the ozone layer , El Niño / La Niña events , fisheries productivity , ocean currents , deep sea thermal vents , and coastal ecosystem health . The origins of NOAA Research date back more than 200 years with the creation of the Survey of the Coast in 1807 by Thomas Jefferson . The Coast Survey , which became the U.S. Lake Survey office in 1841 , was developed to undertake `` a hydrographic survey of northwestern -LSB- Great -RSB- lakes . '' Research executed by the scientists of this group was innovative and holistic : the first current meters were developed to understand water flow rates , and forecasting techniques were greatly enhanced to predict water levels and the relationship to lakefront property . The same traits of world class , long-term research continue to define NOAA Research today . The science and technology that NOAA Research produces is not only relevant to society , it anticipates and responds to partners ' needs to demonstrates the value of technologies so that partners can deploy them into their applications . OAR works with end-users to integrate mature technologies ( and associated expertise ) into larger systems , either in NOAA operations or partner applications , via testbeds , patents , etc. .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Office_of_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Research", "rank": 3, "score": 191361 }, { "content": "Title: Cooperative Institute for Limnology and Ecosystems Research Content: The Cooperative Institute for Limnology and Ecosystems Research ( CILER ) fosters research collaborations between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory ( GLERL ) , Michigan State University ( MSU ) , and the University of Michigan ( UM ) . It is one of 16 NOAA Cooperative Institutes ( CIs ) . The CILER research themes are : Climate and Large Lake Dynamics Coastal and Nearshore Processes Large Lake Ecosystem Structure and Function Remote Sensing of Large Lake and Coastal Ocean Dynamics Marine Environmental Engineering", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Cooperative_Institute_for_Limnology_and_Ecosystems_Research", "rank": 4, "score": 184633 }, { "content": "Title: Office of Global Programs Content: The Office of Global Programs ( OGP ) is a division of the United States ' National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) run under the auspices of the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . The purpose of the OGP is to oversee the NOAA Climate and Global Change ( C&GC ) Program . The OGP assists NOAA in its task of providing climate forecasts by sponsoring focused scientific research , within approximately eleven research elements , aimed at understanding climate variability and its predictability .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Office_of_Global_Programs", "rank": 5, "score": 184038 }, { "content": "Title: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climate and Societal Interactions Program Content: The United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climate and Societal Interactions Program ( abbreviated as NOAA CSI ) , formerly the Climate Assessment and Services Division of CPO supports the NOAA Climate Service . The goals of the CSI program are : public relations regarding water resources in coastal zones , research and development for coastal regions , and inter-agency communication .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration_Climate_and_Societal_Interactions_Program", "rank": 6, "score": 182976 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory Content: The Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory ( GLERL ) is a laboratory in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . It is headquartered in Ann Arbor , Michigan , with a subsidiary field station in Muskegon , Michigan . GLERL is a multidisciplinary environmental research laboratory that provides scientific understanding to inform the use and management of Great Lakes and coastal marine environments . It is one of seven NOAA Research Laboratories ( RLs ) .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Great_Lakes_Environmental_Research_Laboratory", "rank": 7, "score": 181118 }, { "content": "Title: National Ocean Service Content: The National Ocean Service ( NOS ) , an office within the U.S. Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , is responsible for preserving and enhancing the nation 's coastal resources and ecosystems along 95000 mi of shoreline bordering 3500000 sqmi of coastal , Great Lakes , and ocean waters . Its mission is to `` provide science-based solutions through collaborative partnerships to address evolving economic , environmental , and social pressures on our oceans and coasts . '' NOS works closely with many partner agencies to ensure that ocean and coastal areas are safe , healthy , and productive . National Ocean Service scientists , natural resource managers , and specialists ensure safe and efficient marine transportation , promote innovative solutions to protect coastal communities , and conserve marine and coastal places . NOS is a scientific and technical organization of 1,700 scientists , natural resource managers , and specialists in many different fields . NOS delivers a dynamic range of nationwide coastal and Great Lakes scientific , technical , and resource management services in support of safe , healthy , and productive oceans and coasts . NOS develops partnerships to integrate expertise and efforts across all levels of government and with other interests to protect , maintain , and sustain the viability of coastal communities , economies and ecosystems .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Ocean_Service", "rank": 8, "score": 175553 }, { "content": "Title: Cooperative Institute for Atmospheric Sciences and Terrestrial Applications Content: The Cooperative Institute for Atmospheric Sciences and Terrestrial Applications ( CIASTA ) formalizes a major collaborative relationship between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and the Desert Research Institute ( DRI ) . CIASTA serves as a focal point for the interaction between NOAA and the Intermountain West research community for research activities related to NOAA 's tasks and responsibilities in that region . The research is focussed on four general areas : weather , climate , air quality , and terrestrial ecosystems and climate .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Cooperative_Institute_for_Atmospheric_Sciences_and_Terrestrial_Applications", "rank": 9, "score": 166534 }, { "content": "Title: Cooperative Institute for Climate and Ocean Research Content: The Cooperative Institute for Climate and Ocean Research ( CICOR ) formalizes a major collaborative relationship between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution ( WHOI ) . CICOR provides a framework at WHOI for coordinating NOAA-funded research and for developing cooperative NOAA-funded research at academic institutions in the northeastern United States . CICOR also provides NOAA investigators with access to WHOI facilities , including 4 ships and 2 submersibles , and the Northeast National Ion Microprobe Facility . The CICOR research themes are : The coastal ocean and near shore processes The ocean 's participation in climate and climate variability Marine ecosystem processes analysis .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Cooperative_Institute_for_Climate_and_Ocean_Research", "rank": 10, "score": 163963 }, { "content": "Title: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries Office for Law Enforcement Content: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries Office for Law Enforcement ( NOAA OLE ) is a federal police part of the National Marine Fisheries Service of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , headquartered in Silver Spring , Maryland . The leadership consists of Director Bruce Buckson , Deputy Director Matthew Brandt , Assistant Director Todd Dubois , and Assistant Director John Longenecker . It was established in 1930 as Division of Law Enforcement , U.S. Fish Commission and Bureau . It is responsible for the ecosystem protection and conservation of most of national marine life . It is the only federal agency for such . , it has more than 200 employees . NOAA OLE is divided into six divisional offices ( Northeast , Southeast , Alaska , Northwest , Southwest and Pacific Islands ) , led by a Special Agent in Charge , and 52 field offices , e.g. , Pago Pago , American Samoa ; Ellsworth , Maine ; and San Juan , Puerto Rico .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration_Fisheries_Office_for_Law_Enforcement", "rank": 11, "score": 163683 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps Content: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps , known informally as the NOAA Corps , is one of seven federal uniformed services of the United States , and operates under the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , a scientific agency overseen by the Department of Commerce . The NOAA Corps is made up of scientifically and technically trained officers and is the smallest of the U.S. uniformed services . It is one of only two -- -- the other being the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps -- -- that consists only of commissioned officers , with no enlisted or warrant officer ranks . Established in 1970 , the NOAA Corps is the successor to the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps ( 1917 -- 1965 ) , and the United States Environmental Science Services Administration Commissioned Officer Corps ( ESSA Corps ) ( 1965 -- 1970 ) .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps", "rank": 12, "score": 161406 }, { "content": "Title: National Sea Grant College Program Content: The National Sea Grant College Program is a program of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) within the U.S. Department of Commerce . It is a national network of 33 Sea Grant Colleges and universities involved in scientific research , education , training , and extension projects geared toward the conservation and practical use of the coasts , Great Lakes , and other marine areas . The program is administered by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and is based in Silver Spring , Maryland . No sea rights have actually been granted ( though this was considered ) , only money . There are 30 member institutions , called Sea Grant colleges , many but not all of which are located along the coast . The program was instituted in 1966 when Congress passed the National Sea Grant College Program Act . Sea Grant colleges are not to be confused with land-grant colleges ( a program instituted in 1862 ) , space-grant colleges ( instituted in 1988 ) , or sun-grant colleges ( instituted in 2003 ) , although an institution may also be in one or more of the other programs concurrently with being a Sea Grant institution .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Sea_Grant_College_Program", "rank": 13, "score": 159378 }, { "content": "Title: Monthly Climatic Data for the World Content: Monthly Climatic Data for the World ( MCDW ) is a monthly publication of the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) division of the National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the United States . According to the website , each monthly issue `` contains monthly mean temperature , pressure , precipitation , vapor pressure , and sunshine for approximately 2,000 surface data collection stations worldwide and monthly mean upper air temperatures , dew point depressions , and wind velocities for approximately 500 observing sites . This is the final quality controlled copy and generally has a 4 - 6 month time lag . '' The issues are available for download in portable document format .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Monthly_Climatic_Data_for_the_World", "rank": 14, "score": 158288 }, { "content": "Title: Cooperative Institute for Climate Applications and Research Content: The Cooperative Institute for Climate Applications and Research ( CICAR ) formalizes a major collaborative relationship between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and Columbia University . The CICAR research themes are : Modeling , understanding , prediction , and assessment of climate variability and change Development , collection , analysis , and archiving of instrumental and Paleoclimate data Development of the application of climate variability and change prediction and assessment to provide information for decision makers and assess risk to water resources , agriculture , health , and policy", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Cooperative_Institute_for_Climate_Applications_and_Research", "rank": 15, "score": 158164 }, { "content": "Title: National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service Content: The National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) was created by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) to operate and manage the United States environmental satellite programs , and manage the data gathered by the National Weather Service and other government agencies and departments .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Environmental_Satellite,_Data,_and_Information_Service", "rank": 16, "score": 157956 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA Administrator's Award Content: The NOAA Administrator 's Award is an award of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . The award is granted by the Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere who serves concurrently as the Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . The award , which may go to an individual or a group , is presented in recognition of significant contributions to NOAA programs . The award is presented to civilian employees of NOAA as a plaque and as a medal set to members of the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps . Individual recipients of the award receive a monetary award of $ 5,000 . Recipients of group awards split the monetary award evenly . Administrator 's Award recipients are formally recognized at an award ceremony held annually .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAA_Administrator's_Award", "rank": 17, "score": 157160 }, { "content": "Title: NOAAS Ferdinand R. Hassler (R 250) Content: NOAAS Ferdinand R. Hassler ( R 250 ) is a coastal mapping vessel for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . Commissioned on 8 June 2012 , Ferdinand R. Hassler is one of the newest additions to the NOAA hydrographic charting fleet . Operating from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico , the ship 's primary mission is hydrographic survey in support of NOAA 's nautical charting mission . The ship 's home port is New Castle , New Hampshire .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAAS_Ferdinand_R._Hassler_(R_250)", "rank": 18, "score": 155301 }, { "content": "Title: National Oceanographic Data Center Content: The National Oceanographic Data Center ( NODC ) was one of the national environmental data centers operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the U.S. Department of Commerce . The main NODC facility was located in Silver Spring , Maryland and was made up of five divisions . The NODC also had field offices collocated with major government or academic oceanographic laboratories in Stennis Space Center , MS ; Miami , FL ; La Jolla , San Diego , California ; Seattle , WA ; Austin , Texas ; Charleston , South Carolina ; Norfolk , Virginia ; and Honolulu , Hawaii . In 2015 , NODC was merged with the National Climatic Data Center and the National Geophysical Data Center into the National Centers for Environmental Information ( NCEI ) . NOAA also operated two other data centers : National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , Asheville , North Carolina and National Geophysical Data Center ( NGDC ) , Boulder , Colorado . In 2015 , the three merged to form the National Centers for Environmental Information ( NCEI ) . Also , the National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) in Boulder , Colorado is operated for NGDC by the University of Colorado through the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences ( CIRES ) . These discipline-oriented centers served as national repositories and dissemination facilities for global environmental data . The data archives amassed by the NODC and the other centers provide a record of Earth 's changing environment , and support numerous research and operational applications and are still available through the NCEI . Working cooperatively , the centers provided data products and services to scientists , engineers , resource managers , policy makers , and other users in the United States and around the world .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Oceanographic_Data_Center", "rank": 19, "score": 154531 }, { "content": "Title: Awards and decorations of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Content: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps ( or `` NOAA Corps '' ) , one of the seven uniformed services of the United States , has the authority to issue various awards and commendations to its members . These include individual honor awards , unit honor awards , service awards , training ribbons and qualification insignia . NOAA Corps awards and decorations include :", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Awards_and_decorations_of_the_National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration", "rank": 20, "score": 154444 }, { "content": "Title: State of the Climate Content: The State of the Climate is an annual report that is primarily led by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Climatic Data Center ( NOAA/NCDC ) , located in Asheville , North Carolina , but whose leadership and authorship spans roughly 100 institutions in about 50 countries .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "State_of_the_Climate", "rank": 21, "score": 153471 }, { "content": "Title: Weather Forecasting Improvement Act of 2013 Content: The Weather Forecasting Improvement Act of 2013 was a bill that intended to authorize appropriations over the 2014-2017 period for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) to improve forecasting of severe weather events . The bill also sought to authorize NOAA to carry out various other activities related to weather forecasting and research . The bill was introduced in the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Weather_Forecasting_Improvement_Act_of_2013", "rank": 22, "score": 150894 }, { "content": "Title: Gerd F. Glang Content: Gerd F. Glang is a former NOAA Corps rear admiral who last served as the director of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Office of Coast Survey . In this position , he also concurrently served as the U.S. National Hydrographer and as one of the commissioners of the Mississippi River Commission . He was appointed by Acting Secretary of Commerce Rebecca Blank on August 13 , 2012 , after nomination by President Barack Obama , and confirmation by the U.S. Senate . He retired from the NOAA Corps on August 26 , 2016 after over 32 years of combined uniformed service . The Office of Coast Survey is the Nation 's nautical chartmaker . With a history stretching back to 1807 , when President Thomas Jefferson asked for a survey of the young Nation 's coast , the office serves America 's maritime trade , fishing fleets , and recreational sailors . Responsible for surveying and charting America 's coastal and territorial waters as well as the Great Lakes , Coast Survey 's hydrographic data , nautical products , research , and navigational services form an essential foundation for ocean transportation and the maritime economy .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Gerd_F._Glang", "rank": 23, "score": 150865 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental Science Services Administration Content: The Environmental Science Services Administration ( ESSA ) was a United States Federal executive agency created in 1965 as part of a reorganization of the United States Department of Commerce . Its mission was to unify and oversee the meteorological , climatological , hydrographic , and geodesic operations of the United States . It operated until 1970 , when it was replaced by the new National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . The first U.S. Government organization with the word `` environment '' in its title , ESSA was the first such organization chartered to study the global natural environment as whole , bringing together the study of the oceans with that of the both the lower atmosphere and the ionosphere . This allowed the U.S Government for the first time to take a comprehensive approach to studying the oceans and the atmosphere , also bringing together various technologies -- ships , aircraft , satellites , radar , and communications systems -- that could operate together in gathering data for scientific study .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Environmental_Science_Services_Administration", "rank": 24, "score": 150796 }, { "content": "Title: Mussel Watch Program Content: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) National Status and Trends ( NS&T ) Mussel Watch Program is a contaminant monitoring program that started in 1986 . It is the longest running continuous contaminant monitoring program of its kind in the United States . Mussel Watch monitors the concentration of contaminants in bivalves ( mussels and oysters ) and sediments in the coastal waters of the U.S. , including the Great Lakes , to monitor bivalve health and by extension the health of their local and regional environment . Mussel Watch consults with experts to determine appropriate contaminants to monitor ; these include dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane ( DDT ) , polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) , and polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) . As of 2008 , Mussel Watch monitors approximately 140 analytes . In addition to the effects of contaminants , Mussel Watch is able to assess the effects of natural disasters , such as the 2005 Hurricane Katrina , and environmental disasters , such as the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill . Data collected by Mussel Watch can also be used to monitor the effectiveness of coastal remediation . The Mussel Watch Program utilized its 20 years of monitoring data to effectively analyze the impacts of Hurricane Katrina and has affected regulatory decisions based on the data it has collected on bivalve parasites .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Mussel_Watch_Program", "rank": 25, "score": 150725 }, { "content": "Title: National Data Buoy Center Content: The National Data Buoy Center ( NDBC ) is a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's ( NOAA ) National Weather Service ( NWS ) . NDBC designs , develops , operates , and maintains a network of data collecting buoys and coastal stations . The NBDC is located in southern Mississippi as a tenant at the John C. Stennis Space Center , a National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) facility .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Data_Buoy_Center", "rank": 26, "score": 150514 }, { "content": "Title: National Estuarine Research Reserve Content: The National Estuarine Research Reserve System is a network of 28 protected areas established by partnerships between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and coastal states . The reserves represent different biogeographic regions of the United States . The National Estuarine Research Reserve System protects more than 1.3 million acres of coastal and estuarine habitats for long-term research , water-quality monitoring , education , and coastal stewardship .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Estuarine_Research_Reserve", "rank": 27, "score": 149914 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Research Office Content: The Arctic Research Office ( ARO ) a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) run under the auspices of the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . ARO is the focal point for NOAA 's research in the Arctic , Bering Sea , North Pacific and North Atlantic regions . In 1996 , the Congress of the United States appropriated one million USD to support an Arctic Research Initiative within NOAA . In cooperation with the Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research , NOAA 's Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research used those funds to support research projects in two principal areas : natural variability of the Western Arctic/Bering Sea ecosystem , and anthropogenic influences on the Western Arctic/Bering Sea ecosystem . Support for the Arctic Research Initiative is ongoing . The office administers the funds from the Arctic Research Initiative . It represents NOAA on the Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee , leads U.S. involvement in the Arctic Monitoring & Assessment Programme , and provides a point of contact between NOAA and the Cooperative Institute and Assessment Program and the International Arctic Research Center .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Arctic_Research_Office", "rank": 28, "score": 146971 }, { "content": "Title: Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere Content: The Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere ( CIRA ) is a scientific research institution at Colorado State University ( CSU ) that operates under a cooperative agreement with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and the National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) . Atmospheric research at CIRA focuses on augmenting operational meteorology with advanced techniques in satellite observations and retrievals , numerical modeling and computational techniques , and data analysis , visualization , and storage . Along with NOAA , CIRA also partners with the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) , the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) , the National Park Service ( NPS ) , and the Department of Defense ( DoD ) . It is one of 16 NOAA Cooperative Institutes ( CIs ) . Specific research themes at CIRA include : Satellite algorithm development , training and education Regional to global scale modeling systems Data assimilation Climate-weather processes Data distribution Societal and economic impacts of weather and climate Education and public outreach on climate systems The CIRA campus is located on the Foothills Campus of Colorado State University , in Fort Collins .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Cooperative_Institute_for_Research_in_the_Atmosphere", "rank": 29, "score": 146636 }, { "content": "Title: Reorganization Plan No. 3 Content: Reorganization Plan No. 3 was an executive order submitted to the United States Congress on July 9 , 1970 by President Richard Nixon establishing the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) and setting forth the components of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . The order consolidated components from different Federal agencies to form the EPA , `` a strong , independent agency '' that would establish and enforce federal environmental protection laws . Unlike other agencies such as OSHA , the EPA was not established by a single enabling act of Congress .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Reorganization_Plan_No._3", "rank": 30, "score": 145497 }, { "content": "Title: National Integrated Drought Information System Content: The National Integrated Drought Information System ( NIDIS ) Act was signed into law in 2006 ( Public Law 109-430 ) . The Western Governors ' Association described the need for NIDIS in a 2004 report , Creating a Drought Early Warning System for the 21st Century : The National Integrated Drought Information System . The NIDIS Act calls for an interagency , multi-partner approach to drought monitoring , forecasting , and early warning , led by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . NIDIS is being developed to consolidate data on drought 's physical , hydrological , and socio-economic impacts on an ongoing basis , to develop drought decision support and simulation tools for critical , drought-sensitive areas , and to enable proactive planning by those affected by drought . NIDIS draws on the personnel , experience , and networks of the National Drought Mitigation Center , the NOAA Regional Climate Centers , and the Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments ( RISAs ) , among others . Federal agencies and departments partnering in NIDIS include the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , the Bureau of Reclamation , the U.S. Geological Survey , NASA , the U.S. Department of Energy , the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency , the National Science Foundation , and the Natural Resources Conservation Service . NIDIS is building on existing system infrastructure , data , and operational products from various agencies . For example , it incorporates data from the SNOTEL ( SNOw TELemetry ) network of the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Natural Resources Conservation Service , reservoir and streamflow levels from the U.S. Department of the Interior and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , and river forecasts from the National Weather Service . It incorporates operational products such as the U.S. Drought Monitor and the Seasonal Drought Outlook . Researchers are working to help decision-makers in many contexts by making drought monitoring , forecasting , and impacts information available at a variety of spatial scales and geopolitical boundaries , including regional , watershed , county and tribal . NIDIS is a prototype for information services , in support of preparing for and adapting to climate variation and change . In late 2007 , NIDIS launched the U.S. Drought Portal , or drought.gov , a website that pulls together many federal , state , and academic resources for monitoring drought . The NIDIS Program is supported by the NOAA Climate Program Office and is housed at the NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory in Boulder , Colorado .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Integrated_Drought_Information_System", "rank": 31, "score": 144528 }, { "content": "Title: Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory Content: The Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory ( AOML ) , a federal research laboratory , is part of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , located in Miami , Florida . AOML 's research spans tropical cyclone and hurricanes , coastal ecosystems , oceans and human health , climate studies , global carbon systems , and ocean observations . It is one of seven NOAA Research Laboratories ( RLs ) . AOML 's organizational structure consists of an Office of the Director and three scientific research divisions . The Office of the Director oversees the Laboratory 's scientific programs , as well as its financial , administrative , computer , outreach/education , and facility management services . Research programs are augmented by the Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies ( CIMAS ) , a joint enterprise with the University of Miami 's Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science . CIMAS enables AOML and university scientists to collaborate on research areas of mutual interest and facilitates the participation of students and visiting scientists . The Laboratory is a member of a unique community of marine research and educational institutions located on Virginia Key in Miami , Florida . Approximately $ 150M per year is invested in marine science and education among the University of Miami 's Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science , NOAA 's Southeast Fisheries Science Center , the Miami Seaquarium , the Maritime and Science Technology Academy ( MAST Academy ) .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Atlantic_Oceanographic_and_Meteorological_Laboratory", "rank": 32, "score": 143962 }, { "content": "Title: Tsunami Warning, Education, and Research Act of 2014 Content: The Tsunami Warning , Education , and Research Act of 2014 is a bill that would authorize the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) to spend $ 27 million a year for three years on their on-going tsunami warning and research programs . The bill was introduced into the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Tsunami_Warning,_Education,_and_Research_Act_of_2014", "rank": 33, "score": 143041 }, { "content": "Title: National Undersea Research Program Content: The National Undersea Research Program ( NURP ) is a U.S. government program that operates six facilities for undersea research , including the world 's only permanent undersea research facility , Aquarius . The program is operated under the auspices of the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research , a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . Each center is funded by a grant from NOAA . Projects are chosen based upon peer review .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Undersea_Research_Program", "rank": 34, "score": 142334 }, { "content": "Title: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Content: The Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory ( GFDL ) is a laboratory in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . The current director is Dr. Venkatachalam Ramaswamy . It is one of seven NOAA Research Laboratories ( RLs ) . GFDL is engaged in comprehensive long lead-time research to expand the scientific understanding of the physical processes that govern the behavior of the atmosphere and the oceans as complex fluid systems . These systems can then be modeled mathematically and their phenomenology can be studied by computer simulation methods . GFDL 's accomplishments include the development of the first climate models to study global warming , the first comprehensive ocean prediction codes , and the first dynamical models with significant skill in hurricane track and intensity predictions . Much current research within the laboratory is focused around the development of Earth System Models for assessment of natural and human-induced climate change .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Geophysical_Fluid_Dynamics_Laboratory", "rank": 35, "score": 142184 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory Content: The Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory ( CMDL ) was a climate laboratory in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) / Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . In October 2005 , it was merged with five other NOAA labs to form the Earth System Research Laboratory . CMDL 's mission was to observe and understand , through accurate , long-term records of atmospheric gases , aerosol particles , and solar radiation , the Earth 's atmospheric system controlling climate forcing , ozone depletion and baseline air quality , in order to develop products that will advance global and regional environmental information and services .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Climate_Monitoring_and_Diagnostics_Laboratory", "rank": 36, "score": 142132 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Mirror Content: Climate Mirror is `` an open project to mirror public climate datasets '' , that is , an open access project to mirror ( to back up ) the data of publicly owned datasets from climate science , such as data from U.S. federally funded research . Datasets from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , and NASA are considered primary examples . The idea behind Climate Mirror is comparable to the notion that lots of copies keep stuff safe from disappearing through censorship , link rot , lapses of professionalism in preserving the integrity of the scientific record , or lack of digital permanence . It offers a massively parallel type of backup .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Climate_Mirror", "rank": 37, "score": 141227 }, { "content": "Title: Global Ocean Data Analysis Project Content: The Global Ocean Data Analysis Project ( GLODAP ) is a synthesis project bringing together oceanographic data collected during the 1990s by research cruises on the World Ocean Circulation Experiment ( WOCE ) , Joint Global Ocean Flux Study ( JGOFS ) and Ocean-Atmosphere Exchange Study ( OACES ) programmes . The central goal of GLODAP is to generate a global climatology of the World Ocean 's carbon cycle for use in studies of both its natural and anthropogenically-forced states . GLODAP is funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , the U.S. Department of Energy ( DOE ) , and the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project", "rank": 38, "score": 140742 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAA-6", "rank": 39, "score": 140265 }, { "content": "Title: Earth System Research Laboratory Content: The Earth System Research Laboratory ( ESRL ) is a laboratory in National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . It is one of seven NOAA Research Laboratories ( RLs ) and is located in Boulder , Colorado . ESRL combines six separate NOAA labs under one organization with four Divisions - Global Monitoring , Physical Sciences , Chemical Sciences , and Global Systems . The former labs falling into ESRL are the Aeronomy Laboratory , the Climate Diagnostics Center , the Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory , the Environmental Technology Laboratory , the Forecast Systems Laboratory , and the Surface Radiation Research Branch of the Air Resources Laboratory .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Earth_System_Research_Laboratory", "rank": 40, "score": 139824 }, { "content": "Title: National Weather Service Content: The National Weather Service ( NWS ) is an agency of the United States federal government that is tasked with providing weather forecasts , warnings of hazardous weather , and other weather-related products to organizations and the public for the purposes of protection , safety , and general information . It is a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) branch of the Department of Commerce , and is headquartered in Silver Spring , Maryland ( located just outside Washington , D.C. ) . The agency was known as the United States Weather Bureau from 1890 until it adopted its current name in 1970 . The NWS performs its primary task through a collection of national and regional centers , and 122 local weather forecast offices ( WFOs ) . As the NWS is a government agency , most of its products are in the public domain and available free of charge .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Weather_Service", "rank": 41, "score": 139739 }, { "content": "Title: Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies Content: The Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies ( CIMMS ) provides a mechanism to link the scientific and technical resources of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and the University of Oklahoma ( OU ) to create a center of research excellence in mesoscale meteorology , regional climate studies , and related subject areas . It is located at the National Weather Center ( NWC ) in Norman , Oklahoma . It is one of 16 NOAA Cooperative Institutes ( CIs ) . The CIMMS research themes are : Basic convective and mesoscale research Forecast improvements Climatic effects of/controls on mesoscale processes Socioeconomic impacts of mesoscale weather systems and regional scale climate variations Doppler weather radar research and development Climate change monitoring and detection", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Cooperative_Institute_for_Mesoscale_Meteorological_Studies", "rank": 42, "score": 138829 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA Central Library Content: The NOAA Central Library is the flagship library of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's ( NOAA ) network of over 20 research libraries . It is also a selective federal depository library for United States federal government publications . -LSB- 6 -RSB-", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAA_Central_Library", "rank": 43, "score": 138771 }, { "content": "Title: Joint Polar Satellite System Content: Joint Polar Satellite System ( JPSS ) is the latest generation of U.S. polar-orbiting , non-geosynchronous , environmental satellites . JPSS will provide the global environmental data used in numerical weather prediction models for forecasts , and scientific data used for climate monitoring . JPSS will aid in fulfilling the mission of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , an agency of the Department of Commerce . Data and imagery obtained from the JPSS will increase timeliness and accuracy of public warnings and forecasts of climate and weather events , thus reducing the potential loss of human life and property and advancing the national economy . The JPSS is developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , who is responsible for operation of JPSS . Two satellites are planned for the JPSS constellation of satellites . JPSS satellites will be flown and the scientific data from JPSS will be processed by the JPSS - Common Ground System ( JPSS-CGS ) .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Joint_Polar_Satellite_System", "rank": 44, "score": 138770 }, { "content": "Title: US Climate Reference Network Content: The US Climate Reference Network ( USCRN ) is a network of climate stations developed and maintained by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , completed in 2008 . . It has the long-term commitment of the Department of Commerce and the NOAA .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "US_Climate_Reference_Network", "rank": 45, "score": 138661 }, { "content": "Title: Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research Content: The Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research is designed to be a focal point for interactions between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) / Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and the Arctic research community through the University of Alaska for research related to the Western Arctic/Bering Sea region . ( CIFAR ) was established through a Memorandum of Understanding between NOAA and the University of Alaska . CIFAR is exclusively concerned with Arctic research . They work closely with NOAA 's Arctic Research Office and the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory ( PMEL ) . Partnerships with NOAA also include the National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) , the National Ocean Service ( NOS ) , and an emerging relationship with the National Weather Service .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Cooperative_Institute_for_Arctic_Research", "rank": 46, "score": 137706 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Roger_Pulwarty", "rank": 47, "score": 137489 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-7 Content: NOAA-7 , designated NOAA-C before launch , was an American weather satellite launched in June 1981 as part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Polar Operational Environmental Satellites ( POES ) program . It was used to support the Global Atmospheric Research Program ( GARP ) during 1978 -- 1984 . An earlier launch , NOAA-B , was scheduled to become NOAA-7 , however NOAA-B failed to reach its required orbit . The launch of NOAA-7 took place at 10:52:59 UTC ( 3:53 a.m. PST ) on 23 June 1981 from Space Launch Complex 3W at the Vandenberg Air Force Base in California . NOAA-7 was launched atop an Atlas E/F rocket with a Star-37S-ISS upper stage . The NOAA-7 satellite had a mass of 588.9 kg . The satellite 's design provided an economical and stable sun synchronous platform for advanced operational instruments to measure the Earth 's atmosphere , its surface and cloud cover , and the near space environment . The primary sensors included an Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR ) and a TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) . One of the primary mission sensors , the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS ) , failed 7 February 1985 . There were a number of secondary experiments on-board NOAA-7 . These include a Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) and a Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) . The United States Air Force also provided a contamination monitor to assess contamination sources , levels and effects for consideration on future spacecraft . NOAA-7 was based upon the Block 5D spacecraft bus developed for the U.S. Air Force . The satellite was capable of maintaining an earth-pointing accuracy of better than ± 0.1 ° with a motion rate of less than 0.035 degrees/second . NOAA-7 was withdrawn from use in June 1986 after its power system malfunctioned . In August 1997 the decommissioned satellite experienced an abrupt 1 second change in orbital period . At the same time 3 new debris particles were observed . It is unclear if this was caused by an internal release of energy or collision with an unidentified object . As of 8 December 2013 , the derelict satellite remains in a 834 by orbit , inclined at 98.87 degrees and with a period of 101.62 minutes .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAA-7", "rank": 48, "score": 137218 }, { "content": "Title: Cooperative Institute for Climate Science Content: The Cooperative Institute for Climate Science ( CICS ) fosters research collaborations between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) / Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory ( GFDL ) and the Princeton University . It is one of 16 NOAA Cooperative Institutes ( CIs ) . The CICS research themes are : Earth system studies Biogeochemistry Coastal processes Paleoclimate", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Cooperative_Institute_for_Climate_Science", "rank": 49, "score": 135848 }, { "content": "Title: National Severe Storms Laboratory Content: The National Severe Storms Laboratory ( NSSL ) is a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) weather research laboratory under the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research . It is one of seven NOAA Research Laboratories ( RLs ) . NSSL studies weather radar , tornadoes , flash floods , lightning , damaging winds , hail , and winter weather in an effort to improve warnings and forecasts and to save lives and reduce property damage . Researchers at NSSL developed the first Doppler weather radar , and have contributed to the development of NEXRAD ( WSR-88D ) . The group conducts various research experiments using mobile radar systems and continues to make advances in the field of meteorology . NSSL has a partnership with the Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies ( CIMMS ) at the University of Oklahoma that enables collaboration and participation by students and visiting scientists in performing research . The Lab also works closely with the Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) and the National Weather Service Norman Forecast Office , which are co-located at the National Weather Center ( NWC ) in Norman , Oklahoma . The NWC houses a unique combination of University of Oklahoma , NOAA and state organizations that work together to improve understanding of weather .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Severe_Storms_Laboratory", "rank": 50, "score": 134566 }, { "content": "Title: Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean Content: right | 200px The Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean ( JISAO ) has existed since 1977 for the purpose of fostering research collaboration between National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and the University of Washington ( UW ) . Dr. Thomas Ackerman , a Battelle Fellow , is the current director . It is one of 16 NOAA Cooperative Institutes ( CIs ) . The JISAO research themes are : Climate research and impacts Marine ecosystems Environmental chemistry Ocean and coastal observations Seafloor processes Protection and restoration of marine resources Tsunami observations and modeling", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Joint_Institute_for_the_Study_of_the_Atmosphere_and_Ocean", "rank": 51, "score": 134422 }, { "content": "Title: National Undersea Research Center for the North Atlantic and Great Lakes Content: The National Undersea Research Center for the North Atlantic and Great Lakes ( NURC-NA & GL ) is one of six undersea centers established by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Undersea Research Program . It is co-located with the University of Connecticut 's Department of Marine Sciences . The center 's mission includes supporting regional and national oceanography research and promoting awareness of the oceanic ecosystem through educational outreach programs .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Undersea_Research_Center_for_the_North_Atlantic_and_Great_Lakes", "rank": 52, "score": 133723 }, { "content": "Title: NSSL and SPC Employees Association Content: The NSSL and SPC Employees Association ( NSEA ) is a U.S. `` non-profit organization which provides social interaction for employees from the National Severe Storms Laboratory ( NSSL ) , the Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) , and the Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies ( CIMMS ) , and their families and friends , and provides a better working environment for employees at NSSL , SPC , and CIMMS '' . It is not affiliated with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . It operates an on-site member-operated convenience store which sells snacks , drinks , and other food . This , and other `` concessions stands '' such as a clothing and a weather photography stores which sell to the public , fund the organization . In serving in its members , it sponsors annual events such as a Winter Holiday dinner , a Halloween party , the NSEA Chili Cookoff , a July summer picnic , and an October golf tournament ; as well as sends flowers to hospitalized employees and members of their immediate families , donates money to charitable organizations or plants for funeral services in memory of passing NSSL/SPC/CIMMS employees and members of their immediate families , as well as members of the Norman meteorological community , purchases framed pictures for the hallways and appliances for the use of all employees , and constructed a memorial in front of the NSSL/SPC building to honor the federal workers killed in the Murrah Building bombing in Oklahoma City . NSEA also recycles various paper and metal products produced as waste from our lab , and uses the money to plant trees around the building ( NSSL , SPC , and CIMMS moved with several other meteorological organizations to the National Weather Center on the campus of the University of Oklahoma in September 2006 ) .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NSSL_and_SPC_Employees_Association", "rank": 53, "score": 132746 }, { "content": "Title: Severe weather terminology (United States) Content: This article describes severe weather terminology used by the National Weather Service ( NWS ) in the United States . The NWS , a government agency operating as an arm of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) branch of the United States Department of Commerce ( DoC ) , defines precise meanings for nearly all of its weather terms . This article describes NWS terminology and related weather scales used by the agency . Some terms may be specific to certain cities or regions .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Severe_weather_terminology_(United_States)", "rank": 54, "score": 132455 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-19 Content: NOAA-19 , designated NOAA-N ' ( NOAA-N Prime ) prior to launch , is the last of the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's POES series of weather satellites ( which was scheduled to be replaced by the next-generation NPOESS series before the NPOESS project was cancelled ) . NOAA-19 was launched on February 6 , 2009 .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAA-19", "rank": 55, "score": 131741 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 56, "score": 131558 }, { "content": "Title: Center for Environmental Technology Content: The Center for Environmental Technology or CET , formerly known as the Environmental Technology Laboratory of NOAA , US Department of Commerce , is a joint center between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and the University of Colorado , which designs some of the most sensitive radio receivers in the world for active and passive microwave observation of terrestrial and atmospheric phenomena .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Center_for_Environmental_Technology", "rank": 57, "score": 131071 }, { "content": "Title: State of the Coast Content: NOAA 's State of the Coast Web site was launched by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in March 2010 . The site contains quick facts and detailed statistics offered through fourteen interactive indicator visualizations presented across four themes : Communities , Economy , Ecology , and Climate . Collectively , the purpose of the Web site is to communicate and highlight the connections among a healthy coastal ecosystem , a robust U.S. economy , a safe population , and a sustainable quality of life for coastal residents . The Web site is considered periodic and is updated on a monthly basis .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "State_of_the_Coast", "rank": 58, "score": 130679 }, { "content": "Title: NOAAS Thomas Jefferson (S 222) Content: NOAAS Thomas Jefferson ( S 222 ) is a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) hydrographic survey vessel in service since 2003 .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAAS_Thomas_Jefferson_(S_222)", "rank": 59, "score": 130527 }, { "content": "Title: Coupling, Energetics and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions Content: Coupling , Energetics and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions ( `` CEDAR '' ) is a US NSF funded program targeting understanding of middle and upper atmospheric dynamics . CEDAR is of relevance to space weather , space physics , and global change . CEDAR involves researchers from institutions within and without the United States , although the funding is almost exclusively directed to US projects . Researchers are funded for observational , theoretical , and simulation work . There is a significant focus on student activities and CEDAR has been tremendously effective at involving a large number of graduate students in front-line research . CEDAR programs produce a significant amount of data which is accessible via the `` CEDAR Data Base '' , a number of Virtual Observatories ( VOs ) , and the web pages of principal investigators ( PIs ) . CEDAR has produced important scientific results in a number of inter-related research fields . Category : Atmosphere", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Coupling,_Energetics_and_Dynamics_of_Atmospheric_Regions", "rank": 60, "score": 130189 }, { "content": "Title: John Michael Wallace Content: John Michael Wallace ( born October 28 , 1940 ) , is a professor of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Washington , as well as the former director of the Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean ( JISAO ) -- a joint research venture between the University of Washington and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research concerns understanding global climate and its variations using observations and covers the quasi biennial oscillation , Pacific decadal oscillation and the annular modes of the Arctic oscillation and the Antarctic oscillation , and the dominant spatial patterns in month-to-month and year-to-year climate variability , including the one through which El Niño phenomenon in the tropical Pacific influences climate over North America . He is also the coauthor with Peter V. Hobbs of what is generally considered the standard introductory textbook in the field : Atmospheric Science : An Introductory Survey . He was the third most cited geoscientist during the period 1973 -- 2007 .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "John_Michael_Wallace", "rank": 61, "score": 129930 }, { "content": "Title: NOAAS Researcher (R 103) Content: NOAAS Researcher ( R 103 ) , was an American oceanographic research vessel in commission in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) from 1970 to 1996 . Previously , she had been in commission in the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1970 as USC&GS Researcher ( OSS 03 ) . In 1987 , Researcher was renamed NOAAS Malcolm Baldrige ( R 103 ) .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAAS_Researcher_(R_103)", "rank": 62, "score": 129859 }, { "content": "Title: Raster Navigational Charts (NOAA) Content: Raster Navigational Charts ( RNC 's ) are created by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the United States Government . Each original chart is scanned at high resolution with color separate overlays . The raster file also contains data that is Geo-referencing ; enabling computer based navigation attached to a GPS to locate and display the chart . The charts are stored in BSB format . Image manipulation tools such as GDAL can read the image information , but there also is georeferenced data in the navigational charts .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Raster_Navigational_Charts_(NOAA)", "rank": 63, "score": 129683 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-4 Content: NOAA-4 , also known as ITOS-G was a weather satellite operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . It was part of a series of satellites called ITOS , or improved TIROS . NOAA-4 was launched on a Delta rocket on 15 November 1974 . The launch carried two other satellites : AMSAT-OSCAR 7 and Intasat . It remained operational for 1463 days until it was deactivated by NOAA on 18 November 1978 .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAA-4", "rank": 64, "score": 129639 }, { "content": "Title: Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research Content: The Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research ( JIMAR ) is an oceanic , atmospheric , and geophysical research institute that is sponsored jointly by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and the University of Hawaii ( UH ) . It is one of 16 NOAA Cooperative Institutes ( CIs ) . The JIMAR research themes are : Tsunamis ( and other long period ocean waves ) Climate Equatorial oceanography Fisheries oceanography Tropical meteorology Coastal research", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Joint_Institute_for_Marine_and_Atmospheric_Research", "rank": 65, "score": 129615 }, { "content": "Title: Global Drifter Program Content: The Global Drifter Program ( GDP ) ( formerly known as the Surface Velocity Program ( SVP ) ) , was conceived by Prof. Peter Niiler , with the objective of collecting measurements of surface ocean currents , sea surface temperature and sea-level atmospheric pressure using drifters . It is the principal component of the Global Surface Drifting Buoy Array , a branch of NOAA 's Global Ocean Observing System ( GOOS ) and a scientific project of the Data Buoy Cooperation Panel ( DBCP ) . The project originated in February 1979 as part of the TOGA/Equatorial Pacific Ocean Circulation Experiment ( EPOCS ) and the first large-scale deployment of drifters was in 1988 with the goal of mapping the tropical Pacific Ocean 's surface circulation . The current goal of the project is to use 1250 satellite-tracked surface drifting buoys to make accurate and globally dense in-situ observations of mixed layer currents , sea surface temperature , atmospheric pressure , winds and salinity , and to create a system to process the data . Horizontal transports in the oceanic mixed layer measured by the GDP are relevant to biological and chemical processes as well as physical ones .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Global_Drifter_Program", "rank": 66, "score": 129334 }, { "content": "Title: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Content: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Venkatachalam_Ramaswamy", "rank": 67, "score": 128095 }, { "content": "Title: Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences Content: The Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences ( CIRES ) is a research institute that is sponsored jointly by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and the University of Colorado Boulder ( CU ) . CIRES scientists study the Earth system , including the atmosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , biosphere , and geosphere , and communicate these findings to decision makers , the scientific community , and the public . It is one of 16 NOAA Cooperative Institutes ( CIs ) .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Cooperative_Institute_for_Research_in_Environmental_Sciences", "rank": 68, "score": 127769 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA ships and aircraft Content: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Office of Marine and Aviation Operations ( OMAO ) operates a wide variety of specialized aircraft and ships to complete NOAA 's environmental and scientific missions . OMAO also manages the NOAA Small Boat Program and the NOAA Diving Program , the latter having as part of its mission the job of ensuring a level of diving skill conducive to safe and efficient operations in NOAA-sponsored underwater activities .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAA_ships_and_aircraft", "rank": 69, "score": 126826 }, { "content": "Title: Thomas R. Karl Content: Thomas R. Karl ( Born 22 November 1951 , Evergreen Park , Illinois ) is the former director of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Centers for Environmental Information ( NCEI ) . He joined the National Climate Centre in 1980 , and when that became the National Climatic Data Center , he continued as a researcher , becoming a Lab Chief , Senior Scientist and ultimately Director of the Center . When it merged with other centers to become NCEI in 2015 , he became its first director . He retired on 4 August 2016 .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Thomas_R._Karl", "rank": 70, "score": 126306 }, { "content": "Title: D. James Baker Content: D. James Baker ( born March 23 , 1937 ) is an American scientist who was trained as a physicist , practiced as an oceanographer , and has held science and management positions in academia , non-profit institutions , and government agencies . He a former Under Secretary of Commerce for Atmosphere and Oceans and Administrator of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , and currently Director , Global Carbon Measurement Program , William J. Clinton Foundation working with forestry programs in developing countries with the aim of reducing carbon dioxide emissions and at the same time helping alleviate poverty .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "D._James_Baker", "rank": 71, "score": 125630 }, { "content": "Title: Air Resources Laboratory Content: __ NOTOC __ The Air Resources Laboratory ( ARL ) is an air quality and climate laboratory in the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) which is an operating unit within the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in the United States . It is one of seven NOAA Research Laboratories ( RLs ) . In October 2005 , the Surface Radiation Research Branch of the ARL was merged with five other NOAA labs to form the Earth System Research Laboratory . The Air Resources Laboratory ( ARL ) studies processes and develops models relating to climate and air quality , including the transport , dispersion , transformation and removal of pollutants from the ambient atmosphere . The emphasis of the ARL 's work is on data interpretation , technology development and transfer . The specific goal of ARL research is to improve and eventually to institutionalize prediction of trends , dispersion of air pollutant plumes , air quality , atmospheric deposition , and related variables . ARL provides scientific and technical advice to elements of NOAA and other Government agencies on atmospheric science , environmental problems , emergency assistance ( Homeland Security ) , and climate change . ARL 's stated goal is to improve the Nation 's ability to protect human and ecosystem health while also maintaining a vibrant economy .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Air_Resources_Laboratory", "rank": 72, "score": 125382 }, { "content": "Title: David E. Skaggs Research Center Content: The David E. Skaggs Research Center ( DSRC ) is a 372000 sqft research and office facility for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , located in Boulder , CO. . The building includes 698 offices , 20 conference rooms , 98 laboratories and three major computer centers , and has been designed by Fentress Architects . `` Named for U.S. Rep. David Skaggs who represented Colorado 's 2nd Congressional District from 1987 -- 99 , the Skaggs Research Center was constructed at the base of the Flatirons rock formation in Boulder , Colorado on land already owned by the United States Department of Commerce ( DOC ) . In 1989 , Congressman Skaggs worked to pass an appropriation for the new facility and over the next six years helped NOAA negotiate key issues with the City of Boulder and Indian tribes as the project went forward . '' The project was initiated in 1987 , when the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration asked the General Services Administration to consolidate NOAA Boulder and Denver research laboratories , operational centers and offices into one facility . NOAA 's divisions along the Front Range were then housed in obsolete and inadequate leased spaces in multiple locations , including the Weather Forecast Office located near Stapleton International Airport in Denver . The DSRC is home to research organizations including : NOAA 's Earth System Research Laboratory , National Climatic Data Center - Paleoclimatology , National Geophysical Data Center , National Snow and Ice Data Center , National Weather Service - Space Weather Prediction Center and NOAA Research Joint Institutes : Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere and Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "David_E._Skaggs_Research_Center", "rank": 73, "score": 125281 }, { "content": "Title: National Snow and Ice Data Center Content: The National Snow and Ice Data Center , or NSIDC , is a United States information and referral center in support of polar and cryospheric research . NSIDC archives and distributes digital and analog snow and ice data and also maintains information about snow cover , avalanches , glaciers , ice sheets , freshwater ice , sea ice , ground ice , permafrost , atmospheric ice , paleoglaciology , and ice cores . NSIDC is part of the University of Colorado Boulder Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences ( CIRES ) , and is affiliated with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) National Geophysical Data Center through a cooperative agreement . NSIDC serves as one of twelve Distributed Active Archive Centers funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration to archive and distribute data from NASA 's past and current satellites and field measurement programs . NSIDC also supports the National Science Foundation through the Exchange For Local Observations and Knowledge of the Arctic ( ELOKA ) and other scientific research grants . NSIDC is also a member of the ICSU World Data System . Mark Serreze is the director of NSIDC .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Snow_and_Ice_Data_Center", "rank": 74, "score": 125173 }, { "content": "Title: NOAAS Ronald H. Brown (R 104) Content: NOAAS Ronald H. Brown ( R 104 ) is a blue-water research vessel of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , she is NOAA 's only Global Class research ship . She was launched on May 30 , 1996 at Halter Marine 's Moss Point shipyard in Pascagoula ( the keel being laid in February 1995 ) and then commissioned on July 19 , 1997 in Charleston . She was NOAA 's first newly built oceanographic research vessel in 17 years . The Brown is named for former Secretary of Commerce Ron Brown , who was killed in a plane crash on April 3 , 1996 , while on a trade mission to Bosnia , while in office . At 274 ft in length , she is the largest vessel in the NOAA fleet . The hull of the ship is hardened against ice to allow for Arctic and Antarctic research . The ship has a total of 59 bunk spaces and can seat 30 at a time in her mess room . The ship also includes a 2-bed hospital facility . She carries a complement of six NOAA Corps commissioned officers , one commissioned U.S. Public Health Service medical officer , 22 crew and a maximum of 31 scientists . The deck equipment features three winches , two fixed cranes , a portable crane , a hydrographic boom and an A-frame . This equipment gives the Ronald H. Brown a lifting capacity of up to 42000 lb as well as up to 10000 m of cable that can pull up to 8100 lb . One of the winches is specifically for use with specialty cables such as optical fiber cables or coaxial EM Cable . As a research vessel , a substantial amount of the ship is dedicated to laboratories . Included in the 4100 sqft of lab space are a computer/electronics lab , a biochemical lab and a wet lab . In addition to her state-of-the-art oceanographic sampling capabilities , the Ronald H. Brown has instrumentation to study the atmosphere , including a Doppler weather radar for a better understanding of storm dynamics at sea . This combined atmospheric and oceanographic sampling capability makes the ship unique in the world 's research fleet . Scientists aboard the vessel study critical environmental issues across the world 's oceans . She has participated in many national and international projects since 1997 . The Ronald H. Brown and three other research ships were all built to the same basic design . The three sister ships are R/V Thomas G. Thompson ( UW ) , R/V Roger Revelle ( Scripps ) and R/V Atlantis ( Woods Hole ) .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAAS_Ronald_H._Brown_(R_104)", "rank": 75, "score": 124348 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming taxes Content:", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Global_warming_taxes", "rank": 76, "score": 124196 }, { "content": "Title: Samuel P. De Bow, Jr. Content: Samuel P. De Bow , Jr. is a retired rear admiral in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps who served as the Director , NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps and Director , Office of Marine and Aviation Operations from 2004 until his retirement September 30 , 2007 . He was nominated for this position by President George W. Bush , confirmed by the Senate , and subsequently promoted from captain to rear admiral . The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Commissioned Corps ( NOAA Corps ) is a small , elite corps of officers -- all with college degrees in science , engineering , or mathematics -- who command NOAA ships and aircraft as well as serve within the many environmental research programs of NOAA . The NOAA Corps is one of the United States 's seven uniformed services . NOAA 's Office of Marine and Aviation Operations ( OMAO ) is composed both of NOAA Corps officers and civilians who operate , manage , and maintain the agency 's fleet of research and survey ships and aircraft . RADM De Bow was appointed into the NOAA Corps in 1976 . His career has focused on NOAA 's mission to ensure safe navigation . He has served aboard three NOAA hydrographic survey ships that acquire data to update the nation 's nautical charts , and two mobile hydrographic field units . Hydrographic surveys accurately determine least water depths and locate obstructions and other dangers to navigation on the sea floor . His last sea tour was as commanding officer of the NOAA Ship RUDE ; under his direction , RUDE located the wreckage of TWA Flight 800 after the jet 's disastrous crash in 1996 . During his career , RADM De Bow has conducted hydrographic surveys throughout the coastal waters of the United States , including Alaska . While in graduate school , he was an NOAA exchange hydrographer , working with the Norwegian Hydrographic Service in Stavanger , Norway . RADM De Bow 's shore tours have included a variety of staff , management and technical positions , the majority of which were in support of NOAA 's mapping and charting mission . Most recently ( 7/03 -6 / 04 ) , he served as executive assistant to the Deputy Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere , who manages NOAA 's workforce of approximately 13,000 and budget of $ 3.9 billion . Prior to that , RADM De Bow was chief of the Hydrographic Services Division ( 3/99 -7 / 03 ) , where his primary responsibility was to provide overall guidance and leadership for NOAA 's national hydrographic survey program . Here he was instrumental in revitalizing NOAA 's aging hydrographic fleet while managing close to $ 100 million in private sector contracts for data . He also served as NOAA 's on-scene operations officer during the search for John F. Kennedy Jr. 's downed aircraft in 1999 ( found by NOAA Ship RUDE ) , and coordinated NOAA 's search efforts for Egypt Air 990 in 1999 ( found by NOAA Ship WHITING ) . In September 2006 , RADM De Bow was confirmed as a member of the Mississippi River Commission . During his career , he has been a member of a group awarded the Department of Commerce Gold Medal ( the Department 's highest award ) , and has received two individual Department of Commerce Silver Medals and an NOAA Bronze Medal ( NOAA 's highest award ) for his achievements . He has also received a U.S. Coast Guard and three NOAA Corps commendation medals in addition to numerous other medals and ribbons . RADM De Bow holds a bachelor 's degree in commerce and engineering from Drexel University and a master 's degree in hydrographic sciences from the Naval Postgraduate School . He was a senior executive fellow at Harvard University 's John F. Kennedy School of Government , and attended the Leadership for a Democratic Society course at the Federal Executive Institute . RADM De Bow is a native of Philadelphia , PA. . He and his wife , Susan , have a son and two daughters .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Samuel_P._De_Bow,_Jr.", "rank": 77, "score": 124124 }, { "content": "Title: List of U.S. states by coastline Content: This is a list of U.S. states ranked by their coastline length . States with no coastline are not included . Two separate measurements are used : method 1 only includes states with ocean coastline and excludes tidal inlets ; method 2 includes Great Lake coastline and the extra length from tidal inlets . For example , method 2 counts the Great Bay as part of New Hampshire 's coastline , but method 1 does not . The figures suffer from the inaccuracy inherent in all attempts at measuring coastlines but are nevertheless useful for comparison . The data for method 1 were retrieved from a CRS Report for Congress using data from U.S. Department of Commerce , National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , The Coastline of the United States , 1975 . This is based on measurements made using large-scale nautical charts . The figure for Connecticut was arrived at separately and may not reflect the correct comparative distance . These numbers exclude the Great Lakes coastlines . The data for method 2 are from a list maintained by the Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . The state coastline lengths were computed by an unspecified method that includes tidal areas not included in the first method . These numbers also include the Great Lakes coastlines . __ TOC __", "qid": "2921", "docid": "List_of_U.S._states_by_coastline", "rank": 78, "score": 122897 }, { "content": "Title: National Center for Atmospheric Research Content: The US National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR , -LSB- ˈɛnkar -RSB- ) is a US federally funded research and development center ( FFRDC ) managed by the nonprofit University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ( UCAR ) and funded by the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) . NCAR has multiple facilities , including the I. M. Pei-designed Mesa Laboratory headquarters in Boulder , Colorado . Studies include meteorology , climate science , atmospheric chemistry , solar-terrestrial interactions , environmental and societal impacts .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research", "rank": 79, "score": 122434 }, { "content": "Title: Joint Institute for Marine Observations Content: The Joint Institute for Marine Observations ( JIMO ) is a research institute that is sponsored jointly National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) / Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and University of California 's Scripps Institution of Oceanography . The JIMO research themes are : Climate and Coastal Observations , Analysis , and Prediction Research Biological Systems Research Research in Extreme Environments Research & Development on Observation Systems", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Joint_Institute_for_Marine_Observations", "rank": 80, "score": 122037 }, { "content": "Title: March 2012 North American heat wave Content: In March 2012 , one of the greatest heat waves was observed in many regions of North America . Very warm air pushed northward west of the Great Lakes region , and subsequently spread eastward . The intense poleward air mass movement was propelled by an unusually intense low level southerly jet that stretched from Louisiana to western Wisconsin . Once this warm surge inundated the area , a remarkably prolonged period of record setting temperatures ensued . NOAA 's National Climate Data Center reported that over 7,000 daily record high temperatures were tied or broken from 1 March through 27 March . In some places the temperature exceeded 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) . For instance , in Grand Rapids , Michigan , the highest temperature recorded was 87 ° F on March 21 ; in Chicago a high of 87 ° F was also recorded on that same day . Records were broken in unusual ways . Chicago , for example , saw temperatures above 80 ° F every day between March 14 -- 18 , breaking records on all five days . Chicago would go on to record eight days at or above 80 ° F during the month , with many suburban areas recording an additional day in the 80s on March 19 ( that day , the city only tied its record high of 78 ° F ) . In context , the National Weather Service 's Chicago branch noted that Chicago typically averages only one day in the 80 's in April . And only once in 140 years of weather observations has April produced as many 80 ° F days as this March . In Traverse City , Michigan one day began with a low temperature ( 67 ° F ) higher than the previous record high for the day . Temperature records across much of southern Canada also were shattered . Some of the most impressive readings came from Nova Scotia on March 22 , when the mercury climbed to 30.0 C at a climate station in Lake Major , making it the highest March temperature recorded in Nova Scotia , and the third highest March temperature recorded in Canada . That same day , the temperature hit 29.2 C at Western Head , Nova Scotia . The heat reached as far east as Cape Breton Island , with the temperature climbing to 24.0 C at Sydney , Nova Scotia on March 22 , a place historically surrounded by ice-jammed waters , frigid winds , and snow in March . The week of March 18 also set record temperatures in Manitoba and much of Ontario as well as into the Maritime Provinces . Non-severe thunderstorms were reported on the evening hours of March 21 , through to the early morning hours March 22 into northern Ontario . In addition , NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data show that the atmospheric pattern was so persistent that much of the Midwest and Northeast , and up into Ontario , had temperature departures over periods of several days to a week or more of magnitudes which would be unusual even for a single day . Averaged over the seven-day period from March 16 to March 22 inclusive , nearly the entire area of the Midwest and Northeast U.S. and most of Ontario and Quebec had temperatures 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) or more above the 1981-2010 average . Even more dramatically , most of Iowa and Minnesota , all of Wisconsin and Michigan , and most of southeastern Ontario had seven-day mean temperatures more than 15 ° C ( 27 ° F ) above the climatological average for the same period . An 84 ° F high at Madison , WI in early March was 43 ° F above average and followed an overnight low of 60 ° F , 35 degrees above normal the daily high being more than seven standard deviations above the mean . The absolute temperature and departure statistically would be equivalent to a mid-July high at that station in excess of 125 ° F or more ; the highest temperature recorded there was 107 ° at least once during the heat waves of the middle 1930s . This mild warm spell brought out spring peepers in northern Ontario on 23 March , which are usually not heard until mid-to-late April , or sometimes early May . The warm weather was also responsible for several early-season tornado touchdowns , such as the EF3 that struck Dexter , Michigan , near Ann Arbor .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "March_2012_North_American_heat_wave", "rank": 81, "score": 121565 }, { "content": "Title: Joseph Smagorinsky Content: Joseph Smagorinsky ( 29 January 1924 -- 21 September 2005 ) was an American meteorologist and the first director of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) 's Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory ( GFDL ) .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Joseph_Smagorinsky", "rank": 82, "score": 121425 }, { "content": "Title: Northern Gulf Institute Content: The Northern Gulf Institute ( NGI ) is a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Cooperative Institute started in October 2006 . It is one of 16 NOAA Cooperative Institutes ( CIs ) . The NGI is a partnership of five academic institutions and NOAA . The collaboration led by Mississippi State University ( MSU ) , includes the University of Southern Mississippi ( USM ) , Louisiana State University ( LSU ) , Florida State University ( FSU ) , and the Dauphin Island Sea Lab ( DISL ) . The NGI defines the Northern Gulf of Mexico region as the upland , watershed , coastal zone , and coastal ocean areas from the Sabine River in Louisiana east to the Suwannee River in Florida .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Northern_Gulf_Institute", "rank": 83, "score": 119994 }, { "content": "Title: Pacific Islands Ocean Observing System Content: The Pacific Islands Ocean Observing System ( PacIOOS ) is a nonprofit association and one of eleven such associations in the U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System , funded in part by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . The PacIOOS area covers eight time zones , and 2300 individual islands associated with the U.S. Observation priorities are public safety , direct economic value , and environmental preservation . Among ocean characteristics reported are : Currents forecast Shoreline impacts such as high sea level Buoy water characteristics including salinity , turbidity , and temperature The PacIOOS website is hosted by the University of Hawaii at Manoa , and provides interactive graphs and map viewers .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Pacific_Islands_Ocean_Observing_System", "rank": 84, "score": 118701 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental Modeling Center Content: The Environmental Modeling Center ( EMC ) improves numerical weather , marine and climate predictions at the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) , through a broad program of research in data assimilation and modeling . In support of the NCEP operational forecasting mission , the EMC develops , improves and monitors data assimilation systems and models of the atmosphere , ocean and coupled system , using advanced methods developed internally as well as cooperatively with scientists from Universities , NOAA Laboratories and other government agencies , and the international scientific community .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Environmental_Modeling_Center", "rank": 85, "score": 118439 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA Weather Radio Content: NOAA Weather Radio ( NWR ; also known as NOAA Weather Radio All Hazards ) is a network of radio stations in the United States that broadcast continuous weather information directly from a nearby ( < 40 miles ) Weather Forecast Office of the service 's operator , the National Weather Service ( NWS ) , an agency of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) within the United States Department of Commerce . NOAA Weather Radio broadcasts National Weather Service warnings , watches , forecasts , weather observations and other hazard information 24 hours a day . It also broadcasts alerts of non-weather emergencies such as national security , natural , environmental and public safety ( such as an AMBER Alert ) through the U.S. Federal Communications Commission 's ( FCC ) Emergency Alert System .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAA_Weather_Radio", "rank": 86, "score": 118052 }, { "content": "Title: Forecast Systems Laboratory Content: The Forecast Systems Laboratory ( FSL ) was a meteorological research and development laboratory in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) / Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . In October 2005 , it was merged with five other NOAA labs to form the Earth System Research Laboratory . FSL conducted applied meteorological research and development to improve and create short-term warning and weather forecast systems , models , and observing technology . Supercomputing and other leading-edge technology are used in these applications . FSL then transferred these new scientific and technological advances to its clients which include NOAA 's National Weather Service , the commercial and general aviation communities , the United States Air Force , many foreign weather forecasting services , and various private interests .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Forecast_Systems_Laboratory", "rank": 87, "score": 118032 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Data Records Content: A Climate Data Record ( CDR ) is a specific definition of a climate data series , developed by the Committee on Climate Data Records from NOAA Operational Satellites of the National Research Council at the request of NOAA in the context of satellite records . It is defined as `` a time series of measurements of sufficient length , consistency , and continuity to determine climate variability and change . '' . Such measurements provide an objective basis for the understanding and prediction of climate and its variability , such as global warming .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Climate_Data_Records", "rank": 88, "score": 117998 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA National Operational Model Archive and Distribution System (NOMADS) Content: The NOAA National Operational Model Archive and Distribution System ( NOMADS ) is a Web-services based project providing both real-time and retrospective format independent access to climate and weather model data .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAA_National_Operational_Model_Archive_and_Distribution_System_(NOMADS)", "rank": 89, "score": 117899 }, { "content": "Title: Karen Kohanowich Content: Karen Kohanowich is the Undersea Technology Officer for the Office of Ocean Exploration and Research ( OER ) , a division of the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . She was NOAA 's Acting Director of the National Undersea Research Program ( NURP ) from 2006-2009 . In July 2006 , she served as an aquanaut on the NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations 10 ( NEEMO 10 ) crew . Before NOAA , Kohanowich served in the United States Navy for 23 years , retiring at the rank of Commander . Kohanowich later commented , `` What really got me into diving was that the standards for women were the same -LSB- as for men -RSB- . Women had to do the same number of sit-ups and push-ups . They had to climb up and down the dive ladders wearing the same 200-pound Mark V dive system . ''", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Karen_Kohanowich", "rank": 90, "score": 117714 }, { "content": "Title: Michael S. Devany Content: Michael S. Devany is a former vice admiral in the NOAA Corps who last served as the Deputy Under Secretary for Operations at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration from January 2 , 2014 to April 2016 . He previously served as director of the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps from August 13 , 2012 to January 1 , 2014 , succeeding RADM Jonathan W. Bailey . As Deputy Under Secretary for Operations at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , he was NOAA 's chief operating officer . VADM Devany was responsible for the day-to-day management of NOAA 's national and international operations for oceanic and atmospheric services , research , and coastal and marine stewardship . He is a key advisor to the Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere/NOAA Administrator on NOAA program and policy issues . Devany was the first NOAA Corps officer to achieve the rank of vice admiral since VADM Henry A. Karo in 1965 , and the second NOAA Corps officer overall . Devany retired from NOAA in April 2016 after over 30 years of combined uniformed service .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Michael_S._Devany", "rank": 91, "score": 117377 }, { "content": "Title: U.S. National Geodetic Survey Content: `` United States Coast Survey '' and `` United States Coast and Geodetic Survey '' redirect here . They are former scientific agencies of the United States government which should not be confused with the United States Coast Guard , a seagoing U.S. government law enforcement and safety agency , or the modern Coast Survey , a U.S. government agency that makes nautical charts . The National Geodetic Survey ( NGS ) , formerly the United States Survey of the Coast ( 1807 -- 1836 ) , United States Coast Survey ( 1836 -- 1878 ) , and United States Coast and Geodetic Survey ( USC&GS ) ( 1878 -- 1970 ) , is a United States federal agency that defines and manages a national coordinate system , providing the foundation for transportation and communication ; mapping and charting ; and a large number of applications of science and engineering . Since its foundation in its present form in 1970 , it has been part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , of the United States Department of Commerce . The National Geodetic Surveys history and heritage are intertwined with those of other NOAA offices . As the U.S. Coast Survey and U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey , the agency operated a fleet of survey ships , and from 1917 the Coast and Geodetic Survey was one of the uniformed services of the United States with its own corps of commissioned officers . Upon the creation of the Environmental Science Services Administration ( ESSA ) in 1965 , the commissioned corps was separated from the Survey to become the Environmental Science Services Administration Corps ( or `` ESSA Corps '' ) . Upon the creation of NOAA in 1970 , the ESSA Corps became the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps ( or `` NOAA Corps '' ) ; the operation of ships was transferred to the new NOAA fleet ; geodetic responsibilities were placed under the new National Geodetic Survey ; and hydrographic survey duties came under the cognizance of NOAAs new Office of Coast Survey . Thus , the National Geodetic Surveys ancestor organizations are also the ancestors of todays NOAA Corps and Office of Coast Survey and are among the ancestors of todays NOAA fleet . In addition , todays National Institute of Standards and Technology , although long since separated from the Survey , got its start as the Surveys Office of Weights and Measures .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "U.S._National_Geodetic_Survey", "rank": 92, "score": 117348 }, { "content": "Title: Great Lakes region Content: The Great Lakes region of North America is a bi-national Canadian-American region that includes portions of the eight U.S. states of Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Minnesota , New York , Ohio , Pennsylvania and Wisconsin as well as the Canadian province of Ontario . The region borders the Great Lakes and forms a distinctive historical , economic , and cultural identity . A portion of the region also encompasses most of the Great Lakes Megalopolis , which extends outside the region to St. Louis , Missouri . The Great Lakes Commission , authorized by the region 's American states and Province of Ontario , and the additional Canadian Province of Quebec , comprises a bi-national authority with specified powers to protect and preserve the water and environmental resources of the Great Lakes and surrounding waterways and aquifers . The Commission 's authorities are confirmed by the Canadian and American federal governments , and by its constituent states and provinces . The states and provinces are represented in the Conference of Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Governors and Premiers . The Great Lakes region takes its name from the corresponding geological formation of the Great Lakes Basin , a narrow watershed encompassing The Great Lakes , bounded by watersheds to the region 's north ( Hudson Bay ) , west ( Mississippi ) , east and south ( Ohio ) . To the east , the rivers of St. Lawrence , Richelieu , Hudson , Mohawk and Susquehanna form an arc of watersheds east to The Atlantic . The Great Lakes region , as distinct from the Great Lakes Basin , defines a unit of sub-national political entities defined by the U.S. states and the Canadian Province of Ontario encompassing the Great Lakes watershed , and the states and Province bordering one or more of the Great Lakes .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Great_Lakes_region", "rank": 93, "score": 116883 }, { "content": "Title: NOAAS Henry B. Bigelow (R 225) Content: NOAAS Henry B. Bigelow ( R 225 ) is a fisheries research vessel operated by the United States ' National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . She is the second in a class of five new fisheries research vessels . She is named after Henry Bryant Bigelow ( 1879-1967 ) , the American oceanographer , zoologist , and marine biologist who founded of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Woods Hole , Massachusetts .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAAS_Henry_B._Bigelow_(R_225)", "rank": 94, "score": 116334 }, { "content": "Title: John A. Knauss Content: John Atkinson Knauss ( September 1 , 1925 -- November 19 , 2015 ) was an American oceanographer , meteorologist and former administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) from 1989 to 1993 . Knauss received a Bachelor of Science in meteorology from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Master of Science from University of Michigan in physics , and a Ph.D in oceanography from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography , University of California . While a graduate student , he made the first comprehensive measurements of the Pacific Equatorial Undercurrent . Knauss 's PhD dissertation focused on the Equatorial Undercurrent in the Pacific Ocean , also known as the Cromwell Current . In 1962 he was appointed the Dean of the Graduate School of Oceanography at the University of Rhode Island and served there until 1987 . Knauss and Athelstan Spilhaus , Dean at University of Minnesota and head of the National Academy Science Committee on Oceanography , worked to establish the National Sea Grant Program . The National Sea Grant College Program and Act was signed into law on October 15 , 1966 . The Sea Grant Knauss Fellowship , named in his honor , provides a unique educational and professional experience to graduate students who have an interest in ocean , coastal and Great Lakes resources and in the national policy decisions affecting those resources , matching highly qualified graduate students with `` hosts '' in the legislative and executive branch of government located in the Washington , D.C. area , for a one-year paid fellowship . He served on the Stratton Commission that led to the creation of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in 1970 , and from 1989 to 1993 was its administrator . Knauss served as President of the American Geophysical Union from 1998 to 2000 , and was awarded the Waldo E. Smith medal for `` extraordinary service to geophysics '' in 2006 . He resided in Saunderstown , Rhode Island and was professor emeritus at the University of Rhode Island . In 2015 , he died after a period of declining health .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "John_A._Knauss", "rank": 95, "score": 116142 }, { "content": "Title: Navy Mutual Aid Association Content: Navy Mutual Aid Association ( NMAA ) is a nonprofit , federally tax-exempt , mutual-benefit veteran service organization ( VSO ) that was established in 1879 by sea service officers for the purpose of providing life insurance and annuities for members of the United States Navy , United States Marine Corps , United States Coast Guard , U.S. Public Health Service ( USPHS ) , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , and their families . Membership for the past decade has averaged 105,000 members . As of November 2011 , Navy Mutual Aid Association had over 112,000 military members ( Active , Reserve and Retired ) and families insured ; by 2015 , the number of insured plans had increased to over 139,000 with a member retention rate of 97.3 % . For twelve consecutive years ending in 2015 , Navy Mutual has earned a Fitch Insurer Financial Strength ( IFS ) rating of A + , with a Stable Rating Outlook .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Navy_Mutual_Aid_Association", "rank": 96, "score": 115696 }, { "content": "Title: National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program Content: In United States federal environmental legislation , the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program ( NAPAP ) was authorized by Congress under the Acid Precipitation Act of 1980 ( P.L. 96-294 , Title VII ) because of concern that acidic deposition might contribute to adverse effects on aquatic systems ; agriculture ; forests ; fish ; wildlife and natural ecosystems ; materials such as metals , wood , paint and masonry ; and public health and welfare . Congress also expressed concern over the potential impact from long-range transport on national and international policy . Congress further directed that a comprehensive 10-year research plan be developed and guided by an Interagency Task Force consisting of representatives of 12 agencies , the directors of four National Laboratories , and four presidential appointees . Operational management evolved to a six-member Joint Chairs Council consisting of the Administrators of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) ; secretarial officers of the Department 's of Agriculture , Energy and Interior ; and the Chairman of the Council on Environmental Quality . Other program managers include a Director for Research for executive functions , Task Group leaders reporting jointly to the Director of Research and their agencies for Coordination of research in each major subject area , and two committees composed of the Director of Research and senior representatives of the Joint Chairs Council 's agencies , i.e. , the Interagency Science Committee and the Interagency Policy Committee .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Acid_Precipitation_Assessment_Program", "rank": 97, "score": 115596 }, { "content": "Title: NOAAS Delaware II (R 445) Content: The NOAA Ship Delaware II ( R 445 ) is a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) fisheries research vessel that was in commission from 1970 to 2012 . Prior to her NOAA career , she was in commission in the United States Fish and Wildlife Services Bureau of Commercial Fisheries from 1968 to 1970 as BCF Delaware II .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "NOAAS_Delaware_II_(R_445)", "rank": 98, "score": 115309 }, { "content": "Title: Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences Content: The Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences ( CFCAS ) was Canada 's main funding body for university-based research on climate , atmospheric and related oceanic work . It is now the Canadian Climate Forum . As an autonomous , charitable foundation established in 2000 , CFCAS funded research that improved the scientific understanding of processes and predictions , provided relevant science to policy makers and improved understanding of the ways in which these challenges affect human health and the natural environment in addition to strengthening Canada 's scientific capacity . Its chair is Gordon McBean . CFCAS fosters partnerships in support of innovation , investment , policy , skills development and service delivery . It funds the generation of new knowledge that is essential to the competitiveness of industries and to the health and safety of Canadians . The foundation has invested over $ 117 million in university-based research related to climate and atmospheric sciences , in 24 collaborative networks , 2 major initiatives , and 158 projects . Several of the networks are linked to international research programs ; all involved multiple partners . Complementary ( leveraged ) support for networks has doubled the resources available to them . The Foundation has also hosted or co-hosted a number of workshops and symposia on topics such as extreme weather and Arctic climate , and provides support to international project offices .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "Canadian_Foundation_for_Climate_and_Atmospheric_Sciences", "rank": 99, "score": 115301 }, { "content": "Title: National Ice Center Content: The National Ice Center ( NIC ) is a tri-agency operational center whose mission is to provide worldwide navigational ice analyses for the armed forces of the United States , allied nations , and U.S. government agencies . It is represented by the United States Navy ( Department of Defense ) ; the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( Department of Commerce ) ; and the United States Coast Guard ( Department of Homeland Security ) . The National Ice Center is a subordinate command of the Naval Oceanographic Office ( NAVOCEANO ) . Originally known as the Navy/NOAA Joint Ice Center , which was established on December 15 , 1976 in a memorandum of agreement between the U.S. Navy and NOAA , the National Ice Center was formed in 1995 when the U.S. Coast Guard became a partner . The National Ice Center produces global sea ice charts and various cryospheric GIS products . They also name and track Antarctic icebergs if greater than 10 nmi on its longest axis . Icebergs must be a minimum of 19 kilometers in length to be tracked by the NIC .", "qid": "2921", "docid": "National_Ice_Center", "rank": 100, "score": 114856 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Domingos Soares Ferreira Penna Content: Domingos Soares Ferreira Penna ( June 6 , 1818 -- January 6 , 1888 ) was a Brazilian naturalist from the state of Minas Gerais , who founded the Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi , in Belém , and undertook important research in the archeology and natural resources of the lower Amazon River valley . In 1870 , he discovered one of the most important units of Cenozoic fossils in Brazil : Pirabas . He also made important archaeological discoveries that 20th century archaeologists confirmed . In three letters published by the National Museum ( 1876a , 1876b , 1877 ) , recorded his observations on the shell mounds installed in the `` dark and swampy '' regions on the east coast of Para , which he excavated , measured , topographed and mapped , making notes on their condition conservation and major events archeological - human bones , lithic and ceramic artefacts - describing them and locating them in their stratigraphic layers . He correctly identified the coastal and riverine shellmounds of Para as villages inhabited by early fishing people , an insight that scientific archaeologists confirmed in the 1990s . Always sharing his knowledge with other scholars , he urged geologist Charles Hartt to study the shellmound of Taperinha . About 100 years later , Taperinha and several other fluvial shellmounds with pottery in the Lower Amazon were shown through radiocarbon dating and luminescence dating to be early Holocene in age , c. 9.000 to 7,000 BP calibrated , making them the earliest pottery sites yet known in the Americas and among the earliest in the world . The Ferreira Penna Scientific Station in Melgaço , Pará state , Brazil , is named after him , as are various Amazon River boats .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Domingos_Soares_Ferreira_Penna", "rank": 1, "score": 113730 }, { "content": "Title: Hiziel Souza Soares Content: Hiziel Souza Soares ( born 16 May 1985 in Manaus , Amazonas ) , commonly known as Soares , is a Brazilian football striker.Who currently plays for Villa Nova-MG", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Hiziel_Souza_Soares", "rank": 2, "score": 105685 }, { "content": "Title: John Soares Content: John Allen Soares is an award-winning independent filmmaker , martial arts choreographer , actor and viral video star from Hughson , CA known for his short videos and webisodes on YouTube . Soares 's videos are known for mixing martial arts action with quirky comedy . Soares was born in Turlock , CA on June 22 , 1981 . Growing up on an almond farm , he attended Hughson High School , then spent a brief time at Modesto Junior College beginning in 1999 studying film , where he met future partners Ben Beames and Justin Spurlock . Soares won several international film festival awards for films he made as a student , including the Shocker Award for best Fantasy Short Film for `` Tao of the Meteor Serpent '' and Shockerfest 2007 Gorilla Software Award and Best Actor , SciFi/Fantasy for his film `` Gauntlet of Sorrow . ''", "qid": "2922", "docid": "John_Soares", "rank": 3, "score": 105411 }, { "content": "Title: Agostinho Soares Content: Agostinho Soares Nconco ( born 27 January 1990 ) , known simply as Soares , is a Guinea-Bissauan professional footballer who plays for Portuguese club S.C. Covilhã as a left back .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Agostinho_Soares", "rank": 4, "score": 104050 }, { "content": "Title: Dendropsophus soaresi Content: Dendropsophus soaresi is a species of frog in the family Hylidae . It is endemic to Brazil . Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests , dry savanna , moist savanna , subtropical or tropical dry shrubland , subtropical or tropical moist shrubland , freshwater marshes , and intermittent freshwater marshes . It is threatened by habitat loss .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Dendropsophus_soaresi", "rank": 5, "score": 102867 }, { "content": "Title: Soares Content: Soares is a common noble surname in the Portuguese language and Galician , namely in the Portuguese speaking world , as well as other places . It was originally a Patronymic , meaning Son of Soeiro . It may mean different things below :", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Soares", "rank": 6, "score": 102469 }, { "content": "Title: Soares Sambú Content: Soares Sambú is a politician in Guinea-Bissau . He was Minister of External Affairs from May 2004 to November 2005 and has been Minister of Natural Resources since April 2007 . Sambú was the Vice-President of the National People 's Assembly when it was dissolved in November 2002 . He was the campaign manager for the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde ( PAIGC ) during the March 2004 parliamentary election , in which PAIGC won a plurality of seats ; following the election , he became Minister of External Affairs on May 12 , 2004 , as part of the government of the new Prime Minister , Carlos Gomes Júnior . Carlos Gomes 's government was dismissed in November 2005 , and Sambu was replaced as Foreign Minister . In the government of Prime Minister Martinho Ndafa Kabi , named on April 17 , 2007 , Sambú was appointed as Minister of Natural Resources ; he was retained as Minister of Natural Resources and the Environment in the government of Prime Minister Carlos Correia , appointed on August 9 , 2008 . In the November 2008 legislative election , PAIGC won a majority of 67 out of 100 seats in the National People 's Assembly , and Sambú was elected to a seat as a PAIGC candidate in the 12th constituency , Bafata e Cosse .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Soares_Sambú", "rank": 7, "score": 102220 }, { "content": "Title: William Soares da Silva Content: William Soares da Silva ( born 30 December 1988 ) , simply known as Soares , is a Brazilian footballer who plays for Portuguese club C.D. Cova da Piedade as a defensive midfielder .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "William_Soares_da_Silva", "rank": 8, "score": 101199 }, { "content": "Title: Tiquinho Soares Content: Francisco das Chagas Soares dos Santos ( born 17 January 1991 ) , known as Soares or Tiquinho , is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a forward for Portuguese club FC Porto .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Tiquinho_Soares", "rank": 9, "score": 99582 }, { "content": "Title: Ulisses Soares Content: Ulisses Soares ( born 2 October 1958 ) has been a general authority of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ( LDS Church ) since April 2005 and a member of the church 's Presidency of the Seventy since January 2013 . Soares was born in São Paulo , Brazil , the son of Apparecido and Mercedes Carecho Soares . His family joined the LDS Church when he was about five . As a young man , Soares served as a Mormon missionary in the Brazil Rio de Janeiro Mission . Soares was educated in Brazil , receiving a bachelor 's degree in accounting and economics from Pontificia Catholic University and an MBA from the National Institute of Postgraduate Study . Prior to his call as a general authority , Soares was employed as the director of temporal affairs for the LDS Church 's Brazil South Area . He had worked for Pirelli Tire Company but was convinced by Donald L. Clark to take a job as a senior auditor for the church . After Clark was called as a mission president , Soares replaced him as director of temporal affairs . In 1995 , Soares was appointed the first president of the São Paulo Brazil Cotia Stake . Soares served as president of the Porto Portugal Mission from 2000 to 2003 . In 2005 , Soares became a member of the LDS Church 's First Quorum of the Seventy . He has served as a counselor and as president in the church 's Brazil South Area and as a counselor in the Africa Southeast Area . On January 6 , 2013 , Soares became a member of the Presidency of the Seventy , replacing Walter F. González . In this capacity , Soares has had responsibility for the church 's North America Southeast Area , along with the Idaho and North America Central areas . Soares married Rosana Fernandes Morgado in the Sao Paulo Brazil Temple in 1982 . They initially met when they were both missionaries in the Brazil Rio de Janeiro Mission . They have three children .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Ulisses_Soares", "rank": 10, "score": 98075 }, { "content": "Title: Romildo Ribeiro Soares Content: Romildo Ribeiro Soares , also known as R. R. Soares ( born December 6 , 1947 in Muniz Freire , Espírito Santo ) , is a Brazilian televangelist , missionary , author , singer , businessman , and composer . He became a televangelist and supporter of faith healing in the late 1960s , after reading a book by T. L. Osborn . Related through marriage to another Brazilian preacher , Edir Macedo , he founded the International Church of God 's Grace in 1980 . This church is among the largest Pentecostal denominations in Brazil . R. R. Soares averages about 100 hours on Brazilian television each week .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Romildo_Ribeiro_Soares", "rank": 11, "score": 97263 }, { "content": "Title: A. J. Soares Content: Anthony James `` A.J. '' Soares ( born November 28 , 1988 ) is an American retired soccer player who played as a defender for Orange County Blue Star , New England Revolution , Viking and AGF .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "A._J._Soares", "rank": 12, "score": 96852 }, { "content": "Title: Diandra Soares Content: Diandra Soares is an Indian model , fashion designer and television host . She is most noted for her bald looks on the ramp . She was also a participant on the Colors TV reality show Bigg Boss 8 .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Diandra_Soares", "rank": 13, "score": 94759 }, { "content": "Title: Ernest Soares Content: Sir Ernest Joseph Soares ( 20 October 1864 -- 15 March 1926 ) , was a British solicitor and Liberal politician . Soares was the son of José Luís Xavier Soares , a Liverpool merchant of Indian origin tracing his roots to Ucassaim , Goa in Portuguese India . Prior to conversion , the family were Gaud Saraswat Brahmins with the surname Gaitonde . He was educated at St John 's College , Cambridge , where he read law . He was a partner in Allen , Prestage and Soares , solicitors , of Manchester . In 1900 he was elected to the House of Commons for Barnstaple and served in the Liberal admninistration of H. H. Asquith as a Junior Lord of the Treasury from 1910 to 1911 . The latter year failing health forced him to resign this post and his seat in the House of Commons . He was knighted the same year . Soares married Kate , daughter of Samuel Lord , of Sale , Cheshire . He died in Mayfair , London , in March 1926 , aged 61 .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Ernest_Soares", "rank": 14, "score": 94340 }, { "content": "Title: Fabricio Soares Content: Fabricio Soares ( born 6 July 1918 in Leiria , Portugal ; died 14 March 1986 in Lisbon , Portugal ) was a Portuguese agronomist . His research into Black pod disease in the 1950s resulted in a substantial increase in cocoa cultivation in Portuguese Guinea ( now Guinea Bissau ) .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Fabricio_Soares", "rank": 15, "score": 94003 }, { "content": "Title: Soaresia Content: Soaresia is a genus of Brazilian plants in the evil tribe within the daisy family . Species The only known species is Soaresia velutina , native to Brazil ( Rondônia , Minas Gerais , D.F. , Goiás , Mato Grosso ) .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Soaresia", "rank": 16, "score": 93660 }, { "content": "Title: Rodolfo Soares Content: Rodolfo dos Santos Soares , or simply Rodolfo Soares ( born May 20 , 1985 in Rio de Janeiro ) , is a Brazilian football who plays as a Defender for Maltese club Hibernians .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Rodolfo_Soares", "rank": 17, "score": 93630 }, { "content": "Title: Vital Soares Content: Vital Henrique Batista Soares ( November 13 , 1874 -- April 19 , 1933 ) was a Brazilian lawyer and politician . Soares was born in Valença , Bahia . He served as a Governor of Bahia from 1928 to 1930 . He was elected Vice President of Brazil on March 1 , 1930 but was prevented from taking office by a coup that brought Getúlio Vargas to power , just three weeks before scheduled inauguration along with President-elect Júlio Prestes . Soares died in Salvador , Bahia , aged 58 .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Vital_Soares", "rank": 18, "score": 93571 }, { "content": "Title: J. Allan Soares Content: J. Allan Soares is a retired American ice hockey player and coach who spent more than 15 years involved with Brown . After starring for the bears as a defenseman , Soares coached the freshman for seven seasons before replacing his former head coach James Fullerton in 1970 . he left after 1974 to pursue a career in business but later coached Roger Williams College .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "J._Allan_Soares", "rank": 19, "score": 93080 }, { "content": "Title: Souto Soares Content: Souto Soares is a municipality in the state of Bahia in the North-East region of Brazil .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Souto_Soares", "rank": 20, "score": 92532 }, { "content": "Title: Physalaemus soaresi Content: Physalaemus soaresi is a species of frog in the Leptodactylidae family . It is endemic to southeastern Brazil where it is only known from three localities in the Rio de Janeiro state , one of them lost to urbanization and habitat degradation . The existing populations occur in secondary forest habitats , one of them very close to sea level , another one at 130 m above sea level . Both locations suffer from habitat loss , and the latter also from fire . The species lays its eggs in a foam nest on the surface of temporary pools .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Physalaemus_soaresi", "rank": 21, "score": 92355 }, { "content": "Title: Sockbaby Content: Sockbaby is a four-part short film originally created for Channel 101 , directed by Douglas TenNapel , best known for works such as Earthworm Jim and The Neverhood ; and John Soares , who is best known for co-founding the independent film group WestHavenBrook . The film lampoons Martial arts films and directly parodies pop-culture franchises like Dragon Ball Z. All of the martial arts were done by the actors themselves , and were directed by Soares . In addition to the numerous martial arts sequences , the film also features a cartoon sequence in part two and a partial CGI sequence in part three . The film centers on a character named Ronnie Cordova , a funky martial artist and ( possibly ) 1970s-style detective in a slick leisure suit , played by Soares . The plot mostly involves his quest to get a bite to eat that 's thwarted consistently as he must protect a Sockbaby from an evil group of Greys ( `` demonic men in suits , '' to quote the official site ) .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Sockbaby", "rank": 22, "score": 92350 }, { "content": "Title: Jô Soares Content: José Eugênio `` Jô '' Soares ( born January 16 , 1938 ) is a Brazilian comedian , talk show host , author , theatrical producer , director , actor , painter and musician . Soares was born in Rio de Janeiro . After being educated in Switzerland and United States , Soares returned to Rio and worked at TV Rio in 1958 , writing and performing in comedy shows for the station . He acted as an American in Carlos Manga 's O Homem do Sputnik . In 1970 , Soares started working at Rede Globo . In 1988 , Soares moved to SBT , where he hosted a talk-show , Jô Soares Onze e Meia ( `` Jô Soares Eleven Thirty '' ) , until 1999 . In 2000 , Soares took his show 's format ( very similar to David Letterman 's ) back to Rede Globo , where it was then called Programa do Jô , and hosted the program until 2016 . His first novel O Xangô de Baker Street was written in 1995 and has already been published in several other countries ; it was made into a film in 2000 . He has put out various jazz CDs . He has also produced many plays including a recent version of Richard III .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Jô_Soares", "rank": 23, "score": 92290 }, { "content": "Title: Shaun Marsh Content: Shaun Edward Marsh ( born 9 July 1983 ) is an Australian cricketer who plays for the Western Warriors in Australian domestic cricket and has represented Australia at Test , One Day International and Twenty20 International levels . Nicknamed SOS ( `` Son of Swampy '' ) , he is a left-handed opening batsman and very occasional spin bowler .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Shaun_Marsh", "rank": 24, "score": 91414 }, { "content": "Title: George Soares-Prabhu Content: George Soares-Prabhu ( 17 November 1929 -- 22 July 1995 ) was an Indian Jesuit priest , Exegete and Biblical scholar of renown , particularly in the field of Indian Hermeneutics of the Christian Scriptures . Soares-Prabhu completed his Senior Cambridge at Jabalpur ( Madhya Pradesh ) in 1944 and then B. Sc . ( Chemistry-Botany ) at St. Xavier 's College , Bombay in 1949 . Afterwards he joined the Society of Jesus and was ordained a priest on 24 March 1961 at De Nobili College , Pune . He joined the Faculty of Theology at Pontifical Athenaeum ( now known as Jnana-Deepa Vidyapeeth ) , Pune . He went to the Pontifical Biblical Institute , Rome , to secure a licentiate in Scriptures and completed a PhD in Biblical theology in Lyon , France . He wrote his thesis An Enquiry into the Tradition History of Matthew 1-2 under the guidance of Xavier Léon-Dufour . Soares-Prabhu returned to Pune in June 1969 and began teaching in 1970 . Among various courses he taught , ` The Historical Jesus ' , ` Resurrection of Jesus and Dharma of Jesus ' were most appreciated . Along with his colleagues , Francis X D'sa , Rui de Menezes and Kurien Kunnumpuram , he tried to articulate an Indian Christian theology . He was an ardent advocate of a Liberation Theology adapted to the Indian ethos and socio-religious context . He died in a road accident in Pune on 22 July 1995 . A four-volume book on his collected works has been brought out by Jnana-Deepa Vidyapeeth , Pune , India .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "George_Soares-Prabhu", "rank": 25, "score": 91342 }, { "content": "Title: Soares da Costa Content: Soares da Costa SGPS , S.A. ( , Sociedade de Construções Soares da Costa S.A. ) is a Portuguese company . Its main activities are civil engineering and construction , public works , real estate , housing construction , production of construction materials and other related activities . Grupo Soares da Costa is one of the largest groups in the civil construction and public works sector in Portugal . The corporate structure is based on three sub-holdings which correspond to three business groups : Construction , Concessions and Real Estate . The company was founded in 1918 in Oporto by José Soares da Costa . Today it possesses a strong international focus ( over 70 % per cent of their business volume in 2012 was of an international nature ) , with offices in Angola , Mozambique , United States ( Florida ) , Brazil , Romania and Israel . Ranked among the 100 largest groups in the sector , the company maintains a permanent presence in the Portuguese speaking African countries . The activities of the Group in the international market have increased in importance , and in 2012 represented 70.5 % of the business volume . The internationalization process began in 1979 with the creation of an associated company in Venezuela , reaching global dimension with activities in territories as diverse in nature as Iraq , Spain , Egypt , Germany , Macau , Barbados and Romania . In a worldwide ranking performed by the North American magazine Engineering News-Record ( 2013 ) , the company holds the 108th position as an international contractor .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Soares_da_Costa", "rank": 26, "score": 90457 }, { "content": "Title: Filipe Soares Content: Filipe José Valente Vinagre Soares ( born 28 November 1994 in Alvor - Portimão ) is a Portuguese footballer who plays for Portimonense S.C. as a midfielder .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Filipe_Soares", "rank": 27, "score": 90135 }, { "content": "Title: Jonathan Soares Content: Jonathan Soares is a South African rugby league player for the Tuks Bulls in the Rhino Cup . His position is second row . He is a South African international , and has played in the 2013 Rugby League World Cup qualifying against Jamaica and the USA .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Jonathan_Soares", "rank": 28, "score": 90048 }, { "content": "Title: Juary Soares Content: Juary Soares ( born 20 February 1992 ) is a Bissau-Guinean footballer who plays as a defender . He is currently playing for Mafra .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Juary_Soares", "rank": 29, "score": 90007 }, { "content": "Title: Bruno Soares Content: Bruno Fraga Soares ( -LSB- ˈbɾunu soˈaɾis -RSB- ; born February 27 , 1982 , in Belo Horizonte ) is a professional tennis player from Brazil . His highest singles ranking on the ATP Tour is World No. 221 , which he reached in March 2004 . Primarily a doubles specialist , his career-high doubles ranking is World No. 2 , which he achieved in October 2016 . After a few efforts , including a final in the 2012 US Open and the semifinals of the 2008 and 2013 French Opens , Soares finally won his first Grand Slam title at the 2016 Australian Open , partnering Jamie Murray and then followed that up with a second men 's doubles title at the 2016 US Open . He has also won three Grand Slam titles in Mixed Doubles , two at the US Open , in 2012 and 2014 , and one at the Australian Open in 2016 . He was the third Brazilian tennis player to achieve this , after Maria Bueno and Thomaz Koch .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Bruno_Soares", "rank": 30, "score": 89697 }, { "content": "Title: Estevam Soares Content: Estevam Eduardo Lemos Soares ( born 10 June 1956 , in Cafelândia , São Paulo ) , known as Estevam Soares , is a Brazilian football manager .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Estevam_Soares", "rank": 31, "score": 89655 }, { "content": "Title: Joffre Soares Content: Joffre Soares ( 21 September 1918 -- 19 August 1996 ) was a Brazilian film actor . He appeared in 100 films between 1963 and 1996 .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Joffre_Soares", "rank": 32, "score": 89650 }, { "content": "Title: Ludovic Soares Content: Ludovic Soares ( born 8 May 1994 ) is a French footballer who plays for Red Star . Soares was born in France , and is of Cape Verdean descent .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Ludovic_Soares", "rank": 33, "score": 89605 }, { "content": "Title: David Soares Content: P. David Soares ( born October 26 , 1969 , Brava , Cape Verde ) is the Albany County , N.Y. District Attorney . He is a Democrat .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "David_Soares", "rank": 34, "score": 89527 }, { "content": "Title: Campo das Salésias Content: Campo das Salésias , also known as Estádio José Manuel Soares , was a multi-use stadium in Lisbon , Portugal . It was initially used as the stadium of C.F. Os Belenenses matches . It was replaced by the current Estádio do Restelo in 1956 . The capacity of the stadium was 25,000 spectators . It was named after José Manuel Soares , who played for Belenenses . It was the first turf field in Portugal and one of the firsts having artificial lighting . Nowadays , Belenenses are rebuilding the stadium to turn it into a field to the youngest players of club .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Campo_das_Salésias", "rank": 35, "score": 89469 }, { "content": "Title: José Soares Content: José Feliciano Loureiro Soares ( born 23 February 1976 ) is a Portuguese retired footballer who played as a central defender .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "José_Soares", "rank": 36, "score": 89191 }, { "content": "Title: José Abílio Osório Soares Content: Abílio José Osório Soares ( -LSB- ɐˈβiliu ʒuˈzɛ ɔˈzɔɾiu suˈaɾɨʃ -RSB- ) ( 2 June 1947 , Vila de Ourique , Manatuto district , Portuguese Timor -- 17 June 2007 , Kupang , West Timor , Indonesia ) was an Indonesian politician . He was the last governor of the Indonesian province of East Timor before the country 's independence .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "José_Abílio_Osório_Soares", "rank": 37, "score": 88889 }, { "content": "Title: Augustine Soares Content: Augustine Soares is a Roman Catholic priest in Karachi , Pakistan . He was born in Karachi and received his religious training at the Christ the King seminary . He was ordained a priest of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Karachi . Soon after his ordination he was sent to Rome for higher studies . After returning from Rome he served as Assistant Parish Priest at the Cathedral Parish , where he took a special interest in youth groups . Fr . Soares also taught religion in 1972 at St Patrick 's High School , Karachi . For much of his ministry he served as a dedicated Parish Priest , first as Pastor of St. John 's Church in Drigh Colony and later at the new parish of St. Thomas ' Church across the Drigh Road . From 2001 -- 2005 he was Rector of the Diocesan St. Pius X Minor Seminary in Karachi . On 22 April 2005 he was appointed Rector of Christ the King major seminary by Cardinal Crescenzio Sepe , Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelisation of Peoples . He saw the seminary celebrate its golden jubilee in 2006 . In 2008 he introduced the Cardinal Cordeiro Cricket tournament which the seminary has been hosting to promote religious vocations and remember Pakistan 's first cardinal . In 2010 he was also rector of the National Catholic Institute of Theology in Karachi . On May 4 , 2012 Fr . Benjamin Shahzad was appointed Rector of the Christ the King Major Seminary while Soares was appointed judicial vicar of the Archdiocese . In August 2015 Soares was reported to be the Parish Priest of St. Jude 's Church , Karachi .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Augustine_Soares", "rank": 38, "score": 88813 }, { "content": "Title: Álvaro Soares da Cunha Content: Alvaro Soares da Cunha ( c. 1466 -- 1557 ) was the natural born son of Afonso V of Portugal , and Maria Soares da Cunha , the recently widowed daughter of Afonso 's major valet , Fernão de Sá Alcoforado , and his wife Maria da Cunha . Álvaro was born at the Quinta de Paço de Pombal in Vila Boa de Quires in the district of Porto to the widowed , 20-year-old Maria Soares da Cunha at her aunt 's home . After the death of her aunt and uncle , Maria and Álvaro were later cared for by her cousin , Pedro da Cunha Coutinho in Celorico de Basto . Álvaro received recognition from King Afonso V in 1476 when he was visiting Vila Nova de Alvito when Álvaro was 10 years old . Álvaro was made `` Guarda-Mor de Peste '' ( Major Guard of Pestilence ) within the city of Porto , Lord of the House of Quintães in the town of São Vicente de Pinheiro in the municipality of Penafiel in Porto , and a gentleman of the Royal House . He was listed as vereador ( alderman ) of the city of Porto in 1508 . Álvaro first Married Maria Machado , without issue , and then second to Inês da Mota , with offspring .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Álvaro_Soares_da_Cunha", "rank": 39, "score": 88791 }, { "content": "Title: Elza Soares Content: Elza da Conceição Soares , best known as Elza Soares ( -LSB- ˈɛwzɐ ˈswaɾis -RSB- ; born June 23 , 1937 ) is a Brazilian samba recording artist . In 1999 , she was elected by the BBC Radio as the Brazilian singer of the millennium . This competition was originated in a project called The Millennium Concerts , by the British Broadcasting Company , to celebrate the arrival of the year 2000 . She was married to Brazilian football player Garrincha .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Elza_Soares", "rank": 40, "score": 88282 }, { "content": "Title: Coronel Domingos Soares Content: Coronel Domingos Soares is a municipality in the state of Paraná in the Southern Region of Brazil .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Coronel_Domingos_Soares", "rank": 41, "score": 88246 }, { "content": "Title: Swamping argument Content: The swamping argument is an objection against Darwinism made by Fleeming Jenkin . He asserted that an accidentally-appearing profitable variety can not be preserved by natural selection in the population , but should be ` swamped ' with ordinary traits . Later , population genetics helped to overcome this logical difficulty . Jenkin published his article `` The Origin of Species '' in the North British Review in June 1867 . Darwin agreed that a variation originating in a single individual would not spread across a population , and would invariably be lost . In the fifth edition of On the Origin of Species he responded : Darwin concluded that natural selection must instead act upon the normal small variations in any given characteristic across all the individuals in the population . The swamping argument was secondary to Jenkin 's central thesis . Jenkin asserted that the population-average of any characteristic of an organism could be modified by selection ( natural or human ) , but only within certain definite bounds . He further asserted that once selective pressure was removed , the population would revert to its original condition . Jenkin then introduced the swamping argument to deny the possibility that an occasional monstrous individual could supply an escape from this state of affairs .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Swamping_argument", "rank": 42, "score": 88203 }, { "content": "Title: Conrad Soares Content: Conrad Paul Soares ( 22 April 1939 -- 1 March 2012 ) was a Bermudian sailor who competed in the 1964 Summer Olympics .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Conrad_Soares", "rank": 43, "score": 88182 }, { "content": "Title: Pedro Soares (footballer) Content: Pedro Nuno dos Santos Soares ( born 3 November 1987 ) is a Portuguese football player who plays for Santa Clara .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Pedro_Soares_(footballer)", "rank": 44, "score": 87798 }, { "content": "Title: Nilo Soares Content: Nilo Soares ( born July 18 , 1994 ) is an East Timorese footballer who plays as midfielder for Jeonju FC and the Timor-Leste national team .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Nilo_Soares", "rank": 45, "score": 87791 }, { "content": "Title: Soares dos Reis National Museum Content: Soares dos Reis National Museum ( Museu Nacional Soares dos Reis ) is a museum , currently housed in the Carrancas Palace situated in the civil parish of Cedofeita , Santo Ildefonso , Sé , Miragaia , São Nicolau e Vitória , in the northern Portuguese city of Porto . Founded in 1833 , it is the first Portuguese national museum exhibiting collections of Portuguese art , including a collection by Portuguese sculptor António Soares dos Reis , from which the museum derives its name .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Soares_dos_Reis_National_Museum", "rank": 46, "score": 87653 }, { "content": "Title: Marco Soares (footballer) Content: Marco Paulo da Silva Soares ( born 16 June 1984 ) is a Cape Verdean professional footballer who plays for Cypriot club AEL Limassol as a defensive midfielder .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Marco_Soares_(footballer)", "rank": 47, "score": 87632 }, { "content": "Title: Joe Soares Content: Joe Soares is a former all-star wheelchair rugby player for the United States , a Paralympic gold medallist , who later coached the Canadian paralympic team after he was cut by the U.S in 1996 . This episode figures prominently in the 2005 documentary film Murderball .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Joe_Soares", "rank": 48, "score": 87323 }, { "content": "Title: Louie Soares Content: Louie Pierre Soares ( born 8 January 1985 ) is a Barbadian footballer who plays as a midfielder for National League South side Basingstoke Town . He has previously played for Reading , Tamworth , Bristol Rovers , Barnet , Aldershot Town , Southend United , Hayes & Yeading , Grimsby Town , Ebbsfleet United and Alfreton Town .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Louie_Soares", "rank": 49, "score": 87073 }, { "content": "Title: João Soares (politician) Content: João Barroso Soares ( born in São Cristóvão e São Lourenço , Lisbon , 29 August 1949 ) is a Portuguese editor and Socialist Party politician , who was President of the Municipality of Lisbon from 1995 to 2002 . He is the son of the former Portuguese Prime Minister and President , Mário Soares , and the actress Maria Barroso . He was married to Maria Olímpia Soares ( b. 1951 ) , daughter of António Domingos de Oliveira Soares and wife Clotilde Soares , by whom he had three children : Maria Inês ( b. 1976 ) , Maria Mafalda ( b. 1981 ) and Mário Alberto ( b. 1987 ) . Later divorced , he married the Belgian Annick Burhenne , by whom he had a son Jonas ( b. 2003 ) , named after Jonas Savimbi , of whom João Soares is an admirer , and a daughter Lilah ( b. 2007 ) . He was member of the European Parliament and of the Portuguese State Council . In 2004 , he lost to Manuel Alegre and José Sócrates a bid for the party leadership , and in October 2005 lost to Fernando Seara the election for President of the Municipality of Sintra . He also lost the election for president of the Municipality of Lisbon to Pedro Santana Lopes , in 2001 , being the first mayor of Lisboa to lose a reelection . In July 2008 he was elected President of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly . He was reelected for another one-year term in July 2009 . During the United States elections , 2012 , he acted as the special coordinator for the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights ( ODIHR ) international electoral observer team . In April 2016 , in a Facebook post , João Soares , Minister of Culture , said that he looked forward to landing `` salutary blows '' on two newspaper columnists . The post attracted hundreds of critical comments from the public , opposition politicians and journalists . Mr Soares , resigned after Prime Minister António Costa reprimanded him and issued a public apology . He initially defended his comments as a response to an `` insulting personal attack '' , but later apologised .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "João_Soares_(politician)", "rank": 50, "score": 87036 }, { "content": "Title: Zé Soares Content: José Soares da Silva Filho or simply Zé Soares ( born 27 July 1983 ) is a Brazilian footballer , who last time played for FC Metalurh Donetsk .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Zé_Soares", "rank": 51, "score": 86938 }, { "content": "Title: Núbia Soares Content: Núbia Aparecida Soares ( born 26 March 1996 ) is a Brazilian athlete whose specialty is the triple jump . She competed at the 2015 World Championships in Beijing without qualifying for the final . Her personal best in the event is 14.35 metres set in São Bernado de Campo in 2017 . Before turning to athletics , she was a handball player .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Núbia_Soares", "rank": 52, "score": 86840 }, { "content": "Title: Tom Soares Content: Thomas James `` Tom '' Soares ( born 10 July 1986 ) is an English footballer who plays for AFC Wimbledon .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Tom_Soares", "rank": 53, "score": 86682 }, { "content": "Title: Maria Baptista Soares Content: Maria Baptista Soares ( born November 15 , 1928 ) is a Cape Verdean sociologist and a political activist . She took part mainly for her work on different communities of peripherical and polemic theme especially on subaltern and neocolonialism . An urban sociologist , she wrote on social relations in the fringes of globalization with the same rigor which it defends the creation of a territorial identity and partly on the fortification of horizontalities . Founded in April 2008 in São Paulo , Brazil , the Centro Popular Latinoamericano de Estudos Territoriais ( CEPLAET , the Latin American Territorial Studies People 's Center ) , following the Portuguese counterpart but without the theoretical and methodological assumptions on the discussions related to Latin American society .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Maria_Baptista_Soares", "rank": 54, "score": 86429 }, { "content": "Title: Joazhifel Soares Content: Joazhifel Soares da Cruz Sousa Pontes ( born 19 January 1991 ) , is a Santomean footballer who plays as a midfielder . His nickname is Joazhifel , sometimes he is known as Jocy as listed on Ogol .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Joazhifel_Soares", "rank": 55, "score": 86421 }, { "content": "Title: Delúbio Soares Content: Delúbio Soares de Castro is a Brazilian party bureaucrat involved in the large mensalão scandal . A native of Goiás , he is a teacher of mathematics and former treasurer of the Brazilian Workers Party . He was involved in union management and was the treasurer of the union CUT . He was also a coordinator of Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 's presidential campaigns in 1989 and 1998 and became treasurer of the Workers Party in 2000 .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Delúbio_Soares", "rank": 56, "score": 86331 }, { "content": "Title: Josiane Soares Content: Josiane Soares ( born 21 June 1976 ) is a Brazilian athlete specialising in the hammer throw . She won several medals on the regional level . Her personal best in the event is 63.86 metres set in Tunja in 2006 .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Josiane_Soares", "rank": 57, "score": 86305 }, { "content": "Title: Lúcio Soares Content: Lúcio Soares ( born 31 May 1934 in Manhuaçu -- died 1988 ) was a Portuguese footballer who played as defender .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Lúcio_Soares", "rank": 58, "score": 86303 }, { "content": "Title: William Ribeiro Soares Content: William Ribeiro Soares ( William Ribeiro Soares born February 7 , 1985 ) , is a Brazilian footballer who plays for Hapoel Be'er Sheva as a Center Back .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "William_Ribeiro_Soares", "rank": 59, "score": 85989 }, { "content": "Title: António Soares Content: António Soares ( born 1909 ) was a Portuguese footballer , who played as a forward .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "António_Soares", "rank": 60, "score": 85731 }, { "content": "Title: João Clemente Baena Soares Content: João Clemente Baena Soares ( born 14 May 1931 ) is a Brazilian diplomat . Soares was born in Belém . He worked at the Brazilian Ministry of External Relations for 31 years before being elected to serve as Secretary General of the Organization of American States from 1984 to 1994 . In Brazil , he has also served as Secretary General of Foreign Affairs of Brazil ( that is , as Brazil 's Vice-Chancellor ) . Between 1997 and 2006 , he was a member of the United Nations International Law Commission . On 4 November 2003 UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed him to sit on the High Level Threat Panel . On September 1 , 2006 , he was appointed to the United Nations Human Rights Council 's High-Level Commission of Inquiry charged with probing allegations that Israel systematically targeted and killed Lebanese civilians during the 2006 Lebanon War .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "João_Clemente_Baena_Soares", "rank": 61, "score": 85679 }, { "content": "Title: Sebastião Soares de Resende Content: Sebastião Soares de Resende ( 1906 - 1967 ) was a Portuguese Catholic bishop in Africa at the head of the diocese of Beira in Mozambique . He was the most liberal of the first generation of bishops after the 1940 Concordat . He is famous for having openly criticised , in the name of the social doctrine of the church , both forced labour and forced cultivation in Mozambique . In the 1960s he leaned towards the idea that Mozambique should become independent .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Sebastião_Soares_de_Resende", "rank": 62, "score": 85495 }, { "content": "Title: Secular variation Content: The secular variation of a time series is its long-term non-periodic variation ( see Decomposition of time series ) . Whether something is perceived as a secular variation or not depends on the available timescale : a secular variation over a time scale of centuries may be part of a periodic variation over a time scale of millions of years . Natural quantities often have both periodic and secular variations . Secular variation is sometimes called secular trend or secular drift when the emphasis is on a linear long-term trend . The term secular variation is used wherever time series are applicable in economics , operations research , biological anthropology , astronomy ( particularly celestial mechanics ) such as VSOP ( planets ) etc. .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Secular_variation", "rank": 63, "score": 85263 }, { "content": "Title: Nani Soares Content: Nanissio Soares ( born 17 September 1991 ) , better known as Nani , is a Bissau-Guinean footballer who plays for Trofense as a Midfielder .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Nani_Soares", "rank": 64, "score": 85242 }, { "content": "Title: Martins Soares Content: Martins Soares is a Brazilian municipality located in the state of Minas Gerais . The city belongs to the mesoregion of Zona da Mata and to the microregion of Manhuaçu .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Martins_Soares", "rank": 65, "score": 85148 }, { "content": "Title: Pedro Soares Content: Pedro Nuno de Almeida Soares ( born August 10 , 1974 in Lisbon ) is a Portuguese judoka .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Pedro_Soares", "rank": 66, "score": 85101 }, { "content": "Title: Rui Alberto de Figueiredo Soares Content: Rui Alberto de Figueiredo Soares ( born 1956 ) is a Cape Verdean politician . Figueiredo Soares served as foreign minister of Cape Verde under President António Mascarenhas Monteiro from 12 August 1999 - 2002 . He was elected to the National Assembly from São Vicente under the Movement for Democracy in the 2006 parliamentary election .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Rui_Alberto_de_Figueiredo_Soares", "rank": 67, "score": 85075 }, { "content": "Title: Ed Soares Content: Ed Soares is an American of Brazilian descent born in Redondo Beach , California to Brazilian parents . He is known for being the manager of a number of Brazilian Mixed martial arts fighters , including Anderson Silva , Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira , José Aldo and Lyoto Machida .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Ed_Soares", "rank": 68, "score": 85024 }, { "content": "Title: Mario Soares (footballer) Content: Mario Soares is a former Indian football player and is the current interim head coach of Indian I-League side Salgaocar . During his playing days , Soares played for Salgaocar , Dempo , Churchill Brothers , and India internationally .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Mario_Soares_(footballer)", "rank": 69, "score": 85018 }, { "content": "Title: Hugo Soares Content: Hugo César Lopes da Silva Soares , simply Hugo Soares ( born 15 December 1974 in Luanda ) is a former Angolan football striker .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Hugo_Soares", "rank": 70, "score": 84992 }, { "content": "Title: Leonildo Soares Content: Leonildo Soares Gonçalves Ceita ( born 7 August 1992 ) , commonly known as Leonildo Soares and sometimes as Ju , is a São Toméan footballer who plays as a left winger for Finnish club Peimari United and the São Tomé and Príncipe national team . He also holds Portuguese citizenship .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Leonildo_Soares", "rank": 71, "score": 84984 }, { "content": "Title: João Soares (tennis) Content: João Soares ( born April 25 , 1951 , in Limeira ) , is a former professional tennis player from Brazil . Soares found most of his tennis success while playing doubles . During his career he won 3 doubles titles . He achieved a career-high doubles ranking of World No. 49 in 1980 .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "João_Soares_(tennis)", "rank": 72, "score": 84967 }, { "content": "Title: Silvino Gomes Soares Content: Silvino Gomes Soares ( born 1978-07-10 ) is a Cape Verdean football striker . He currently plays for K.V. Red Star Waasland in Belgium . He previously played for FC Zwolle in the Netherlands . He received his first call-up in May 2008 .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Silvino_Gomes_Soares", "rank": 73, "score": 84919 }, { "content": "Title: Teixeira Soares Content: Teixeira Soares is a municipality in the state of Paraná in the Southern Region of Brazil .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Teixeira_Soares", "rank": 74, "score": 84897 }, { "content": "Title: Anjou Soares Content: Anjou Soares was born in Karachi , Pakistan , in 1942 . He graduated from Karachi University before entering the Christ the King seminary . He was ordained a priest of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Karachi in 1969 . He was the director of the Catechetical Centre , Karachi till 1992 . In 1989 he was elected chairperson of the South Asia Catholic Press Association . He is also president of the Pakistan Catholic Press Association . Father Anjou Soares was chosen on September 30 , 1998 , as administrator of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Hyderabad following the transfer of its former ordinary Bishop Joseph Coutts as bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Faisalabad . In accordance with canon law , the diocesan priest consultors elected Father Soares to administer the diocese until Pope John Paul II appointed a new ordinary for the diocese in the province of Sindh . He has been in Hyderabad diocese since 1992 and has been appointed to the bishop 's council twice , in 1994 and 1997 . In 1993 the Joty Educational and Cultural Centre for education and intereligious dialogue was established , which aims to build good relations with Muslims , marginalise all forms of integralism and violence and promote social harmony . It was initially opened in a small apartment in Hyderabad . In 2005 it has its own building with classrooms , a hall for prayer and meditation and a refectory . The Centre is directed by Fr . Anjou Soares . He has been a member of the National Catechetical Commission for the past 25 years . In 2008 , he gave a keynote address entitled `` Pakistan - Islam and Values for Dialogue and Peaceful Coexistence `` at the Meeting of Asian Catholic Cultural Centres held from 29 April - 3 May , in Kathmandu , Nepal . Since 2012 he has been the administrator of St Mary 's Parish , Hampton , Australia .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Anjou_Soares", "rank": 75, "score": 84804 }, { "content": "Title: Fernando Machado Soares Content: Fernando Machado Soares ( 3 September 1930 , in São Roque do Pico -- 7 December 2014 ) , was a Portuguese fado singer , poet , composer , jurist and retired judge .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Fernando_Machado_Soares", "rank": 76, "score": 84729 }, { "content": "Title: Geílson de Carvalho Soares Content: Geílson de Carvalho Soares ( born April 10 , 1984 in Cuiabá ) , sometimes referred to as simply Geílson , is a striker .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Geílson_de_Carvalho_Soares", "rank": 77, "score": 84678 }, { "content": "Title: Praça Raul Soares Content: The Praça Raul Soares is a major square of Belo Horizonte . Built in French style , it is situated at the confluence of four major avenues : Amazonas , Augusto de Lima , Bias Fortes and Olegário Maciel . The square is named in honor of the former governor of Minas Gerais , Raul Soares de Moura . In 2008 , the square underwent revitalization that was funded through the municipal Participatory Budgeting program and cost the equivalent of $ 2,600,000 U.S. dollars . The flowerbeds , sidewalks , large fountain and drinking fountains were restored . The project aimed to give more security and accessibility to the flow of pedestrians . Compromised trees were replaced , lampposts were resized , and advertisements were removed or adjusted in accordance with the appropriate codes . The walks were improved to provide easy access for the disabled and the visually impaired . Praça Raul Soares is listed by IEPHA ( Instituto Estadual do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico de Minas Gerais ) and therefore can not be redeveloped , just restored . Category : Geography of Belo Horizonte Category : Parks in Brazil Category : Tourist attractions in Belo Horizonte", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Praça_Raul_Soares", "rank": 78, "score": 84659 }, { "content": "Title: Mateus Soares de Azevedo Content: Mateus Soares de Azevedo ( born 1959 ) is a Brazilian historian of religions , Islamologist , and esoterismologist , who has written several books on the Perennial Philosophy and the comparative study of religions , specially Christian and Islamic mysticisms . He is one of the best known writers on the Perennial philosophy in the Portuguese language . His most recent book in English is Men of a Single Book : Fundamentalism in Islam , Christianity , and Modern Thought ( United States , World Wisdom , 2010 ) , which won in the `` Comparative Religion '' category of The USA `` Best Books 2011 '' Awards . He has translated into Portuguese , from the original French , several of the books of the perennialist master Frithjof Schuon ( 1907 -- 1998 ) .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Mateus_Soares_de_Azevedo", "rank": 79, "score": 84622 }, { "content": "Title: Deivid Soares Content: Deivid Rodrigo Soares De Macedo ( born June 13 , 1988 in Carapicuiba , Brazil ) is a Brazilian footballer currently playing for San Marcos de Arica of the Primera Division B in Chile .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Deivid_Soares", "rank": 80, "score": 84527 }, { "content": "Title: Ervino Soares Content: Ervino Alessandro Pedro Soares ( born 30 May 1999 ) or simply Ervino , is a football player who currently plays for Timor-Leste national football team .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Ervino_Soares", "rank": 81, "score": 84423 }, { "content": "Title: Bruno Gabriel Soares Content: Bruno Gabriel Soares ( also known as Bruno Soares ) ( born 21 August 1988 in Belo Horizonte ) is a Brazilian football player for Eliteserien side FK Haugesund .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Bruno_Gabriel_Soares", "rank": 82, "score": 84249 }, { "content": "Title: Togo Renan Soares Content: Togo Renan Soares , nicknamed Kanela ( May 22 , 1906 -- December 12 , 1992 ) was a Brazilian basketball coach . The gymnasium of Gávea is named after him . He was enshrined into the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2007 .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Togo_Renan_Soares", "rank": 83, "score": 84218 }, { "content": "Title: André Soares (fighter) Content: André `` Gigueto '' Soares is a Brazilian jiu-jitsu and mixed martial arts fighter . He competes in the flyweight division , and is also an instructor .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "André_Soares_(fighter)", "rank": 84, "score": 84179 }, { "content": "Title: Augusto Ramos Soares Content: Augusto Ramos Soares ( born 22 August 1986 in Becae , Timor Timur , Indonesia ) is an East Timorese long distance runner . He represented his country in the marathon event at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , finishing in 84th place . He was also East Timor 's flag-bearer at the 2012 Games . He was inspired to run by a visit to his school by Aguida Amaral , East Timor 's first Olympic athlete . His pre-Olympic personal best was 2:30:04 . He qualified for the 2008 Summer Olympics but did not participate . He came second at the Dili Marathon in 2010 and 2011 . He competed for East Timor at the 2016 Summer Olympics in the men 's 1500 metres event . He finished 12th in his heat and did not qualify for the semifinals . However , he did run a personal best with a time of 4:11.35 . He was the flag bearer for East Timor during the closing ceremony .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Augusto_Ramos_Soares", "rank": 85, "score": 84100 }, { "content": "Title: Jean Acosta Soares Content: Jean Acosta Soares ( born 27 January 1992 ) is a Brazilian professional footballer who last played in Brazil for Nova Prata , as a midfielder .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Jean_Acosta_Soares", "rank": 86, "score": 83887 }, { "content": "Title: Nívea Soares Content: Nívea da Costa Soares ( born 25 July 1976 ) is a Brazilian Christian singer , songwriter , worship pastor , writer and television presenter .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Nívea_Soares", "rank": 87, "score": 83874 }, { "content": "Title: Thiago Soares Content: Thiago Soares ( born 18 May 1981 ) is a Brazilian ballet dancer . He is a principal dancer with The Royal Ballet in London .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Thiago_Soares", "rank": 88, "score": 83820 }, { "content": "Title: Artur Soares Dias Content: Artur Manuel Soares Dias ( born 14 July 1979 ) is a Portuguese football referee . After having accompanied his countryman Olegário Benquerença in several UEFA Champions League as additional assistant referee , he refereed matches at 2012 -- 13 UEFA Europa League . Furthermore , he was appointed by the European football governing body to take charge of the Under-21 Championship Play-Off between Italy and Sweden . He was in U20 World Cup in New Zealand in 2015 and refereed the quarter final USA vs Serbia . He was also in Serbia in U17 Euro and refereeing the semi final in 2011 . On 5 January 2017 , while he was getting ready to do his training in Maia , two days before officiating the Primeira Liga match between Paços de Ferreira and FC Porto , he and his family received death threats by individuals whom he identified as being part of Super Dragões , a legalised supporters group of FC Porto . He reported the incident to the police against `` unknown individuals '' .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Artur_Soares_Dias", "rank": 89, "score": 83681 }, { "content": "Title: André Soares (architect) Content: André Soares Ribeiro da Silva , more commonly known as André Soares ( 30 November 1720 -- 26 November 1769 ) was a leading Portuguese sculptor and architect active in Northern Portugal during the 18th century . Born in Braga , most of his work is found in and around this city . As a sculptor , he was responsible for designing the gilt woodwork ( talha dourada ) altarpieces of the Monastery of Tibães . Outside Braga , his work as an architect include the audacious Falperra Church ( with a heptagonal floorplan ) , the Church of Nosso Senhor dos Santos Passos in Guimarães and the Church of Our Lady of Lapa in Arcos de Valdevez , while in Braga he designed the Braga Town Hall , the Palácio do Raio , the Congregados Church , the Arco da Porta Nova ( City Gate ) among many other structures . The work of André Soares is characterised by the exuberant decoration and the use of Rococo forms influenced by contemporary Northern European art .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "André_Soares_(architect)", "rank": 90, "score": 83661 }, { "content": "Title: Raul Soares Content: Raul Soares is a Brazilian municipality located in the state of Minas Gerais . The city belongs to the mesoregion of Zona da Mata and extends to the microregion of Ponte Nova .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Raul_Soares", "rank": 91, "score": 83518 }, { "content": "Title: Ilka Soares Content: Ilka Soares ( born 1932 ) is a Brazilian actress . She appeared in the title role of the 1949 historical film Iracema . Shortly afterwards she married Anselmo Duarte , and they became one of Brazil 's leading celebrity couples .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Ilka_Soares", "rank": 92, "score": 83442 }, { "content": "Title: Ricardo Soares Content: José Ricardo Soares Ribeiro , known as Ricardo Soares ( born 11 November 1974 ) is a Portuguese football manager and a former player . He is currently in charge of the Primeira Liga club Chaves .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Ricardo_Soares", "rank": 93, "score": 83325 }, { "content": "Title: Luiz Eduardo Soares Content: Luiz Eduardo Soares ( born March 12 , 1954 in Nova Friburgo , Rio de Janeiro ) , is a Brazilian anthropologist , philosopher and political scientist .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Luiz_Eduardo_Soares", "rank": 94, "score": 83289 }, { "content": "Title: Paio Soares de Taveirós Content: Paio Soares de Taveirós or Paay Soarez de Taveiroos seems to have been a minor Galician nobleman and troubadour active during the second and third decades of the 13th century . He was a brother of the troubadour Pêro Velho de Taveirós . Of his works , six cantigas de amor , three cantigas de amigo , and two tensos ( one with Martim Soares and one with his brother ) survive . He may have been one of the earliest authors in Galician-Portuguese lyric , and his Cantiga da Garvaia , a satiric cantiga de amor ( or cantiga de escárnio ) is one of the most famous poems in the corpus .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Paio_Soares_de_Taveirós", "rank": 95, "score": 83228 }, { "content": "Title: Danilo Soares Content: Danilo Teodoro Soares ( born 29 October 1991 ) is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a left back for 1899 Hoffenheim II in Regionalliga Südwest .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Danilo_Soares", "rank": 96, "score": 83199 }, { "content": "Title: Helton Soares Content: Hélton Soares Pereira ( born November 13 , 1974 ) best known as Hélton Soraes , or simple , Hélton is a former Brazilian football player who became a player agent and scout . In Brazil , he played for Flamengo from 1992 -- 1996 , Avaí for 1997-98 , and Barreira in 2004 . Overseas , he played for Arrayyan Sports Club for two seasons , and then Al-Wakrah Sports Club in Qatar . He was signed to Pahang FA in Malaysia in 2003 , and then played for Terengganu FA for a season and a half in 2005-2007 . He then retired from playing and returned to Brazil . Soares is the grandson of Brazilian soccer star `` Didi , '' Valdir Pereira .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Helton_Soares", "rank": 97, "score": 83072 }, { "content": "Title: Avenida Doutor Mário Soares Content: Avenida Doutor Mário Soares is multi-lane street at the Southern end of the Macau peninsula terminating at Praça Ferreira Amaral .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Avenida_Doutor_Mário_Soares", "rank": 98, "score": 82908 }, { "content": "Title: Lopo Soares de Albergaria Content: Lopo Soares de Albergaria ( Lisbon , c. 1460 -- Torres Vedras , c. 1520 ) was the third Governor of Portuguese India , having reached India in 1515 to supersede governor Afonso de Albuquerque . Lopo Soares de Albergaria ( sometimes called Lopo Soares de Alvarenga , or simply Lopo Soares ) was a middling noble , well-connected to the powerful Almeida family . Lopo Soares had served a successful term ( 1495 -- 99 ) as captain-general of São Jorge da Mina in the Portuguese Gold Coast ( West Africa ) . In 1504 , Lopo Soares commanded the 6th Portuguese India Armada . Regarded as one of the more successful early India armadas , Lopo Soares brought the fleet back in 1505 nearly intact , with one of the best cargos yet received by King Manuel I of Portugal . This placed him in a good position for future preferment and appointments . In March 1515 Lopo Soares de Albergaria was chosen by king Manuel I of Portugal to supersede governor Afonso de Albuquerque , and departed from Lisbon to India on 7 April . The seventeen ship fleet transported also an embassy to the Emperor of Ethiopia with Portuguese ambassador Duarte Galvão , Ethiopian ambassador Mateus ( also known as Matthew the Armenian ) and father Francisco Álvares . In August , having learned through contacts in Venice that the Mamluk Sultan of Cairo had prepared a fleet at Suez to fight the Portuguese , king Manuel repented to have replaced Albuquerque , and immediately wrote to Albergaria to return the command of all operations to Albuquerque , and provide him with resources to fight . However , when the letter arrived , Albuquerque had already died . As Governor in India Albergaria made a naval expedition into the Red Sea in 1517 taking on board the embassy to emperor Dawit II of Ethiopia , including Mateus , Duarte Galvão and Francisco Álvares , with the intent of landing them on the coast . First Albergaria reached Aden , which offered to surrender but he felt he could not spare the men to garrison the port . The attempt to land the embassy by reaching the port of Massawa failed , with Albergaria getting no closer than the Dahlak Archipelago , and was aborted after the death of old Duarte Galvão at Kamaran . Álvares and Mateus were forced to wait until Albergaria 's replacement , Diogo Lopes de Sequeira , successfully sent the embassy under D. Rodrigo de Lima in 1520 . In 1518 Lopo Soares de Albergaria captured Ceylon for his king , having landed at Colombo with a large fleet . Here he ordered the construction of a small fort named `` Nossa Senhora das Virtudes '' or `` Santa Bárbara '' .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Lopo_Soares_de_Albergaria", "rank": 99, "score": 82901 }, { "content": "Title: Hugo Henrique Rocha Soares Content: Hugo Henrique Rocha Soares ( born 16 October 1982 in Miragaia ( Porto ) ) is a Portuguese footballer who plays for CD Cinfães as a central midfielder .", "qid": "2922", "docid": "Hugo_Henrique_Rocha_Soares", "rank": 100, "score": 82893 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 1, "score": 107073 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding", "rank": 2, "score": 98909 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 3, "score": 97476 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 4, "score": 97265 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 5, "score": 94312 }, { "content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Climate_sensitivity", "rank": 6, "score": 93644 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 7, "score": 93599 }, { "content": "Title: Bosch reaction Content: The Bosch reaction is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and hydrogen that produces elemental carbon ( graphite ) , water , and a 10 % return of invested heat . It is named after the German chemist Carl Bosch . This reaction requires the introduction of iron as a catalyst and requires a temperature level of 530-730 degrees Celsius . The overall reaction is as follows : CO2 ( g ) + 2 H2 ( g ) → C ( s ) + 2 H2O ( g ) The above reaction is actually the result of two reactions . The first reaction , the reverse water gas shift reaction , is a fast one : CO2 + H2 → CO + H2O The second reaction controls the reaction rate : CO + H2 → C + H2O The overall reaction produces 2.3 × 103 joules for every gram of carbon dioxide reacted at 650 ° C. Reaction temperatures are in the range of 450 to 600 ° C. The reaction can be accelerated in the presence of an iron , cobalt or nickel catalyst . Ruthenium also serves to speed up the reaction . Together with the Sabatier reaction , the Bosch reaction is studied as a way to remove carbon dioxide and to generate clean water aboard a space station . The reaction is also used to produce graphite for radiocarbon dating with Accelerator Mass Spectrometry . The Bosch reaction is being investigated for use in maintaining space station life support . Though the Bosch reaction would present a completely closed hydrogen and oxygen cycle which only produces atomic carbon as waste , difficulties in maintaining its higher required temperature and properly handling carbon deposits mean that significantly more research will be required before a Bosch reactor can become a reality . One problem is that the production of elemental carbon tends to foul the catalyst 's surface , which is detrimental to the reaction 's efficiency .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Bosch_reaction", "rank": 8, "score": 93400 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 9, "score": 92681 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 10, "score": 91970 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 11, "score": 90744 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 12, "score": 90660 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 13, "score": 90625 }, { "content": "Title: Karplus equation Content: The Karplus equation , named after Martin Karplus , describes the correlation between 3J-coupling constants and dihedral torsion angles in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy : where J is the 3J coupling constant , is the dihedral angle , and A , B , and C are empirically derived parameters whose values depend on the atoms and substituents involved . The relationship may be expressed in a variety of equivalent ways e.g. involving cos2 φ rather than cos 2φ -- these lead to different numerical values of A , B , and C but do not change the nature of the relationship . The relationship is used for 3JH , H coupling constants . The superscript `` 3 '' indicates that a 1H atom is coupled to another 1H atom three bonds away , via H-C-C-H bonds . ( Such hydrogens bonded to neighbouring carbon atoms are termed vicinal ) . The magnitude of these couplings are generally smallest when the torsion angle is close to 90 ° and largest at angles of 0 and 180 ° . This relationship between local geometry and coupling constant is of great value throughout nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and is particularly valuable for determining backbone torsion angles in protein NMR studies . RNA 3JH , H Karplus relationships have been parametrized by NMR cross-correlated relaxation rates and residual dipolar couplings .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Karplus_equation", "rank": 14, "score": 88776 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming", "rank": 15, "score": 88678 }, { "content": "Title: Simon–Glatzel equation Content: The Simon -- Glatzel equation is an empirical correlation describing the pressure dependence of the melting temperature of a solid . The pressure dependence of the melting temperature is small for small pressure changes because the volume change during fusion or melting is rather small . However , at very high pressures higher melting temperatures are generally observed as the liquid usually occupies a larger volume than the solid making melting more thermodynamically unfavorable at elevated pressure . If the liquid has a smaller volume than the solid ( as for ice and liquid water ) a higher pressure leads to a lower melting point .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Simon–Glatzel_equation", "rank": 16, "score": 88649 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 17, "score": 87818 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 18, "score": 87399 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 19, "score": 87086 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator", "rank": 20, "score": 86717 }, { "content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Amorphous_carbonia", "rank": 21, "score": 86413 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning", "rank": 22, "score": 86289 }, { "content": "Title: Eddy covariance Content: The eddy covariance ( also known as eddy correlation and eddy flux ) technique is a key atmospheric measurement technique to measure and calculate vertical turbulent fluxes within atmospheric boundary layers . The method analyzes high-frequency wind and scalar atmospheric data series , and yields values of fluxes of these properties . It is a statistical method used in meteorology and other applications ( micrometeorology , oceanography , hydrology , agricultural sciences , industrial and regulatory applications , etc. ) to determine exchange rates of trace gases over natural ecosystems and agricultural fields , and to quantify gas emissions rates from other land and water areas . It is frequently used to estimate momentum , heat , water vapour , carbon dioxide and methane fluxes The technique is also used extensively for verification and tuning of global climate models , mesoscale and weather models , complex biogeochemical and ecological models , and remote sensing estimates from satellites and aircraft . The technique is mathematically complex , and requires significant care in setting up and processing data . To date , there is no uniform terminology or a single methodology for the Eddy Covariance technique , but much effort is being made by flux measurement networks ( e.g. , FluxNet , Ameriflux , ICOS , CarboEurope , Fluxnet Canada , OzFlux , NEON , and iLEAPS ) to unify the various approaches . The technique has additionally proven applicable under water to the benthic zone for measuring oxygen fluxes between seafloor and overlying water . In these environments , the technique is generally known as the eddy correlation technique , or just eddy correlation . Oxygen fluxes are extracted from raw measurements largely following the same principles as used in the atmosphere , and they are typically used as a proxy for carbon exchange , which is important for local and global carbon budgets . For most benthic ecosystems , eddy correlation is the most accurate technique for measuring in-situ fluxes . The technique 's development and its applications under water remains a fruitful area of research .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Eddy_covariance", "rank": 23, "score": 85292 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 24, "score": 85194 }, { "content": "Title: Stomatal conductance Content: By definition , stomatat conductance or stomatal conductance , usually measured in mmol m ⁻² s ⁻¹ , is the measure of the rate of passage of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) entering , or water vapor exiting through the stomata of a leaf . Stomata are small pores on the top and bottom of a leaf that are responsible for taking in and expelling CO2 and moisture from and to the outside air . The rate of stomatal conductance , or its inverse , stomatal resistance , is directly related to the boundary layer resistance of the leaf and the absolute concentration gradient of water vapor from the leaf to the atmosphere . It is under direct biological control of the leaf through the use of guard cells , which surround the stomatal pore ( Taiz/Zeiger 1991 ) . The turgor pressure and osmotic potential of guard cells is directly related to the stomatal conductance . Stomatal conductance is a function of stomatal density , stomatal aperture , and stomatal size . Stomatal conductance is integral to leaf level calculations of transpiration ( E ) . Multiple studies have shown a direct correlation between the use of herbicides and changes in physiological and biochemical growth processes in plants , particularly non-target plants , resulting in a reduction in stomatal conductance and turgor pressure in leaves .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Stomatal_conductance", "rank": 25, "score": 85022 }, { "content": "Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Supercritical_carbon_dioxide", "rank": 26, "score": 84999 }, { "content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Revelle_factor", "rank": 27, "score": 83914 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_sequestration", "rank": 28, "score": 83854 }, { "content": "Title: Antoine equation Content: The Antoine equation is a class of semi-empirical correlations describing the relation between vapor pressure and temperature for pure components . The Antoine equation is derived from the Clausius -- Clapeyron relation . The equation was presented in 1888 by the French engineer ( 1825 -- 1897 ) .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Antoine_equation", "rank": 29, "score": 83580 }, { "content": "Title: Cobalt(II) fluoride Content: Cobalt ( II ) fluoride is a chemical compound with the formula ( CoF2 ) . It is a pink crystalline solid compound which is antiferromagnetic at low temperatures ( TN = 37.7 K ) The formula is given for both the red tetragonal crystal , ( CoF2 ) , and the tetrahydrate red orthogonal crystal , ( CoF2 · 4H2O ) . CoF2 is used in oxygen-sensitive fields , namely metal production . In low concentrations , it has public health uses . CoF2 is sparingly soluble in water . The compound can be dissolved in warm mineral acid , and will decompose in boiling water . Yet the hydrate is water-soluble , especially the di-hydrate CoF2 · 2H2 O and tri-hydrate CoF2 · 3H2O forms of the compound . The hydrate will also decompose with heat .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Cobalt(II)_fluoride", "rank": 30, "score": 83577 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon suboxide Content: Carbon suboxide , or tricarbon dioxide , is an oxide of carbon with chemical formula C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O . Its four cumulative double bonds make it a cumulene . It is one of the stable members of the series of linear oxocarbons O = Cn =O , which also includes carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and pentacarbon dioxide ( C5O2 ) . Although if carefully purified it can exist at room temperature in the dark without decomposing , it will polymerize under certain conditions . The substance was discovered in 1873 by Benjamin Brodie by subjecting carbon monoxide to an electric current . He claimed that the product was part of a series of `` oxycarbons '' with formulas Cx +1 Ox , namely C , C2O , C3O2 , C4O3 , C5O4 , ... , and to have identified the last two ; however only C3O2 is known . In 1891 Marcellin Berthelot observed that heating pure carbon monoxide at about 550 ° C created small amounts of carbon dioxide but no trace of carbon , and assumed that a carbon-rich oxide was created instead , which he named `` sub-oxide '' . He assumed it was the same product obtained by electric discharge and proposed the formula C2O . Otto Diels later stated that the more organic names dicarbonylmethane and dioxallene were also correct . It is commonly described as an oily liquid or gas at room temperature with an extremely noxious odor .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_suboxide", "rank": 31, "score": 83525 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 32, "score": 82904 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 33, "score": 82696 }, { "content": "Title: Oxocarbon Content: An oxocarbon or oxide of carbon is a chemical compound consisting only of carbon and oxygen . The simplest and most common oxocarbons are carbon monoxide ( CO ) and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Many other stable ( practically if not thermodynamically ) or metastable oxides of carbon are known , but they are rarely encountered , such as carbon suboxide ( C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O ) and mellitic anhydride ( C12O9 ) . While textbooks will often list only the first three , and rarely the fourth , a large number of other oxides are known today , most of them synthesized since the 1960s . Some of these new oxides are stable at room temperature . Some are metastable or stable only at very low temperatures , but decompose to simpler oxocarbons when warmed . Many are inherently unstable and can be observed only momentarily as intermediates in chemical reactions or are so reactive that they can exist only in the gas phase or under matrix isolation conditions . The inventory of oxocarbons appears to be steadily growing . The existence of graphene oxide and of other stable polymeric carbon oxides with unbounded molecular structures suggests that many more remain to be discovered .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Oxocarbon", "rank": 34, "score": 82633 }, { "content": "Title: Dicyanoacetylene Content: Dicyanoacetylene , also called carbon subnitride or but-2-ynedinitrile '' ' ( IUPAC ) , is a compound of carbon and nitrogen with chemical formula C4N2 . It has a linear molecular structure , N ≡ C − C ≡ C − C ≡ N ( often abbreviated as NC4N ) , with alternating triple and single covalent bonds . It can be viewed as acetylene with the two hydrogen atoms replaced by cyanide groups . At room temperature , dicyanoacetylene is a clear liquid . Because of its high endothermic heat of formation , it can explode to carbon powder and nitrogen gas , and it burns in oxygen with a bright blue-white flame at a temperature of 5260 K ( 4990 ° C , 9010 ° F ) , which is the hottest flame of any known chemical reaction .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Dicyanoacetylene", "rank": 35, "score": 82546 }, { "content": "Title: Acetonema Content: Acetonema is a genus of bacteria in the family Veillonellaceae . It is H2-oxidizing CO2-reducing acetogenic strictly anaerobic endospore-forming Gram-negative motile rod-shaped , isolated from gut contents of the wood-feeding termite Pterotermes occidentis . Cells are catalase positive , oxidase negative , and have 51.5 mol percent G + C in their DNA . Optimum conditions for growth on H2 + CO2 are at 30-33 degrees C and pH ( initial ) 7.8 . Acetonema longum is the sole species within the genus .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Acetonema", "rank": 36, "score": 82414 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 37, "score": 82197 }, { "content": "Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "C3_carbon_fixation", "rank": 38, "score": 81909 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 39, "score": 81349 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon-burning process Content: The carbon-burning process or carbon fusion is a set of nuclear fusion reactions that take place in the cores of massive stars ( at least 8 at birth ) that combines carbon into other elements . It requires high temperatures ( > 5 × 108 K or 50 keV ) and densities ( > 3 × 109 kg/m3 ) . These figures for temperature and density are only a guide . More massive stars burn their nuclear fuel more quickly , since they have to offset greater gravitational forces to stay in ( approximate ) hydrostatic equilibrium . That generally means higher temperatures , although lower densities , than for less massive stars . To get the right figures for a particular mass , and a particular stage of evolution , it is necessary to use a numerical stellar model computed with computer algorithms . Such models are continually being refined based on nuclear physics experiments ( which measure nuclear reaction rates ) and astronomical observations ( which include direct observation of mass loss , detection of nuclear products from spectrum observations after convection zones develop from the surface to fusion-burning regions -- known as ` dredge-up ' events -- and so bring nuclear products to the surface , and many other observations relevant to models ) .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon-burning_process", "rank": 40, "score": 81292 }, { "content": "Title: Sabatier reaction Content: The Sabatier reaction or Sabatier process was discovered by the French chemist Paul Sabatier in the 1910s . It involves the reaction of hydrogen with carbon dioxide at elevated temperatures ( optimally 300 -- 400 ° C ) and pressures in the presence of a nickel catalyst to produce methane and water . Optionally , ruthenium on alumina ( aluminium oxide ) makes a more efficient catalyst . It is described by the following exothermic reaction : CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O + energy ∆ H = − 165.0 kJ/mol ( some initial energy/heat is required to start the reaction )", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Sabatier_reaction", "rank": 41, "score": 81205 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 42, "score": 81145 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_sensor", "rank": 43, "score": 81058 }, { "content": "Title: Kim reformer Content: The Kim reformer is a type of syngas plant invented by Dr. Kim , Hyun Yong . It is a high temperature furnace ( as shown in figure 1 ) , filled with steam and/or carbon dioxide gas and maintaining a thermal equilibrium at a temperature just above 1200 ° C , in which the reforming reaction is at its thermodynamic equilibrium and carbonaceous substance is reformed with the highest efficiency . Dr. Kim , Hyun Yong discovered , in December 2000 , that the reforming reaction ( C + H2O ↔ CO + H2 ) proceeds at a temperature just above 1200 ° C , but not below it . This work was published in International Journal -LSB- 1 -RSB- and registered in KR patent -LSB- 2 -RSB- , US patent -LSB- 3 -RSB- , CN patent -LSB- 4 -RSB- and JP patent -LSB- 5 -RSB- .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Kim_reformer", "rank": 44, "score": 81055 }, { "content": "Title: Ethanol from coal Content: Ethanol from coal is the ethanol produced using coal as its carbon source . The anaerobic bacterium Clostridium ljungdahlii produces ethanol and acetic acid from CO , CO2 , and H2 in synthesis gas . Early studies with C. ljungdahlii showed that relatively high concentrations of ethanol were produced . This process involves three main steps : Gasification : Thermal gasification at temperatures of up to 2,200 ° F in a reducing , very low oxygen atmosphere transforms organic materials into simple CO , CO2 and H2 gases . Fermentation : The acetogenic C. ljungdahlii convert the carbon monoxide into ethanol . Distillation : Ethanol is separated from hydrogen and water .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Ethanol_from_coal", "rank": 45, "score": 79961 }, { "content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2", "rank": 46, "score": 79105 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming", "rank": 47, "score": 79010 }, { "content": "Title: 1,2-Dioxetanedione Content: The chemical compound 1,2-dioxetanedione , or 1,2-dioxacyclobutane-3 ,4 - dione , often called peroxyacid ester , is an unstable oxide of carbon ( an oxocarbon ) with formula C2O4 . It can be viewed as a double ketone of 1,2-dioxetane ( 1,2-dioxacyclobutane ) , or a cyclic dimer of carbon dioxide . In ordinary conditions , it quickly decomposes to carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) even at 180 K , but can be detected by mass spectrometry and other techniques . 1,2-Dioxetanedione is an intermediate in the chemoluminescent reactions used in glowsticks . The decomposition proceeds via a paramagnetic oxalate biradical intermediate . Recently it has been found that a high-energy intermediate in one of these reactions ( between oxalyl chloride and hydrogen peroxide in ethyl acetate ) , which is presumed to be 1,2-dioxetanedione , can accumulate in solution at room temperature ( up to a few micromoles at least ) , provided that the activating dye and all traces of metals and other reducing agents are removed from the system , and the reactions are carried out in an inert atmosphere .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "1,2-Dioxetanedione", "rank": 48, "score": 78844 }, { "content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction", "rank": 49, "score": 78754 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 50, "score": 78742 }, { "content": "Title: Boudouard reaction Content: The Boudouard reaction , named after Octave Leopold Boudouard , is the redox reaction of a chemical equilibrium mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide at a given temperature . It is the disproportionation of carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide and graphite or its reverse : 2CO + C The Boudouard Reaction to form carbon dioxide and carbon is exothermic at all temperatures . However , the standard enthalpy of the Boudouard reaction becomes less negative with increasing temperature , as shown to the side . While the formation enthalpy of is higher than that of , the formation entropy is much lower . Consequently , the standard free energy of formation of from its component elements is almost constant and independent of the temperature , while the free energy of formation of decreases with temperature . At high temperatures , the forward reaction is therefore endergonic , favoring the ( exergonic ) reverse reaction toward CO , even though the forward reaction is still exothermic . The effect of temperature on the extent of the Boudouard reaction is indicated better by the value of the equilibrium constant than by the standard free energy of reaction . The value of log10 ( Keq ) for the reaction ( valid between 500 -- ) is : has a value of zero at . The implication of the change in Keq with temperature is that a gas containing may form elemental carbon if the mixture cools below a certain temperature . The thermodynamic activity of carbon may be calculated for a / mixture by knowing the partial pressure of each species and the value of Keq . For instance , in a high temperature reducing environment , such as that created for the reduction of iron oxide in a blast furnace or the preparation of carburizing atmospheres , carbon monoxide is the stable oxide of carbon . When a gas rich in is cooled to the point where the activity of carbon exceeds one , the Boudouard Reaction can take place . Carbon monoxide then tends to disproportionate into carbon dioxide and graphite , which forms soot . In industrial catalysis , this is not just an eyesore ; sooting ( also called coking ) can cause serious and even irreversible damage to catalysts and catalyst beds . This is a problem in the catalytic reforming of petroleum and the steam reforming of natural gas . The reaction is named after the French chemist , Octave Leopold Boudouard ( 1872 -- 1923 ) , who investigated this equilibrium in 1905 .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Boudouard_reaction", "rank": 51, "score": 78679 }, { "content": "Title: Enhanced coal bed methane recovery Content: Enhanced coal bed methane recovery is a method of producing additional coalbed methane from a source rock , similar to enhanced oil recovery applied to oil fields . Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) injected into a bituminous coal bed would occupy pore space and also adsorb onto the carbon in the coal at approximately twice the rate of methane ( CH4 ) , allowing for potential enhanced gas recovery . This technique may be used in conjunction with carbon capture and storage in mitigation of global warming where the carbon dioxide that is sequestered is captured from the output of fossil fuel power plants . A research project at ETH Zurich is studying the process of pumping carbon dioxide into unminable coal seams and recovering the methane that is subsequently displaced . An extensive experimental investigation about the process of desorbing methane by adsorbing carbon dioxide in real coal samples was performed . The proof of principle and the technical feasibility of the method could be verified with these measurements . These research results indicate that CBM can become an alternative to conventional natural gas . ECBM provides additional to CBM the advantage of long-term CO2 storage in the underground coal seams . However , without other incentives , enhanced coal bed methane recovery is not economical as the commercial value of the released methane does not completely offset the cost of pumping . Penetration of CO2 into coal is simulated using a stress-enhanced diffusion model .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Enhanced_coal_bed_methane_recovery", "rank": 52, "score": 78660 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 53, "score": 78607 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 54, "score": 78594 }, { "content": "Title: Heat of combustion Content: The calorific value is the total energy released as heat when a substance undergoes complete combustion with oxygen under standard conditions . The chemical reaction is typically a hydrocarbon or other organic molecule reacting with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water and release heat . It may be expressed with the quantities : energy/mole of fuel ( kJ/mol ) energy/mass of fuel energy/volume of the fuel The calorific value is conventionally measured with a bomb calorimeter . It may also be calculated as the difference between the heat of formation ΔH of the products and reactants ( though this approach is purely empirical since most heats of formation are calculated from measured heats of combustion ) . For a fuel of composition CcHhOoNn , the magnitude of the heat of combustion is to a good approximation ( ± 3 % ) . The calorific value of all organic compounds has the sign corresponding to an exothermic reaction ( negative in the standard chemical convention ) because the double bond in molecular oxygen is much weaker than other double bonds or pairs of single bonds , particularly those in the combustion products carbon dioxide and water ; conversion of the weak bonds in O2 to the stronger bonds in CO2 and H2O releases energy as heat . The heating value ( or energy value or calorific value ) of a substance , usually a fuel or food ( see food energy ) , is the amount of heat released during the combustion of a specified amount of it . The energy value is a characteristic for each substance . It is measured in units of energy per unit of the substance , usually mass , such as : kJ/kg , kJ/mol , kcal/kg , Btu/lb . Heating value is commonly determined by use of a bomb calorimeter . Heating value unit conversions : MJ/kg = kcal/kg × 238.846 Btu/lb = kJ/kg × 2.326 Btu/lb = kcals/kg x0 .5556 The heat of combustion for fuels is expressed as the HHV , LHV , or GHV .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Heat_of_combustion", "rank": 55, "score": 78536 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 56, "score": 78492 }, { "content": "Title: Covariance and correlation Content: In probability theory and statistics , the mathematical concepts of covariance and correlation are very similar . Both describe the degree to which two random variables or sets of random variables tend to deviate from their expected values in similar ways . If X and Y are two random variables , with means ( expected values ) μX and μY and standard deviations σX and σY , respectively , then their covariance and correlation are as follows : so that where E is the expected value operator . Notably , correlation is dimensionless while covariance is in units obtained by multiplying the units of the two variables . If Y always takes on the same values as X , we have the covariance of a variable with itself ( i.e. ) , which is called the variance and is more commonly denoted as the square of the standard deviation . The correlation of a variable with itself is always 1 ( except in the degenerate case where the two variances are zero because X always takes on the same single value , in which case the correlation does not exist since its computation would involve division by 0 ) . More generally , the correlation between two variables is 1 ( or -- 1 ) if one of them always takes on a value that is given exactly by a linear function of the other with respectively a positive ( or negative ) slope . Although the values of the theoretical covariances and correlations are linked in the above way , the probability distributions of sample estimates of these quantities are not linked in any simple way and they generally need to be treated separately .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Covariance_and_correlation", "rank": 57, "score": 78377 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 58, "score": 78342 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 59, "score": 78229 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_laser", "rank": 60, "score": 78156 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monofluoride Content: Carbon monofluoride ( CF , CFx , or ( CF ) x ) , also called polycarbon monofluoride ( PMF ) , polycarbon fluoride , poly ( carbon monofluoride ) , and graphite fluoride , is a material formed by high-temperature reaction of fluorine gas with graphite , charcoal , or pyrolytic carbon powder . It is a highly hydrophobic microcrystalline powder . Its CAS number is . In contrast to graphite intercalation compounds it is a covalent graphite compound . Carbon is stable in a fluorine atmosphere up to about 400 ° C , but between 420-600 ° C a reaction takes place to give substoichiometric carbon monofluoride , CF0 .68 appearing dark grey . With increasing temperature and fluorine pressure stoichiometries up to CF1 .12 are formed . With increasing fluorine content the colour changes from dark grey to cream white indicating the loss of the aromatic character . The fluorine atoms are located in an alternating fashion above and under the former graphene plane , which is now buckled due to formation of covalent carbon-fluorine bonds . Reaction of carbon with fluorine at even higher temperature successively destroys the graphite compound to yield a mixture of gaseous fluorocarbons such as tetrafluorocarbon , CF4 , and tetrafluoroethylene , C2F4 . In a similar fashion the recently found carbon allotrope fullerene , C60 reacts with fluorine gas to give fullerene fluorides with stoichiometries up to C60F48 . A precursor of carbon monofluoride is the fluorine-graphite intercalation compound , also called fluorine-GIC . Other intercalation fluorides of carbon are poly ( dicarbon fluoride ) ( ( C2F ) n ) ; tetracarbon monofluoride ( TCMF , C4F ) . Graphite fluoride is a procursor for preparation of graphene fluoride by a liquid phase exfoliation .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_monofluoride", "rank": 61, "score": 77835 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "CO2_is_Green", "rank": 62, "score": 77796 }, { "content": "Title: Arden Buck equation Content: The Arden Buck equations are a group of empirical correlations that relate the saturation vapor pressure to temperature for moist air . The curve fits have been optimized for more accuracy than the Goff -- Gratch equation in the range − 80 to 50 ° C. A set of several equations were developed , each of which is applicable in a different situation .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Arden_Buck_equation", "rank": 63, "score": 77710 }, { "content": "Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Climate_footprint", "rank": 64, "score": 77688 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 65, "score": 77677 }, { "content": "Title: Mars Surveyor '98 program Content: The Mars Surveyor '98 program comprised two spacecraft launched separately , the Mars Climate Orbiter ( formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Orbiter ) and the Mars Polar Lander ( formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Lander ) ; on board the Mars Polar Lander spacecraft were two surface-penetrator probes ( Deep Space 2 ) . The two missions were to study the Martian weather , climate , water and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) budget , to understand the reservoirs , behavior , and atmospheric role of volatiles and to search for evidence of long-term and episodic climate changes . Both spacecraft were launched during the 1998 Mars orbit insertion launch window . Both were lost , including the penetrator probes .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Mars_Surveyor_'98_program", "rank": 66, "score": 77615 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Hypercapnia", "rank": 67, "score": 77563 }, { "content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory", "rank": 68, "score": 77522 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_clathrate", "rank": 69, "score": 77505 }, { "content": "Title: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Content: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal ( ECCO2R ) is the removal of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the bloodstream in people who have elevated levels of carbon dioxide as a result of respiratory failure . The use of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is currently considered experimental , but it has been studied in a number of situations , specifically severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in adult respiratory distress syndrome where conventional mechanical ventilation would cause excessive lung damage . It requires the insertion of a tube similar to a dialysis catheter into a large vein . Blood is pumped through a machine where the carbon dioxide is filtered out .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Extracorporeal_carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 70, "score": 77373 }, { "content": "Title: Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility Content: The Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility ( ZOTTO ) is a climatic research station in the Siberian taiga in the proximity of Zotino , Russia , established and operated by the Max Planck Society and the Sukachev Institute of Forest , it serves as a long-term observing platform to be operated for at least 30 years . Far from human influences , researchers aim to determine how the concentration of greenhouse gases , aerosols , and the rising temperatures of the terrestrial atmosphere affect each other mutually . The heart of the station is a 302 m tower on which precision instruments measure the concentration of carbon dioxide , methane and other greenhouse gases . The measurement data are processed directly in the station at the foot of the tower and then transferred to the Institute of Forest , in Krasnoyarsk , Russia , as well as to the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry in Jena , Germany . The station has been operational since September 2006 . It extended the project Terrestrial Carbon Observing System and was funded by the 5th framework programme of the European Union , uniting 8 European and 4 Russian partners . A main conclusion of the project is that Siberian forests constitute a substantially smaller carbon-sink than so far assumed .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Zotino_Tall_Tower_Observation_Facility", "rank": 71, "score": 77332 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_cycle_re-balancing", "rank": 72, "score": 77285 }, { "content": "Title: Climit Content: CLIMIT - Programme for Power Generation with Carbon Capture and Storage . The programme is managed by Gassnova in cooperation with the Research Council of Norway . Responsibilities have been divided : whereas the Research Council of Norway is in charge of the research projects , Gassnova is responsible for the prototype and demonstration projects . CO2 ( carbon dioxide ) before , during or after power production Compression and handling of CO2 Transport of CO2 Long-term storage of CO2 and other areas of application Gassnova shall focus on co-funding projects seen as having an obvious commercial potential and which include a market-oriented business plan . For research grants within the same field , please refer to the calls for proposals issued by the Research Council of Norway .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Climit", "rank": 73, "score": 77223 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon subsulfide Content: Carbon subsulfide is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula C3S2 . This deep red liquid is immiscible with water but soluble in organic solvents . It readily polymerizes at room temperature to form a hard black solid .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_subsulfide", "rank": 74, "score": 77156 }, { "content": "Title: Angelo Battelli Content: Angelo Battelli ( 28 March 1862 -- 11 December 1916 ) was an Italian scientist , notable for having measured temperatures and heats of fusion of non-metallic substances , metallic conductivities and thermoelectric effects in magnetic metals , and the Thomson effect . He investigated osmotic pressures , surface tensions , and physical properties of carbon disulfide ( CS2 ) , water ( H2O ) , and alcohols , especially their vapor pressures , critical points , and densities . He studied X-rays and cathode rays . He investigated the resistance of solenoids to high-frequency alternating currents .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Angelo_Battelli", "rank": 75, "score": 77118 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 76, "score": 77099 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 (opera) Content: CO2 is an Italian opera by Giorgio Battistelli which premiered at La Scala on May 16 , 2015 . It is based on Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth , and Gore was initially a character in the opera . The libretto , primarily in English but containing passages in other languages , was written by Robert Carsen , who directed the production , and Ian Burton .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "CO2_(opera)", "rank": 77, "score": 77098 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 78, "score": 77038 }, { "content": "Title: Severinghaus electrode Content: The Severinghaus electrode is an electrode that measures carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It was developed by Dr. John W. Severinghaus and his technician A. Freeman Bradley in 1958 . It utilizes a CO2-sensitive glass electrode in a surrounding film of bicarbonate solution covered by a thin plastic carbon dioxide permeable membrane , but impermeable to water and electrolytic solutes . The carbon dioxide pressure of a sample gas or liquid equilibrates through the membrane and the glass electrode measures the resulting pH of the bicarbonate solution .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Severinghaus_electrode", "rank": 79, "score": 77012 }, { "content": "Title: Gustav Lorentzen (scientist) Content: Gustav Fredrik Lorentzen ( 13 January 1915 -- 7 August 1995 ) was a thermodynamic scientist from Norway . Gustav Lorentzen was a professor at Norwegian Institute of Technology , and Norwegian University of Science and Technology . In the late 1980s , Gustav Lorentzen rediscovered how CO2 could be used as a refrigerant in heating and cooling applications . He developed the modern thermodynamic transcritical cycle in 1988-1991 . In 1988 Lorentzen designed a concept for a new , but simple and efficient way of regulating CO2 systems . This idea became the turning point in the re-invention of CO2 cooling technology . Meanwhile , the Japanese corporation Denso had familiarized itself with Lorentzen 's dissertation in 1993 , and was evaluating the concept as a basis for a new air-condition application in cars . A series of communications between Lorentzen and Denso followed and the result of the collaboration between Lorentzen and Denso was a fundamental step in the innovation of EcoCute which was commercialized in 2000s .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Gustav_Lorentzen_(scientist)", "rank": 80, "score": 76827 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 81, "score": 76705 }, { "content": "Title: Lime kiln Content: A lime kiln is a kiln used for the calcination of limestone ( calcium carbonate ) to produce the form of lime called quicklime ( calcium oxide ) . The chemical equation for this reaction is CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2 This reaction takes place at 900 ° C ( 1650 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 1 atmosphere ) , but a temperature around 1000 ° C ( 1800 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 3.8 atmospheres ) is usually used to make the reaction proceed quickly . Excessive temperature is avoided because it produces unreactive , `` dead-burned '' lime . Slaked lime ( calcium hydroxide ) can be formed by mixing water with quicklime .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Lime_kiln", "rank": 82, "score": 76549 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_monoxide", "rank": 83, "score": 76413 }, { "content": "Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "C._Kumar_N._Patel", "rank": 84, "score": 76412 }, { "content": "Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth", "rank": 85, "score": 76096 }, { "content": "Title: 1,3,5-Trioxanetrione Content: The chemical compound 1,3,5-trioxanetrione , or 1,3,5-trioxacyclohexane-2 ,4,6 - trione is a hypothetical oxide of carbon with formula C3O6 . It can be considered a cyclic trimer of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) or as a triple ketone of 1,3,5-trioxane ( 1,3,5-trioxacyclohexane ) . Theoretical calculations indicate that the compound is unstable at room temperature ( half-life less than 8 seconds ) ; but may be stable at -196 ° C.", "qid": "2924", "docid": "1,3,5-Trioxanetrione", "rank": 86, "score": 76074 }, { "content": "Title: Ceiling temperature Content: Ceiling temperature is a measure of the tendency of polymers to revert to their monomers . When a polymer is at its ceiling temperature , the rate of polymerization and depolymerization of the polymer are equal . Generally , the ceiling temperature of a given polymer is correlated to the steric hindrance of the polymer 's monomers . Polymers with high ceiling temperatures are often commercially useful .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Ceiling_temperature", "rank": 87, "score": 75900 }, { "content": "Title: Mars atmospheric entry Content: Mars atmospheric entry is the entry into the atmosphere of Mars . High velocity entry into Martian air creates a CO2-N2 plasma , as opposed to O2-N2 for Earth air . Mars entry is affected by the radiative effects of hot CO2 gas and Martian dust suspended in the air . Flight regimes for entry , descent , and landing systems include aerocapture , hypersonic , supersonic , and subsonic . Thermal protection systems and atmospheric friction have been used historically to reduce most of the kinetic energy that needs to be lost prior to landing , with parachutes and , sometimes , a final bit of retropropulsion used in the final landing . High-altitude high-velocity retropropulsion is being researched for future transport flights landing heavier cargos . For example , Mars Pathfinder entered in 1997 . About 30 minutes prior to entry , the cruise stage and entry capsule separated . When the capsule hit the atmosphere it de-accelerated from about 7.3 km/s to 0.4 km/s ( 16330 mph to 900 mph ) over three minutes . As it descended the parachute opened to slow it down further , and soon after the heat shield was released . During entry a signal was relayed back to Earth , including semaphore signals for important events .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Mars_atmospheric_entry", "rank": 88, "score": 75799 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 (disambiguation) Content: CO2 is the molecular formula for carbon dioxide . CO2 , Co2 or C02 may refer to :", "qid": "2924", "docid": "CO2_(disambiguation)", "rank": 89, "score": 75777 }, { "content": "Title: 1,3-Dioxetanedione Content: The chemical compound 1,3-dioxetanedione , or 1,3-dioxacyclobutane-2 ,4 - dione is a hypothetical oxide of carbon with formula C2O4 . It can be considered a cyclic dimer of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) or as a double ketone of 1,3-dioxetane ( 1,3-dioxacyclobutane ) . Theoretical calculations indicate that the compound is extremely unstable at room temperature ( half-life of less than 1.1 μs ) ; but may be stable at − 196 ° C.", "qid": "2924", "docid": "1,3-Dioxetanedione", "rank": 90, "score": 75740 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho", "rank": 91, "score": 75684 }, { "content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "qid": "2924", "docid": "James_Hansen", "rank": 92, "score": 75367 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 93, "score": 75259 }, { "content": "Title: Zirconium diboride Content: Zirconium diboride ( ZrB2 ) is a highly covalent refractory ceramic material with a hexagonal crystal structure . ZrB2 is an ultra high temperature ceramic ( UHTC ) with a melting point of 3246 ° C . This along with its relatively low density of ~ 6.09 g/cm3 ( measured density may be higher due to hafnium impurities ) and good high temperature strength makes it a candidate for high temperature aerospace applications such as hypersonic flight or rocket propulsion systems . It is an unusual ceramic , having relatively high thermal and electrical conductivities , properties it shares with isostructural titanium diboride and hafnium diboride . ZrB2 parts are usually hot pressed ( pressure applied to the heated powder ) and then machined to shape . Sintering of ZrB2 is hindered by the material 's covalent nature and presence of surface oxides which increase grain coarsening before densification during sintering . Pressureless sintering of ZrB2 is possible with sintering additives such as boron carbide and carbon which react with the surface oxides to increase the driving force for sintering but mechanical properties are degraded compared to hot pressed ZrB2 . Additions of ~ 30 vol % SiC to ZrB2 is often added to ZrB2 to improve oxidation resistance through SiC creating a protective oxide layer - similar to aluminum 's protective alumina layer .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Zirconium_diboride", "rank": 94, "score": 75132 }, { "content": "Title: Charge ordering Content: Charge ordering ( CO ) is a ( first - or second-order ) phase transition occurring mostly in strongly correlated materials such as transition metal oxides or organic conductors . Due to the strong interaction between electrons , charges are localized on different sites leading to a disproportionation and an ordered superlattice . It appears in different patterns ranging from vertical to horizontal stripes to a checkerboard -- like pattern , and it is not limited to the two-dimensional case . The charge order transition is accompanied by symmetry breaking and may lead to ferroelectricity . It is often found in close proximity to superconductivity and colossal magnetoresistance . This long range order phenomena was first discovered in magnetite ( Fe3O4 ) by Verwey in 1939 . He observed an increase of the electrical resistivity by two orders of magnitude at TCO = 120K , suggesting a phase transition which is now well known as the Verwey transition . He was the first to propose the idea of an ordering process in this context . The charge ordered structure of magnetite was solved in 2011 by a group led by Paul Attfield with the results published in Nature .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Charge_ordering", "rank": 95, "score": 75114 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "CO2_content", "rank": 96, "score": 74975 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Carbon_rift", "rank": 97, "score": 74791 }, { "content": "Title: List of temperature sensors Content:", "qid": "2924", "docid": "List_of_temperature_sensors", "rank": 98, "score": 74772 }, { "content": "Title: Neutron temperature Content: The neutron detection temperature , also called the neutron energy , indicates a free neutron 's kinetic energy , usually given in electron volts . The term temperature is used , since hot , thermal and cold neutrons are moderated in a medium with a certain temperature . The neutron energy distribution is then adopted to the Maxwellian distribution known for thermal motion . Qualitatively , the higher the temperature , the higher the kinetic energy of the free neutrons . The momentum and wavelength of the neutron are related through the De Broglie relation . The large wavelength of slow neutrons allows for the large cross section .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Neutron_temperature", "rank": 99, "score": 74715 }, { "content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "qid": "2924", "docid": "Mesopause", "rank": 100, "score": 74625 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 1, "score": 128287 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 2, "score": 111485 }, { "content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Climate_sensitivity", "rank": 3, "score": 109666 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 4, "score": 107944 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 5, "score": 107651 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming", "rank": 6, "score": 107438 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 7, "score": 106599 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding", "rank": 8, "score": 106031 }, { "content": "Title: Bosch reaction Content: The Bosch reaction is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and hydrogen that produces elemental carbon ( graphite ) , water , and a 10 % return of invested heat . It is named after the German chemist Carl Bosch . This reaction requires the introduction of iron as a catalyst and requires a temperature level of 530-730 degrees Celsius . The overall reaction is as follows : CO2 ( g ) + 2 H2 ( g ) → C ( s ) + 2 H2O ( g ) The above reaction is actually the result of two reactions . The first reaction , the reverse water gas shift reaction , is a fast one : CO2 + H2 → CO + H2O The second reaction controls the reaction rate : CO + H2 → C + H2O The overall reaction produces 2.3 × 103 joules for every gram of carbon dioxide reacted at 650 ° C. Reaction temperatures are in the range of 450 to 600 ° C. The reaction can be accelerated in the presence of an iron , cobalt or nickel catalyst . Ruthenium also serves to speed up the reaction . Together with the Sabatier reaction , the Bosch reaction is studied as a way to remove carbon dioxide and to generate clean water aboard a space station . The reaction is also used to produce graphite for radiocarbon dating with Accelerator Mass Spectrometry . The Bosch reaction is being investigated for use in maintaining space station life support . Though the Bosch reaction would present a completely closed hydrogen and oxygen cycle which only produces atomic carbon as waste , difficulties in maintaining its higher required temperature and properly handling carbon deposits mean that significantly more research will be required before a Bosch reactor can become a reality . One problem is that the production of elemental carbon tends to foul the catalyst 's surface , which is detrimental to the reaction 's efficiency .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Bosch_reaction", "rank": 9, "score": 105811 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 10, "score": 104456 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 11, "score": 101371 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 12, "score": 101265 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 13, "score": 99874 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 14, "score": 99304 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 15, "score": 99099 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 16, "score": 98571 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 17, "score": 97141 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 18, "score": 97089 }, { "content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Revelle_factor", "rank": 19, "score": 96244 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 20, "score": 95922 }, { "content": "Title: Cobalt(II) fluoride Content: Cobalt ( II ) fluoride is a chemical compound with the formula ( CoF2 ) . It is a pink crystalline solid compound which is antiferromagnetic at low temperatures ( TN = 37.7 K ) The formula is given for both the red tetragonal crystal , ( CoF2 ) , and the tetrahydrate red orthogonal crystal , ( CoF2 · 4H2O ) . CoF2 is used in oxygen-sensitive fields , namely metal production . In low concentrations , it has public health uses . CoF2 is sparingly soluble in water . The compound can be dissolved in warm mineral acid , and will decompose in boiling water . Yet the hydrate is water-soluble , especially the di-hydrate CoF2 · 2H2 O and tri-hydrate CoF2 · 3H2O forms of the compound . The hydrate will also decompose with heat .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Cobalt(II)_fluoride", "rank": 21, "score": 95911 }, { "content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Amorphous_carbonia", "rank": 22, "score": 95156 }, { "content": "Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "C3_carbon_fixation", "rank": 23, "score": 94950 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals", "rank": 24, "score": 94892 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho", "rank": 25, "score": 94168 }, { "content": "Title: Dicyanoacetylene Content: Dicyanoacetylene , also called carbon subnitride or but-2-ynedinitrile '' ' ( IUPAC ) , is a compound of carbon and nitrogen with chemical formula C4N2 . It has a linear molecular structure , N ≡ C − C ≡ C − C ≡ N ( often abbreviated as NC4N ) , with alternating triple and single covalent bonds . It can be viewed as acetylene with the two hydrogen atoms replaced by cyanide groups . At room temperature , dicyanoacetylene is a clear liquid . Because of its high endothermic heat of formation , it can explode to carbon powder and nitrogen gas , and it burns in oxygen with a bright blue-white flame at a temperature of 5260 K ( 4990 ° C , 9010 ° F ) , which is the hottest flame of any known chemical reaction .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Dicyanoacetylene", "rank": 26, "score": 94161 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 27, "score": 92515 }, { "content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change", "rank": 28, "score": 92233 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon-burning process Content: The carbon-burning process or carbon fusion is a set of nuclear fusion reactions that take place in the cores of massive stars ( at least 8 at birth ) that combines carbon into other elements . It requires high temperatures ( > 5 × 108 K or 50 keV ) and densities ( > 3 × 109 kg/m3 ) . These figures for temperature and density are only a guide . More massive stars burn their nuclear fuel more quickly , since they have to offset greater gravitational forces to stay in ( approximate ) hydrostatic equilibrium . That generally means higher temperatures , although lower densities , than for less massive stars . To get the right figures for a particular mass , and a particular stage of evolution , it is necessary to use a numerical stellar model computed with computer algorithms . Such models are continually being refined based on nuclear physics experiments ( which measure nuclear reaction rates ) and astronomical observations ( which include direct observation of mass loss , detection of nuclear products from spectrum observations after convection zones develop from the surface to fusion-burning regions -- known as ` dredge-up ' events -- and so bring nuclear products to the surface , and many other observations relevant to models ) .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon-burning_process", "rank": 29, "score": 91716 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 30, "score": 91431 }, { "content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years", "rank": 31, "score": 91166 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature coefficient Content: A temperature coefficient describes the relative change of a physical property that is associated with a given change in temperature . For a property R that changes by dR when the temperature changes by dT , the temperature coefficient α is defined by Here α has the dimension of an inverse temperature and can be expressed e.g. in 1/K or K − 1 . If the temperature coefficient itself does not vary too much with temperature , a linear approximation can be used to determine the value R of a property at a temperature T , given its value R0 at a reference temperature T0 : where ΔT is the difference between T and T0 . For strongly temperature-dependent α , this approximation is only useful for small temperature differences ΔT . Temperature coefficients are specified for various applications , including electric and magnetic properties of materials as well as reactivity . The temperature coefficient of most of the reactions lies between - 2 & 3", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Temperature_coefficient", "rank": 32, "score": 91114 }, { "content": "Title: Oxocarbon Content: An oxocarbon or oxide of carbon is a chemical compound consisting only of carbon and oxygen . The simplest and most common oxocarbons are carbon monoxide ( CO ) and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Many other stable ( practically if not thermodynamically ) or metastable oxides of carbon are known , but they are rarely encountered , such as carbon suboxide ( C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O ) and mellitic anhydride ( C12O9 ) . While textbooks will often list only the first three , and rarely the fourth , a large number of other oxides are known today , most of them synthesized since the 1960s . Some of these new oxides are stable at room temperature . Some are metastable or stable only at very low temperatures , but decompose to simpler oxocarbons when warmed . Many are inherently unstable and can be observed only momentarily as intermediates in chemical reactions or are so reactive that they can exist only in the gas phase or under matrix isolation conditions . The inventory of oxocarbons appears to be steadily growing . The existence of graphene oxide and of other stable polymeric carbon oxides with unbounded molecular structures suggests that many more remain to be discovered .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Oxocarbon", "rank": 33, "score": 91075 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon suboxide Content: Carbon suboxide , or tricarbon dioxide , is an oxide of carbon with chemical formula C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O . Its four cumulative double bonds make it a cumulene . It is one of the stable members of the series of linear oxocarbons O = Cn =O , which also includes carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and pentacarbon dioxide ( C5O2 ) . Although if carefully purified it can exist at room temperature in the dark without decomposing , it will polymerize under certain conditions . The substance was discovered in 1873 by Benjamin Brodie by subjecting carbon monoxide to an electric current . He claimed that the product was part of a series of `` oxycarbons '' with formulas Cx +1 Ox , namely C , C2O , C3O2 , C4O3 , C5O4 , ... , and to have identified the last two ; however only C3O2 is known . In 1891 Marcellin Berthelot observed that heating pure carbon monoxide at about 550 ° C created small amounts of carbon dioxide but no trace of carbon , and assumed that a carbon-rich oxide was created instead , which he named `` sub-oxide '' . He assumed it was the same product obtained by electric discharge and proposed the formula C2O . Otto Diels later stated that the more organic names dicarbonylmethane and dioxallene were also correct . It is commonly described as an oily liquid or gas at room temperature with an extremely noxious odor .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon_suboxide", "rank": 34, "score": 91019 }, { "content": "Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Supercritical_carbon_dioxide", "rank": 35, "score": 90816 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes", "rank": 36, "score": 90736 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 (opera) Content: CO2 is an Italian opera by Giorgio Battistelli which premiered at La Scala on May 16 , 2015 . It is based on Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth , and Gore was initially a character in the opera . The libretto , primarily in English but containing passages in other languages , was written by Robert Carsen , who directed the production , and Ian Burton .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "CO2_(opera)", "rank": 37, "score": 90649 }, { "content": "Title: Sabatier reaction Content: The Sabatier reaction or Sabatier process was discovered by the French chemist Paul Sabatier in the 1910s . It involves the reaction of hydrogen with carbon dioxide at elevated temperatures ( optimally 300 -- 400 ° C ) and pressures in the presence of a nickel catalyst to produce methane and water . Optionally , ruthenium on alumina ( aluminium oxide ) makes a more efficient catalyst . It is described by the following exothermic reaction : CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O + energy ∆ H = − 165.0 kJ/mol ( some initial energy/heat is required to start the reaction )", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Sabatier_reaction", "rank": 38, "score": 90577 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 39, "score": 90258 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator", "rank": 40, "score": 89503 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 41, "score": 89266 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon_rift", "rank": 42, "score": 89116 }, { "content": "Title: Bohr effect Content: The Bohr effect is a physiological phenomenon first described in 1904 by the Danish physiologist Christian Bohr , stating that haemoglobin 's oxygen binding affinity ( see Oxygen -- haemoglobin dissociation curve ) is inversely related both to acidity and to the concentration of carbon dioxide . Since carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid , an increase in CO2 results in a decrease in blood pH , resulting in hemoglobin proteins releasing their load of oxygen . Conversely , a decrease in carbon dioxide provokes an increase in pH , which results in hemoglobin picking up more oxygen .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Bohr_effect", "rank": 43, "score": 89016 }, { "content": "Title: 1,2-Dioxetanedione Content: The chemical compound 1,2-dioxetanedione , or 1,2-dioxacyclobutane-3 ,4 - dione , often called peroxyacid ester , is an unstable oxide of carbon ( an oxocarbon ) with formula C2O4 . It can be viewed as a double ketone of 1,2-dioxetane ( 1,2-dioxacyclobutane ) , or a cyclic dimer of carbon dioxide . In ordinary conditions , it quickly decomposes to carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) even at 180 K , but can be detected by mass spectrometry and other techniques . 1,2-Dioxetanedione is an intermediate in the chemoluminescent reactions used in glowsticks . The decomposition proceeds via a paramagnetic oxalate biradical intermediate . Recently it has been found that a high-energy intermediate in one of these reactions ( between oxalyl chloride and hydrogen peroxide in ethyl acetate ) , which is presumed to be 1,2-dioxetanedione , can accumulate in solution at room temperature ( up to a few micromoles at least ) , provided that the activating dye and all traces of metals and other reducing agents are removed from the system , and the reactions are carried out in an inert atmosphere .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "1,2-Dioxetanedione", "rank": 44, "score": 88919 }, { "content": "Title: Lime kiln Content: A lime kiln is a kiln used for the calcination of limestone ( calcium carbonate ) to produce the form of lime called quicklime ( calcium oxide ) . The chemical equation for this reaction is CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2 This reaction takes place at 900 ° C ( 1650 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 1 atmosphere ) , but a temperature around 1000 ° C ( 1800 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 3.8 atmospheres ) is usually used to make the reaction proceed quickly . Excessive temperature is avoided because it produces unreactive , `` dead-burned '' lime . Slaked lime ( calcium hydroxide ) can be formed by mixing water with quicklime .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Lime_kiln", "rank": 45, "score": 88828 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon subsulfide Content: Carbon subsulfide is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula C3S2 . This deep red liquid is immiscible with water but soluble in organic solvents . It readily polymerizes at room temperature to form a hard black solid .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon_subsulfide", "rank": 46, "score": 88535 }, { "content": "Title: Boudouard reaction Content: The Boudouard reaction , named after Octave Leopold Boudouard , is the redox reaction of a chemical equilibrium mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide at a given temperature . It is the disproportionation of carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide and graphite or its reverse : 2CO + C The Boudouard Reaction to form carbon dioxide and carbon is exothermic at all temperatures . However , the standard enthalpy of the Boudouard reaction becomes less negative with increasing temperature , as shown to the side . While the formation enthalpy of is higher than that of , the formation entropy is much lower . Consequently , the standard free energy of formation of from its component elements is almost constant and independent of the temperature , while the free energy of formation of decreases with temperature . At high temperatures , the forward reaction is therefore endergonic , favoring the ( exergonic ) reverse reaction toward CO , even though the forward reaction is still exothermic . The effect of temperature on the extent of the Boudouard reaction is indicated better by the value of the equilibrium constant than by the standard free energy of reaction . The value of log10 ( Keq ) for the reaction ( valid between 500 -- ) is : has a value of zero at . The implication of the change in Keq with temperature is that a gas containing may form elemental carbon if the mixture cools below a certain temperature . The thermodynamic activity of carbon may be calculated for a / mixture by knowing the partial pressure of each species and the value of Keq . For instance , in a high temperature reducing environment , such as that created for the reduction of iron oxide in a blast furnace or the preparation of carburizing atmospheres , carbon monoxide is the stable oxide of carbon . When a gas rich in is cooled to the point where the activity of carbon exceeds one , the Boudouard Reaction can take place . Carbon monoxide then tends to disproportionate into carbon dioxide and graphite , which forms soot . In industrial catalysis , this is not just an eyesore ; sooting ( also called coking ) can cause serious and even irreversible damage to catalysts and catalyst beds . This is a problem in the catalytic reforming of petroleum and the steam reforming of natural gas . The reaction is named after the French chemist , Octave Leopold Boudouard ( 1872 -- 1923 ) , who investigated this equilibrium in 1905 .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Boudouard_reaction", "rank": 47, "score": 88006 }, { "content": "Title: Dry ice color show Content: Dry ice color show is the formation of carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) by the reaction of dry ice , the solid form of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and water , which lower the pH to the acidic solution . By applying Universal Indicator to the solution , the changing of pH can be indicated as the color of the solution changes into the contrast color . This experiment is usually conducted as a classroom demonstration of pH and properties of carbon dioxide since the materials required are handful and prepared easily .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Dry_ice_color_show", "rank": 48, "score": 87112 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 49, "score": 87085 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 50, "score": 87067 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 51, "score": 86933 }, { "content": "Title: Zirconium diboride Content: Zirconium diboride ( ZrB2 ) is a highly covalent refractory ceramic material with a hexagonal crystal structure . ZrB2 is an ultra high temperature ceramic ( UHTC ) with a melting point of 3246 ° C . This along with its relatively low density of ~ 6.09 g/cm3 ( measured density may be higher due to hafnium impurities ) and good high temperature strength makes it a candidate for high temperature aerospace applications such as hypersonic flight or rocket propulsion systems . It is an unusual ceramic , having relatively high thermal and electrical conductivities , properties it shares with isostructural titanium diboride and hafnium diboride . ZrB2 parts are usually hot pressed ( pressure applied to the heated powder ) and then machined to shape . Sintering of ZrB2 is hindered by the material 's covalent nature and presence of surface oxides which increase grain coarsening before densification during sintering . Pressureless sintering of ZrB2 is possible with sintering additives such as boron carbide and carbon which react with the surface oxides to increase the driving force for sintering but mechanical properties are degraded compared to hot pressed ZrB2 . Additions of ~ 30 vol % SiC to ZrB2 is often added to ZrB2 to improve oxidation resistance through SiC creating a protective oxide layer - similar to aluminum 's protective alumina layer .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Zirconium_diboride", "rank": 52, "score": 86740 }, { "content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Keith_E._Idso", "rank": 53, "score": 86456 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka", "rank": 54, "score": 86453 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe", "rank": 55, "score": 86294 }, { "content": "Title: Kim reformer Content: The Kim reformer is a type of syngas plant invented by Dr. Kim , Hyun Yong . It is a high temperature furnace ( as shown in figure 1 ) , filled with steam and/or carbon dioxide gas and maintaining a thermal equilibrium at a temperature just above 1200 ° C , in which the reforming reaction is at its thermodynamic equilibrium and carbonaceous substance is reformed with the highest efficiency . Dr. Kim , Hyun Yong discovered , in December 2000 , that the reforming reaction ( C + H2O ↔ CO + H2 ) proceeds at a temperature just above 1200 ° C , but not below it . This work was published in International Journal -LSB- 1 -RSB- and registered in KR patent -LSB- 2 -RSB- , US patent -LSB- 3 -RSB- , CN patent -LSB- 4 -RSB- and JP patent -LSB- 5 -RSB- .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Kim_reformer", "rank": 56, "score": 86268 }, { "content": "Title: Ethanol from coal Content: Ethanol from coal is the ethanol produced using coal as its carbon source . The anaerobic bacterium Clostridium ljungdahlii produces ethanol and acetic acid from CO , CO2 , and H2 in synthesis gas . Early studies with C. ljungdahlii showed that relatively high concentrations of ethanol were produced . This process involves three main steps : Gasification : Thermal gasification at temperatures of up to 2,200 ° F in a reducing , very low oxygen atmosphere transforms organic materials into simple CO , CO2 and H2 gases . Fermentation : The acetogenic C. ljungdahlii convert the carbon monoxide into ethanol . Distillation : Ethanol is separated from hydrogen and water .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Ethanol_from_coal", "rank": 57, "score": 86260 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 58, "score": 86079 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 (album) Content: CO2 is the fourth studio album by German band Stahlmann , released in 2015 .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "CO2_(album)", "rank": 59, "score": 85985 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning", "rank": 60, "score": 85935 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea", "rank": 61, "score": 85897 }, { "content": "Title: Central chemoreceptors Content: Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system , located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves , are sensitive to the pH of their environment . These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues . An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries , often resulting from decreased CO2 output ( hypercapnia ) , indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic ; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma , as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood -- brain barrier . However , a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H + are not able to diffuse across the blood -- brain barrier into the CSF . Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across , reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains , in this way , distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors . The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia ( elevated CO2 , decreased O2 ) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal and in vitro slice preparation . These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term ( or emergency ) regulation . This system utilizes a negative feedback system , therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal `` set '' level , then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed . Peripheral chemoreceptors ( carotid and aortic bodies ) and central chemoreceptors ( medullary neurons ) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity . This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2 , pCO2 , and pH within appropriate physiological ranges . For example , a fall in arterial pO2 ( hypoxemia ) or an increase in arterial pCO2 ( hypercapnia ) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex . Chemoreceptor activity , however , also affects cardiovascular function either directly ( by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers ) or indirectly ( via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity ) . Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock ( these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH , and increase arterial pCO2 ) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Central_chemoreceptors", "rank": 62, "score": 85892 }, { "content": "Title: Heat of combustion Content: The calorific value is the total energy released as heat when a substance undergoes complete combustion with oxygen under standard conditions . The chemical reaction is typically a hydrocarbon or other organic molecule reacting with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water and release heat . It may be expressed with the quantities : energy/mole of fuel ( kJ/mol ) energy/mass of fuel energy/volume of the fuel The calorific value is conventionally measured with a bomb calorimeter . It may also be calculated as the difference between the heat of formation ΔH of the products and reactants ( though this approach is purely empirical since most heats of formation are calculated from measured heats of combustion ) . For a fuel of composition CcHhOoNn , the magnitude of the heat of combustion is to a good approximation ( ± 3 % ) . The calorific value of all organic compounds has the sign corresponding to an exothermic reaction ( negative in the standard chemical convention ) because the double bond in molecular oxygen is much weaker than other double bonds or pairs of single bonds , particularly those in the combustion products carbon dioxide and water ; conversion of the weak bonds in O2 to the stronger bonds in CO2 and H2O releases energy as heat . The heating value ( or energy value or calorific value ) of a substance , usually a fuel or food ( see food energy ) , is the amount of heat released during the combustion of a specified amount of it . The energy value is a characteristic for each substance . It is measured in units of energy per unit of the substance , usually mass , such as : kJ/kg , kJ/mol , kcal/kg , Btu/lb . Heating value is commonly determined by use of a bomb calorimeter . Heating value unit conversions : MJ/kg = kcal/kg × 238.846 Btu/lb = kJ/kg × 2.326 Btu/lb = kcals/kg x0 .5556 The heat of combustion for fuels is expressed as the HHV , LHV , or GHV .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Heat_of_combustion", "rank": 63, "score": 85851 }, { "content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "qid": "2927", "docid": "James_Hansen", "rank": 64, "score": 85767 }, { "content": "Title: Angelo Battelli Content: Angelo Battelli ( 28 March 1862 -- 11 December 1916 ) was an Italian scientist , notable for having measured temperatures and heats of fusion of non-metallic substances , metallic conductivities and thermoelectric effects in magnetic metals , and the Thomson effect . He investigated osmotic pressures , surface tensions , and physical properties of carbon disulfide ( CS2 ) , water ( H2O ) , and alcohols , especially their vapor pressures , critical points , and densities . He studied X-rays and cathode rays . He investigated the resistance of solenoids to high-frequency alternating currents .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Angelo_Battelli", "rank": 65, "score": 85614 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 66, "score": 85374 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "CO2_is_Green", "rank": 67, "score": 84967 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 68, "score": 84949 }, { "content": "Title: Vanadium(III) oxide Content: Vanadium ( III ) oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula V2O3 . It is a black solid prepared by reduction of V2O5 with hydrogen or carbon monoxide.It is a basic oxide dissolving in acids to give solutions of vanadium ( III ) complexes . V2O3 has the corundum structure . It is antiferromagnetic with a critical temperature of 160 K . At this temperature there is an abrupt change in conductivity from metallic to insulating . Upon exposure to air it gradually converts into indigo-blue V2O4 . In nature it occurs as the rare mineral karelianite .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Vanadium(III)_oxide", "rank": 69, "score": 84949 }, { "content": "Title: Gustav Lorentzen (scientist) Content: Gustav Fredrik Lorentzen ( 13 January 1915 -- 7 August 1995 ) was a thermodynamic scientist from Norway . Gustav Lorentzen was a professor at Norwegian Institute of Technology , and Norwegian University of Science and Technology . In the late 1980s , Gustav Lorentzen rediscovered how CO2 could be used as a refrigerant in heating and cooling applications . He developed the modern thermodynamic transcritical cycle in 1988-1991 . In 1988 Lorentzen designed a concept for a new , but simple and efficient way of regulating CO2 systems . This idea became the turning point in the re-invention of CO2 cooling technology . Meanwhile , the Japanese corporation Denso had familiarized itself with Lorentzen 's dissertation in 1993 , and was evaluating the concept as a basis for a new air-condition application in cars . A series of communications between Lorentzen and Denso followed and the result of the collaboration between Lorentzen and Denso was a fundamental step in the innovation of EcoCute which was commercialized in 2000s .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Gustav_Lorentzen_(scientist)", "rank": 70, "score": 84781 }, { "content": "Title: Simon–Glatzel equation Content: The Simon -- Glatzel equation is an empirical correlation describing the pressure dependence of the melting temperature of a solid . The pressure dependence of the melting temperature is small for small pressure changes because the volume change during fusion or melting is rather small . However , at very high pressures higher melting temperatures are generally observed as the liquid usually occupies a larger volume than the solid making melting more thermodynamically unfavorable at elevated pressure . If the liquid has a smaller volume than the solid ( as for ice and liquid water ) a higher pressure leads to a lower melting point .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Simon–Glatzel_equation", "rank": 71, "score": 84695 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture", "rank": 72, "score": 84633 }, { "content": "Title: Timothy Ball Content: Timothy Francis `` Tim '' Ball ( born November 5 , 1938 ) is a Canadian geographer . A retired professor , he taught in the department of geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until 1996 . Ball rejects the scientific opinion on climate change , stating that `` CO2 is not a greenhouse gas . '' He has worked with the Friends of Science and the Natural Resources Stewardship Project , and is a research fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Timothy_Ball", "rank": 73, "score": 84609 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Climate_change_in_China", "rank": 74, "score": 84561 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Hypercapnia", "rank": 75, "score": 84419 }, { "content": "Title: Loss on ignition Content: Loss on ignition is a test used in inorganic analytical chemistry , particularly in the analysis of minerals . It consists of strongly heating ( `` igniting '' ) a sample of the material at a specified temperature , allowing volatile substances to escape , until its mass ceases to change . This may be done in air , or in some other reactive or inert atmosphere . The simple test typically consists of placing a few grams of the material in a tared , pre-ignited crucible and determining its mass , placing it in a temperature-controlled furnace for a set time , cooling it in a controlled ( e.g. water-free , CO2-free ) atmosphere , and redetermining the mass . The process may be repeated to show that mass-change is complete . A variant of the test in which mass-change is continually monitored as temperature is changed , is thermogravimetry . The loss on ignition is reported as part of an elemental or oxide analysis of a mineral . The volatile materials lost usually consist of `` combined water '' ( hydrates and labile hydroxy-compounds ) and carbon dioxide from carbonates . It may be used as a quality test , commonly carried out for minerals such as iron ore . For example , the loss on ignition of a fly ash consists of contaminant unburnt fuel . In pyroprocessing industries such as lime , calcined bauxite , refractories or cement manufacture , the loss on ignition of the raw material is roughly equivalent to the loss in mass that it will undergo in a kiln . Similarly for minerals the loss on ignition represents the actual material lost during smelting or refining in a furnace or smelter . The loss on ignition of the product indicates the extent to which the pyroprocessing was incomplete . ASTM tests are defined for limestone and lime and cement among others .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Loss_on_ignition", "rank": 76, "score": 84343 }, { "content": "Title: Carbonic anhydrase II Content: Carbonic anhydrase II ( gene name CA2 ) , is one of fourteen forms of human α carbonic anhydrases . Carbonic anhydrase catalyzes reversible hydration of carbon dioxide . Defects in this enzyme are associated with osteopetrosis and renal tubular acidosis . Renal carbonic anhydrase allows the reabsorption of bicarbonate ions in the proximal tubule .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbonic_anhydrase_II", "rank": 77, "score": 84319 }, { "content": "Title: Geysers on Mars Content: Martian geysers (or CO2 jets) are putative sites of small gas and dust eruptions that occur in the south polar region of Mars during the spring thaw. \"Dark dune spots\" and \"spiders\" – or araneiforms – are the two most visible types of features ascribed to these eruptions. Martian geysers are distinct from geysers on Earth, which are typically associated with hydrothermal activity. These are unlike any terrestrial geological phenomenon. The reflectance (albedo), shapes and unusual spider appearance of these features have stimulated a variety of hypotheses about their origin, ranging from differences in frosting reflectance, to explanations involving biological processes. However, all current geophysical models assume some sort of jet or geyser-like activity on Mars. Their characteristics, and the process of their formation, are still a matter of debate. These features are unique to the south polar region of Mars in an area informally called the 'cryptic region', at latitudes 60° to 80° south and longitudes 150°W to 310°W; this 1 meter deep carbon dioxide (CO2) ice transition area—between the scarps of the thick polar ice layer and the permafrost—is where clusters of the apparent geyser systems are located. The seasonal frosting and defrosting of carbon dioxide ice results in the appearance of a number of features, such dark dune spots with spider-like rilles or channels below the ice, where spider-like radial channels are carved between the ground and the carbon dioxide ice, giving it an appearance of spider webs, then, pressure accumulating in their interior ejects gas and dark basaltic sand or dust, which is deposited on the ice surface and thus, forming dark dune spots. This process is rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a growth rate rather unusual in geology – especially for Mars. However, it would seem that multiple years would be required to carve the larger spider-like channels. There is no direct data on these features other than images taken in the visible and infrared spectra.", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Geysers_on_Mars", "rank": 78, "score": 84308 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_sensor", "rank": 79, "score": 84185 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monofluoride Content: Carbon monofluoride ( CF , CFx , or ( CF ) x ) , also called polycarbon monofluoride ( PMF ) , polycarbon fluoride , poly ( carbon monofluoride ) , and graphite fluoride , is a material formed by high-temperature reaction of fluorine gas with graphite , charcoal , or pyrolytic carbon powder . It is a highly hydrophobic microcrystalline powder . Its CAS number is . In contrast to graphite intercalation compounds it is a covalent graphite compound . Carbon is stable in a fluorine atmosphere up to about 400 ° C , but between 420-600 ° C a reaction takes place to give substoichiometric carbon monofluoride , CF0 .68 appearing dark grey . With increasing temperature and fluorine pressure stoichiometries up to CF1 .12 are formed . With increasing fluorine content the colour changes from dark grey to cream white indicating the loss of the aromatic character . The fluorine atoms are located in an alternating fashion above and under the former graphene plane , which is now buckled due to formation of covalent carbon-fluorine bonds . Reaction of carbon with fluorine at even higher temperature successively destroys the graphite compound to yield a mixture of gaseous fluorocarbons such as tetrafluorocarbon , CF4 , and tetrafluoroethylene , C2F4 . In a similar fashion the recently found carbon allotrope fullerene , C60 reacts with fluorine gas to give fullerene fluorides with stoichiometries up to C60F48 . A precursor of carbon monofluoride is the fluorine-graphite intercalation compound , also called fluorine-GIC . Other intercalation fluorides of carbon are poly ( dicarbon fluoride ) ( ( C2F ) n ) ; tetracarbon monofluoride ( TCMF , C4F ) . Graphite fluoride is a procursor for preparation of graphene fluoride by a liquid phase exfoliation .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon_monofluoride", "rank": 80, "score": 84028 }, { "content": "Title: 1,3,5-Trioxanetrione Content: The chemical compound 1,3,5-trioxanetrione , or 1,3,5-trioxacyclohexane-2 ,4,6 - trione is a hypothetical oxide of carbon with formula C3O6 . It can be considered a cyclic trimer of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) or as a triple ketone of 1,3,5-trioxane ( 1,3,5-trioxacyclohexane ) . Theoretical calculations indicate that the compound is unstable at room temperature ( half-life less than 8 seconds ) ; but may be stable at -196 ° C.", "qid": "2927", "docid": "1,3,5-Trioxanetrione", "rank": 81, "score": 83979 }, { "content": "Title: 1,3-Dioxetanedione Content: The chemical compound 1,3-dioxetanedione , or 1,3-dioxacyclobutane-2 ,4 - dione is a hypothetical oxide of carbon with formula C2O4 . It can be considered a cyclic dimer of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) or as a double ketone of 1,3-dioxetane ( 1,3-dioxacyclobutane ) . Theoretical calculations indicate that the compound is extremely unstable at room temperature ( half-life of less than 1.1 μs ) ; but may be stable at − 196 ° C.", "qid": "2927", "docid": "1,3-Dioxetanedione", "rank": 82, "score": 83937 }, { "content": "Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth", "rank": 83, "score": 83736 }, { "content": "Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Michael_Raupach", "rank": 84, "score": 83580 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 85, "score": 83476 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 86, "score": 83474 }, { "content": "Title: Hot-dip galvanization Content: Hot-dip galvanization is a form of galvanization . It is the process of coating iron and steel with zinc , which alloys with the surface of the base metal when immersing the metal in a bath of molten zinc at a temperature of around 840 F . When exposed to the atmosphere , the pure zinc ( Zn ) reacts with oxygen ( O2 ) to form zinc oxide ( ZnO ) , which further reacts with carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) to form zinc carbonate ( ZnCO3 ) , a usually dull grey , fairly strong material that protects the steel underneath from further corrosion in many circumstances . Galvanized steel is widely used in applications where corrosion resistance is needed without the cost of stainless steel , and is considered superior in terms of cost and life-cycle . It can be identified by the crystallization patterning on the surface ( often called a `` spangle '' ) . Galvanized steel can be welded ; however , one must exercise caution around the resulting toxic zinc fumes . Galvanized steel is suitable for high-temperature applications of up to 392 F . The use of galvanized steel at temperatures above this will result in peeling of the zinc at the inter metallic layer . Electrogalvanized sheet steel is often used in automotive manufacturing to enhance the corrosion performance of exterior body panels ; this is , however , a completely different process which tends to achieve lower coating thicknesses of zinc . Like other corrosion protection systems , galvanizing protects steel by acting as a barrier between steel and the atmosphere . However , zinc is a more electropositive ( active ) metal in comparison to steel . This is a unique characteristic for galvanizing , which means that when a galvanized coating is damaged and steel is exposed to the atmosphere , zinc can continue to protect steel through galvanic corrosion ( often within an annulus of 5 mm , above which electron transfer rate decreases ) .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Hot-dip_galvanization", "rank": 87, "score": 83431 }, { "content": "Title: Mars atmospheric entry Content: Mars atmospheric entry is the entry into the atmosphere of Mars . High velocity entry into Martian air creates a CO2-N2 plasma , as opposed to O2-N2 for Earth air . Mars entry is affected by the radiative effects of hot CO2 gas and Martian dust suspended in the air . Flight regimes for entry , descent , and landing systems include aerocapture , hypersonic , supersonic , and subsonic . Thermal protection systems and atmospheric friction have been used historically to reduce most of the kinetic energy that needs to be lost prior to landing , with parachutes and , sometimes , a final bit of retropropulsion used in the final landing . High-altitude high-velocity retropropulsion is being researched for future transport flights landing heavier cargos . For example , Mars Pathfinder entered in 1997 . About 30 minutes prior to entry , the cruise stage and entry capsule separated . When the capsule hit the atmosphere it de-accelerated from about 7.3 km/s to 0.4 km/s ( 16330 mph to 900 mph ) over three minutes . As it descended the parachute opened to slow it down further , and soon after the heat shield was released . During entry a signal was relayed back to Earth , including semaphore signals for important events .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Mars_atmospheric_entry", "rank": 88, "score": 83338 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 (disambiguation) Content: CO2 is the molecular formula for carbon dioxide . CO2 , Co2 or C02 may refer to :", "qid": "2927", "docid": "CO2_(disambiguation)", "rank": 89, "score": 83208 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_laser", "rank": 90, "score": 83175 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 91, "score": 83144 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon_cycle_re-balancing", "rank": 92, "score": 83034 }, { "content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction", "rank": 93, "score": 83026 }, { "content": "Title: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 Content: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 is a chemical process whereby carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide or hydrocarbons by the energy of incident light . This process needs to be catalyzed either homogeneously or heterogeneously in order to proceed , and current research is aimed at developing these catalysts , most of which are semiconducting materials . Semiconducting catalysts provide favourable electron transfer kinetics . Motivation for research in this area is strong due to the current attention to atmospheric carbon dioxide as the reduction of carbon dioxide would be one route for removal and sequestration . Furthermore , the reduced species may prove to be a valuable feedstock for other processes . If the incident light utilized is solar in nature then this process also potentially represents energy routes which combine renewable energy with CO2 reduction .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Photoelectrochemical_reduction_of_CO2", "rank": 94, "score": 82947 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal shift assay Content: A thermal shift assay quantifies the change in thermal denaturation temperature of a protein under varying conditions . The differing conditions that can be examined are very diverse , e.g. pH , salts , additives , drugs , drug leads , oxidation/reduction , or mutations . The binding of low molecular weight ligands can increase the thermal stability of a protein , as described by Koshland ( 1958 ) and Linderstrom-Lang and Schellman ( 1959 ) . Almost half of enzymes require a metal ion co-factor . Thermostable proteins are often more useful than their non-thermostable counterparts , e.g. DNA polymerase in the polymerase chain reaction , so protein engineering often includes adding mutations to increase thermal stability . Protein crystallisation is more successful for proteins with a higher melting point and adding buffer components that stabilise proteins improve the likelihood of protein crystals forming . If examining pH then the possible effects of the buffer molecule on thermal stability should be taken into account along with the fact that pKa of each buffer molecule changes uniquely with temperature . Additionally , any time a charged species is examined the effects of the counterion should be accounted for . Thermal stability of proteins has traditionally been investigated using biochemical assays , circular dichroism , or differential scanning calorimetry . Biochemical assays require a catalytic activity of the protein in question as well as a specific assay . Circular dichroism and differential scanning calorimetry both consume large amounts of protein and are low-throughput methods . The thermofluor assay was the first high-throughput thermal shift assay and its utility and limitations has spurred the invention of a plethora of alternate methods . Each method has its strengths and weaknesses but they all struggle with intrinsically disordered proteins without any clearly defined tertiary structure as the essence of a thermal shift assay is measuring the temperature at which a protein goes from well-defined structure to disorder .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Thermal_shift_assay", "rank": 95, "score": 82940 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon_monoxide", "rank": 96, "score": 82884 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 97, "score": 82860 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon trioxide Content: Carbon trioxide ( CO3 ) is an unstable oxide of carbon ( an oxocarbon ) . Three possible isomers of carbon trioxide , with molecular symmetry point groups Cs , D3h , and C2v , have been most studied by theoretical methods , and the C2v state has been shown to be the ground state of the molecule . Carbon trioxide should not be confused with the stable carbonate ion ( CO32 − ) . Carbon trioxide can be produced , for example , in the drift zone of a negative corona discharge by reactions between carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and the atomic oxygen ( O ) created from molecular oxygen by free electrons in the plasma . Another reported method is photolysis of ozone O3 dissolved in liquid CO2 , or in CO2/SF6 mixtures at -45 ° C , irradiated with light of 2537 Å . The formation of CO3 is inferred but it appears to decay spontaneously by the route 2CO3 → 2CO2 + O2 with a lifetime much shorter than 1 minute . Carbon trioxide can be made by blowing ozone at dry ice ( solid CO2 ) , and it has also been detected in reactions between carbon monoxide ( CO ) and molecular oxygen ( O2 ) .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbon_trioxide", "rank": 98, "score": 82800 }, { "content": "Title: Carbonation Content: In chemistry , carbonation refers to two chemical processes involving the binding of carbon dioxide to substrates . Various applications or manifestations of this reaction are listed in order of their relative scale . In biochemistry . Carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO . So important is this carbonation process that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme . The production of urea , a widely used fertilizer , involves the combination of carbon dioxide and ammonia : 2 NH3 + CO2 → ( H2N ) 2CO + H2O In inorganic chemistry , carbonation occurs widely . Metal oxides and metal hydroxides react with CO2 to give complexes of carbonate and bicarbonate . In reinforced concrete construction , the chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete is known as neutralisation . Low valent metal complexes react with CO2 to give metal carbon dioxide complexes . In organometallic chemistry , carbonation involves the insertion of CO2 into metal-carbon bonds . The topic has attracted great interest for organic synthesis and even as a means of utilizing CO2 as a feedstock .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Carbonation", "rank": 99, "score": 82739 }, { "content": "Title: Tm2 Content: TM2 , or Thermal Monitoring 2 , is a throttling control method used on LGA 775 versions of the Pentium 4 , Pentium D and Celeron processors and also on the Pentium M series of processors . TM2 reduces processor temperature by lowering the CPU clock multiplier , and thereby the processor core speed . In contrast , TM1 inserts an idle cycle into the CPU for thermal control without decreasing multipliers . TM1 and TM2 are associated with DTS/PECI -- Digital Temperature Sensor/Platform Environment Control Interface .", "qid": "2927", "docid": "Tm2", "rank": 100, "score": 82358 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 1, "score": 178762 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 2, "score": 157803 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 3, "score": 146266 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 4, "score": 138337 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 5, "score": 133120 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 6, "score": 131999 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Volcanic_winter", "rank": 7, "score": 131152 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 8, "score": 130984 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 9, "score": 129576 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Atmosphere", "rank": 10, "score": 128009 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide", "rank": 11, "score": 125191 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Carbon_cycle_re-balancing", "rank": 12, "score": 124591 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 13, "score": 124471 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 14, "score": 121004 }, { "content": "Title: Recycled fuel Content: Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Recycled_fuel", "rank": 15, "score": 120387 }, { "content": "Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Wetland_methane_emissions", "rank": 16, "score": 119909 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 17, "score": 119064 }, { "content": "Title: V.E. Zuev Institute of Atmospheric Optics Content: The V.E. Zuev Institute of Atmospheric Optics is a Russian research organisation based in Tomsk . Its purpose is to study the atmosphere . The Laboratory of Optical Signals Propagation gathers satellite data on aerosols , ozone , and Earth reflectivity over Siberia . The Laboratory of Aerosol Optics collects information on temperature , humidity , soot , and atmospheric scattering at Tomsk . The TOR Station measures gas constituents in the atmosphere , in cluding carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide , ozone , nitrogen oxides , methane and hydrogen sulfide at two locations . The Siberian lidar station can measure the temperature in the stratosphere and troposphere . Aerosol particle size is measured by using six different wavelengths for the laser . The institute was founded in 1969 by Vladimir Yevseyevich Zuev who became its director . The parent organisation was the Laboratory of Infrared Radiations of the Siberian Physical-Technical Institute of the Tomsk State University . A journal is published called Atmospheric and Oceanic Optics .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "V.E._Zuev_Institute_of_Atmospheric_Optics", "rank": 18, "score": 117263 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 19, "score": 114039 }, { "content": "Title: Geysers on Mars Content: Martian geysers (or CO2 jets) are putative sites of small gas and dust eruptions that occur in the south polar region of Mars during the spring thaw. \"Dark dune spots\" and \"spiders\" – or araneiforms – are the two most visible types of features ascribed to these eruptions. Martian geysers are distinct from geysers on Earth, which are typically associated with hydrothermal activity. These are unlike any terrestrial geological phenomenon. The reflectance (albedo), shapes and unusual spider appearance of these features have stimulated a variety of hypotheses about their origin, ranging from differences in frosting reflectance, to explanations involving biological processes. However, all current geophysical models assume some sort of jet or geyser-like activity on Mars. Their characteristics, and the process of their formation, are still a matter of debate. These features are unique to the south polar region of Mars in an area informally called the 'cryptic region', at latitudes 60° to 80° south and longitudes 150°W to 310°W; this 1 meter deep carbon dioxide (CO2) ice transition area—between the scarps of the thick polar ice layer and the permafrost—is where clusters of the apparent geyser systems are located. The seasonal frosting and defrosting of carbon dioxide ice results in the appearance of a number of features, such dark dune spots with spider-like rilles or channels below the ice, where spider-like radial channels are carved between the ground and the carbon dioxide ice, giving it an appearance of spider webs, then, pressure accumulating in their interior ejects gas and dark basaltic sand or dust, which is deposited on the ice surface and thus, forming dark dune spots. This process is rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a growth rate rather unusual in geology – especially for Mars. However, it would seem that multiple years would be required to carve the larger spider-like channels. There is no direct data on these features other than images taken in the visible and infrared spectra.", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Geysers_on_Mars", "rank": 20, "score": 113985 }, { "content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Biosequestration", "rank": 21, "score": 113727 }, { "content": "Title: Triennial Content:", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Triennial", "rank": 22, "score": 113696 }, { "content": "Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "C3_carbon_fixation", "rank": 23, "score": 113439 }, { "content": "Title: Stadial Content: Stadials and interstadials are phases dividing the Quaternary period , that last 2.6 million years . Stadial are colder periods and interstadials are warmer . Each phase has a Marine Isotope Stage ( MIS ) number , working backwards from the present , with stadial having even numbers and interstadials odd numbers . Thus the current Holocene is MIS1 and the most recent ice age is MIS2 . Stages are divided into warmer and colder intervals . MIS 5e ( the Eemian ) , the hottest of the last million years , was the oldest interstadial of MIS5 , with MIS3 and MIS1 being interstadials and MIS2 and MIS4 being colder stadials . In glacials a and c are stadials and b and d are warmer interstadials . Thus MIS 6a , 6c and 6e are stadials and 6b and 6d are interstadials . Generally , stadials endure for a thousand years or less , interstadials for less than ten thousand years , interglacials for more than ten thousand and glacials for about one hundred thousand . The Bølling Oscillation and the Allerød Oscillation , where they are not clearly distinguished in the stratigraphy , are taken together to form the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , and dated from about 14,700 to 12,700 years before the present . Greenland ice cores show 24 interstadials during the one hundred thousand years of the Wisconsin glaciation . Referred to as the Dansgaard-Oeschger events , they have been extensively studied , and in their northern European contexts are sometimes named after towns , such as the Brorup , the Odderade , the Oerel , the Glinde , the Hengelo , the Denekamp , etc. .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Stadial", "rank": 24, "score": 113143 }, { "content": "Title: Compensation point Content: The ( light ) compensation point is the amount of light intensity on the light curve where the rate of photosynthesis exactly matches the rate of respiration . At this point , the uptake of CO2 through photosynthetic pathways is exactly matched to the respiratory release of carbon dioxide , and the uptake of O2 by respiration is exactly matched to the photosynthetic release of oxygen . In assimilation terms , at compensation point , the net carbon dioxide assimilation is zero . Leaves release CO2 by photorespiration and day respiration , but CO2 is also converted into carbohydrate by photosynthesis . Assimilation is therefore the difference in the rate of these processes . At a normal partial pressure of CO2 ( 0.343 hPa in 1980 ) , there is an irradiation at which the net assimilation of CO2 is zero . For instance , in the early morning and late evenings , the compensation point may be reached as photosynthetic activity decreases and respiration increases . Therefore , the partial pressure of CO2 at the compensation point , also known as gamma , is a function of irradiation . The irradiation dependence of the compensation point is explained by the RuBP ( ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ) concentration . When the acceptor RuBP is in saturated concentration , gamma is independent of irradiation . However at low irradiation , only a small fraction of the sites on RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase enzyme ( Rubisco ) have the electron acceptor RuBP . This decreases the photosynthetic activity and therefore affects gamma . The intracellular concentration of CO2 affects the rates of photosynthesis and photo respiration . At higher carbon dioxide concentrations , the photosynthesis rate is higher , while at low CO2 concentrations , photo respiration is higher .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Compensation_point", "rank": 25, "score": 111888 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 26, "score": 111142 }, { "content": "Title: Solar radiation management Content: Solar radiation management ( SRM ) projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming . Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active , their potential low financial cost , and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects . Solar radiation management projects could , for example , be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by mitigation and greenhouse gas removal techniques . They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere , and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Solar_radiation_management", "rank": 27, "score": 110573 }, { "content": "Title: Guard cell Content: Guard cells are specialized cells in the epidermis of leaves , stems and other organs that are used to control gas exchange . They are produced in pairs with a gap between them that forms a stomatal pore . The stomatal pores are largest when water is freely available and the guard cells turgid , and closed when water availability is critically low and the guard cells become flaccid . Photosynthesis depends on the diffusion of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the air through the stomata into the mesophyll tissues . Oxygen ( O2 ) , produced as a byproduct of photosynthesis , exits the plant via the stomata . When the stomata are open , water is lost by evaporation and must be replaced via the transpiration stream , with water taken up by the roots . Plants must balance the amount of CO2 absorbed from the air with the water loss through the stomatal pores , and this is achieved by both active and passive control of guard cell turgor and stomatal pore size .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Guard_cell", "rank": 28, "score": 110058 }, { "content": "Title: Stratospheric sulfur aerosols Content: Stratospheric sulfur aerosols are sulfur-rich particles which exist in the stratosphere region of the Earth 's atmosphere . The layer of the atmosphere in which they exist is known as the Junge layer , or simply the stratospheric aerosol layer . These particles consist of a mixture of sulfuric acid and water . They are created naturally , such as by photochemical decomposition of sulfur-containing gases , e.g. carbonyl sulfide . When present in high levels , e.g. after a strong volcanic eruption such as Mount Pinatubo , they produce a cooling effect , by reflecting sunlight , and by modifying clouds as they fall out of the stratosphere . This cooling may persist for a few years before the particles fall out . An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas . The sulfate particles or sulfuric acid droplets in the atmosphere are about 0.1 to 1.0 micrometer ( a millionth of a meter ) in diameter . Sulfur aerosols are common in the troposphere as a result of pollution with sulfur dioxide from burning coal , and from natural processes . Volcanos are a major source of particles in the stratosphere as the force of the volcanic eruption propels sulfur-containing gases into the stratosphere . The relative influence of volcanoes on the Junge layer varies considerably according to the number and size of eruptions in any given time period , and also of quantities of sulfur compounds released . Only stratovolcanoes containing primarily granitic rocks are responsible for these fluxes , as basaltic rock erupted in shield volcanoes does n't result in plumes which reach the stratosphere . Creating stratospheric sulfur aerosols deliberately is a proposed geoengineering technique which offers a possible solution to some of the problems caused by global warming . However , this will not be without side effects and it has been suggested that the cure may be worse than the disease .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Stratospheric_sulfur_aerosols", "rank": 29, "score": 109353 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 30, "score": 109336 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 31, "score": 109308 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 32, "score": 108662 }, { "content": "Title: Pyrenoid Content: Pyrenoids are sub-cellular micro-compartments found in chloroplasts of many algae , and in a single group of land plants , the hornworts . Pyrenoids are associated with the operation of a carbon-concentrating mechanism ( CCM ) . Their main function is to act as centres of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) fixation , by generating and maintaining a CO2 rich environment around the photosynthetic enzyme ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase ( Rubisco ) . Pyrenoids therefore seem to have a role analogous to that of carboxysomes in cyanobacteria . Algae are restricted to aqueous environments , even in terrestrial habitats , and this has implications for their ability to access CO2 for photosynthesis . CO2 diffuses 10,000 times slower in water than in air , and is also slow to equilibrate . The result of this is that water , as a medium , is often easily depleted of CO2 and is slow to gain CO2 from the air . Finally , CO2 equilibrates with bicarbonate ( HCO3 − ) when dissolved in water , and does so on a pH-dependent basis . In sea water for example , the pH is such that dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) is mainly found in the form of HCO3 − . The net result of this is a low concentration of free CO2 that is barely sufficient for an algal Rubisco to run at a quarter of its maximum velocity , and thus , CO2 availability may sometimes represent a major limitation of algal photosynthesis .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Pyrenoid", "rank": 33, "score": 108570 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 34, "score": 108561 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 35, "score": 107721 }, { "content": "Title: TanSat Content: TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) . TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "TanSat", "rank": 36, "score": 107691 }, { "content": "Title: Troposphere Content: The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth 's atmosphere , and is also where nearly all weather takes place . It contains approximately 75 % of the atmosphere 's mass and 99 % of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols . The average depths of the troposphere are 20 km in the tropics , 17 km in the mid latitudes , and 7 km in the polar regions in winter . The lowest part of the troposphere , where friction with the Earth 's surface influences air flow , is the planetary boundary layer . This layer is typically a few hundred meters to 2 km deep depending on the landform and time of day . Atop the troposphere is the tropopause , which is the border between the troposphere and stratosphere . The tropopause is an inversion layer , where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness . The word troposphere derives from the for `` turn , turn toward , trope '' and '' - sphere '' ( as in , the Earth ) , reflecting the fact that rotational turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere 's structure and behaviour . Most of the phenomena associated with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Troposphere", "rank": 37, "score": 107369 }, { "content": "Title: Discontinuous gas exchange Content: Discontinuous gas-exchange cycles ( DGC ) , also called discontinuous ventilation or discontinuous ventilatory cycles , follow one of several patterns of arthropod gas exchange that have been documented primarily in insects ; they occur when the insect is at rest . During DGC , oxygen ( O2 ) uptake and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) release from the whole insect follow a cyclical pattern characterized by periods of little to no release of CO2 to the external environment . Discontinuous gas exchange is traditionally defined in three phases , whose names reflect the behaviour of the spiracles : the closed phase , the flutter phase , and the open phase . Until recently , insect respiration was believed to occur entirely by simple diffusion . It was believed that air entered the tracheae through the spiracles , and diffused through the tracheal system to the tracheoles , whereupon O2 was delivered to the cells . However , even at rest , insects show a wide variety of gas exchange patterns , ranging from largely diffusive continuous ventilation , to cyclic respiration , of which discontinuous gas exchange cycles are the most striking . Discontinuous gas exchange cycles have been described in over 50 insect species , most of which are large beetles ( order Coleoptera ) or butterflies or moths ( order Lepidoptera ) . As the cycles have evolved more than once within the insects , discontinuous gas exchange cycles are likely adaptive , but the mechanisms and significance of their evolution are currently under debate .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Discontinuous_gas_exchange", "rank": 38, "score": 107196 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_clathrate", "rank": 39, "score": 106444 }, { "content": "Title: Soil respiration Content: Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire . This includes respiration of plant roots , the rhizosphere , microbes and fauna . Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of CO2 . CO2 is acquired from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis . Plants use these organic compounds to build structural components or respire them to release energy . When plant respiration occurs below-ground in the roots , it adds to soil respiration . Over time , plant structural components are consumed by heterotrophs . This heterotrophic consumption releases CO2 and when this CO2 is released by below-ground organisms , it is considered soil respiration . The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors . The temperature , moisture , nutrient content and level of oxygen in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration . These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods . Other methods can be used to separate the source components , in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway ( C3/C4 ) , of the respired plant structures . Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity . This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years . Global climate change is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO2 , increasing temperature and shifting precipitation patterns . All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration . Increased nitrogen fertilization by humans also has the potential to effect rates over the entire Earth . Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO2 but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be effected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Soil_respiration", "rank": 40, "score": 106350 }, { "content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction", "rank": 41, "score": 106135 }, { "content": "Title: Triennial of Photography Content: The Triennial of Photography ( Triennale der Photographie ) is a festival of photography in and around Hamburg , Germany . Originated as an initiative of photographer and collector F. C. Gundlach , currently director of Deichtorhallen Art Center , the Triennale takes place every third year since 1999 . The 4th Triennial of Photography Hamburg took place from the 11th to the 20th of April 2008 . The 5th Triennial of Photography , Hamburg came up with numerous events at the festival tent and at five partaking cinemas from March 31 to April 6 , 2011 .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Triennial_of_Photography", "rank": 42, "score": 105234 }, { "content": "Title: Photosynthesis Content: Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms ' activities ( energy transformation ) . This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules , such as sugars , which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water -- hence the name photosynthesis , from the Greek φῶς , phōs , `` light '' , and σύνθεσις , synthesis , `` putting together '' . In most cases , oxygen is also released as a waste product . Most plants , most algae , and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis ; such organisms are called photoautotrophs . Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth 's atmosphere , and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth . Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species , the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments . In plants , these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts , which are most abundant in leaf cells , while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane . In these light-dependent reactions , some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances , such as water , producing oxygen gas . The hydrogen freed by the splitting of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that act as an immediate energy storage means : reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate ( NADPH ) and adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) , the `` energy currency '' of cells . In plants , algae and cyanobacteria , long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of reactions called the Calvin cycle ; some bacteria use different mechanisms , such as the reverse Krebs cycle , to achieve the same end . In the Calvin cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds , such as ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP ) . Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions , the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates , such as glucose . The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide , rather than water , as sources of electrons . Cyanobacteria appeared later ; the excess oxygen they produced contributed directly to the oxygenation of the Earth , which rendered the evolution of complex life possible . Today , the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts , which is about three times the current power consumption of human civilization . Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100 -- 115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Photosynthesis", "rank": 43, "score": 104867 }, { "content": "Title: Thermosphere Content: The thermosphere is the layer of the Earth 's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere . The exosphere is above that but is a minor layer of the atmosphere . Within this layer of the atmosphere , ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules , creating ions in the ionosphere . Taking its name from the Greek θερμός ( pronounced thermos ) meaning heat , the thermosphere begins about 85 km above the Earth . At these high altitudes , the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass ( see turbosphere ) . Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation . Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity , and can rise to 2000 C. Radiation causes the atmosphere particles in this layer to become electrically charged ( see ionosphere ) , enabling radio waves to be refracted and thus be received beyond the horizon . In the exosphere , beginning at 500 to above the Earth 's surface , the atmosphere turns into space , although by the criteria set for the definition of the Karman line , the thermosphere itself is part of space . The highly diluted gas in this layer can reach 2500 C during the day . Even though the temperature is so high , one would not feel warm in the thermosphere , because it is so near vacuum that there is not enough contact with the few atoms of gas to transfer much heat . A normal thermometer might be significantly below 0 C , at least at night , because the energy lost by thermal radiation would exceed the energy acquired from the atmospheric gas by direct contact . In the anacoustic zone above 160 km , the density is so low that molecular interactions are too infrequent to permit the transmission of sound . The dynamics of the thermosphere are dominated by atmospheric tides , which are driven by the very significant diurnal heating . Atmospheric waves dissipate above this level because of collisions between the neutral gas and the ionospheric plasma . The International Space Station orbits the Earth within the middle of the thermosphere , between 330 and .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Thermosphere", "rank": 44, "score": 104839 }, { "content": "Title: Vapor Content: In physics a vapor ( American ) or vapour ( British ) is a substance in the gas phase at a temperature lower than its critical temperature , which means that the vapor can be condensed to a liquid by increasing the pressure on it without reducing the temperature . A vapor is different from an aerosol . An aerosol is a suspension of tiny particles of liquid , solid , or both within a gas . For example , water has a critical temperature of 647 K , which is the highest temperature at which liquid water can exist . In the atmosphere at ordinary temperatures , therefore , gaseous water ( known as water vapor ) will condense into a liquid if its partial pressure is increased sufficiently . A vapor may co-exist with a liquid ( or a solid ) . When this is true , the two phases will be in equilibrium , and the gas-partial pressure will be equal to the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid ( or solid ) .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Vapor", "rank": 45, "score": 104637 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 46, "score": 103957 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 47, "score": 103824 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 48, "score": 103704 }, { "content": "Title: Chemosynthesis Content: In biochemistry , chemosynthesis is the biological conversion of one or more carbon-containing molecules ( usually carbon dioxide or methane ) and nutrients into organic matter using the oxidation of inorganic compounds ( e.g. hydrogen gas , hydrogen sulfide ) or methane as a source of energy , rather than sunlight , as in photosynthesis . Chemoautotrophs , organisms that obtain carbon through chemosynthesis , are phylogenetically diverse , but groups that include conspicuous or biogeochemically-important taxa include the sulfur-oxidizing gamma and epsilon proteobacteria , the aquificaeles , the methanogenic archaea and the neutrophilic iron-oxidizing bacteria . Many microorganisms in dark regions of the oceans also use chemosynthesis to produce biomass from single carbon molecules . Two categories can be distinguished . In the rare sites at which hydrogen molecules ( H2 ) are available , the energy available from the reaction between CO2 and H2 ( leading to production of methane , CH4 ) can be large enough to drive the production of biomass . Alternatively , in most oceanic environments , energy for chemosynthesis derives from reactions in which substances such as hydrogen sulfide or ammonia are oxidized . This may occur with or without the presence of oxygen . Many chemosynthetic microorganisms are consumed by other organisms in the ocean , and symbiotic associations between chemosynthesizers and respiring heterotrophs are quite common . Large populations of animals can be supported by chemosynthetic secondary production at hydrothermal vents , methane clathrates , cold seeps , whale falls , and isolated cave water . It has been hypothesized that chemosynthesis may support life below the surface of Mars , Jupiter 's moon Europa , and other planets .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Chemosynthesis", "rank": 49, "score": 103599 }, { "content": "Title: Mars atmospheric entry Content: Mars atmospheric entry is the entry into the atmosphere of Mars . High velocity entry into Martian air creates a CO2-N2 plasma , as opposed to O2-N2 for Earth air . Mars entry is affected by the radiative effects of hot CO2 gas and Martian dust suspended in the air . Flight regimes for entry , descent , and landing systems include aerocapture , hypersonic , supersonic , and subsonic . Thermal protection systems and atmospheric friction have been used historically to reduce most of the kinetic energy that needs to be lost prior to landing , with parachutes and , sometimes , a final bit of retropropulsion used in the final landing . High-altitude high-velocity retropropulsion is being researched for future transport flights landing heavier cargos . For example , Mars Pathfinder entered in 1997 . About 30 minutes prior to entry , the cruise stage and entry capsule separated . When the capsule hit the atmosphere it de-accelerated from about 7.3 km/s to 0.4 km/s ( 16330 mph to 900 mph ) over three minutes . As it descended the parachute opened to slow it down further , and soon after the heat shield was released . During entry a signal was relayed back to Earth , including semaphore signals for important events .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Mars_atmospheric_entry", "rank": 50, "score": 103557 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 51, "score": 103275 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 52, "score": 103041 }, { "content": "Title: Season Content: A season is a division of the year marked by changes in weather , ecology and hours of daylight . Seasons result from the yearly orbit of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earth 's rotational axis relative to the plane of the orbit . In temperate and polar regions , the seasons are marked by changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth 's surface , variations of which may cause animals to go into hibernation or to migrate , and plants to be dormant . During May , June , and July , the northern hemisphere is exposed to more direct sunlight because the hemisphere faces the sun . The same is true of the southern hemisphere in November , December , and January . It is the tilt of the Earth that causes the Sun to be higher in the sky during the summer months which increases the solar flux . However , due to seasonal lag , June , July , and August are the hottest months in the northern hemisphere and December , January , and February are the hottest months in the southern hemisphere . In temperate and subpolar regions , four calendar-based seasons are generally recognized : spring , autumn or fall , and winter . Ecologists often use a six-season model for temperate climate regions : prevernal , vernal , estival , serotinal , autumnal , and hibernal . Many tropical regions have two seasons : the rainy , wet , or monsoon season and the dry season . Some have a third cool , mild , or harmattan season . Seasons often held special significance for agrarian societies , whose lives revolved around planting and harvest times , and the change of seasons was often attended by ritual . In some parts of the world , some other `` seasons '' capture the timing of important ecological events such as hurricane season , tornado season , and wildfire season . The most historically important of these are the three seasons -- flood , growth , and low water -- which were previously defined by the former annual flooding of the Nile in Egypt .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Season", "rank": 53, "score": 102887 }, { "content": "Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Modified_atmosphere", "rank": 54, "score": 102668 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 55, "score": 102317 }, { "content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson", "rank": 56, "score": 102073 }, { "content": "Title: Photorespiration Content: Photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) refers to a process in plant metabolism where the enzyme RuBisCO oxygenates RuBP , causing some of the energy produced by photosynthesis to be wasted . The desired reaction is the addition of carbon dioxide to RuBP ( carboxylation ) , a key step in the Calvin -- Benson cycle , however approximately 25 % of reactions by RuBisCO instead add oxygen to RuBP ( oxygenation ) , creating a product that can not be used within the Calvin -- Benson cycle . This process reduces the efficiency of photosynthesis , potentially reducing photosynthetic output by 25 % in plants . Photorespiration involves a complex network of enzyme reactions that exchange metabolites between chloroplasts , leaf peroxisomes and mitochondria . The oxygenation reaction of RuBisCO is a wasteful process because 3-phosphoglycerate is created at a reduced rate and higher metabolic cost compared with RuBP carboxylase activity . While photorespiratory carbon cycling results in the formation of G3P eventually , there is still a net loss of carbon ( around 25 % of carbon fixed by photosynthesis is re-released as ) and nitrogen , as ammonia . Ammonia must be detoxified at a substantial cost to the cell . Photorespiration also incurs a direct cost of one ATP and one NAD ( P ) H. While it is common to refer to the entire process as photorespiration , technically the term refers only to the metabolic network which acts to rescue the products of the oxygenation reaction ( phosphoglycolate ) .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Photorespiration", "rank": 57, "score": 101740 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Pluto Content: The atmosphere of Pluto is the tenuous layer of gases surrounding Pluto . It consists mainly of nitrogen ( N2 ) , with minor amounts of methane ( CH4 ) and carbon monoxide ( CO ) , all of which are vaporized from their ices on Pluto 's surface . It contains layered haze , probably consisting of heavier compounds which form from these gases due to high-energy radiation . The atmosphere of Pluto is notable for its strong and not completely clear seasonal changes caused by peculiarities of the orbital and axial rotation of Pluto . Surface pressure of the atmosphere of Pluto , measured by New Horizons in 2015 , is about , roughly 100,000 times less than Earth 's atmospheric pressure . Temperature on the surface is 40 to , but it quickly grows with altitude due to methane-generated greenhouse effect . Near the altitude it reaches 110 K , and then slowly decreases . Pluto is the only trans-Neptunian object with a known atmosphere . Its closest analog is the atmosphere of Triton , although in some aspects it resembles even the atmosphere of Mars . The atmosphere of Pluto has been studied since the 1980s by way of earth-based observation of occultations of stars by Pluto and spectroscopy . In 2015 , it was studied from a close distance by the spacecraft New Horizons .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Pluto", "rank": 58, "score": 101546 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 59, "score": 101487 }, { "content": "Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Climate_footprint", "rank": 60, "score": 101368 }, { "content": "Title: Martian polar ice caps Content: The planet Mars has two permanent polar ice caps . During a pole 's winter , it lies in continuous darkness , chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25 -- 30 % of the atmosphere into slabs of CO2 ice ( dry ice ) . When the poles are again exposed to sunlight , the frozen CO2 sublimes , creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h . These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor , giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds . Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004 . The caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice . Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only , while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about 8 m thick . The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 km during the northern Mars summer , and contains about 1.6 million cubic km of ice , which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 km thick . ( This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic km ( km3 ) for the Greenland ice sheet . ) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km . The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km . Both polar caps show spiral troughs , which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of roughly perpendicular katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect . The seasonal frosting of some areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 m thick slabs of dry ice above the ground . With the arrival of spring , sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO2 builds up under a slab , elevating and ultimately rupturing it . This leads to geyser-like eruptions of CO2 gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust . This process is rapid , observed happening in the space of a few days , weeks or months , a rate of change rather unusual in geology -- especially for Mars . The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spider-like pattern of radial channels under the ice .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Martian_polar_ice_caps", "rank": 61, "score": 101204 }, { "content": "Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Landfill_gas", "rank": 62, "score": 100801 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 63, "score": 100619 }, { "content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Mesopause", "rank": 64, "score": 100521 }, { "content": "Title: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 Content: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 is a chemical process whereby carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide or hydrocarbons by the energy of incident light . This process needs to be catalyzed either homogeneously or heterogeneously in order to proceed , and current research is aimed at developing these catalysts , most of which are semiconducting materials . Semiconducting catalysts provide favourable electron transfer kinetics . Motivation for research in this area is strong due to the current attention to atmospheric carbon dioxide as the reduction of carbon dioxide would be one route for removal and sequestration . Furthermore , the reduced species may prove to be a valuable feedstock for other processes . If the incident light utilized is solar in nature then this process also potentially represents energy routes which combine renewable energy with CO2 reduction .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Photoelectrochemical_reduction_of_CO2", "rank": 65, "score": 100521 }, { "content": "Title: Triennial cycle Content: The Triennial cycle of Torah reading may refer either a ) to the historical practice in ancient Israel by which the entire Torah was read in serial fashion over a three-year period , or b ) to the practice adopted by many Reform , Conservative , Reconstructionist and Renewal congregations starting in the 19th and 20th Century , in which the traditional weekly Torah portions were divided into thirds , and in which one third of each weekly `` parashah '' of the annual system is read during the appropriate week of the calendar . There are 54 parashot in the annual cycle , and 141 , 154 , or 167 parashot in the triennial cycle as practiced in ancient Israel , as evidenced by scriptural references and fragments of recovered text . By the Middle Ages , the annual reading cycle was predominant , although the triennial cycle was still extant at the time , as noted by Jewish figures of the period , such as Benjamin of Tudela and Maimonides . Dating from Maimonides ' codification of the parashot in his work Mishneh Torah in the 12th Century CE through the 19th Century , the majority of Jewish communities adhered to the annual cycle . In the 19th and 20th Centuries , many synagogues in the Reform , Conservative , Reconstructionist and Renewal Jewish movements adopted a triennial system in order to shorten the weekly services and allow additional time for sermons , study , or discussion .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Triennial_cycle", "rank": 66, "score": 100414 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon suboxide Content: Carbon suboxide , or tricarbon dioxide , is an oxide of carbon with chemical formula C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O . Its four cumulative double bonds make it a cumulene . It is one of the stable members of the series of linear oxocarbons O = Cn =O , which also includes carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and pentacarbon dioxide ( C5O2 ) . Although if carefully purified it can exist at room temperature in the dark without decomposing , it will polymerize under certain conditions . The substance was discovered in 1873 by Benjamin Brodie by subjecting carbon monoxide to an electric current . He claimed that the product was part of a series of `` oxycarbons '' with formulas Cx +1 Ox , namely C , C2O , C3O2 , C4O3 , C5O4 , ... , and to have identified the last two ; however only C3O2 is known . In 1891 Marcellin Berthelot observed that heating pure carbon monoxide at about 550 ° C created small amounts of carbon dioxide but no trace of carbon , and assumed that a carbon-rich oxide was created instead , which he named `` sub-oxide '' . He assumed it was the same product obtained by electric discharge and proposed the formula C2O . Otto Diels later stated that the more organic names dicarbonylmethane and dioxallene were also correct . It is commonly described as an oily liquid or gas at room temperature with an extremely noxious odor .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Carbon_suboxide", "rank": 67, "score": 100297 }, { "content": "Title: Thomas D. Sharkey (plant biochemist) Content: Thomas D. Sharkey is a plant biochemist who studies gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere . His research has covered ( 1 ) carbon metabolism of photosynthesis from carbon dioxide uptake to carbon export from the Calvin-Benson Cycle , ( 2 ) isoprene emission from plants , and ( 3 ) abiotic stress tolerance . Four guiding questions are : ( 1 ) how leaf photosynthesis affects plant yield , ( 2 ) does some carbon fixation follow an oxidative pathway that reduces sugar output but stabilizes photosynthesis , ( 3 ) why plants make isoprene , and ( 4 ) how plants cope with high temperature .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Thomas_D._Sharkey_(plant_biochemist)", "rank": 68, "score": 100296 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 69, "score": 100271 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Triton Content: The atmosphere of Triton is the layer of gases surrounding Triton . The surface pressure is only 14 microbars , 1/70 ,000 th of the surface pressure on Earth , and it is composed of nitrogen , similar to those of Titan and Earth . It extends 800 kilometers above its surface . Recent observations have shown an increase in temperature .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Triton", "rank": 70, "score": 100068 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 71, "score": 99965 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 72, "score": 99717 }, { "content": "Title: Water vapor Content: Water vapor , water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water . It is one state of water within the hydrosphere . Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice . Unlike other forms of water , water vapor is invisible . Under typical atmospheric conditions , water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation . It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds . Being a component of Earth 's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle , it is particularly abundant in Earth 's atmosphere where it is also a potent greenhouse gas along with other gases such as carbon dioxide and methane . Use of water vapor , as steam , has been important to humans for cooking and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution . Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent , present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet in the Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural satellites , comets and even large asteroids . Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems . Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Water_vapor", "rank": 73, "score": 99086 }, { "content": "Title: Hypolimnion Content: The hypolimnion or under lake is the dense , bottom layer of water in a thermally-stratified lake . It is the layer that lies below the thermocline . Typically the hypolimnion is the coldest layer of a lake in summer , and the warmest layer during winter . Being at depth , it is isolated from surface wind-mixing during summer , and usually receives insufficient irradiance ( light ) for photosynthesis to occur . In deep , temperate lakes , the bottom-most waters of the hypolimnion are typically close to 4 ° C throughout the year . The hypolimnion may be much warmer in lakes at warmer latitudes .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Hypolimnion", "rank": 74, "score": 98972 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 75, "score": 98924 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 76, "score": 98897 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 77, "score": 98855 }, { "content": "Title: F2 propagation Content: The E layer of the ionosphere is not the only layer that can reflect VHF television signals . Less frequently , the higher F2 layer can also propagate VHF signals several thousand miles beyond their intended area of reception . Solar activity has a cycle of approximately 11 years . During this period , sunspot activity rises to a peak and gradually falls again to a low level . When sunspot activity increases , the reflecting capabilities of the F1 layer surrounding earth enable high frequency short-wave communications . The highest-reflecting layer , the F2 layer , which is approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) above earth , receives ultraviolet radiation from the sun , causing ionisation of the gases within this layer . During the daytime when sunspot activity is at a maximum , the F2 layer can become intensely ionized due to radiation from the sun . When solar activity is sufficiently high , the MUF ( Maximum Usable Frequency ) rises , hence the ionisation density is sufficient to reflect signals well into the 30 -- 50 MHz VHF spectrum . Since the MUF progressively increases , F2 reception on lower frequencies can indicate potential low band 45-55 MHz VHF TV as well as VHF amateur radio paths . A rising MUF will initially affect the 27 MHz CB band , and the amateur 28 MHz 10 meters band before reaching 45-55 MHz TV and the 6 Meter amateur band . The F2 MUF generally increases at a slower rate compared to the Es MUF . Since the height of the F2 layer is some 200 miles ( 320 km ) , it follows that single-hop F2 signals will be received at thousands rather than hundreds of miles . A single-hop F2 signal will usually be around 2,000 miles ( 3,200 km ) minimum . A maximum F2 single-hop can reach up to approximately 3,000 miles ( 4,800 km ) . Multi-hop F2 propagation has enabled Band 1 VHF reception to over 11,000 miles ( 17,700 km ) . Since F2 reception is directly related to radiation from the Sun on both a daily basis and in relation to the sunspot cycle , it follows that for optimum reception the centre of the signal path will be roughly at midday . The F2 layer tends to predominantly propagate signals below 40 MHz , which includes the 27 MHz CB band , and 28 MHz 10-metre Amateur radio band . Less frequently , television and amateur signals in the 45 -- 55 MHz VHF band are also propagated over considerable distances . In North America , F2 is most likely to only affect VHF TV channel 2 , in Europe and middle east channel E2 and E3 ( and the now deprecated channel itA ) and in eastern Europe channel R1 . Television pictures propagated via F2 tend to suffer from characteristic ghosting and smearing . Picture degradation and signal strength attenuation increases with each subsequent F2 hop .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "F2_propagation", "rank": 78, "score": 98745 }, { "content": "Title: Geological history of oxygen Content: Before photosynthesis evolved , Earth 's atmosphere had no free oxygen ( O2 ) . Photosynthetic prokaryotic organisms that produced O2 as a waste product lived long before the first build-up of free oxygen in the atmosphere , perhaps as early as 3.5 billion years ago . The oxygen they produced would have been rapidly removed from the atmosphere by weathering of reducing minerals , most notably iron . This `` mass rusting '' led to the deposition of iron oxide on the ocean floor , forming banded iron formations . Oxygen only began to persist in the atmosphere in small quantities about 50 million years before the start of the Great Oxygenation Event . This mass oxygenation of the atmosphere resulted in rapid buildup of free oxygen . At current rates of primary production , today 's concentration of oxygen could be produced by photosynthetic organisms in 2,000 years . In the absence of plants , the rate of oxygen production by photosynthesis was slower in the Precambrian , and the concentrations of O2 attained were less than 10 % of today 's and probably fluctuated greatly ; oxygen may even have disappeared from the atmosphere again around 1.9 billion years ago . These fluctuations in oxygen concentration had little direct effect on life , with mass extinctions not observed until the appearance of complex life around the start of the Cambrian period , . The presence of provided life with new opportunities . Aerobic metabolism is more efficient than anaerobic pathways , and the presence of oxygen undoubtedly created new possibilities for life to explore . Since the start of the Cambrian period , atmospheric oxygen concentrations have fluctuated between 15 % and 35 % of atmospheric volume . The maximum of 35 % was reached towards the end of the Carboniferous period ( about 300 million years ago ) , a peak which may have contributed to the large size of insects and amphibians at that time . Whilst human activities , such as the burning of fossil fuels , affect relative carbon dioxide concentrations , their effect on the much larger concentration of oxygen is less significant .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Geological_history_of_oxygen", "rank": 79, "score": 98461 }, { "content": "Title: Carbonate–silicate cycle Content: The carbonate -- silicate geochemical cycle describes the transformation of silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation at Earth 's surface and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism . It plays a large part in the carbon cycle , since the equilibrium point of the carbonate-silicate cycle dictates the pace of carbon release from the lithosphere . The carbonate-silicate cycle involves several chemical reactions that occur in different environments . In the atmosphere , gaseous carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) dissolves in rainwater , forming natural carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This weak acid weathers silicate rocks on continents , slowly dissolving the rock and releasing aqueous minerals through the chemical reaction CaSiO3 ( s ) ( wollastonite ) + 2CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) → Ca + 2HCO ( aq ) ( bicarbonate ) + SiO2 ( aq ) ( dissolved silica ) . These dissolved minerals are eventually carried by water to the ocean , where they are used by living organisms such as foraminifera , radiolarians , coccolithopores , and diatoms to create shells of CaCO3 ( calcite ) or SiO2 ( opal ) through the reactions Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) ( for calcite precipitation ) and SiO2 ( aq ) → SiO2 ( s ) ( for opal precipitation ) . When these organisms die , many shells are remineralized but some shells fall all the way to the sea floor and are buried . The cycle is completed when the sea floor is subducted and carbonate minerals recombine with silicate minerals under temperatures above 300 ° C to reform calcium silicates and release gaseous CO2 through volcanism ( CaCO3 ( s ) + SiO2 ( s ) → CaSiO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) ) . The carbonate-silicate cycle impacts the global carbon cycle , as carbon dioxide is removed from the Earth 's surface through the burial of weathered minerals in deep ocean sediments and returned to the atmosphere through metamorphism and volcanism . However , this process is far from being a closed loop . In Earth history generally the formation of carbonates significantly outpaces the formation of silicates , effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Because carbon dioxide is a potent greenhouse gas , the carbonate-silicate cycle is suspected to initiate ice ages by creating a negative feedback on the global temperature with a typical time scale of a few million years that is capable of countering water vapor and carbon dioxide short-term positive feedback on global temperature . The carbonate-silicate cycle equilibrium point is shifted on Venus due to surface temperatures above 300 ° C , which favor the formation of calcium silicates over weathering . Thus , Venus has a high-density carbon-dioxide atmosphere .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Carbonate–silicate_cycle", "rank": 80, "score": 98331 }, { "content": "Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Paleoatmosphere", "rank": 81, "score": 98302 }, { "content": "Title: Stroma (fluid) Content: Stroma , in botany , refers to the colorless fluid surrounding the grana within the chloroplast . Within the stroma are grana , stacks of thylakoids , the sub-organelles , the daughter cells , where photosynthesis is commenced before the chemical changes are completed in the stroma . Photosynthesis occurs in two stages . In the first stage , light-dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH . During the second stage , the light-independent reactions use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide . The series of biochemical redox reactions which take place in the stroma are collectively called the Calvin cycle or light-independent reactions . There are three phases : carbon fixation , reduction reactions , and ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate ( RuBP ) regeneration . The stroma is also the location of chloroplast DNA and chloroplast ribosomes , and thus also the location of molecular processes including chloroplast DNA replication , and transcription/translation of some chloroplast proteins .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Stroma_(fluid)", "rank": 82, "score": 98232 }, { "content": "Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate", "rank": 83, "score": 98061 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 84, "score": 97962 }, { "content": "Title: Andrew Himes Content: Andrew Himes ( born 1950 ) is director of network orchestration for Carbon Trifecta International , an initiative to capture gigatons of CO2 before ( and after ) it enters the atmosphere , using new technology designed to turn carbon-based businesses into allies by processing the CO2 into valuable graphene , and then accelerating market demand for graphene via 3D printing . Himes was the founding executive director of the Charter for Compassion , launched in 2008 by TED.com and Karen Armstrong , with the mission of supporting the emergence of a global compassion movement . He is the author of The Sword of the Lord : The Roots of Fundamentalism in an American Family . Himes ' grandfather was John R. Rice , dean of American fundamentalists for decades until his death in 1980 , and mentor to many younger Baptist preachers including Billy Graham and Jerry Falwell , as well as founding editor of The Sword of the Lord newspaper . Himes ' great-grandfather , Will Rice , was a preacher , a Texas State senator , and a leading member of the Ku Klux Klan in Texas during the 1920s . In 1989 , Himes was founding editor of MacTech , a journal of Macintosh software development . In 1992 , he was founding editor of the Microsoft Developer Network , and then led the first web development project in the history of the company , a project dubbed the MSDN OffRamp , aimed at making articles , resources , and technical information available on the Internet to an audience of software developers . Beginning in 1994 Himes managed Microsoft 's platform web team producing the sites for all of Microsoft 's operating systems , browsers , development tools , and technologies . After leaving Microsoft , he founded Project Alchemy , a non-profit company providing technology assistance , training , consulting , database and web solutions to hundreds of grassroots organizations working for social justice in the Pacific Northwest . Himes was co-founder in 2003 of the international movement , Poets Against the War , and produced the 2005 documentary Voices in Wartime an exploration of the trauma of war through the lens of poetry . In 2004 , Himes founded Voices Education Project , a web site dedicated to teaching peace and compassion , now the education program of the Charter for Compassion . In 2008 , Himes was a member of the organizing committee for the Seeds of Compassion event in Seattle , WA .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Andrew_Himes", "rank": 85, "score": 97816 }, { "content": "Title: 1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane Content: Trichlorotrifluoroethane , also called 1,1,2-Trichloro-1 ,2,2 - trifluoroethane or CFC-113 is a chlorofluorocarbon . It has the formula Cl2FC-CClF2 . This colorless gas is a versatile solvent . It has attracted much attention for its role in the depletion of stratospheric ozone . The amount of CFC-113 in the atmosphere has remained at about 80 parts per trillion , since the early 1990s . It is isomeric with 1,1,1-Trichloro-2 ,2,2 - trifluoroethane , known as CFC-113a , which has the structural formula CF3-CCl3 . The Montreal Protocol in 1987 called for the phase out of all CFC 's , including CFC-113 by 2010 .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane", "rank": 86, "score": 97809 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting", "rank": 87, "score": 97761 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal low Content: Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Thermal_low", "rank": 88, "score": 97663 }, { "content": "Title: Extraterrestrial atmosphere Content: The study of extraterrestrial atmospheres is an active field of research , both as an aspect of astronomy and to gain insight into Earth 's atmosphere . In addition to Earth , many of the other astronomical objects in the Solar System have atmospheres . These include all the gas giants , as well as Mars , Venus , and Pluto . Several moons and other bodies also have atmospheres , as do comets and the Sun . There is evidence that extrasolar planets can have an atmosphere . Comparisons of these atmospheres to one another and to Earth 's atmosphere broaden our basic understanding of atmospheric processes such as the greenhouse effect , aerosol and cloud physics , and atmospheric chemistry and dynamics .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Extraterrestrial_atmosphere", "rank": 89, "score": 97636 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 90, "score": 97027 }, { "content": "Title: Decarboxylation Content: Decarboxylation is a chemical reaction that removes a carboxyl group and releases carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Usually , decarboxylation refers to a reaction of carboxylic acids , removing a carbon atom from a carbon chain . The reverse process , which is the first chemical step in photosynthesis , is called carboxylation , the addition of CO2 to a compound . Enzymes that catalyze decarboxylations are called decarboxylases or , the more formal term , carboxy-lyases ( EC number 4.1.1 ) .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Decarboxylation", "rank": 91, "score": 96933 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Mars Content: The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km . The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity . The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter . On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost . On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars . On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Mars", "rank": 92, "score": 96804 }, { "content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Climate_sensitivity", "rank": 93, "score": 96581 }, { "content": "Title: Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility Content: The Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility ( ZOTTO ) is a climatic research station in the Siberian taiga in the proximity of Zotino , Russia , established and operated by the Max Planck Society and the Sukachev Institute of Forest , it serves as a long-term observing platform to be operated for at least 30 years . Far from human influences , researchers aim to determine how the concentration of greenhouse gases , aerosols , and the rising temperatures of the terrestrial atmosphere affect each other mutually . The heart of the station is a 302 m tower on which precision instruments measure the concentration of carbon dioxide , methane and other greenhouse gases . The measurement data are processed directly in the station at the foot of the tower and then transferred to the Institute of Forest , in Krasnoyarsk , Russia , as well as to the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry in Jena , Germany . The station has been operational since September 2006 . It extended the project Terrestrial Carbon Observing System and was funded by the 5th framework programme of the European Union , uniting 8 European and 4 Russian partners . A main conclusion of the project is that Siberian forests constitute a substantially smaller carbon-sink than so far assumed .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Zotino_Tall_Tower_Observation_Facility", "rank": 94, "score": 96398 }, { "content": "Title: Light-independent reactions Content: The light-independent reactions , or dark reactions , of photosynthesis are chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose . These reactions occur in the stroma , the fluid-filled area of a chloroplast outside of the thylakoid membranes . These reactions take the products ( ATP and NADPH ) of light-dependent reactions and perform further chemical processes on them . There are three phases to the light-independent reactions , collectively called the Calvin cycle : carbon fixation , reduction reactions , and ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate ( RuBP ) regeneration . This process occurs only when light is available . Plants do not carry out the Calvin cycle during nighttime . They instead release sucrose into the phloem from their starch reserves . This process happens when light is available independent of the kind of photosynthesis ( C3 carbon fixation , C4 carbon fixation , and Crassulacean acid metabolism ) ; CAM plants store malic acid in their vacuoles every night and release it by day in order to make this process work.They are also known as dark reactions .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Light-independent_reactions", "rank": 95, "score": 96320 }, { "content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "qid": "2928", "docid": "James_Hansen", "rank": 96, "score": 96113 }, { "content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide", "rank": 97, "score": 96093 }, { "content": "Title: Pneumatocyst Content: In phycology , a pneumatocyst is a floating structure that contains gas found on brown seaweed . A seaweed 's thallus may have more than one . They provide buoyancy to lift the blades toward the surface , allowing them to receive more sunlight for photosynthesis . The proportion of gases in the pneumatocysts varies depending on the physiological status of the alga and the partial pressure of gases in the surrounding air or water . The pneumatocyst can hold O2 , CO2 , N2 , and CO. .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Pneumatocyst", "rank": 98, "score": 95846 }, { "content": "Title: Pacific decadal oscillation Content: The Pacific Decadal Oscillation ( PDO ) is a robust , recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin . The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean , north of 20 ° N. Over the past century , the amplitude of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales ( meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades ) . There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity ( meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters within the region ) of the oscillation occurring around 1925 , 1947 , and 1977 ; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in salmon production regimes in the North Pacific Ocean . This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from Alaska to California . During a `` warm '' , or `` positive '' , phase , the west Pacific becomes cooler and part of the eastern ocean warms ; during a `` cool '' or `` negative '' phase , the opposite pattern occurs . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation was named by Steven R. Hare , who noticed it while studying salmon production pattern results in 1997 . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation index is the leading empirical orthogonal function ( EOF ) of monthly sea surface temperature anomalies ( SST-A ) over the North Pacific ( poleward of 20 ° N ) after the global average sea surface temperature has been removed . This PDO index is the standardized principal component time series . A PDO ` signal ' has been reconstructed to 1661 through tree-ring chronologies in the Baja California area .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Pacific_decadal_oscillation", "rank": 99, "score": 95724 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .", "qid": "2928", "docid": "Environmental_issue", "rank": 100, "score": 95332 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 1, "score": 176957 }, { "content": "Title: Expanding Earth Content: The expanding Earth or growing Earth hypothesis asserts that the position and relative movement of continents is at least partially due to the volume of Earth increasing . Conversely , geophysical global cooling was the hypothesis that various features could be explained by Earth contracting . Although it was suggested historically , since the recognition of plate tectonics in the 1970s , scientific consensus has rejected any significant expansion or contraction of Earth .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Expanding_Earth", "rank": 2, "score": 145433 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 3, "score": 142317 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents", "rank": 4, "score": 138592 }, { "content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason", "rank": 5, "score": 136842 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 6, "score": 128426 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 7, "score": 128171 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 8, "score": 127315 }, { "content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Leipzig_Declaration", "rank": 9, "score": 127208 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Global_warming_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 10, "score": 125577 }, { "content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Iris_hypothesis", "rank": 11, "score": 120802 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy", "rank": 12, "score": 117528 }, { "content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change", "rank": 13, "score": 117200 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Global_cooling_(disambiguation)", "rank": 14, "score": 114888 }, { "content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)", "rank": 15, "score": 113639 }, { "content": "Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming", "rank": 16, "score": 112911 }, { "content": "Title: Everything's Cool (film) Content: Everything 's Cool is a 2007 documentary film that examines the divide between scientists and the general populace on the topic of global warming . Director Dan Gold said of the motivation for the film that `` I 'm optimistic that finally the message that this is real , that human beings are the cause of the most recent warming trend , and that it 's an important issue , that message is actually reaching America . On the other hand ... if that message was fully understood , we would be moving a lot faster to slow this down and to reverse this course . '' The documentary was shown at the Sundance film festival in January 2007 and at the San Francisco International Film Festival in May 2007 . The directors also took Blue Vinyl , a film about plastic pollution , to Sundance in 2002 . It was shown on CBC in Canada as part of the Passionate Eye series . The New York Times called it `` a breezy polemic about the politics of global warming ... -LSB- that -RSB- adopts a cheerful comic tone to avoid scaring audiences . '' The LA Times said that `` With wit and passion , Gold and Helfand marshal a plethora of data and developments yet never lose their narrative thread . '' . The New York Sun was less favourable , calling it `` the best movie I 've ever seen about global warming for kids in junior high school , but it 's the most annoying movie about global warming I 've ever seen for adults . ''", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Everything's_Cool_(film)", "rank": 17, "score": 112395 }, { "content": "Title: Geophysical global cooling Content: Before the concept of plate tectonics , global cooling was a geophysical theory by James Dwight Dana , also referred to as the contracting earth theory . It suggested that the Earth had been in a molten state , and features such as mountains formed as it cooled and shrank . As the interior of the Earth cooled and shrank , the rigid crust would have to shrink and crumple . The crumpling could produce features such as mountain ranges .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Geophysical_global_cooling", "rank": 18, "score": 112021 }, { "content": "Title: World Scientists' Warning to Humanity Content: In late 1992 , the late Henry W. Kendall , a former chair of the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) board of directors , wrote `` World Scientists ' Warning to Humanity '' , which begins : `` Human beings and the natural world are on a collision course . '' A majority of the Nobel Prize laureates in the sciences signed the document ; about 1,700 of the world 's leading scientists appended their signature . It is sometimes offered in opposition to the Heidelberg Appeal -- also signed by numerous scientists and Nobel laureates earlier in 1992 -- which begins by criticizing `` an irrational ideology which is opposed to scientific and industrial progress , and impedes economic and social development . '' This document is often cited by those who oppose theories relating to climate change . However , the Heidelberg Appeal offers no specific recommendations and is not an indictment of environmental science : `` We fully subscribe to the objectives of a scientific ecology for a universe whose resources must be taken stock of , monitored and preserved . But we herewith demand that this stock-taking , monitoring and preservation be founded on scientific criteria and not on irrational pre-conceptions . '' In contrast , the UCS-led petition contains specific recommendations : `` We must , for example , move away from fossil fuels to more benign , inexhaustible energy sources to cut greenhouse gas emissions and the pollution of our air and water . ... We must stabilize population . ''", "qid": "2935", "docid": "World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity", "rank": 19, "score": 111730 }, { "content": "Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle", "rank": 20, "score": 109697 }, { "content": "Title: Merchants of Doubt Content: Merchants of Doubt : How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming is a 2010 non-fiction book by American historians of science Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway . It identifies parallels between the global warming controversy and earlier controversies over tobacco smoking , acid rain , DDT , and the hole in the ozone layer . Oreskes and Conway write that in each case `` keeping the controversy alive '' by spreading doubt and confusion after a scientific consensus had been reached , was the basic strategy of those opposing action . In particular , they say that Fred Seitz , Fred Singer , and a few other contrarian scientists joined forces with conservative think tanks and private corporations to challenge the scientific consensus on many contemporary issues . The George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer , two of the subjects , have been critical of the book . Other reviewers have been more favorable . One reviewer said that Merchants of Doubt is exhaustively researched and documented , and may be one of the most important books of 2010 . Another reviewer saw the book as his choice for best science book of the year . It was made into a film , Merchants of Doubt , directed by Robert Kenner , released in 2014 .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Merchants_of_Doubt", "rank": 21, "score": 105917 }, { "content": "Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Bjørn_Lomborg", "rank": 22, "score": 102638 }, { "content": "Title: Lucia Liljegren Content: Lucia Liljegren is an American mechanical engineer who has worked at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory ( on projects related to remediation and storage of radioactive waste ) and as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at Iowa State University . She is best known ( as Lucia ) for her global warming/climate change blog The Blackboard ( Where Climate Talk Gets Hot ! ) , online since 2007 . Professor Judith Curry , a climatologist at Georgia Tech , calls Lucia `` probably the least controversial person in the climate blogosphere , because of her cheerfulness and sense of humor , honesty , and open mindedness . '' In the climate change debate , Lucia classifies herself as a `` lukewarmer '' : a person who recognizes global warming , but doubts the severity of the problem , and the certainty of climate science predictions . The Blackboard was one of the first sites to post some of the CRU emails leaked in the 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Lucia_Liljegren", "rank": 23, "score": 101920 }, { "content": "Title: Robert Balling Content: Robert C. Balling , Jr. is a professor of geography at Arizona State University , and the former director of its Office of Climatology . His research interests include climatology , global climate change , and geographic information systems . Balling has declared himself one of the scientists who oppose the consensus on global warming , arguing in a 2009 book that anthropogenic global warming `` is indeed real , but relatively modest '' , and maintaining that there is a publication bias in the scientific literature .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Robert_Balling", "rank": 24, "score": 101658 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 25, "score": 101441 }, { "content": "Title: Global Cool Content: Global Cool is a green living campaign run by the Global Cool Foundation , a registered climate change charity in the United Kingdom . As well as running the Global Cool lifestyle magazine website , Global Cool Foundation also works with corporate partners and the UK Government to promote sustainability to a mainstream audience .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Global_Cool", "rank": 26, "score": 99914 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 27, "score": 98624 }, { "content": "Title: ANDRILL Content: ANDRILL ( ANtarctic DRILLing Project ) is a scientific drilling project in Antarctica gathering information about past periods of global warming and cooling . The project involves scientists from Germany , Italy , New Zealand , and the United States . At two sites in 2006 and 2007 , ANDRILL team members drilled through ice , seawater , sediment and rock to a depth over more than 1,200 m and recovered a virtually continuous core record from the present to nearly 20 million years ago . The project is based at McMurdo Station in Antarctica . In studying the cores , ANDRILL scientists from various disciplines are gathering detailed information about past periods of global warming and cooling . A major goal of the project is to significantly improve the understanding of Antarctica 's impact on the world 's oceans currents and the atmosphere by reconstructing the behavior of Antarctic sea-ice , ice-shelves , glaciers and sea currents over tens of millions of years . Initial results imply rapid changes and dramatically different climates at various times on the southernmost continent.Quirin Scheirmeier , `` Sediment cores reveal Antarctica 's warmer past , '' Nature News , April 24 , 2008 . The $ 30 million project has achieved its operational goal of retrieving a continuous core record of the last 17 million years , filling crucial gaps left by previous drilling projects . Making use of knowledge gained through prior Antarctic drilling projects , ANDRILL employed novel techniques to reach record depths at its two drilling sites . Among the innovations deployed were a hot-water drilling system that allowed for easier ice-boring and a flexible drill pipe that could accommodate tidal oscillations and strong currents . On December 16 , 2006 , ANDRILL broke the previous record of 999.1 m set in 2000 by the Ocean Drilling Program 's drill ship , the Joides Resolution . The Antarctic-record 1285 m of core ANDRILL went on to recover represents geologic time to about 13 million years ago . In 2007 , drilling at the Southern McMurdo Sound , ANDRILL scientists recovered another 1138 meters ( 3733.6 ft ) of core . One goal in 2006 was to look at a period of around 3 to 5 million years ago in the Pliocene , which scientists know to be warmer . The team 's sedimentologists identified more than 60 cycles in which ice sheets or glaciers advanced and retreated across McMurdo Sound .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "ANDRILL", "rank": 28, "score": 98261 }, { "content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "North_Report", "rank": 29, "score": 98258 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture", "rank": 30, "score": 97595 }, { "content": "Title: Doomsday Clock Content: The Doomsday Clock is a symbol which represents the likelihood of a human-caused global catastrophe . Maintained since 1947 by the members of The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Science and Security Board , the Clock represents an analogy for the threat of global nuclear war . Since 2007 , it has also reflected climate change and new developments in the life sciences and technology that could inflict irrevocable harm to humanity . The Clock represents the hypothetical global catastrophe as `` midnight '' and The Bulletins opinion on how close the world is to a global catastrophe as a number of `` minutes '' to midnight . Its original setting in 1947 was seven minutes to midnight . It has been set backward and forward 22 times since then , the smallest ever number of minutes to midnight being two ( in 1953 ) and the largest seventeen ( in 1991 ) . , the Clock is set at two and a half minutes to midnight , due to a `` rise of ` strident nationalism ' worldwide , United States President Donald Trump 's comments over North Korea , Russia , nuclear weapons , and the disbelief in the scientific consensus over climate change by the Trump Administration . '' This setting is the Clock 's second closest approach to midnight since its introduction . In-person visits to see the Doomsday Clock are not possible . There is no physical Doomsday Clock at The Bulletins office in the University of Chicago .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Doomsday_Clock", "rank": 31, "score": 96986 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Peter_Doran", "rank": 32, "score": 96605 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 33, "score": 96541 }, { "content": "Title: I'm not a scientist Content: `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "I'm_not_a_scientist", "rank": 34, "score": 96272 }, { "content": "Title: IAP statement on population growth Content: The InterAcademy Panel Statement on Population Growth is an international scientist consensus document discussing and demanding a halt of the population expansion . This was the first worldwide joint statement of academies of sciences , and their cooperative InterAcademy Panel on International Issues . It was signed by 58 member academies and began as follows . Let 1994 be remembered as the year when the people of the world decided to act together for the benefit of future generations .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "IAP_statement_on_population_growth", "rank": 35, "score": 96216 }, { "content": "Title: Guy McPherson Content: Guy R. McPherson ( born 29 February 1960 ) is an American scientist , professor emeritus of natural resources and ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of Arizona . He is best known for promoting the idea of near term extinction ( NTE ) , a term he coined about the possibility of human extinction as soon as 2030 . McPherson is also an author , independent scholar , lecturer , blogger , cultural critic , and permaculturist . He also is the co-host of his own radio show , `` Nature Bats Last '' . He has taught for twenty years at the University of Arizona and has served as an expert witness for legal cases involving forest fires . In May 2009 , McPherson began transitioning to living on an off-grid homestead in southern New Mexico . McPherson authors a blog called `` Nature Bats Last '' , that focuses on global climate change , energy decline and the possibility of imminent human extinction due to the increasing accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . On November 1 , 2015 , McPherson was interviewed on National Geographic Explorer with host Bill Nye . Regarding his NTE views , Andrew Revkin in The New York Times said McPherson was a `` apocalyptic ecologist ... who has built something of an ` End of Days ' following '' . Michael Tobis , a climate scientist from the University of Wisconsin , said McPherson was out of his depth and `` is not the opposite of a denialist . He is a denialist , albeit of a different stripe . ''", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Guy_McPherson", "rank": 36, "score": 96149 }, { "content": "Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "The_Chilling_Stars", "rank": 37, "score": 95830 }, { "content": "Title: Cool It (film) Content: Cool It is a 2010 documentary film based on the book Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming by Danish political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The film stars Lomborg , best known for authoring The Skeptical Environmentalist . It premiered in September in Canada at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival and had a theatrical United States release on November 12 , 2010 . The film was directed by Ondi Timoner .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Cool_It_(film)", "rank": 38, "score": 94581 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 39, "score": 94386 }, { "content": "Title: Andrew Montford Content: Andrew William Montford is an English writer and editor who is the owner of the Bishop Hill blog and describes himself as '' ... one of the UK 's best-known critics of the so-called global warming consensus . '' He is the author of The Hockey Stick Illusion ( 2010 ) .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Andrew_Montford", "rank": 40, "score": 94310 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Volcanic_winter", "rank": 41, "score": 93943 }, { "content": "Title: Cool It Content: Cool It may refer to : Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming , a 2007 book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg Cool It ( film ) , a 2010 documentary film based on the above book Cool It ( TV series ) , a 1980s British television comedy series featuring Phil Cool", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Cool_It", "rank": 42, "score": 93197 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 43, "score": 92805 }, { "content": "Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Hell_and_High_Water_(book)", "rank": 44, "score": 92698 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 45, "score": 92345 }, { "content": "Title: Keep Cool (board game) Content: Keep Cool is a board game created by Klaus Eisenack and Gerhard Petschel-Held of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and published by the German company Spieltrieb in November 2004 . The game can be classified as both a serious game and a global warming game . In Keep Cool , up to six players representing the world 's countries compete to balance their own economic interests and the world 's climate in a game of negotiation . The goal of the game as stated by the authors is to `` promote the general knowledge on climate change and the understanding of difficulties and obstacles , and `` to make it available for a board game and still retain the major elements and processes . ''", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Keep_Cool_(board_game)", "rank": 46, "score": 91761 }, { "content": "Title: 2052: A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years Content: 2052 -- A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years is a 2012 book describing trends in global development . It is written by Jørgen Randers and is a follow-up to The Limits to Growth , which in 1972 was the first worldwide report by the Club of Rome . It differs in three ways from the previous report . First , it does not describe an impending disaster scenario , but shows only trends . Secondly , it is to be read in the light of experience since 1972 , namely , that all of humanity has responded to the report , but with a delay of 20 to 40 years . Thirdly , it offers not only future scenarios , it makes concrete proposals on how the individual should respond to emerging developments . Randers repeatedly points out that he does not want to predict specific events , only general trends .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "2052:_A_Global_Forecast_for_the_Next_Forty_Years", "rank": 47, "score": 90996 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Report Content: World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels , was produced by the Greening Earth Society , a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association . Early editions were paper based ; it was then transferred to a web-only format , having ceased publication as a physically based report with Volume 8 in 2002 . It continues to exist in blog form at www.worldclimatereport.com , although the website itself has not been updated since late 2012 . World Climate Report presents a scientific skeptical view of populist anthropogenic-driven mass global climate change , or as it describes , ` Global Warming Alarmism ' . However , it does not reject the concepts of global climate change or greenhouse theory ( or other well-established and widely accepted scientific theories or empirical studies ) , in general attempting to engender itself as giving a well balanced and scientific view of the sources ( though often at a contrary expense of its perceived adversaries : the aforementioned alleged ` Global Warming Alarmists ' ) . WCR says of itself : World Climate Report , a concise , hard-hitting and scientifically correct response to the global change reports which gain attention in the literature and popular press . As the nation 's leading publication in this realm , World Climate Report is exhaustively researched , impeccably referenced , and always timely . This popular biweekly newsletter points out the weaknesses and outright fallacies in the science that is being touted as `` proof '' of disastrous warming . It 's the perfect antidote against those who argue for proposed changes to the Rio Climate Treaty , such as the Kyoto Protocol , which are aimed at limiting carbon emissions from the United States ... World Climate Report has become the definitive and unimpeachable source for what nature now calls the `` mainstream skeptic '' point of view . . In addition to Patrick Michaels ( chief editor ) , the staff is listed as Robert C. Balling , Jr ( contributing editor ) , Robert Davis ( contributing editor ) , and Paul Knappenberger ( Administrator ) . New Hope Environmental Services , an advocacy science consulting firm , claims WCR as its biweekly newsletter .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "World_Climate_Report", "rank": 48, "score": 90848 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning", "rank": 49, "score": 89789 }, { "content": "Title: Earthquake cloud Content: Earthquake clouds are clouds claimed to be signs of imminent earthquakes . They have been described in antiquity : In chapter 32 of his work Brihat Samhita , Indian scholar Varahamihira ( 505 -- 587 ) discussed a number of signs warning of earthquakes , including extraordinary clouds occurring a week before the earthquake . In modern times , a few scientists claim to have observed clouds associated with a seismic event , sometimes more than 50 days in advance of the earthquake . Some have even claimed to accurately predict earthquake occurrences by observing clouds . However , these claims have very little support in the scientific community .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Earthquake_cloud", "rank": 50, "score": 89599 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 51, "score": 89592 }, { "content": "Title: Steven Goddard Content: Steven Goddard ( pseudonym for Tony Heller ) is a blogger and the publisher of `` Real Science , '' a website he established to assert that concerns over anthropogenic global warming are exaggerated . Before establishing his own blog , Goddard built his reputation as a challenger to anthropogenic climate change theories through frequent postings on the Watts Up with That ? blog . Goddard wrote pseudonymously until 2014 when he revealed his true real identity on his blog . He has a BS in geology from Arizona State University and a Master 's degree in electrical engineering from Rice University .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Steven_Goddard", "rank": 52, "score": 89476 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia", "rank": 53, "score": 89421 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Content: Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Global_Warming:_The_Signs_and_The_Science", "rank": 54, "score": 89350 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus Content: Scientific consensus is the collective judgment , position , and opinion of the community of scientists in a particular field of study . Consensus implies general agreement , though not necessarily unanimity . Consensus is normally achieved through communication at conferences , the publication process , replication ( reproducible results by others ) , and peer review . These lead to a situation in which those within the discipline can often recognize such a consensus where it exists , but communicating to outsiders that consensus has been reached can be difficult , because the ` normal ' debates through which science progresses may seem to outsiders as contestation . On occasion , scientific institutes issue position statements intended to communicate a summary of the science from the `` inside '' to the `` outside '' of the scientific community . In cases where there is little controversy regarding the subject under study , establishing what the consensus is can be quite straightforward . Scientific consensus may be invoked in popular or political debate on subjects that are controversial within the public sphere but which may not be controversial within the scientific community , such as evolution or the claimed linkage of MMR vaccinations and autism .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Scientific_consensus", "rank": 55, "score": 89008 }, { "content": "Title: The Hockey Stick Illusion Content: The Hockey Stick Illusion : Climategate and the Corruption of Science is a book written by Andrew Montford and published by Stacey International in 2010 . Montford , an accountant and science publisher who publishes a blog called ` Bishop Hill ' provides his analysis of the history of the `` hockey stick graph '' of global temperatures for the last 1000 years and the controversy promoted by mining exploration company director Steve McIntyre about the research which produced the graph . The book describes the history of the graph from its inception to the beginning of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( `` Climategate '' ) . The book was Amazon UK 's second bestselling environment book of 2010 .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "The_Hockey_Stick_Illusion", "rank": 56, "score": 89001 }, { "content": "Title: Impending Death Content: Impending Death is a photograph taken by freelance photographer Thomas Dallal on September 11 , 2001 . The photograph depicts the North Tower ( 1 WTC ) of the World Trade Center , on fire after being struck by American Airlines Flight 11 at 8:46 AM , and shortly before its collapse at 10:28 AM . Visible in the photograph are numerous people trapped in the upper floors of the building , hanging out of windows because of the intense smoke and heat . They were unable to escape because of all stairwells and elevators above the 91st floor being severed by Flight 11 's impact . The photograph was later nominated for the international Picture of the Year award , coming in second place . A similar , closer photograph , taken at a different angle by Jeff Christensen of Reuters , was later used in an attempt to identify the victims depicted .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Impending_Death", "rank": 57, "score": 88919 }, { "content": "Title: David Legates Content: David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university , and a former Delaware State Climatologist . Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale . Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "David_Legates", "rank": 58, "score": 88540 }, { "content": "Title: Cooler Heads Coalition Content: The Cooler Heads Coalition is a politically conservative `` informal and ad-hoc group '' in the United States , financed and operated by the Competitive Enterprise Institute . It describes itself as `` focused on dispelling the myths of global warming by exposing flawed economic , scientific , and risk analysis '' . The Coalition operates a website and blog , and publishes the e-newsletter Cooler Heads Digest ( last issued in 2012 ) . It was founded by Consumer Alert . The New Yorker has described the Cooler Heads Coalition as `` an umbrella organization operated by the Competitive Enterprise Institute , a nonprofit that prides itself on its opposition to environmentalists . '' In the 2011 Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society , the Cooler Heads Coalition was listed as one of the `` front groups '' that form `` key components of the climate change denial machine '' .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Cooler_Heads_Coalition", "rank": 59, "score": 88225 }, { "content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Little_Ice_Age", "rank": 60, "score": 87904 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Taylor (environmentalist) Content: Peter Taylor ( b. 24 Jan 1948 ) is a UK environmentalist with a long track record of public activism and scholarship on issues ranging from nuclear safety , ocean pollution , biodiversity strategies , renewable energy and climate change . His recent work on global warming has been questioned by environmentalists . His 2009 book Chill : a reassessment of global warming theory argued that most of the recent documented warming is caused by peaking natural cycles , that there is also a potential for global cooling and that adaptation not mitigation should be a priority . His views received widespread coverage in the media -- with front page on the Daily Express , and articles in the online versions of The Mail , The Times and an Al Jazeera video .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Peter_Taylor_(environmentalist)", "rank": 61, "score": 87734 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow", "rank": 62, "score": 87147 }, { "content": "Title: Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow Content: The Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow ( CFACT ) is a Washington , D.C.-based 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization founded in 1985 that advocates for free-market solutions to environmental issues , but has increasingly turned to climate denial . For example , CFACT co-founder Craig Rucker stated that mankind faces a threat `` not from man-made global warming , but from man-made hysteria . '' At the 29 April 2017 Climate March , leaflets distributed by CFACT claimed the scientific consensus that mankind is now driving global changes in the planet 's climate are `` bogus '' , that reports of record-setting temperatures are `` the hottest lie '' being told , and `` CO2 is not the ` control knob ' of the climate '' .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Committee_for_a_Constructive_Tomorrow", "rank": 63, "score": 87135 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic impacts on the oceans Content: Explosive volcanic eruptions affect the global climate mainly through injecting sulfur bearing gases into the stratosphere , which oxidize to form sulfate aerosols . Stratospheric sulfur aerosols spread around the globe by the atmospheric circulation , producing surface cooling by scattering solar radiation back to space . This cooling effect on the ocean surface usually lasts for several years as the lifetime of sulfate aerosols is about 2 -- 3 years . However , in the subsurface ocean the cooling signal may persist for a longer time and may have impacts on some decadal variabilities , such as the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation ( AMOC ) .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Volcanic_impacts_on_the_oceans", "rank": 64, "score": 87101 }, { "content": "Title: Global Roundtable on Climate Change Content: The Global Roundtable on Climate Change , convened by the Earth Institute at Columbia University brought together representatives from corporations , research institutions , and government organizations to discuss the scientific consensus , economics , technology , and public policy issues associated with climate change . Following preliminary research and discussions , the group first met in 2005 and held a series of public and private meetings over the next five year . The Roundtable had five objectives : Improve global consensus on the science , technology , economics , and policy issues of anthropogenic climate change . Review technology and policy proposals for mitigating climate change while meeting global energy demand . Support research and prototypes of technologies and policies that address climate change . Provide a forum for discussion , analysis , and exchange of ideas from the represented groups . Support proposals and initiatives generated by the Roundtable 's discussions . Participants in the Roundtable meetings : ABB , Air France , Alcan , Alcoa , Alliant Energy , Allianz , American Electric Power , BASF , Bayer , Calvert Group , China Renewable Energy Industry Association , Citigroup , Coalition of Rainforest Nations , Columbia University , Deutsche Telekom , DuPont , Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand , Endesa , Environmental Defense , Eskom , Eni , Exelon , Fairfield University , FPL Group , General Electric , Iberdrola , ING Group , Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , International Gas Union , Munich Re , National Grid , NRG Energy , Rainforest Alliance , Republic of Iceland , Ricoh , Suntech Power , Swiss Re , Vattenfall , Volvo , World Council on Churches , World Petroleum Council , and many others . The Roundtable was funded by a grant from the Lenfest Foundation . Jeffrey Sachs , Director of the Earth Institute served as Chair . David L. Downie served as Director of the Global Roundtable on Climate Change before leaving the Earth Institute to join Fairfield University . On February 20 , 2007 , the Roundtable released `` The Path to Climate Sustainability : A Joint Statement by the Global Roundtable on Climate Change '' . The Joint Statement outlines a post-Kyoto framework and has been endorsed by over 100 of the Roundtable participating corporations and organizations . The Statement outlines ways to effect change at the levels of policy and industry , particularly in regards to creating sustainable energy systems necessary for achieving economic growth . In addition to its internal discussions , which were aimed at information exchange , education and consensus building , and development of the parthbreaking Joint Statement , Roundtable participants also participated in public forums . For example , David L. Downie organized two side-event panels during sessions of the global climate negotiations that featured presentations by Roundtable Participants , including himself , regarding how businesses and scientists were working together to lower greenhouse gas emissions . David L. Downie also discussed the Roundtable and related issues at other events during the climate negotiations and in other forums", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Global_Roundtable_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 65, "score": 87085 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 66, "score": 87002 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 67, "score": 86769 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific mobility Content: Scientific mobility describes the growing movement of scientists and tertiary students of science and engineering around the world . This trend is often being encouraged by national and regional policies and strategies . It permeates academia but the phenomenon is also growing in the private sector , as firms increasingly relocate their research laboratories abroad . For instance , the information technology industry accounts for six out of ten patents for new inventions in India but 92 % of these patents are secured by foreign-owned multinational firms .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Scientific_mobility", "rank": 68, "score": 86748 }, { "content": "Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Vicky_Pope", "rank": 69, "score": 86350 }, { "content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event", "rank": 70, "score": 86239 }, { "content": "Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World", "rank": 71, "score": 85806 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change", "rank": 72, "score": 84969 }, { "content": "Title: Watts Up With That? Content: Watts Up With That ? ( or WUWT ) is a blog promoting climate change denial that was created by Anthony Watts in 2006 . The blog predominantly discusses climate issues with a focus on anthropogenic climate change , generally accommodating beliefs that are in opposition to the scientific consensus on climate change . Contributors include Christopher Monckton and Fred Singer as guest authors . In November 2009 , the blog was one of the first websites to publish emails and documents from the Climatic Research Unit controversy , and a driving force behind its coverage . In the early months of 2010 , it was reported the site might be `` the most read climate blog in the world , '' and in 2013 Michael E. Mann referred to it as the leading climate change denial blog .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Watts_Up_With_That?", "rank": 73, "score": 84892 }, { "content": "Title: Myron Ebell Content: Myron Ebell is Director of Global Warming and International Environmental Policy at the Competitive Enterprise Institute ( CEI ) , a libertarian advocacy group based in Washington , D.C. . He is also the chairman of the Cooler Heads Coalition , a loose coalition formed in 1997 which presents itself as `` focused on dispelling the myths of global warming by exposing flawed economic , scientific , and risk analysis '' . In these organizations , Ebell has been central in promoting climate change denial , distributing his views to the media and politicians . Ebell , who is not a scientist , has been described as a climate change skeptic , a climate contrarian and a climate change denier . In September 2016 , Ebell was appointed by then Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump to lead his transition team for the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Myron_Ebell", "rank": 74, "score": 84566 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 75, "score": 84142 }, { "content": "Title: George Kukla Content: George Kukla ( born Jiří Kukla ; 14 March 1930 -- 31 May 2014 ) was a senior research scientist at the Lamont -- Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University . Kukla was a member of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences , prior to emigrating to the US , and a pioneer in the field of astronomical climate forcing . In 1972 he became a central figure in convincing the United States government to take the dangers of climate change seriously . Kukla and geologist , Robert Matthews of Brown University , convened a historic conference , themed : `` The Present Interglacial : How and When will it End ? '' Kukla and Matthews then highlighted the dangers of global cooling in Science magazine and , to President Richard Nixon . The Nixon administration reacted swiftly to their letter , which described calamities such as killer frosts , lower food production and floods , to come . By February 1973 , the State Department had established a Panel on the Present Interglacial , which advised Drs. Kukla and Matthews that it `` was seized of the matter '' and numerous other government agencies were soon included . Kukla was co-author of a chapter in the book `` Natural Climate Variability on Decade to Century Time Scales '' published by the National Research Council . Kukla believed all glacial periods in Earth 's history began with global warming ( understood as an increase of area-weighted average global mean temperature ) . He believed Earth 's recent warming is mostly natural and will ultimately lead to a new ice age .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "George_Kukla", "rank": 76, "score": 83959 }, { "content": "Title: Cool Globes: Hot Ideas for a Cooler Planet Content: Cool Globes : Hot Ideas for a Cooler Planet is a public art project dedicated to increasing awareness of global warming . A nonprofit corporation , `` Cool Globes : Hot Ideas for a Cooler Planet '' sponsored a Chicago public art exhibit of 125 5 ft globes decorated with solutions to global warming , placed in Grant Park near the Field Museum of Natural History , the Shedd Aquarium , and along the lakefront bike path during the summer of 2007 . The project is similar to the popular `` Cows on Parade '' exhibit of 1999 , but with a social conscience . The Cool Globes adopts the idea of Berlin 's town mascot ; the entailing United Buddy Bears exhibitions are very different from all other urban events . The bears were created by the German artists Klaus and Eva Herlitz . The idea and the philosophy behind the United Buddy Bears exhibitions are unique : with its international approach and its symbolism , this synthesis of the arts globally promotes tolerance , international understanding and a peaceful coexistence .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Cool_Globes:_Hot_Ideas_for_a_Cooler_Planet", "rank": 77, "score": 83418 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 78, "score": 83391 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)", "rank": 79, "score": 83338 }, { "content": "Title: Lake effect snow warning Content: A Lake Effect Snow Warning is a bulletin issued by the National Weather Service in the United States to warn of heavy snowfall amounts that are imminent from convective snow generated by very cold airmass passing over unfrozen lakes ( lake effect snow ) . The criteria for amounts may vary significantly over different county warning areas . Environment Canada 's Meteorological Service of Canada issues similar warnings but they are called Snowsquall warnings .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Lake_effect_snow_warning", "rank": 80, "score": 83278 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program", "rank": 81, "score": 83247 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 82, "score": 83202 }, { "content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Global_dimming", "rank": 83, "score": 83037 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "World_Climate_Research_Programme", "rank": 84, "score": 82881 }, { "content": "Title: Global Viral Content: Originally named as the Global Viral Forecasting Initiative ( GVFI ) , Global Viral is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) not-for-profit organization that supports some of the world 's research , data and policy leaders and links them together in a network aimed at addressing the most important global infectious disease threats . The goal of developing an early warning system for pandemics to monitor the transmission of infectious diseases from animals to humans . The initiative currently coordinates a staff of over 100 scientists in China , Cameroon , Equatorial Guinea , DR Congo , Republic of the Congo , Laos , Gabon , Central African Republic , Malaysia , Madagascar and Sao Tome . Global Viral was founded in 2007 by Nathan Wolfe and maintains its headquarters in San Francisco , CA and has ongoing activities in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Global_Viral", "rank": 85, "score": 82844 }, { "content": "Title: Everything's Cool Content: Everything 's Cool may refer to : `` Everything 's Cool '' ( song ) , a song from the Pop Will Eat Itself album Dos Dedos Mis Amigos Everything 's Cool ( film ) , a 2007 documentary film that examines the divide between scientists and the general populace on the topic of global warming", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Everything's_Cool", "rank": 86, "score": 82707 }, { "content": "Title: The Greenhouse Conspiracy Content: The Greenhouse Conspiracy is a documentary film broadcast by Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 12 August 1990 , as part of the Equinox series , which criticised the theory of global warming and asserted that scientists critical of global warming theory were denied funding . It is one of the earliest instances of the suggestion of a conspiracy to promote false claims supporting global warming . Although the title of the program implied the existence of a conspiracy , when interviewed on the program Patrick Michaels played down the idea , saying , `` It may not quite add up to a conspiracy , but certainly a coalition of interests has promoted the greenhouse theory : scientists have needed funds , the media a story , and governments a worthy cause '' .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "The_Greenhouse_Conspiracy", "rank": 87, "score": 82358 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 88, "score": 82185 }, { "content": "Title: Storms of My Grandchildren Content: Storms of My Grandchildren : The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity is climate scientist James Hansen 's first book , published by Bloomsbury Press in 2009 . The book is about threats to people and habitability for life on earth from global warming .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Storms_of_My_Grandchildren", "rank": 89, "score": 81998 }, { "content": "Title: The Deniers Content: The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "The_Deniers", "rank": 90, "score": 81840 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 91, "score": 81829 }, { "content": "Title: Cool tropics paradox Content: The cool tropics paradox refers to an apparent difference between modeled estimates of tropical temperatures during warm , ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and Eocene , and the colder temperatures which proxies suggested were present . The long-standing paradox was resolved when novel proxy derived temperatures showed significantly warmer tropics during past greenhouse climates . The low-gradient problem , i.e. the very warm polar regions with respect to present day , is still an issue for state-of-the-art climate models .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Cool_tropics_paradox", "rank": 92, "score": 81740 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 93, "score": 81604 }, { "content": "Title: Nuclear winter Content: Nuclear winter is the severe global-climatic-cooling-effect , hypothesized to occur after the ignition of a number of firestorms , from nuclear bomb detonations , or wide spread bombardments . Such fires , which can inject soot into the stratosphere , have historically occurred in a number of cities , with nuclear winter researchers using both Hamburg and the less ferocious Hiroshima firestorms as the principal examples . However , as firestorms are most frequently encountered in much larger area wildfires , these latter fires are the most significant today in assessing both the initial and present-day `` nuclear winter '' computer models .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Nuclear_winter", "rank": 94, "score": 81408 }, { "content": "Title: Taken by Storm Content: Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming is a 2002 book about the global warming controversy by Christopher Essex and Ross McKitrick . The authors argue that politicians and others claim far more certainty than is justified by the science . The authors also argue that public policy discussions have abandoned science and resorted to ad hominem attacks . Taken by Storm was one of two runners up for the 2002 Donner Prize for the best book on Canadian public policy .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Taken_by_Storm", "rank": 95, "score": 81251 }, { "content": "Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Ecological_forecasting", "rank": 96, "score": 81154 }, { "content": "Title: False balance Content: False balance is a real or perceived media bias in which journalists present an issue as being more balanced between opposing viewpoints than the evidence supports . Journalists may present evidence and arguments out of proportion to the actual evidence for each side , or may omit information that would establish one side 's claims as baseless . Examples of false balance in reporting on science issues include the topics of man-made versus natural climate change , the alleged relation between thimerosal and autism and evolution versus intelligent design . An example of false balance is the `` debate '' on global warming ; although the scientific community almost unanimously attributes global warming to the effects of the industrial revolution , there is a very small number , a few dozen scientists out of tens of thousands of scientists , who dispute the conclusion . Giving equal voice to scientists on both sides makes it seem like there is a serious disagreement within the scientific community , when in fact there is an overwhelming scientific consensus that anthropogenic global warming exists . False balance can sometimes originate from similar motives as sensationalism , where producers and editors may feel that a story portrayed as a contentious debate will be more commercially successful than a more accurate account of the issue . However , unlike most other media biases , false balance may stem from an attempt to avoid bias ; producers and editors may confuse treating competing views fairly -- i.e. , in proportion to their actual merits and significance -- with treating them equally , giving them equal time to present their views even when those views may be known beforehand to be based on false information .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "False_balance", "rank": 97, "score": 81113 }, { "content": "Title: Cortical cooling Content: Neuroscientists generate various studies to help explain many of the complex connections and functions of the brain . Most studies utilize animal models that have varying degrees of comparison to the human brain ; for example , small rodents are less comparable than non-human primates . One of the most definitive ways of determining which sections of the brain contribute to certain behavior or function is to deactivate a section of the brain and observe what behavior is altered . Investigators have a wide range of options for deactivating neural tissue , and one of the more recently developed methods being used is deactivation through cooling . Cortical cooling refers to the cooling methods restricted to the cerebral cortex , where most higher brain processes occur . Below is a list of current cooling methods , their advantages and limitations , and some studies that have used cooling to elucidate neural functions .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Cortical_cooling", "rank": 98, "score": 81071 }, { "content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .", "qid": "2935", "docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming", "rank": 99, "score": 80985 }, { "content": "Title: Cooling (disambiguation) Content: Cooling is the transfer of thermal energy via thermal radiation , heat conduction or convection . Cooling may also refer to : Cooling ( surname ) , any of several people `` Cooling '' , a song written and performed by Tori Amos on her 1999 album To Venus and Back A Cantonese food classification Cooling , Kent , a village in Kent , England", "qid": "2935", "docid": "Cooling_(disambiguation)", "rank": 100, "score": 80958 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Pacific decadal oscillation Content: The Pacific Decadal Oscillation ( PDO ) is a robust , recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin . The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean , north of 20 ° N. Over the past century , the amplitude of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales ( meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades ) . There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity ( meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters within the region ) of the oscillation occurring around 1925 , 1947 , and 1977 ; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in salmon production regimes in the North Pacific Ocean . This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from Alaska to California . During a `` warm '' , or `` positive '' , phase , the west Pacific becomes cooler and part of the eastern ocean warms ; during a `` cool '' or `` negative '' phase , the opposite pattern occurs . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation was named by Steven R. Hare , who noticed it while studying salmon production pattern results in 1997 . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation index is the leading empirical orthogonal function ( EOF ) of monthly sea surface temperature anomalies ( SST-A ) over the North Pacific ( poleward of 20 ° N ) after the global average sea surface temperature has been removed . This PDO index is the standardized principal component time series . A PDO ` signal ' has been reconstructed to 1661 through tree-ring chronologies in the Baja California area .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Pacific_decadal_oscillation", "rank": 1, "score": 135232 }, { "content": "Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Climate_oscillation", "rank": 2, "score": 134461 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 3, "score": 133326 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 4, "score": 127319 }, { "content": "Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation", "rank": 5, "score": 125788 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 6, "score": 123251 }, { "content": "Title: Quasi-biennial oscillation Content: The quasi-biennial oscillation ( QBO ) is a quasiperiodic oscillation of the equatorial zonal wind between easterlies and westerlies in the tropical stratosphere with a mean period of 28 to 29 months . The alternating wind regimes develop at the top of the lower stratosphere and propagate downwards at about 1 km per month until they are dissipated at the tropical tropopause . Downward motion of the easterlies is usually more irregular than that of the westerlies . The amplitude of the easterly phase is about twice as strong as that of the westerly phase . At the top of the vertical QBO domain , easterlies dominate , while at the bottom , westerlies are more likely to be found . At the 30mb level , with regards to monthly mean zonal winds , the strongest recorded easterly was 29.55 m/s in November 2005 , while the strongest recorded westerly was only 15.62 m/s in June 1995 .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Quasi-biennial_oscillation", "rank": 7, "score": 122998 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth", "rank": 8, "score": 122981 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 9, "score": 121404 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 10, "score": 121332 }, { "content": "Title: Atlantic Equatorial mode Content: The Atlantic Equatorial Mode or Atlantic Niño is a quasiperiodic interannual climate pattern of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean . It is the dominant mode of year-to-year variability that results in alternating warming and cooling episodes of sea surface temperatures accompanied by changes in atmospheric circulation . The term Atlantic Niño comes from its close similarity with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) that dominates the tropical Pacific basin . The Atlantic Niño is not the same as the Atlantic Meridional ( Interhemispheric ) Mode that consists of a north-south dipole and operates more on decadal timescales . The equatorial warming and cooling events associated with the Atlantic Niño are known to be strongly related to atmospheric climate anomalies , especially in African countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea . Therefore , understanding of the Atlantic Niño ( or lack thereof ) has important implications for climate prediction in those regions . Although the Atlantic Niño is an intrinsic mode to the equatorial Atlantic , there may be a tenuous causal relationship between ENSO and the Atlantic Niño in some circumstances .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Atlantic_Equatorial_mode", "rank": 11, "score": 121168 }, { "content": "Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Climate_variability", "rank": 12, "score": 120840 }, { "content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Little_Ice_Age", "rank": 13, "score": 118256 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Climate_change_(general_concept)", "rank": 14, "score": 113593 }, { "content": "Title: 100,000-year problem Content: The 100,000-year problem ( `` 100 ky problem '' , `` 100 ka problem '' ) of the Milankovitch theory of orbital forcing refers to a discrepancy between the reconstructed geologic temperature record and the reconstructed amount of incoming solar radiation , or insolation over the past 800,000 years . Due to variations in the Earth 's orbit , the amount of insolation varies with periods of around 21,000 , 40,000 , 100,000 , and 400,000 years ( Milankovitch cycles ) . Variations in the amount of incident solar energy drive changes in the climate of the Earth , and are recognised as a key factor in the timing of initiation and termination of glaciations . While there is a Milankovitch cycle in the range of 100,000 years , related to Earth 's orbital eccentricity , its contribution to variation in insolation is much smaller than those of precession and obliquity . The 100,000-year-problem refers to the lack of an obvious explanation for the periodicity of ice ages at roughly 100,000 years for the past million years , but not before , when the dominant periodicity corresponded to 41,000 years . The unexplained transition between the two periodicity regimes is known as the mid-Pleistocene transition , dated to some 800,000 years ago . The related `` 400,000-year-problem '' refers to the absence of a 400,000-year periodicity due to orbital eccentricity in the geological temperature record over the past 1.2 million years .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "100,000-year_problem", "rank": 15, "score": 113431 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 16, "score": 112998 }, { "content": "Title: Termination (geomorphology) Content: Termination , as used by Quaternary geologists , oceanographers , and paleoclimatologists is the period of time during an glacial cycle when there is a relatively rapid transition from full glacial climates to full interglacial climates . For the Quaternary period , terminations are numbered using Roman numerals from the most recent termination as `` I '' and with increasing value , e.g. `` II '' , `` III '' , and so forth , into the past . Termination I , also known as the Last Glacial Termination , is the end of Marine isotope stage 2 ; Termination II is the end of Marine Isotope Stage 6 ; Termination III is the end of Marine Isotope Stage 8 ; Termination IV is the end of Marine Isotope Stage 10 , and so forth . During the Quaternary , global climate experienced a recurring pattern of ice-sheet growth and decay . The length of Late Quaternary cycles varied between 80,000 and 120,000 years , with an average recurrence interval of about 100,000 years . The typical Late Quaternary glacial cycle was asymmetric having a long cooling interval that was characterized by an oscillating buildup of ice sheets to maximum volume . The long cooling interval was then followed by a relatively short warming period . During this warming period , called a termination , huge Northern hemisphere ice sheets melted away ; sea level rose about 120 m ; and interglacial climate emerged across the planet in a few thousand years . In case of the termination of the last glacial cycle , the retreat of continental ice sheets in the Northern hemisphere began about 20,000 calendar years ago . By about 7,000 calemdar years ago , a small ice cap on Baffin Island was all that was left of the great Laurentide Ice Sheet that had once covered northern North America . In Antarctica , the last termination began about 18,000 years ago and interglacial climate was attained close to 11,000 years ago .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Termination_(geomorphology)", "rank": 17, "score": 112619 }, { "content": "Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Neoglaciation", "rank": 18, "score": 111143 }, { "content": "Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Climate_state", "rank": 19, "score": 111005 }, { "content": "Title: Diurnal cycle Content: A diurnal cycle is any pattern that recurs every 24 hours as a result of one full rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun . In climatology , the diurnal cycle is one of the most basic forms of climate patterns . The most familiar such pattern is the diurnal temperature variation . Such a cycle may be approximately sinusoidal , or include components of a truncated sinusoid ( due to the sun 's rising and setting ) and thermal relaxation ( Newton cooling ) at night . Diurnal cycles of environmental conditions ( light or temperature ) can result in similar cycles in dependent biological processes , such as photosynthesis in plants , or clinical depression in humans . Plant responses to environmental cycles may even induce indirect cycles in rhizosphere microbial activities , including nitrogen fixation . A semi-diurnal cycle refers to a pattern that occurs about every twelve hours or about twice a day . Often these can be related to lunar tides , in which case the interval is closer to 12 hours and 25 minutes .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Diurnal_cycle", "rank": 20, "score": 110788 }, { "content": "Title: Stadial Content: Stadials and interstadials are phases dividing the Quaternary period , that last 2.6 million years . Stadial are colder periods and interstadials are warmer . Each phase has a Marine Isotope Stage ( MIS ) number , working backwards from the present , with stadial having even numbers and interstadials odd numbers . Thus the current Holocene is MIS1 and the most recent ice age is MIS2 . Stages are divided into warmer and colder intervals . MIS 5e ( the Eemian ) , the hottest of the last million years , was the oldest interstadial of MIS5 , with MIS3 and MIS1 being interstadials and MIS2 and MIS4 being colder stadials . In glacials a and c are stadials and b and d are warmer interstadials . Thus MIS 6a , 6c and 6e are stadials and 6b and 6d are interstadials . Generally , stadials endure for a thousand years or less , interstadials for less than ten thousand years , interglacials for more than ten thousand and glacials for about one hundred thousand . The Bølling Oscillation and the Allerød Oscillation , where they are not clearly distinguished in the stratigraphy , are taken together to form the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , and dated from about 14,700 to 12,700 years before the present . Greenland ice cores show 24 interstadials during the one hundred thousand years of the Wisconsin glaciation . Referred to as the Dansgaard-Oeschger events , they have been extensively studied , and in their northern European contexts are sometimes named after towns , such as the Brorup , the Odderade , the Oerel , the Glinde , the Hengelo , the Denekamp , etc. .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Stadial", "rank": 21, "score": 110632 }, { "content": "Title: Piora Oscillation Content: The Piora Oscillation was an abrupt cold and wet period in the climate history of the Holocene Epoch ; it is generally dated to the period of c. 3200 to 2900 BCE . Some researchers associate the Piora Oscillation with the end of the Atlantic climate regime , and the start of the Sub-Boreal , in the Blytt -- Sernander sequence of Holocene climates . The spatial extent of the change is unclear ; it does not show up as a major , or even identifiable , event in hemispheric temperature reconstructions .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Piora_Oscillation", "rank": 22, "score": 110585 }, { "content": "Title: Solar maximum Content: -RSB- Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun . During solar maximum , large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun 's irradiance output grows by about 0.07 % . The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth 's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns . At solar maximum , the Sun 's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles . The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next , with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years . Large solar flares often occur during a maximum . For example , the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Solar_maximum", "rank": 23, "score": 110394 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 24, "score": 109530 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic impacts on the oceans Content: Explosive volcanic eruptions affect the global climate mainly through injecting sulfur bearing gases into the stratosphere , which oxidize to form sulfate aerosols . Stratospheric sulfur aerosols spread around the globe by the atmospheric circulation , producing surface cooling by scattering solar radiation back to space . This cooling effect on the ocean surface usually lasts for several years as the lifetime of sulfate aerosols is about 2 -- 3 years . However , in the subsurface ocean the cooling signal may persist for a longer time and may have impacts on some decadal variabilities , such as the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation ( AMOC ) .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Volcanic_impacts_on_the_oceans", "rank": 25, "score": 108607 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 26, "score": 108424 }, { "content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Mesopause", "rank": 27, "score": 108146 }, { "content": "Title: Seasonal year Content: The seasonal year is the time between successive recurrences of a seasonal event such as the flooding of a river , the migration of a species of bird , or the flowering of a species of plant . The need for farmers to predict seasonal events led to the development of calendars . However , the variability from year to year of seasonal events ( allegedly due to climate change or just random variation ) makes the seasonal year very hard to measure . This means that calendars are based on astronomical years ( which are regular enough to be easily measured ) as surrogates for the seasonal year . For example , the ancient Egyptians used the heliacal rising of Sirius to predict the flooding of the Nile . A study of temperature records over the past 300 years suggests that the seasonal year is governed by the anomalistic year rather than the tropical year . This suggestion is surprising because the seasons have been thought to be governed by the tilt of the Earth 's axis ( see Effect of sun angle on climate ) . The two types of years differ by a mere 4 days over 300 years , so Thompson 's result may not be significant . However , the result is not unreasonable . The seasons can be considered to be an oscillating system driven by two inputs with slightly different frequencies : the total input of energy from the sun varies with the anomalistic year , while the distribution of this energy between the hemispheres varies with the tropical year . In other physical situations , oscillating systems driven by two similar frequencies can latch onto either one . One point that must be considered is that the oscillation arising from the tilt of the axis is much greater than that arising from the distance of the sun .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Seasonal_year", "rank": 28, "score": 106651 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Mars Content: The climate of Mars has been an issue of scientific curiosity for centuries , in part because Mars is the only terrestrial planet whose surface can be directly observed in detail from the Earth with help from a telescope . Although Mars is smaller than the Earth , at 11 % of Earth 's mass , and 50 % farther from the Sun than the Earth , its climate has important similarities , such as the polar ice caps , seasonal changes and the observable presence of weather patterns . It has attracted sustained study from planetologists and climatologists . While Mars 's climate has similarities to Earth 's , including periodic ice ages , there are also important differences , such as much lower thermal inertia . Mars ' atmosphere has a scale height of approximately 11 km , 60 % greater than that on Earth . The climate is of considerable relevance to the question of whether life is or was present on the planet . The climate briefly received more interest in the news due to NASA measurements indicating increased sublimation of the south polar icecap leading to some popular press speculation that Mars was undergoing a parallel bout of global warming , although Mars ' average temperature has actually cooled in recent decades . Mars has been studied by Earth-based instruments since the 17th century but it is only since the exploration of Mars began in the mid-1960s that close-range observation has been possible . Flyby and orbital spacecraft have provided data from above , while direct measurements of atmospheric conditions have been provided by a number of landers and rovers . Advanced Earth orbital instruments today continue to provide some useful `` big picture '' observations of relatively large weather phenomena . The first Martian flyby mission was Mariner 4 which arrived in 1965 . That quick two-day pass ( July 14 -- 15 , 1965 ) was limited and crude in terms of its contribution to the state of knowledge of Martian climate . Later Mariner missions ( Mariner 6 , and Mariner 7 ) filled in some of the gaps in basic climate information . Data-based climate studies started in earnest with the Viking program in 1975 and continues with such probes as the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter . This observational work has been complemented by a type of scientific computer simulation called the Mars general circulation model . Several different iterations of MGCM have led to an increased understanding of Mars as well as the limits of such models .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Climate_of_Mars", "rank": 29, "score": 106434 }, { "content": "Title: Allerød oscillation Content: The Allerød oscillation ( Allerødtiden ) was a warm and moist global interstadial that occurred at the end of the last glacial period . It raised temperatures in the northern Atlantic region to almost present-day levels , before they declined again in the succeeding Younger Dryas period , which was followed by the present interglacial period . In some regions , especially in northern Eurasia , there is evidence for a cold period known as the Older Dryas interrupting the interstadial . In such regions the shorter oscillation ending with the Older Dryas is known as the Bølling oscillation , and the Allerød period is the interstadial following the Older Dryas . The Allerød period was named after a type site in Furesø municipality in Sjælland , Denmark ( near Copenhagen ) , where deposits created during the period were first identified in work published in 1901 by Hartz and Milthers . This Blytt-Sernander period corresponds to Pollen zone II .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Allerød_oscillation", "rank": 30, "score": 106370 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 31, "score": 106310 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Global_cooling_(disambiguation)", "rank": 32, "score": 106058 }, { "content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years", "rank": 33, "score": 105941 }, { "content": "Title: African humid period Content: The African humid period (AHP) is a climate period in Africa during the late Pleistocene and Holocene geologic epochs, when northern Africa was wetter than today. The covering of much of the Sahara desert by grasses, trees and lakes was caused by changes in Earth's orbit around the Sun; changes in vegetation and dust in the Sahara which strengthened the African monsoon; and increased greenhouse gases, which may imply that anthropogenic global warming could result in a shrinkage of the Sahara desert. During the preceding last glacial maximum, the Sahara contained extensive dune fields and was mostly uninhabited. It was much larger than today, but its lakes and rivers such as Lake Victoria and the White Nile were either dry or at low levels. The humid period began about 14,600–14,500 years ago at the end of Heinrich event 1, simultaneously to the Bølling-Allerød warming. Rivers and lakes such as Lake Chad formed or expanded, glaciers grew on Mount Kilimanjaro and the Sahara retreated. Two major dry fluctuations occurred; during the Younger Dryas and the short 8.2 kiloyear event. The African humid period ended 6,000–5,000 years ago during the Piora Oscillation cold period. While some evidence points to an end 5,500 years ago, in the Sahel, Arabia and East Africa the period appears to have taken place in several steps such as the 4.2 kiloyear event. The AHP led to a widespread settlement of the Sahara and the Arabian Deserts, and had a profound effect on African cultures, such as the birth of the Pharaonic civilization. They lived as hunter-gatherers until the agricultural revolution and domesticated cattle, goats and sheep. They left archeological sites and artifacts such as one of the oldest ships in the world, and rock paintings such as those in the Cave of Swimmers and in the Acacus Mountains. Earlier humid periods in Africa were postulated after the discovery of these rock paintings in now-inhospitable parts of the Sahara. When the period ended, humans gradually abandoned the desert in favour of regions with more secure water supplies, such as the Nile Valley and Mesopotamia, where they gave rise to early complex societies.", "qid": "2939", "docid": "African_humid_period", "rank": 34, "score": 104280 }, { "content": "Title: Climatology Content: Climatology ( from Greek κλίμα , klima , `` place , zone '' ; and - λογία , - logia ) or climate science is the study of climate , scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time . This modern field of study is regarded as a branch of the atmospheric sciences and a subfield of physical geography , which is one of the Earth sciences . Climatology now includes aspects of oceanography and biogeochemistry . Basic knowledge of climate can be used within shorter term weather forecasting using analog techniques such as the El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) , the Madden -- Julian oscillation ( MJO ) , the North Atlantic oscillation ( NAO ) , the Northern Annular Mode ( NAM ) which is also known as the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) , the Northern Pacific ( NP ) Index , the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , and the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation ( IPO ) . Climate models are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate . Weather is known as the condition of the atmosphere over a period of time . While Climate has to do with the atmospheric condition over an extended to indefinite period of time .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Climatology", "rank": 35, "score": 104188 }, { "content": "Title: Climate pattern Content: A climate pattern is any recurring characteristic of the climate . Climate patterns can last tens of thousands of years , like the glacial and interglacial periods within ice ages , or repeat each year , like monsoons . A climate pattern may come in the form of a regular cycle , like the diurnal cycle or the seasonal cycle ; a quasi periodic event , like El Niño ; or a highly irregular event , such as a volcanic winter . The regular cycles are generally well understood and may be removed by normalization . For example , graphs which show trends of temperature change will usually have the effects of seasonal variation removed .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Climate_pattern", "rank": 36, "score": 104088 }, { "content": "Title: Gliese 176 b Content: Gliese 176 b is a super-Earth exoplanet approximately 31 light years away in the constellation of Taurus . This planet orbits very close to its parent red dwarf star Gliese 176 ( also called `` HD 285968 '' ) . The initial announcement confused the planetary periodicity with the stellar periodicity of 40 days , thus giving a 10.24 day period for a 25 Earth-mass planet . Subsequent readings filtered out the star 's rotation , giving a more accurate reading of the planet 's orbit and minimum mass . The planet orbits inside the inner magnetosphere of its star . The quoted temperature of 450 K is a `` thermal equilibrium '' temperature . It is projected to be dominated by a rocky core , but the true mass is unknown . If the orbit is oriented such that we are viewing it at a nearly face-on angle , the planet may be significantly more massive than the lower limit . If so , it may have attracted a gas envelope like Uranus or Gliese 436 b.", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Gliese_176_b", "rank": 37, "score": 103147 }, { "content": "Title: Glacial period Content: A glacial period ( alternatively glacial or glaciation ) is an interval of time ( thousands of years ) within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances . Interglacials , on the other hand , are periods of warmer climate between glacial periods . The last glacial period ended about 15,000 years ago . < ref name = `` Severinghaus1999 '' > </ref> The Holocene epoch is the current interglacial . A time when there are no glaciers on Earth is considered a greenhouse climate state .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Glacial_period", "rank": 38, "score": 102657 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical rain belt Content: Rainfall and the tropical climate dominate the tropical rain belt , which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year , roughly following the solar equator . The tropical rain belt is an area of active rain that is positioned mostly around the tropics . According to the website Journey North , the reason the rain belt is situated near the tropics can be attributed to the fact that most of the sun 's radiation is directed toward the equator , which is located in the middle of the tropics . This solar radiation generates large amounts of heat near the equator providing tropical regions with higher temperatures than most other regions on Earth . With all this solar radiation , the air around the tropics begins to warm up . Because hot air is less dense than cold air , the hot air rises into the upper levels of the atmosphere and as a result , cold air filters down into the lower levels of the atmosphere . The dynamics that provide the tropics with the rain belt are founded on the principal that warmer air is able to retain more moisture than colder air . When the colder air replaces the warmer air in the lower atmosphere , the abundant moisture from the tropics loses the ability to be stored in the atmosphere . As a result , the excess moisture that can not be held by the colder air is then turned into thunderstorms and rain showers . These thunderstorms and rain showers are usually located along the equator , but they will extend out to the Tropic of Cancer , which is the 23.5 north latitude , as well as the Tropic of Capricorn , which is the 23.5 south latitude . It is largely a manifestation of the ITCH ( incorrect citation ) . The tropical rain belt lies in the southern hemisphere of the Indian ocean and western Pacific ocean roughly from October to March , and during this time the northern tropics experience a dry season in which precipitation is very rare , and days are typically hot and sunny throughout . From April to September , the rain belt lies in the northern hemisphere , and a wet season occurs there , while the southern tropics experience their dry season . The rain belt reaches roughly as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn in the western Pacific ocean . Its variation in the Western Hemisphere is minimal , roughly between the equator and the 15th parallel north latitude . Near these latitudes , there is one wet season and one dry season annually . On the equator , there are two wet and two dry seasons as the rain belt passes over twice a year , one moving north and one moving south . Between the tropics and the equator , locations may experience both a short wet and a long wet season . Local geography may substantially modify these climate patterns .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Tropical_rain_belt", "rank": 39, "score": 102175 }, { "content": "Title: Epsilon Leporis Content: Epsilon Leporis ( ε Lep , ε Lep ) is a third-magnitude star in the southern constellation Lepus . The apparent visual magnitude of +3.166 places it third in brightness among the stars in this constellation . Based upon parallax measurements , it is located at a distance of around 213 ly from Earth . This is an evolved giant star with a stellar classification of K4 III that has expanded to 40 times the Sun 's radius . It is about 1.72 billion years old and has 1.70 times the mass of the Sun , with a luminosity 372 times as great . The outer atmosphere is cooler than the Sun 's with an effective temperature of 4,131 K , giving it the orange hue of a K-type star . In terms of its composition , this star shows a similar abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium to the Sun . The envelope of this star is undergoing oscillations that show up as changes in the star 's radial velocity . Over long durations these follow a linear trend , in combination with shorter period oscillations occurring over a few days . These oscillations are unlikely to be the result of rotational module as that would imply a high rotation rate , which would display itself through strong X-ray emissions . Instead , they may be the result of solar-like and Mira-like oscillations .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Epsilon_Leporis", "rank": 40, "score": 101139 }, { "content": "Title: Circadian clock Content: A circadian clock , or circadian oscillator , is a biochemical oscillator that oscillates with a stable phase relationship to solar time . Such a clock 's in vivo period , averaged over an earth year , is necessarily almost exactly 24 hours ( the earth 's current solar day ) . In most living things , internally synchronized circadian clocks make it possible for the organism to coordinate its biology and behavior with daily environmental changes corresponding with the day -- night cycle and derived diurnal behaviour patterns ( e.g. crepuscular feeding ) . The term circadian derives from the Latin circa ( about ) diem ( a day ) , since when taken away from external cues ( such as the day-night cycle ) , they do not run to exactly 24 hours . Clocks in humans in a lab in constant low light , for example , will average about 24.2 hours per day , rather than 24 hours exactly . The normal body clock oscillates with an endogenous period of exactly 24 hours , it entrains , when it receives sufficient daily corrective signals from the environment , primarily daylight and darkness . Circadian clocks are the central mechanisms that drive circadian rhythms . They consist of three major components : a central biochemical oscillator with a period of about 24 hours that keeps time ; a series of input pathways to this central oscillator to allow entrainment of the clock ; a series of output pathways tied to distinct phases of the oscillator that regulate overt rhythms in biochemistry , physiology , and behavior throughout an organism . The clock is reset as an organism senses environmental time cues of which the primary one is light . Circadian oscillators are ubiquitous in tissues of the body where they are synchronized by both endogenous and external signals to regulate transcriptional activity throughout the day in a tissue-specific manner . The circadian clock is intertwined with most cellular metabolic processes and it is affected by organism aging . The basic molecular mechanisms of the biological clock have been defined in vertebrate species , Drosophila melanogaster , plants , fungi , bacteria , and presumably also in Archaea . While a precise 24-hour circadian clock is found in many organisms , it is not universal . Organisms living in the high arctic or high antarctic do not experience solar time in all seasons , though most are believed to maintain a circadian rhythm close to 24 hours , such as bears during torpor . Much of the earth 's biomass resides in the dark biosphere , and while these organisms may exhibit rhythmic physiology , for these organisms the dominant rhythm is unlikely to be circadian . For east-west migratory organisms -- and especially should an organism circumnavigate the globe -- the absolute 24-hour phase might deviate over months , seasons , or years .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Circadian_clock", "rank": 41, "score": 101060 }, { "content": "Title: Atlantic multidecadal oscillation Content: The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) is a climate cycle that affects the sea surface temperature of the North Atlantic Ocean based on different modes on multidecadal timescales . While there is some support for this mode in models and in historical observations , controversy exists with regard to its amplitude , and in particular , the attribution of sea surface temperature change to natural or anthropogenic causes , especially in tropical Atlantic areas important for hurricane development .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Atlantic_multidecadal_oscillation", "rank": 42, "score": 101032 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 43, "score": 100891 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 44, "score": 100323 }, { "content": "Title: Year Content: A year is the orbital period of the Earth moving in its orbit around the Sun . Due to the Earth 's axial tilt , the course of a year sees the passing of the seasons , marked by changes in weather , the hours of daylight , and , consequently , vegetation and soil fertility . In temperate and subpolar regions around the globe , four seasons are generally recognized : spring , summer , autumn and winter . In tropical and subtropical regions several geographical sectors do not present defined seasons ; but in the seasonal tropics , the annual wet and dry seasons are recognized and tracked . A calendar year is an approximation of the number of days of the Earth 's orbital period as counted in a given calendar . The Gregorian , or modern , calendar , presents its calendar year to be either a common year of 365 days or a leap year of 366 days , as do the Julian calendars ; see below . For the Gregorian calendar the average length of the calendar year ( the mean year ) across the complete leap cycle of 400 years is 365.2425 days . The ISO standard ISO 80000-3 , Annex C , supports the symbol `` a '' ( for Latin annus ) to represent a year of either 365 or 366 days . In English , the abbreviations `` y '' and `` yr '' are commonly used . In astronomy , the Julian year is a unit of time ; it is defined as 365.25 days of exactly seconds ( SI base unit ) , totalling exactly seconds in the Julian astronomical year . The word `` year '' is also used for periods loosely associated with , but not identical to , the calendar or astronomical year , such as the seasonal year , the fiscal year , the academic year , etc. . Similarly , `` year '' can mean the orbital period of any planet : for example , a Martian year or a Venusian year are examples of the time a planet takes to transit one complete orbit . The term can also be used in reference to any long period or cycle , such as the Great Year .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Year", "rank": 45, "score": 100142 }, { "content": "Title: HD 209458 b Content: HD 209458 b ( sometimes unofficially called Osiris ) is an exoplanet that orbits the solar analog HD 209458 in the constellation Pegasus , some 150 light-years from the Solar System . The radius of the planet 's orbit is 7 million kilometres , about 0.047 astronomical units , or one eighth the radius of Mercury 's orbit . This small radius results in a year that is 3.5 Earth days long and an estimated surface temperature of about 1,000 ° C ( about 1,800 ° F ) . Its mass is 220 times that of Earth ( 0.69 Jupiter masses ) and its volume is some 2.5 times greater than that of Jupiter . The high mass and volume of HD 209458 b indicate that it is a gas giant . HD 209458 b represents a number of milestones in extraplanetary research . It was the first of many categories : a transiting extrasolar planet the first planet detected through more than one method an extrasolar planet known to have an atmosphere an extrasolar planet observed to have an evaporating hydrogen atmosphere an extrasolar planet found to have an atmosphere containing oxygen and carbon one of the first two extrasolar planets to be directly observed spectroscopically the first extrasolar gas giant to have its superstorm measured the first planet to have its orbital speed measured , determining its mass directly . Based on the application of new , theoretical models , as of April 2007 , it is alleged to be the first extrasolar planet found to have water vapor in its atmosphere . In July , 2014 , NASA announced finding very dry atmospheres on HD 209458 b and two other exoplanets ( HD 189733 b and WASP-12b ) orbiting Sun-like stars .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "HD_209458_b", "rank": 46, "score": 99937 }, { "content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period", "rank": 47, "score": 99839 }, { "content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event", "rank": 48, "score": 99558 }, { "content": "Title: Dansgaard–Oeschger event Content: Dansgaard -- Oeschger events ( often abbreviated D -- O events ) are rapid climate fluctuations that occurred 25 times during the last glacial period . Some scientists say that the events occur quasi-periodically with a recurrence time being a multiple of 1,470 years , but this is debated . The comparable climate cyclicity during the Holocene is referred to as Bond events .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Dansgaard–Oeschger_event", "rank": 49, "score": 99252 }, { "content": "Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Interglacial", "rank": 50, "score": 99190 }, { "content": "Title: Hirnantian Content: The Hirnantian is the seventh and final internationally recognized stage of the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era . It was of short duration , lasting about 1.9 million years , from to Ma ( million years ago ) . The early part of the Hirnantian was characterized by cold temperatures , major glaciation , and a severe drop in sea level . In the latter part of the Hirnantian , temperatures rose , the glaciers melted , and sea level returned to the same or to a slightly higher level than it had been prior to the glaciation . Most scientists believe that this climatic oscillation caused the major extinction event that took place during this time . In fact , the Hirnantian ( also known as the End Ordovician and the Ordovician-Silurian ) mass extinction event represents the second largest such event in geologic history . Approximately 85 % of marine ( sea-dwelling ) species died . Only the End Permian mass extinction was larger . Unlike many smaller extinction events , however , the long-term consequences of the End Ordovician event were relatively small . Following the climatic oscillation , the climate returned to its previous state , and the species that survived soon ( within two or three million years ) evolved into species very similar to the ones that existed before .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Hirnantian", "rank": 51, "score": 98549 }, { "content": "Title: Oscillating gene Content: In molecular biology , an oscillating gene is a gene that is expressed in a rhythmic pattern or in periodic cycles . Oscillating genes are usually circadian and can be identified by periodic changes in the state of an organism . Circadian rhythms , controlled by oscillating genes , have a period of approximately 24 hours . For example , plant leaves opening and closing at different times of the day or the sleep-wake schedule of animals can all include circadian rhythms . Other periods are also possible , such as 29.5 days resulting from circalunar rhythms or 12.4 hours resulting from circatidal rhythms . Oscillating genes include both core clock component genes and output genes . A core clock component gene is a gene necessary for to the pacemaker . However , an output oscillating gene , such as the AVP gene , is rhythmic but not necessary to the pacemaker .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Oscillating_gene", "rank": 52, "score": 97858 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal", "rank": 53, "score": 97756 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 54, "score": 97682 }, { "content": "Title: Solar-like oscillations Content: Solar-like oscillations are oscillations in distant stars that are excited in the same way as those in the Sun , namely by turbulent convection in its outer layers . Stars that show solar-like oscillations are called solar-like oscillators . The oscillations are standing pressure and mixed pressure-gravity modes that are excited over a range in frequency , with the amplitudes roughly following a bell-shaped distribution . Unlike opacity-driven oscillators , all the modes in the frequency range are excited , making the oscillations relatively easy to identify . The surface convection also damps the modes , and each is well-approximated in frequency space by a Lorentzian curve , the width of which corresponds to the lifetime of the mode : the faster it decays , the broader is the Lorentzian . All stars with surface convection zones are expected to show solar-like oscillations , including cool main-sequence stars ( up to surface temperatures of about 7000K ) , subgiants and red giants . Because of the small amplitudes of the oscillations , their study has advanced tremendously thanks to space-based missions ( mainly COROT and Kepler ) . Solar-like oscillations have been used , among other things , to precisely determine the masses and radii of planet-hosting stars and thus improve the measurements of the planets ' masses and radii . In red giants , mixed modes are observed , which are in part directly sensitive to the core properties of the star . These have been used to distinguish red giants burning helium in their cores from those that are still only burning hydrogen in a shell , to show that the cores of red giants are rotating more slowly than models predict and to constrain the internal magnetic fields of the cores", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Solar-like_oscillations", "rank": 55, "score": 97268 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling oscillation Content: The Bølling oscillation , also Bølling interstadial , was a warm interstadial period between the Oldest Dryas and Older Dryas stadials , at the end of the last glacial period . It is named after a peat sequence discovered at Bølling lake in central Jutland , Denmark . It is used to describe a period of time in relation to Pollen zone Ib -- in regions where the Older Dryas is not detected in climatological evidence , the Bølling-Allerød is considered a single interstadial period .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Bølling_oscillation", "rank": 56, "score": 97000 }, { "content": "Title: Subatlantic Content: The Subatlantic is the current climatic age of the Holocene epoch . It started at about 2,500 years BP and is still ongoing . Its average temperatures were slightly lower than during the preceding Subboreal and Atlantic . During its course the temperature underwent several oscillations which had a strong influence on fauna and flora and thus indirectly on the evolution of human civilizations . With intensifying industrialisation , human society started to stress the natural climatic cycles with increased greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Subatlantic", "rank": 57, "score": 96960 }, { "content": "Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "David_Karoly", "rank": 58, "score": 96925 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 59, "score": 96516 }, { "content": "Title: 160-minute solar cycle Content: The 160-minute solar cycle was an apparent periodic oscillation in the solar surface which was observed in a number of early sets of data collected for helioseismology . The presence of a 160 minute cycle in the Sun is not substantiated by contemporary solar observations , and the historical signal is considered by mainstream scientists to occur as the redistribution of power from the diurnal cycle as a result of the observation window and atmospheric extinction .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "160-minute_solar_cycle", "rank": 60, "score": 96513 }, { "content": "Title: James Hays Content: James D. Hays is a professor of Earth and environmental sciences at Columbia University 's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory . Hays founded and led the CLIMAP project , which collected sea floor sediment data to study surface sea temperatures and paleoclimatological conditions 18,000 years ago . Hays is probably best known as a co-author of the 1976 paper in Science , `` Variations in the Earth 's orbit : Pacemaker of the ice ages . '' Using ocean sediment cores , the Science paper verified the theories of Milutin Milanković that oscillations in climate can be correlated with Earth 's orbital variations of eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession around the Sun ( see Milankovitch cycles ) .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "James_Hays", "rank": 61, "score": 96178 }, { "content": "Title: Cool tropics paradox Content: The cool tropics paradox refers to an apparent difference between modeled estimates of tropical temperatures during warm , ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and Eocene , and the colder temperatures which proxies suggested were present . The long-standing paradox was resolved when novel proxy derived temperatures showed significantly warmer tropics during past greenhouse climates . The low-gradient problem , i.e. the very warm polar regions with respect to present day , is still an issue for state-of-the-art climate models .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Cool_tropics_paradox", "rank": 62, "score": 95994 }, { "content": "Title: Cool the Earth Content: Cool the Earth Inc. is a non-profit educational organization based in Northern California . The mission of Cool the Earth is to educate kids and their families about climate change and motivate them to take simple measurable actions at home to reduce their carbon emissions . Currently , the organization offers programming to over 100 elementary schools .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Cool_the_Earth", "rank": 63, "score": 95897 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 64, "score": 95755 }, { "content": "Title: Kepler-32 Content: Kepler-32 is an M-type main sequence star located about 1300 light years from Earth , in the constellation of Cygnus . Discovered in January 2012 by the Kepler spacecraft , it shows a 0.58 ± 0.05 solar mass , a 0.53 ± 0.04 solar radius , and temperature of 3900.0 K , making it half the mass and radius of the Sun , two-thirds its temperature and 5 % its luminosity . It initially was known to have at least 2 planets orbiting around it , the smaller Kepler-32b , orbiting its parent star every 5.90124 days , and Kepler-32c with an orbital period of 8.7522 days . In April 2013 , transit-timing variation analysis confirmed 3 other planets to be in the system . However , only very loose constraints of the maximum mass of the planets could be determined .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Kepler-32", "rank": 65, "score": 95655 }, { "content": "Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Future_of_Earth", "rank": 66, "score": 94858 }, { "content": "Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate", "rank": 67, "score": 94833 }, { "content": "Title: COROT-9b Content: COROT-9b is an exoplanet orbiting the star COROT-9 , approximately 1500 light years away in the constellation Serpens . COROT-9b 's distance of nearest approach to its parent star of approximately 0.36 AU is the largest of all known transiting planets , with an orbital period of 95 days . The transit of this planet lasts 8 hours . The planet is at a distance from its star where there is a strong increase in albedo as the temperature decreases , because of the condensation of reflective water clouds in the atmosphere . This suggests its atmosphere may be locked into one of two states : a cloudless state with temperatures between 380 K and 430 K , or covered in water clouds with a temperature in the range 250 K to 290 K.", "qid": "2939", "docid": "COROT-9b", "rank": 68, "score": 94359 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Uranus Content: The climate of Uranus is heavily influenced by both its lack of internal heat , which limits atmospheric activity , and by its extreme axial tilt , which induces intense seasonal variation . Uranus 's atmosphere is remarkably bland in comparison to the other gas giants which it otherwise closely resembles . When Voyager 2 flew by Uranus in 1986 , it observed a total of ten cloud features across the entire planet . Later observations from the ground or by the Hubble Space Telescope made in the 1990s and the 2000s revealed bright clouds in the northern ( winter ) hemisphere . In 2006 a dark spot similar to the Great Dark Spot on Neptune was detected .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Climate_of_Uranus", "rank": 69, "score": 94106 }, { "content": "Title: Venus Content: Venus is the second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellites . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4.6 , bright enough to cast shadows at night and , though rare , occasionally be visible in broad daylight . Because Venus orbits within Earth 's orbit it is an inferior planet and never appears to venture far from the Sun ; its maximum angular distance from the Sun ( elongation ) is 47.8 ° . Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth , or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System , with a mean surface temperature of 735 K , even though Mercury is closer to the Sun . Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid , preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light . It may have had water oceans in the past , but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect . The water has probably photodissociated , and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field . Venus 's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism . As one of the brightest objects in the sky , Venus has been a major fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed . It has been made sacred to gods of many cultures , and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the `` morning star '' and `` evening star '' . Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky , as early as the second millennium BC . As the closest planet to Earth , Venus has been a prime target for early interplanetary exploration . It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft ( Mariner 2 in 1962 ) , and the first to be successfully landed on ( by Venera 7 in 1970 ) . Venus 's thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light , and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991 . Plans have been proposed for rovers or more complex missions , but they are hindered by Venus 's hostile surface conditions .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Venus", "rank": 70, "score": 93984 }, { "content": "Title: 694 Ekard Content: 694 Ekard is a minor planet orbiting the Sun that was discovered by American astronomer Joel Hastings Metcalf on November 7 , 1909 . Photometric observations of this asteroid gave a light curve with a period of 5.925 hours and a brightness variation of 0.50 in magnitude . Measurements of the thermal inertia of 694 Ekard give a value of around 100 -- 140 J m − 2 K − 1 s − 1/2 , compared to 50 for lunar regolith and 400 for coarse sand in an atmosphere . 13-cm radar observations of this asteroid from the Arecibo Observatory between 1980 and 1985 were used to produce a diameter estimate of 101 km .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "694_Ekard", "rank": 71, "score": 93931 }, { "content": "Title: Milankovitch cycles Content: Milankovitch cycles describes the collective effects of changes in the Earth 's movements on its climate over thousands of years . The term is named after Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković . In the 1920s , he theorized that variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit resulted in cyclical variation in the solar radiation ( insolation ) reaching the Earth , and that this orbital forcing strongly influenced climatic patterns on Earth . The Earth 's orbit varies between nearly circular and mildly elliptical ( its eccentricity varies ) . When the orbit is more elongated , there is more variation in the distance between the Earth and the Sun , and in the amount of solar radiation , at different times in the year . In addition , the rotational tilt of the Earth ( its obliquity ) , which causes the seasons as the Earth revolves around the Sun , changes slightly . A greater tilt makes the seasons more extreme . Finally , the direction in the fixed stars pointed to by the Earth 's axis changes ( axial precession ) , while the Earth 's elliptical orbit around the Sun rotates ( apsidal precession ) . The combined effect of the two precessions is a cycle in which proximity to the Sun occurs during different astronomical seasons . If the Earth is closer to the Sun while the northern or southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun ( is in summer ) , then both effects work together to heat that hemisphere . If the Earth is further from the Sun during summer , the greater distance slightly reduces the heat of summer . Similar astronomical theories had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar , James Croll and others , but verification was difficult because there was no reliably dated evidence , and because it was unclear which periods were important . Now , materials on Earth that have been unchanged for millennia are being studied to indicate the history of Earth 's climate . A study of the chronology of Antarctic ice cores using oxygen-nitrogen ratios in air bubbles trapped in the ice , which appear to respond directly to the local insolation , concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis . Analysis of deep-ocean cores and a seminal paper by Hays , Imbrie , and Shackleton provide additional validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis through physical artifacts . However , there are still several observations that the hypothesis does not explain .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Milankovitch_cycles", "rank": 72, "score": 93921 }, { "content": "Title: GD 66 Content: GD 66 or V361 Aurigae is a 0.64 solar mass pulsating white dwarf star located 170 light years from Earth in the Auriga constellation . The estimated cooling age of the white dwarf is 500 million years . Models of the relationship between the initial mass of a star and its final mass as a white dwarf star suggest that when the star was on the main sequence it had a mass of approximately 2.5 , which implies its lifetime was around 830 million years . The total age of the star is thus estimated to be in the range 1.2 to 1.7 billion years . The star is a pulsating white dwarf of type DAV , with an extremely stable period . Small variations in the phase of pulsation led to the suggestion that the star was being orbited by a giant planet which caused the pulsations to be delayed due to the varying distance to the star caused by the reflex motion about the system 's centre-of-mass . Observations with the Spitzer Space Telescope failed to directly detect the planet , which put an upper limit on the mass of 5 -- 6 Jupiter masses . Investigation of a separate pulsation mode revealed timing variations in antiphase with the variations in the originally-analysed pulsation mode . This would not be the case if the variations were caused by an orbiting planet , and thus the timing variations must have a different cause . This illustrates the potential dangers of attempting to detect planets by white dwarf pulsation timing .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "GD_66", "rank": 73, "score": 93658 }, { "content": "Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Anti-greenhouse_effect", "rank": 74, "score": 93551 }, { "content": "Title: Teleconnection Content: Teleconnection in atmospheric science refers to climate anomalies being related to each other at large distances ( typically thousands of kilometers ) . The most emblematic teleconnection is that linking sea-level pressure at Tahiti and Darwin , Australia , which defines the Southern Oscillation .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Teleconnection", "rank": 75, "score": 93437 }, { "content": "Title: Holocene climatic optimum Content: The Holocene Climate Optimum ( HCO ) was a warm period during roughly the interval 9,000 to 5,000 years BP . This event has also been known by many other names , including : Hypsithermal , Altithermal , Climatic Optimum , Holocene Optimum , Holocene Thermal Maximum , and Holocene Megathermal . This warm period was followed by a gradual decline until about two millennia ago . For other temperature fluctuations see : Temperature record For other past climate fluctuation see : Paleoclimatology For the pollen zone and Blytt-Sernander period associated with the climate optimum , see : Atlantic ( period )", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Holocene_climatic_optimum", "rank": 76, "score": 93323 }, { "content": "Title: HD 212301 b Content: HD 212301 b is an extrasolar planet located approximately 172 light-years ( 53 parsecs ) away in the constellation of Octans , orbiting the star HD 212301 . It has an orbital period of 2.25 Earth days . The orbital distance is 0.0341 astronomical units or 5.10 gigameters . On August 22 , 2005 , taking place in ESO La Silla Observatory in Chile , the planet was discovered by Lo Curto who used the HARPS spectrometer .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "HD_212301_b", "rank": 77, "score": 93220 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 78, "score": 93164 }, { "content": "Title: Bond event Content: Bond events are North Atlantic ice rafting events that are tentatively linked to climate fluctuations in the Holocene . Eight such events have been identified . Bond events were previously believed to exhibit a quasi ~ 1,500-year cycle , but the primary period of variability is now put at ~ 1,000 years . Gerard C. Bond of the Lamont -- Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University was the lead author of the 1997 paper that postulated the theory of 1470-year climate cycles in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic . However , more recent work has shown that these tracers provide little support for 1,500-year intervals of climate change , and the reported ~ 1,500 ± 500-year period was a statistical artifact . Furthermore , following publication of the Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2005 ( GICC05 ) for the North GRIP ice core , it became clear that Dansgaar-Oescher Events also show no such a pattern . The North Atlantic ice-rafting events happen to correlate with episodes of lowered lake levels in the Mid-Atlantic region , USA , the most weak events of the Asian monsoon for at least the past 9,000 years , and also correlate with most aridification events in the Middle East for the past 55,000 years ( both Heinrich and Bond events ) . For reasons that are unclear , the only Holocene Bond event that has a clear temperature signal in the Greenland ice cores is the 8.2 kyr event .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Bond_event", "rank": 79, "score": 92930 }, { "content": "Title: Cool early Earth Content: The cool early Earth ( CEE ) theory posits that for part of the Hadean geological eon , at the beginning of the Earth 's history , it had a modest influx of bolides and a cool climate , allowing the presence of liquid water . This would have been after the extreme conditions of earth 's earliest history between 4.6 and 4.4 billion years ( Ga ) ago , but before the Late Heavy Bombardment of 4.1 to 3.8 Ga ago . In 2002 John Valley et al argued that detrital zircons found in Western Australia , dating to 4.0 -- 4.4 Ga ago , were formed at relatively low temperatures , that meteorite impacts may have been less frequent than previously thought , and that the earth may have gone through long periods when liquid oceans and life were possible . In 2016 Gavin Kenny et al replied to suggestions that zircons were formed by melting during tectonic subduction at plate boundaries , and argued that at least some of them were formed by meteorite impacts .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Cool_early_Earth", "rank": 80, "score": 92607 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 81, "score": 92472 }, { "content": "Title: North Atlantic oscillation Content: The North Atlantic Oscillation ( NAO ) is a weather phenomenon in the North Atlantic Ocean of fluctuations in the difference of atmospheric pressure at sea level ( SLP ) between the Icelandic low and the Azores high . Through fluctuations in the strength of the Icelandic low and the Azores high , it controls the strength and direction of westerly winds and location of storm tracks across the North Atlantic . It is part of the Arctic oscillation , and varies over time with no particular periodicity . The NAO was discovered through several studies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Unlike the El Niño-Southern Oscillation phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean , the NAO is a largely atmospheric mode . It is one of the most important manifestations of climate fluctuations in the North Atlantic and surrounding humid climates . The North Atlantic Oscillation is closely related to the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) or Northern Annular Mode ( NAM ) , but should not be confused with the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "North_Atlantic_oscillation", "rank": 82, "score": 92419 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 83, "score": 92307 }, { "content": "Title: Orbital effects on climate Content: There are various solar/celestial effects that exist which have an effect on Earth 's climate . These effects usually occur in cycles , and primarily include how Earth 's obliquity , the eccentricity of Earth 's orbit , and the precession of the equinoxes and solstices affect Earth 's climate . In addition to these effects , there are also other factors that have an effect on Earth 's climate . These other factors include how sun activity affects climate and how celestial phenomena , such as meteors , affect Earth 's climate . Some of these factors are n't yet well understood , for instance the ice ages occur on 100,000 year cycles , and it 's not completely understood why the various effects with this periodicity have such a strong effect on glaciation ( see the 100,000-year problem ) .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Orbital_effects_on_climate", "rank": 84, "score": 91996 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Content: Climate is the statistics of weather , usually over a 30-year interval . It is measured by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature , humidity , atmospheric pressure , wind , precipitation , atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time . Climate differs from weather , in that weather only describes the short-term conditions of these variables in a given region . A region 's climate is generated by the climate system , which has five components : atmosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , lithosphere , and biosphere . The climate of a location is affected by its latitude , terrain , and altitude , as well as nearby water bodies and their currents . Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables , most commonly temperature and precipitation . The most commonly used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification . The Thornthwaite system , in use since 1948 , incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it . The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region . Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates . Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century , paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores , and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral . Climate models are mathematical models of past , present and future climates . Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors ; recent warming is discussed in global warming . Global warming results in redistributions . For example , `` a 3 ° C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 -- 400 km in latitude ( in the temperate zone ) or 500 m in elevation . Therefore , species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones '' .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Climate", "rank": 85, "score": 91990 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic oscillation Content: The Antarctic oscillation ( AAO , to distinguish it from the Arctic oscillation or AO ) is a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the southern hemisphere . It is also known as the Southern Annular Mode ( SAM ) . It is defined as a belt of westerly winds or low pressure surrounding Antarctica which moves north or south as its mode of variability . In its positive phase , the westerly wind belt contracts towards Antarctica , while its negative phase involves this belt moving towards the Equator . In 2014 , Dr Nerilie Abram used a network of temperature-sensitive ice core and tree growth records to reconstruct a 1000-year history of the Southern Annular Mode . This work suggests that the Southern Annular Mode is currently in its most extreme positive phase over at least the last 1000 years , and that recent positive trends in the SAM are attributed to increasing greenhouse gas levels and later stratospheric ozone depletion .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Antarctic_oscillation", "rank": 86, "score": 91933 }, { "content": "Title: La Niña Content: La Niña ( -LSB- lɑːˈniːnjə -RSB- , -LSB- la ˈniɲa -RSB- ) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon that is the counterpart of El Niño as part of the broader El Niño -- Southern Oscillation climate pattern . The name La Niña originates from Spanish , meaning `` the little girl '' , analogous to El Niño meaning `` the little boy '' . It has also in the past been called anti-El Niño , and El Viejo ( meaning `` the old man '' ) . During a period of La Niña , the sea surface temperature across the equatorial Eastern Central Pacific Ocean will be lower than normal by 3 to 5 ° C . In the United States , an appearance of La Niña persists for at least five months . It has extensive effects on the weather in North America , even affecting the Atlantic Hurricane Season .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "La_Niña", "rank": 87, "score": 91723 }, { "content": "Title: Climatological normal Content: Climatological normal is a 30-year average of a weather variable . Climatological normals are used as an average or baseline to evaluate climate events and provide context for year-to-year variability . Normals can be calculated for a variety of weather variables including temperature and precipitation and rely on data from weather stations . Variability from the 30-year averages is typical and climate variability looks at the magnitude of extremes .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Climatological_normal", "rank": 88, "score": 91654 }, { "content": "Title: Orbital forcing Content: Orbital forcing is the effect on climate of slow changes in the tilt of the Earth 's axis and shape of the orbit ( see Milankovitch cycles ) . These orbital changes change the total amount of sunlight reaching the Earth by up to 25 % at mid-latitudes ( from 400 to 500 Wm − 2 at latitudes of 60 degrees ) . In this context , the term `` forcing '' signifies a physical process that affects the Earth 's climate . This mechanism is believed to be responsible for the timing of the ice age cycles . A strict application of the Milankovitch theory does not allow the prediction of a `` sudden '' ice age ( rapid being anything under a century or two ) , since the fastest orbital period is about 20,000 years . The timing of past glacial periods coincides very well with the predictions of the Milankovitch theory , and these effects can be calculated into the future .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Orbital_forcing", "rank": 89, "score": 91386 }, { "content": "Title: El Niño Content: El Niño -LSB- ɛl_ˈniːnjoʊ -RSB- ( -LSB- el ˈniɲo -RSB- ) is the warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation ( commonly called ENSO ) and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific ( between approximately the International Date Line and 120 ° W ) , including off the Pacific coast of South America . El Niño Southern Oscillation refers to the cycle of warm and cold temperatures , as measured by sea surface temperature , SST , of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean . El Niño is accompanied by high air pressure in the western Pacific and low air pressure in the eastern Pacific . The cool phase of ENSO is called `` La Niña '' with SST in the eastern Pacific below average and air pressures high in the eastern and low in western Pacific . The ENSO cycle , both El Niño and La Niña , cause global changes of both temperatures and rainfall . Developing countries that are dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are usually most affected . In American Spanish , the capitalized term `` El Niño '' refers to `` the little boy '' , so named because the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest around Christmas . The original name , `` El Niño de Navidad '' , traces its origin centuries back to Peruvian fisherman , who named the weather phenomenon in reference to the newborn Christ . `` La Niña '' , chosen as the ` opposite ' of El Niño , literally translates to `` the little girl '' .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "El_Niño", "rank": 90, "score": 91307 }, { "content": "Title: Planet Relief Content: Planet Relief was a proposed BBC television special dealing with the issue of global warming , originally scheduled for broadcast in January 2008 . The programme , which had been in development for 18 months , was meant to be similar to previous BBC programmes such as Comic Relief and Sport Relief . However , it was cancelled before it was broadcast , allegedly because the BBC was concerned that it would be `` biased '' towards promoting responses based on acceptance of mainstream climate change science .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Planet_Relief", "rank": 91, "score": 91203 }, { "content": "Title: CVSO 30 Content: CVSO 30 ( PTFO 8-8695 ) is a star , located in constellation Orion at 1200 light years from Earth away with two candidate planets ( CVSO 30 b and CVSO 30 c ) . Both candidate planets are gas giants . It is the first star around which potential planets have been found both by the transit method and by direct imaging . CVSO 30 b is calculated to have a period of 10.76 hours ( 0.008 AU ) and CVSO 30 c a period of 27,000 years ( 660 AU ) . B is a Hot Jupiter candidate planet orbiting the T Tauri star , with 6.2 Jupiter masses . Direct imaging of CVSO 30 c , with 4.7 Jupiter masses , has been achieved through photometric and spectroscopic high contrast observations carried out with the Very Large Telescope located in Chile , the Keck Observatory in Hawaii and the Calar Alto Observatory in Spain .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "CVSO_30", "rank": 92, "score": 91137 }, { "content": "Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "1997–98_El_Niño_event", "rank": 93, "score": 91020 }, { "content": "Title: Rapidly oscillating Ap star Content: Rapidly oscillating Ap stars ( roAp stars ) are a subtype of the Ap star class that exhibit short-timescale rapid photometric or radial velocity variations . The known periods range between 5 and 23 minutes . They lie in the δ Scuti instability strip on the main sequence .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Rapidly_oscillating_Ap_star", "rank": 94, "score": 90707 }, { "content": "Title: Marine isotope stage Content: Marine isotope stages ( MIS ) , marine oxygen-isotope stages , or oxygen isotope stages ( OIS ) , are alternating warm and cool periods in the Earth 's paleoclimate , deduced from oxygen isotope data reflecting changes in temperature derived from data from deep sea core samples . Working backwards from the present , which is MIS 1 in the scale , stages with even numbers have high levels of oxygen-18 and represent cold glacial periods , while the odd-numbered stages are troughs in the oxygen-18 figures , representing warm interglacial intervals . The data are derived from pollen and foraminifera ( plankton ) remains in drilled marine sediment cores , sapropels , and other data that reflect historic climate ; these are called proxies . The MIS timescale was developed from the pioneering work of Cesare Emiliani in the 1950s , and is now widely used in archaeology and other fields to express dating in the Quaternary period ( the last 2.6 million years ) , as well as providing the fullest and best data for that period for paleoclimatology or the study of the early climate of the Earth , representing `` the standard to which we correlate other Quaternary climate records '' . Emiliani 's work in turn depended on Harold Urey 's prediction in a paper of 1947 that the ratio between oxygen-18 and oxygen-16 isotopes in calcite , the main chemical component of the shells and other hard parts of a wide range of marine organisms , should vary depending on the prevailing water temperature in which the calcite was formed . Over 100 stages have been identified , going currently back some 6 million years , and the scale may in future reach back up to 15 mya . Some stages , in particular MIS 5 , are divided into sub-stages , such as `` MIS 5a '' , with 5 a , c , and e being warm and b and d cold . A numeric system for referring to `` horizons '' ( events rather than periods ) may also be used , with for example MIS 5.5 representing the peak point of MIS 5e , and 5.51 , 5.52 etc. representing the peaks and troughs of the record at a still more detailed level . For more recent periods , increasingly precise resolution of timing continues to be developed .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Marine_isotope_stage", "rank": 95, "score": 90531 }, { "content": "Title: John Michael Wallace Content: John Michael Wallace ( born October 28 , 1940 ) , is a professor of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Washington , as well as the former director of the Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean ( JISAO ) -- a joint research venture between the University of Washington and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research concerns understanding global climate and its variations using observations and covers the quasi biennial oscillation , Pacific decadal oscillation and the annular modes of the Arctic oscillation and the Antarctic oscillation , and the dominant spatial patterns in month-to-month and year-to-year climate variability , including the one through which El Niño phenomenon in the tropical Pacific influences climate over North America . He is also the coauthor with Peter V. Hobbs of what is generally considered the standard introductory textbook in the field : Atmospheric Science : An Introductory Survey . He was the third most cited geoscientist during the period 1973 -- 2007 .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "John_Michael_Wallace", "rank": 96, "score": 90528 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 97, "score": 90492 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Asia Content: The Climate of Asia is wet across southeast sections , and dry across much of the interior . Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia . The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections , due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer . Southwestern sections of the continent experience low relief as a result of the subtropical high pressure belt ; they are hot in the summer , warm to cool in winter , and may snow at higher altitudes . Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere , and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America . The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan , and the phase of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation modulates where in Asia landfall is more likely to occur ,", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Climate_of_Asia", "rank": 98, "score": 90094 }, { "content": "Title: Kepler-90e Content: Kepler-90e is a hot Neptune with a temperature of 448 K. Its orbital period is about 91.93913 days . It orbits at 0.42 AU from Kepler-90 . Its radius is 0.238 times that of Jupiter .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Kepler-90e", "rank": 99, "score": 90003 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2939", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 100, "score": 89880 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 1, "score": 173050 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 2, "score": 167368 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 3, "score": 164958 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 4, "score": 163426 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 5, "score": 159583 }, { "content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason", "rank": 6, "score": 158683 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 7, "score": 149502 }, { "content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Climate_risk", "rank": 8, "score": 148018 }, { "content": "Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Long-term_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 9, "score": 147064 }, { "content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Reasons_for_concern", "rank": 10, "score": 144677 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 11, "score": 143339 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 12, "score": 142394 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 13, "score": 141911 }, { "content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory", "rank": 14, "score": 140160 }, { "content": "Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 15, "score": 139478 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 16, "score": 139432 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''", "qid": "2940", "docid": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 17, "score": 138608 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report", "rank": 18, "score": 135383 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 19, "score": 135228 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow", "rank": 20, "score": 134194 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program", "rank": 21, "score": 133875 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 22, "score": 133691 }, { "content": "Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera", "rank": 23, "score": 133567 }, { "content": "Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Vicky_Pope", "rank": 24, "score": 132246 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 25, "score": 131999 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 26, "score": 130774 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 27, "score": 129905 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy", "rank": 28, "score": 129717 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 29, "score": 127090 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 30, "score": 126826 }, { "content": "Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Kevin_E._Trenberth", "rank": 31, "score": 126137 }, { "content": "Title: Yuri Izrael Content: Yuri Antonovich Izrael ( Юрий Антониевич Израэль 15 May 1930 , Tashkent -- 23 January 2014 , Moscow ) was a vice-chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) until September 2008 , when the new bureau was elected . He was the `` most influential scientific adviser '' for Vladimir Putin , the former president of Russia , according to CNN . Izrael was former chairman of the Committee for Hydrometeorology . He also served as director of the Institute of Global Climate and Ecology , which is a part of the Russian Academy of Sciences . He was a first vice-president of the World Meteorological Organization and helped develop the World Weather Watch . In 1992 , Izrael won the International Meteorological Organization Prize and the UNEP Sasakawa Environment Prize for , among other accomplishments , contributing to the `` success of Working Group I I '' of the IPCC .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Yuri_Izrael", "rank": 32, "score": 125547 }, { "content": "Title: Bert Bolin Content: Bert Rickard Johannes Bolin ( -LSB- bæʈː bʊliːn -RSB- ; 15 May 1925 -- 30 December 2007 ) was a Swedish meteorologist who served as the first chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , from 1988 to 1997 . He was professor of meteorology at Stockholm University from 1961 until his retirement in 1990 .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Bert_Bolin", "rank": 33, "score": 124359 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 34, "score": 124314 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Second Assessment Report Content: The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report", "rank": 35, "score": 123894 }, { "content": "Title: Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Content: The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports", "rank": 36, "score": 123850 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Roger_Pulwarty", "rank": 37, "score": 123705 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 38, "score": 121706 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation Content: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) published a special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) on May 9 , 2011 . The report developed under the leadership of Ottmar Edenhofer evaluates the global potential for using renewable energy to mitigate climate change . This IPCC special report provides broader coverage of renewable energy than was included in the IPCC 's 2007 climate change assessment report , as well as stronger renewable energy policy coverage . Renewable energy can contribute to `` social and economic development , energy access , secure energy supply , climate change mitigation , and the reduction of negative environmental and health impacts '' . Under favourable circumstances , cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Renewable_Energy_Sources_and_Climate_Change_Mitigation", "rank": 39, "score": 120769 }, { "content": "Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy", "rank": 40, "score": 119532 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 41, "score": 119434 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions Content: Climate Change : Global Risks , Challenges and Decisions was a conference on Climate Change held at the Bella Center by the University of Copenhagen . The event was organised with the assistance of other universities in the International Alliance of Research Universities . The stated aim of the conference was to provide `` a summary of existing scientific knowledge two years after the last IPCC report . '' The conference took place on 10 -- 12 March 2009 .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Climate_Change:_Global_Risks,_Challenges_and_Decisions", "rank": 42, "score": 118851 }, { "content": "Title: HadGEM1 Content: HadGEM1 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model , version 1 ) is a coupled climate model developed at the Met Office 's Hadley Centre in 2006 and used in IPCC Fourth Assessment Report on climate change . It represents a significant scientific advance on its predecessor , HadCM3 . HadGEM1 also provides a basis for further development of models , particularly involving enhanced resolution and full Earth System modelling . The current version is HadGEM3 .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "HadGEM1", "rank": 43, "score": 118737 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature Content: In its AR4 , WG1 report , Chapter3 , the IPCC explains global temperature in these words :", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Global_temperature", "rank": 44, "score": 117555 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 45, "score": 117014 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992", "rank": 46, "score": 116571 }, { "content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "North_Report", "rank": 47, "score": 116298 }, { "content": "Title: Global Climate Coalition Content: The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 -- 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Global_Climate_Coalition", "rank": 48, "score": 115879 }, { "content": "Title: Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change Content: The Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change ( or CSCCC ) is an entity that maintains a website and describes itself as a global group of non-profit organizations with a mission of `` seek -LSB- ing -RSB- to educate the public about the science and economics of climate change in an impartial manner . '' The Coalition identifies its membership as including 60 independent nonprofit organisations from 40 countries `` who share a commitment to improving public understanding about a range of public policy issues . '' It calls itself `` a free-market alternative to mainstream environmentalism . '' An Indian news media report states that it was founded by the International Policy Network , a London-based organization that receives support from Exxon Mobil . The group publishes background papers and opinion editorials on the science and economics of climate change and maintains a blog . Its Civil Society Report on Climate Change was published in 2007 , shortly before the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change conference in Bali . CSCCC experts make media appearances , such as Julian Morris 's 2007 feature on Larry King Live and his televised debate in 2008 with IPCC head Rajendra Pachauri . This IPN in the UK has Julian Morris as Executive Director . It is actually a part of the Atlas Group/Network ( aka Atlas Economic Research Institute ) which was founded by UK factory-chicken king , Sir Antony Fisher ( one of PM Margaret Thatcher 's economic gurus ) and American Loctite millionaire Richard Krieble . They had funding support from Krieble , Richard Mellon Scaife , and Philip Morris . Fisher is reputed to have had a primary hand in establishing up to 150 libertarian think-tanks around the world . Fisher 's daughter , Linda Whetstone , now works for the ( Fisher-founded ) Adam Smith Institute . She is also the chairperson of the International Policy Network , and is on the Boards of Directors of the Mont Pelerin Society , the Institute of Economic Affairs and the Atlas Group in the USA . Coalitions and networks of this kind a common with Atlas Group think-tanks , and many of their key staff and directors serve on many different organisations . This faux-multiplicity amplifies the apparent strength of the public attacks on climate-change science . See also the Stockholm Network . and", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Civil_Society_Coalition_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 49, "score": 115721 }, { "content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Deglaciation", "rank": 50, "score": 115636 }, { "content": "Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 51, "score": 115476 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change adaptation in Nepal Content: Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal", "rank": 52, "score": 115278 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 53, "score": 113973 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect", "rank": 54, "score": 113808 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act", "rank": 55, "score": 113329 }, { "content": "Title: John Zillman Content: John W. Zillman AO ( born 28 July 1939 ) is an Australian meteorologist , and former President of the World Meteorological Organization and the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering ( ATSE ) . He was born and was educated in Brisbane , Queensland . Through his leadership in professional organizations and advisory groups , Zillman has contributed to shaping science and innovation policy in Australia . More widely , he has contributed to raising awareness to the consequences of global climate change through involvement in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "John_Zillman", "rank": 56, "score": 113140 }, { "content": "Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Seita_Emori", "rank": 57, "score": 112709 }, { "content": "Title: Rajendra K. Pachauri Content: Rajendra Kumar Pachauri ( born 20 August 1940 ) was the chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He held the post from 2002 until his resignation in 2015 , during which time the organization was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . He resigned from IPCC in February 2015 . Following a media trial , The Energy and Resources Institute ( TERI ) Governing Council asked him to step down from the post of Director-General of the institute . The Governing Council of TERI in a meeting in February 2016 appointed Ashok Chawla , a Gujarat cadre Indian Administrative Service Office who was former Union Finance Secretary and former Chairman of the Competition Commission , as its new chairman . Ajay Mathur , a technocrat in the Bureau of Energy Efficiency , was appointed as the Director General of TERI by the Governing Council in July 2015 .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Rajendra_K._Pachauri", "rank": 58, "score": 112650 }, { "content": "Title: Patrick Michaels Content: Patrick J. ( `` Pat '' ) Michaels ( born February 15 , 1950 ) is an American climatologist . Michaels is a senior fellow in environmental studies at the Cato Institute . Until 2007 he was research professor of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia , where he had worked from 1980 . A self-described skeptic on the issue of global warming , he is a past president of the American Association of State Climatologists . He has written a number of books and papers on climate change , including Sound and Fury : The Science and Politics of Global Warming ( 1992 ) , The Satanic Gases ( 2000 ) , and Meltdown : The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by Scientists , Politicians , and the Media ( 2004 ) . He 's also the co-author of Climate of Extremes : Global Warming Science They Do n't Want You to Know ( 2009 ) . Michaels ' viewpoint , as argued in a 2002 article in the journal Climate Research , is that the planet will see `` a warming range of 1.3 -- 3.0 ° C , with a central value of 1.9 ° C '' for the 1990 to 2100 period ( an analysis far smaller than the IPCC 's average predictions ) .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Patrick_Michaels", "rank": 59, "score": 112319 }, { "content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years", "rank": 60, "score": 111498 }, { "content": "Title: Physical impacts of climate change Content: This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Physical_impacts_of_climate_change", "rank": 61, "score": 111280 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 62, "score": 111094 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC (disambiguation) Content: IPCC may refer to : Independent Police Complaints Commission of England and Wales Independent Police Complaints Council of Hong Kong Integrated Professional Competency Course , a course of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations . Interworld Police Coordinating Company , a fictional organization in Jack Vance 's novels Irish Peatland Conservation Council", "qid": "2940", "docid": "IPCC_(disambiguation)", "rank": 63, "score": 110931 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Summary for Policymakers Content: The Summary for policymakers ( SPM ) is a summary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports intended to aid policymakers . The form is approved line by line by governments : `` Negotiations occur over wording to ensure accuracy , balance , clarity of message , and relevance to understanding and policy . ''", "qid": "2940", "docid": "IPCC_Summary_for_Policymakers", "rank": 64, "score": 109989 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change acronyms Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Climate_change_acronyms", "rank": 65, "score": 109980 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy", "rank": 66, "score": 109935 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 67, "score": 109505 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 68, "score": 109166 }, { "content": "Title: Richard A. Betts Content: Richard A. Betts is Head of the Climate Impacts strategic area at the Met Office Hadley Centre in Exeter , United Kingdom . He is also Chair in Climate Impacts at the University of Exeter and the Principal Investigator of the EU FP7 project HELIX ( High-End cLimate Impacts and eXtremes ) . He was a lead author for Working Group I and a contributing author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He was a lead author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is an editor for the International Journal of Global Warming , the Journal of Environmental Investing , and for Earth System Dynamics . After studying physics at the University of Bristol , Betts switched to meteorology at the University of Birmingham and then studied for a doctorate in meteorology at the University of Reading . He is noted for engaging with critics of climate science on Twitter and was selected by TIME as one of the 140 best Twitter feeds of 2012 .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Richard_A._Betts", "rank": 69, "score": 108578 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina", "rank": 70, "score": 108156 }, { "content": "Title: Ismail El Gizouli Content: Ismail Abdel Rahim El Gizouli is a Sudanese civil servant specializing in energy and environment and a member of the bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He has acted as interim chairman of the IPCC since 24 February 2015 , following the resignation of Rajendra Kumar Pachauri . This appointment will last until the next election for a chairman , which is due to take place at the 42nd session in October 2015 .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Ismail_El_Gizouli", "rank": 71, "score": 108079 }, { "content": "Title: Bert Metz Content: Bert Metz ( born 15 August 1945 , The Hague ) is a Dutch climate policy expert . He was Co-chair of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group III on mitigation on climate change for the third and fourth assessment report of the IPCC . Currently he is a fellow at the european climate foundation . Metz obtained an Engineer 's degree in Chemical Engineering at Delft University of Technology and subsequently his Ph.D. degree at the same university . From 1976 to 1987 he worked for Dutch Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment in the fields of air pollution , external safety , noise pollution , chemical waste and the enforcement of environmental laws . From 1987 until 1992 he was Counsellor for Health and Environment at the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Washington DC . In 1992 he became Deputy Director for Air and Energy of the Netherlands Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment , with responsibility for climate policy . He led the Netherlands delegation to the negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the Climate Convention . In 1997 he moved to the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency at RIVM to head the group on climate change and global sustainability and was elected as co-chairman of the Working Group on Climate Change Mitigation of the IPCC for the preparation of the Third Assessment Report . In 2002 he was re-elected in that position for the 4th Assessment Report cycle . Although formally retired , Bert Metz is still very active in the climate policy arena , among others as advisor for the European Climate Foundation and as steering group member of UNEP 's annual Emissions Gap Report . In 2008 he was named Officer in the Order of Orange-Nassau . .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Bert_Metz", "rank": 72, "score": 108031 }, { "content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event", "rank": 73, "score": 107962 }, { "content": "Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :", "qid": "2940", "docid": "List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis", "rank": 74, "score": 107906 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 75, "score": 107612 }, { "content": "Title: Subtropical Countercurrent Content: The subtropical countercurrent ( STCC ) is a narrow eastward ocean current in the central North Pacific Ocean ( 20 -- 30 ° N ) where the Sverdrup theory predicts a broad westward flow . It originates in the western North Pacific around 20 ° N , and flows eastward against the northeast trade winds and stretches northeastward to the north of Hawaii . It is accompanied by a subsurface temperature and density front called the subtropical front , in thermal wind relation with the STCC . Furthermore , the STCC maintains a sea surface temperature front during winter and spring . During April and May when the SST front is still strong , the seasonal warming makes the region conductive to atmospheric convection , and surface wind stress curls turn weakly positive along the front on the background of negative curls that drive the subtropical gyre . On the weather timescale , positive wind curls are related to low-pressure systems of a subsynoptic scale in space , energized by surface baroclinicity and latent heat release along the STF front . The SST front also anchors a meridional maximum in column-integrated water vapor , indicating a deep structure of the atmosphere response .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Subtropical_Countercurrent", "rank": 76, "score": 107556 }, { "content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change", "rank": 77, "score": 107413 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 78, "score": 107329 }, { "content": "Title: The Weather of the Future Content: The Weather of the Future : Heat Waves , Extreme Storms , and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet ( ISBN 978-0-06-172688-0 ) is a 2010 book by climatologist Heidi Cullen . Cullen takes as her starting point the `` clear and present dangers '' posed by the greenhouse gases which result from the burning fossil fuels . She offers a vision of what life might be like in a warmer world . Cullen predicts `` more frequent and more violent storms , more hot spells , cold spells , droughts , famines and huge waves of desperate refugees '' .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "The_Weather_of_the_Future", "rank": 79, "score": 106774 }, { "content": "Title: Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions Content: Post-Kyoto negotiations refers to high level talks attempting to address global warming by limiting greenhouse gas emissions . Generally part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , these talks concern the period after the first `` commitment period '' of the Kyoto Protocol , which expired at the end of 2012 . Negotiations have been mandated by the adoption of the Bali Road Map and Decision 1/CP .13 ( `` The Bali Action Plan '' ) . UNFCCC negotiations are conducted within two subsidiary bodies , the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA ) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) and were expected to culminate in the United Nations Climate Change Conference taking place in December 2009 in Copenhagen ( COP-15 ) ; negotiations are supported by a number of external processes , including the G8 process , a number of regional meetings and the Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate that was launched by US President Barack Obama in March 2009 . High level talks were held at the meeting of the G8 +5 Climate Change Dialogue in February 2007 and at a number of subsequent G8 meetings , most recently leading to the adoption of the G8 leaders declaration `` Responsible Leadership for a Sustainable Future '' during the G8 summit in L ´ Aquila , Italy , in July 2009 .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Post–Kyoto_Protocol_negotiations_on_greenhouse_gas_emissions", "rank": 80, "score": 106555 }, { "content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment", "rank": 81, "score": 106163 }, { "content": "Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "John_T._Houghton", "rank": 82, "score": 106126 }, { "content": "Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "John_F._B._Mitchell", "rank": 83, "score": 105771 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 84, "score": 105594 }, { "content": "Title: American College & University Presidents' Climate Commitment Content: The American College & University Presidents ' Climate Commitment ( ACUPCC ) is a `` high-visibility effort '' to address global warming ( global climate disruption ) by creating a network of colleges and universities that have committed to neutralize their greenhouse gas emissions and accelerate the research and educational efforts of higher education to equip society to re-stabilize the earth 's climate . Second Nature is the main supporting organization of the ACUPCC .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "American_College_&_University_Presidents'_Climate_Commitment", "rank": 85, "score": 105589 }, { "content": "Title: Myron Ebell Content: Myron Ebell is Director of Global Warming and International Environmental Policy at the Competitive Enterprise Institute ( CEI ) , a libertarian advocacy group based in Washington , D.C. . He is also the chairman of the Cooler Heads Coalition , a loose coalition formed in 1997 which presents itself as `` focused on dispelling the myths of global warming by exposing flawed economic , scientific , and risk analysis '' . In these organizations , Ebell has been central in promoting climate change denial , distributing his views to the media and politicians . Ebell , who is not a scientist , has been described as a climate change skeptic , a climate contrarian and a climate change denier . In September 2016 , Ebell was appointed by then Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump to lead his transition team for the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Myron_Ebell", "rank": 86, "score": 105472 }, { "content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period", "rank": 87, "score": 105191 }, { "content": "Title: Campaign against Climate Change Content: The Campaign against Climate Change ( variously abbreviated to CCC or CaCC ) is a UK-based pressure group that aims to raise public awareness of anthropogenic climate change through mobilizing mass demonstrations . Founded in 2001 in response to President Bush 's rejection of the Kyoto Protocol , the organization saw a steady increase in attendance on marches before a sudden take-off in interest between October - December 2005 . An estimated 10,000 people attended a rally in London on December 3 , 2005 . The following year on November 4 , 2006 the Campaign organized a march from the US Embassy to the iCount event in Trafalgar Square . At least 25,000 people gathered in Trafalgar Square that day making it easily the biggest demonstration on climate change in the UK to date , until The Wave march in December 2009 . The December 3rd , 2005 protests were not confined to the UK , but formed part of the first Global Day of Action on Climate Change , in which CCC played a key role in co-ordinating . The demonstrations , in more than 30 countries around the world , were timed to coincide with the crucial Montreal Climate talks in Canada , at which preliminary agreements were made for a post-Kyoto treaty to take effect after 2012 . Outside Montreal itself , a crowd of between 25,000 - 40,000 gathered in a protest organized by the American-based Climate Crisis Coalition . The December 2006 protests again had an international flavour , with the London , UK protest attracting 10,000 participants . The Campaign against Climate Change has a network of local groups around the UK , which are currently in the process of being extended . On February 9 , 2008 the Campaign against Climate Change hosted a Trade Union conference on climate change . Over 300 delegates attended and heard speakers , including several Trade Union general secretaries or their deputies , from most of the major British unions . This conference was followed by two more Trade Union events in 2009 and 2010 . The campaign has also produced a report to a number of British Trade Union 's on `` One Million Climate Jobs '' . Arguing that direct government funding must be used to create jobs that can reduce Carbon emissions . CCC is an example of a growing number of climate-related environmental pressure groups that have developed during the last decade , including organizations like Rising Tide , Climaction and the coalition group Stop Climate Chaos , of which the Campaign against Climate Change is a member . CCC was heavily involved in the campaign against the closure of the Vestas Wind Turbine plant on the Isle of Wight and the occupation of the factory by the workers . The CCC was part of the mobilisations for the demonstrations that marked the United Nations talks on Climate Change in Copenhagen , in December 2009 .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Campaign_against_Climate_Change", "rank": 88, "score": 104677 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Global_cooling_(disambiguation)", "rank": 89, "score": 104253 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 90, "score": 103804 }, { "content": "Title: Arturo Villavicencio Content: Arturo Villavicencio is an Ecuadorian environmental researcher . He was nominated by Denmark in 1995 for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributed to its fourth assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Arturo_Villavicencio", "rank": 91, "score": 103801 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 92, "score": 103787 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios", "rank": 93, "score": 103695 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change adaptation Content: Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Climate_change_adaptation", "rank": 94, "score": 103279 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia", "rank": 95, "score": 102976 }, { "content": "Title: Representative Concentration Pathways Content: Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) are four greenhouse gas concentration ( not emissions ) trajectories adopted by the IPCC for its fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) in 2014 . It supersedes Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) projections published in 2000 . The pathways are used for climate modeling and research . They describe four possible climate futures , all of which are considered possible depending on how much greenhouse gases are emitted in the years to come . The four RCPs , RCP2 .6 , RCP4 .5 , RCP6 , and RCP8 .5 , are named after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values ( +2.6 , +4.5 , +6.0 , and +8.5 W/m2 , respectively ) .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Representative_Concentration_Pathways", "rank": 96, "score": 102537 }, { "content": "Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 97, "score": 102435 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea", "rank": 98, "score": 102065 }, { "content": "Title: Cool Globes: Hot Ideas for a Cooler Planet Content: Cool Globes : Hot Ideas for a Cooler Planet is a public art project dedicated to increasing awareness of global warming . A nonprofit corporation , `` Cool Globes : Hot Ideas for a Cooler Planet '' sponsored a Chicago public art exhibit of 125 5 ft globes decorated with solutions to global warming , placed in Grant Park near the Field Museum of Natural History , the Shedd Aquarium , and along the lakefront bike path during the summer of 2007 . The project is similar to the popular `` Cows on Parade '' exhibit of 1999 , but with a social conscience . The Cool Globes adopts the idea of Berlin 's town mascot ; the entailing United Buddy Bears exhibitions are very different from all other urban events . The bears were created by the German artists Klaus and Eva Herlitz . The idea and the philosophy behind the United Buddy Bears exhibitions are unique : with its international approach and its symbolism , this synthesis of the arts globally promotes tolerance , international understanding and a peaceful coexistence .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Cool_Globes:_Hot_Ideas_for_a_Cooler_Planet", "rank": 99, "score": 101858 }, { "content": "Title: Steve Running Content: Steven W. Running , ( born 1950 ) Regents Professor , Forest Ecology , College of Forestry & Conservation at the University of Montana , and Director of the Numerical Terradynamics Simulation Group , is responsible for developing the earth observing-oriented algorithms used by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) on board NASA 's satellites , Terra and Aqua . He continues to be the lead investigator on this project . Running 's MOD17 algorithms are used to provide accurate and continuous global monitoring of the terrestrial biosphere , specifically , generating near-real-time data sets for repeated monitoring of vegetation primary production on vegetated land at 1-km resolution at 8-day intervals . These datasets are unique in that they provide global data on primary productivity and span a decade . A recognized expert in global ecosystem monitoring , Running was invited to serve on the board of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . In 2007 , the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . Running made the following statement about winning the prize : `` We 've got to get past all the petty bickering and get to work . This is about a big transition for society over the next 50 years . The path we are on is unsustainable . What the Nobel committee is saying is that we 've got to wake up . We 've got to change the course of the whole world . '' Steve Running is co-author of the 2007 book , Forest Ecosystems , and has published over 240 scientific papers . In 2012 , Running suggested a tenth planetary boundary , the annual net global primary production of all terrestrial plants , as an easily determinable measure integrating many variables that will give `` a clear signal about the health of ecosystems '' .", "qid": "2940", "docid": "Steve_Running", "rank": 100, "score": 101755 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 1, "score": 209176 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 2, "score": 201304 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 3, "score": 175675 }, { "content": "Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "774–775_carbon-14_spike", "rank": 4, "score": 171565 }, { "content": "Title: Dole effect Content: The Dole effect , named after Malcolm Dole , describes an inequality in the ratio of the heavy isotope 18O ( a `` standard '' oxygen atom with two additional neutrons ) to the lighter 16O , measured in the atmosphere and seawater . This ratio is usually denoted δ18O . It was noticed in 1935 that air contained more 18O than seawater ; this was quantified in 1975 to 23.5 ‰ , but later refined as 23.88 ‰ in 2005 . The imbalance arises mainly as a result of respiration in plants and in animals . Due to thermodynamics of isotope reactions , respiration removes the lighter -- hence more reactive -- 16O in preference to 18O , increasing the relative amount of 18O in the atmosphere . The inequality is balanced by photosynthesis . Photosynthesis emits oxygen with the same isotopic composition ( i.e. the ratio between 18O and 16O ) as the water ( H2O ) used in the reaction , which is independent of the atmospheric ratio . Thus when atmospheric 18O levels are high enough , photosynthesis will act as a reducing factor . However , as a complicating factor , the degree of fractionation ( i.e. change in isotope ratio ) occurring due to photosynthesis is not entirely dependent on the water drawn up by the plant , as fractionation can occur as a result of preferential evaporation of and other small but significant processes .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Dole_effect", "rank": 5, "score": 168719 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 6, "score": 166374 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon trioxide Content: Carbon trioxide ( CO3 ) is an unstable oxide of carbon ( an oxocarbon ) . Three possible isomers of carbon trioxide , with molecular symmetry point groups Cs , D3h , and C2v , have been most studied by theoretical methods , and the C2v state has been shown to be the ground state of the molecule . Carbon trioxide should not be confused with the stable carbonate ion ( CO32 − ) . Carbon trioxide can be produced , for example , in the drift zone of a negative corona discharge by reactions between carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and the atomic oxygen ( O ) created from molecular oxygen by free electrons in the plasma . Another reported method is photolysis of ozone O3 dissolved in liquid CO2 , or in CO2/SF6 mixtures at -45 ° C , irradiated with light of 2537 Å . The formation of CO3 is inferred but it appears to decay spontaneously by the route 2CO3 → 2CO2 + O2 with a lifetime much shorter than 1 minute . Carbon trioxide can be made by blowing ozone at dry ice ( solid CO2 ) , and it has also been detected in reactions between carbon monoxide ( CO ) and molecular oxygen ( O2 ) .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon_trioxide", "rank": 7, "score": 163946 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 8, "score": 163645 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide", "rank": 9, "score": 162428 }, { "content": "Title: C3 carbon fixation Content: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "C3_carbon_fixation", "rank": 10, "score": 161396 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 11, "score": 156632 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 12, "score": 153491 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 13, "score": 153461 }, { "content": "Title: Respiratory acidosis Content: Respiratory acidosis is a medical emergency in which decreased ventilation ( hypoventilation ) increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and decreases the blood 's pH ( a condition generally called acidosis ) . Carbon dioxide is produced continuously as the body 's cells respire , and this CO2 will accumulate rapidly if the lungs do not adequately expel it through alveolar ventilation . Alveolar hypoventilation thus leads to an increased PaCO2 ( a condition called hypercapnia ) . The increase in PaCO2 in turn decreases the HCO3 − / PaCO2 ratio and decreases pH.", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Respiratory_acidosis", "rank": 14, "score": 150525 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon_monoxide", "rank": 15, "score": 149989 }, { "content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Revelle_factor", "rank": 16, "score": 148070 }, { "content": "Title: Δ13C Content: In geochemistry , paleoclimatology and paleoceanography δ13C ( pronounced `` delta thirteen c '' or `` delta carbon thirteen '' ) is an isotopic signature , a measure of the ratio of stable isotopes 13C : 12C , reported in parts per thousand ( per mil , ‰ ) . In geology , an increase in δ13C in marine fossils is associated with an increase in the abundance of vegetation . The definition is , in per mil : where the standard is an established reference material . δ13C varies in time as a function of productivity , organic carbon burial and vegetation type .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Δ13C", "rank": 17, "score": 146211 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon suboxide Content: Carbon suboxide , or tricarbon dioxide , is an oxide of carbon with chemical formula C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O . Its four cumulative double bonds make it a cumulene . It is one of the stable members of the series of linear oxocarbons O = Cn =O , which also includes carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and pentacarbon dioxide ( C5O2 ) . Although if carefully purified it can exist at room temperature in the dark without decomposing , it will polymerize under certain conditions . The substance was discovered in 1873 by Benjamin Brodie by subjecting carbon monoxide to an electric current . He claimed that the product was part of a series of `` oxycarbons '' with formulas Cx +1 Ox , namely C , C2O , C3O2 , C4O3 , C5O4 , ... , and to have identified the last two ; however only C3O2 is known . In 1891 Marcellin Berthelot observed that heating pure carbon monoxide at about 550 ° C created small amounts of carbon dioxide but no trace of carbon , and assumed that a carbon-rich oxide was created instead , which he named `` sub-oxide '' . He assumed it was the same product obtained by electric discharge and proposed the formula C2O . Otto Diels later stated that the more organic names dicarbonylmethane and dioxallene were also correct . It is commonly described as an oily liquid or gas at room temperature with an extremely noxious odor .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon_suboxide", "rank": 18, "score": 145314 }, { "content": "Title: 1,2-Dioxetanedione Content: The chemical compound 1,2-dioxetanedione , or 1,2-dioxacyclobutane-3 ,4 - dione , often called peroxyacid ester , is an unstable oxide of carbon ( an oxocarbon ) with formula C2O4 . It can be viewed as a double ketone of 1,2-dioxetane ( 1,2-dioxacyclobutane ) , or a cyclic dimer of carbon dioxide . In ordinary conditions , it quickly decomposes to carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) even at 180 K , but can be detected by mass spectrometry and other techniques . 1,2-Dioxetanedione is an intermediate in the chemoluminescent reactions used in glowsticks . The decomposition proceeds via a paramagnetic oxalate biradical intermediate . Recently it has been found that a high-energy intermediate in one of these reactions ( between oxalyl chloride and hydrogen peroxide in ethyl acetate ) , which is presumed to be 1,2-dioxetanedione , can accumulate in solution at room temperature ( up to a few micromoles at least ) , provided that the activating dye and all traces of metals and other reducing agents are removed from the system , and the reactions are carried out in an inert atmosphere .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "1,2-Dioxetanedione", "rank": 19, "score": 144967 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 20, "score": 143059 }, { "content": "Title: Oxocarbon Content: An oxocarbon or oxide of carbon is a chemical compound consisting only of carbon and oxygen . The simplest and most common oxocarbons are carbon monoxide ( CO ) and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Many other stable ( practically if not thermodynamically ) or metastable oxides of carbon are known , but they are rarely encountered , such as carbon suboxide ( C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O ) and mellitic anhydride ( C12O9 ) . While textbooks will often list only the first three , and rarely the fourth , a large number of other oxides are known today , most of them synthesized since the 1960s . Some of these new oxides are stable at room temperature . Some are metastable or stable only at very low temperatures , but decompose to simpler oxocarbons when warmed . Many are inherently unstable and can be observed only momentarily as intermediates in chemical reactions or are so reactive that they can exist only in the gas phase or under matrix isolation conditions . The inventory of oxocarbons appears to be steadily growing . The existence of graphene oxide and of other stable polymeric carbon oxides with unbounded molecular structures suggests that many more remain to be discovered .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Oxocarbon", "rank": 21, "score": 140564 }, { "content": "Title: Bomb pulse Content: The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Bomb_pulse", "rank": 22, "score": 138959 }, { "content": "Title: Airborne fraction Content: The airborne fraction is a scaling factor defined as the ratio of the annual increase in atmospheric to the emissions from anthropogenic sources . It represents the proportion of human emitted that remains in the atmosphere . The fraction averages about 45 % , meaning that approximately half the human-emitted is absorbed by ocean and land surfaces . There is some evidence for a recent increase in airborne fraction , which would imply a faster increase in atmospheric for a given rate of human fossil-fuel burning . However , other sources suggest that the `` fraction of carbon dioxide has not increased either during the past 150 years or during the most recent five decades '' . Changes in carbon sinks can affect the airborne fraction .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Airborne_fraction", "rank": 23, "score": 138567 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 24, "score": 136726 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 25, "score": 135838 }, { "content": "Title: C12 Content: C12 , C.XII or C-12 may be : C12 Workmen 's Compensation ( Agriculture ) Convention , 1921 C-12 Huron , a logistics support aircraft of the U.S. Military ( military versions of the Beechcraft Super King Air ) C-12 Vega , an early transport of the United States Army Air Corps Albatros C.XII , a World War I German military reconnaissance aircraft Autovia C-12 , a highway in Catalonia , Spain Cierva C. 12 , a 1927 British experimental autogyro HMS C12 , a British C class submarine of the Royal Navy JNR Class C12 , a class of Japanese steam locomotive Sauber C12 , a 1993 racing car Spyker C12 Zagato , a 2008 Dutch car USS Columbia ( C-12 ) , a light cruiser of the United States Navy C-12 : Final Resistance , a video game for PlayStation Caldwell 12 ( NGC 6946 , the Fireworks Galaxy ) , an intermediate spiral galaxy in the constellations Cepheus and Cygnus The 12th century and also : Carbon-12 , the most abundant stable isotope of carbon Malignant neoplasm of piriform sinus ICD-10 code Bill C-12 in Canadian law", "qid": "2942", "docid": "C12", "rank": 26, "score": 135466 }, { "content": "Title: 1,3-Dioxetanedione Content: The chemical compound 1,3-dioxetanedione , or 1,3-dioxacyclobutane-2 ,4 - dione is a hypothetical oxide of carbon with formula C2O4 . It can be considered a cyclic dimer of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) or as a double ketone of 1,3-dioxetane ( 1,3-dioxacyclobutane ) . Theoretical calculations indicate that the compound is extremely unstable at room temperature ( half-life of less than 1.1 μs ) ; but may be stable at − 196 ° C.", "qid": "2942", "docid": "1,3-Dioxetanedione", "rank": 27, "score": 134923 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 28, "score": 134393 }, { "content": "Title: Respiratory exchange ratio Content: The respiratory exchange ratio ( RER ) is the ratio between the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) produced in metabolism and oxygen ( O2 ) used . Humans typically inhale more molecules of oxygen than they exhale of carbon dioxide because air contains much more oxygen by volume . The ratio is determined by comparing exhaled gases to room air . Measuring this ratio can be used for estimating the respiratory quotient ( RQ ) , an indicator of which fuel ( carbohydrate or fat ) is being metabolized to supply the body with energy . This estimation is only valid if metabolism is in a steady state . RER is about 0.8 at rest with a modern diet . This value however , can exceed 1 during intense exercise , as CO2 production by the working muscles becomes greater and more of the inhaled O2 gets used rather than being expelled . During moderate or higher intensity aerobic exercise and anaerobic exercise , using RER for estimating RQ loses accuracy because of factors including bicarbonate buffering of hydrogen ions , which affects the CO2 levels being expelled by the respiratory system . Calculation of RER is commonly done in conjunction with exercise tests such as the VO2 Max Test and can be used as an indicator that the participants are nearing exhaustion and the limits of their cardio-respiratory system . An RER greater than or equal to 1.15 is often used as a secondary endpoint criterion of a VO2 Max Test . An RER of 0.70 indicates that fat is the predominant fuel source , RER of 0.85 suggests a mix of fat and carbohydrates , and a value of 1.00 or above is indicative of carbohydrate being the predominant fuel source . Oxidation of a molecule of Carbohydrate 6 O2 + C6H12O6 = > 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 6 CO2/6 O2 = 1.0 Oxidation of a molecule of Fatty Acid 23 O2 + C16H32O2 = > 16 CO2 + 16 H2O + 129 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 16 CO2/23 O2 = 0.7", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Respiratory_exchange_ratio", "rank": 29, "score": 132664 }, { "content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Amorphous_carbonia", "rank": 30, "score": 132341 }, { "content": "Title: Leighton relationship Content: In atmospheric chemistry , the Leighton relationship is an equation that determines the concentration of tropospheric ozone in areas polluted by the presence of nitrogen oxides . Ozone in the troposphere is primarily produced through the photolysis of nitrogen dioxide at wavelengths less than 430 nm , which are able to reach the lowest levels of the atmosphere , through the following mechanism : NO2 + hν ( λ < 240 nm ) → NO + O ( 3P ) ( J1 ) O ( 3P ) + O2 + M → O3 + M ( k2 ) NO + O3 → NO2 + O2 ( k3 ) Since O ( 3P ) is very reactive it can be assumed to be in steady state , and thus an equation linking the concentrations of the species involved can be derived : The Leighton relationship above shows how production of ozone is directly related to the solar intensity and hence to the zenith angle . The yield of this molecule will therefore be a maximum during the day , especially at noon and in the summer season ; it also demonstrates how high concentrations of both ozone and nitric oxide are unfeasible . However , NO can react with peroxyl radicals to give back NO2 without loss of ozone : RO2 + NO → NO2 + RO providing another pathway to allow the buildup of O3 . This relationship is named after Philip Leighton , who wrote a significant book in 1961 describing air pollution , as recognition of his contributions in the understanding of tropospheric chemistry .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Leighton_relationship", "rank": 31, "score": 132156 }, { "content": "Title: Tetracarbon dioxide Content: Tetracarbon dioxide is an oxide of carbon , a chemical compound of carbon and oxygen , with chemical formula C4O2 or O = C = C = C = C =O . It can be regarded as butatriene dione , the double ketone of butatriene -- more precisely 1,2,3-butatriene-1 ,4 - dione . Butatriene dione is the fourth member of the family of linear carbon dioxides O ( = C ) n =O , that includes carbon dioxide CO2 or O = C =O , ethylene dione C2O2 or O = C = C =O , carbon suboxide C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O , pentacarbon dioxide C5O2 or O = C = C = C = C = C =O , and so on . The compound was obtained in 1990 by Maier and others , by flash vacuum pyrolysis of cyclic azaketones in a frozen argon matrix . It was also obtained in the same year by Sülzle and Schwartz through impact ionization of ( ( CH3 - ) 2 ( C4O2 ) ( =O ) 2 = ) 2 in the gas phase . Although theoretical studies indicated that the even-numbered members of the O ( = C ) n =O family should be inherently unstable , C4O2 is indefinitely stable in the matrix , but is decomposed by light into tricarbon monoxide C3O and carbon monoxide CO. . It has a triplet ground state .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Tetracarbon_dioxide", "rank": 32, "score": 131564 }, { "content": "Title: Total inorganic carbon Content: The total inorganic carbon ( CT , or TIC ) or dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) is the sum of inorganic carbon species in a solution . The inorganic carbon species include carbon dioxide , carbonic acid , bicarbonate anion , and carbonate . It is customary to express carbon dioxide and carbonic acid simultaneously as CO2 * . CT is a key parameter when making measurements related to the pH of natural aqueous systems , and carbon dioxide flux estimates . CT = -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- + -LSB- HCO3 − -RSB- + -LSB- CO32 − -RSB- where , CT is the total inorganic carbon -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- is the sum of carbon dioxide and carbonic acid concentrations ( -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- = -LSB- CO2 -RSB- + -LSB- H2CO3 -RSB- ) -LSB- HCO3 − -RSB- is the bicarbonate concentration -LSB- CO32 − -RSB- is the carbonate concentration Each of these species are related by the following pH-driven chemical equilibria : CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H + + HCO3 − 2H + + CO32 − The concentrations of the different species of DIC ( and which species is dominant ) depends on the pH of the solution , as shown by a Bjerrum plot . Total inorganic carbon is typically measured by the acidification of the sample which drives the equilibria to CO2 . This gas is then sparged from solution and trapped , and the quantity trapped is then measured , usually by infrared spectroscopy .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Total_inorganic_carbon", "rank": 33, "score": 131500 }, { "content": "Title: Phil Ineson Content: Professor Phil Ineson is a Chair in Global Change Ecology at the University of York . Ineson is particularly noted for his work with stable isotopes ( and was the first to grow C3 plants on C4 soil ) . Ineson received his BSc from Manchester Polytechnic in 1982 , receiving a Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool in 1986 . He was then a NERC Post-Doctoral Research Assistant at the University of Exeter until 1989 . NERC Research Fellow at ITE Merlewood and later Senior Scientific Officer ( SSO ) . Between 1996 and 1999 he was at the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology , ( CEH ) Merlewood . Between 1998 and 2000 he was Visiting Professor at Lancaster University . He was made Chair in Global Change Ecology at York in 2000 . Ineson et al. ( 1996 ) were able to track the movement of carbon through a plant by using the stable isotopes of carbon , namely 12C and 13C . To obtain soil with a different isotope ratio to normal , they obtained soil from North America on which C4 plants had been grown , giving it a different signature to soil on which C3 plants had been grown . Comparisons of the signatures allowed the turnover of carbon to be measured . This is now a commonly used technique ( see e.g. Pataki et al. ( 2003 ) ) particularly useful in light of elevated carbon dioxide levels due to atmospheric pollution .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Phil_Ineson", "rank": 34, "score": 131398 }, { "content": "Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Modified_atmosphere", "rank": 35, "score": 130973 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding", "rank": 36, "score": 130965 }, { "content": "Title: Estuarine acidification Content: Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation : CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Estuarine_acidification", "rank": 37, "score": 130908 }, { "content": "Title: Clean agent FS 49 C2 Content: Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an environmentally engineered , human safe , fast extinguishing Clean Agent fire extinguishing gas for gaseous fire suppression installed in a suited fire suppression system . The Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an extinguishing gas mixture that suppresses fire while maintaining breathable concentrations of oxygen in the air . This makes it possible to extinguish a fire with less danger to people in the room at extinguishing concentrations in contrast to pure Carbon Dioxide ( CO2 ) based fire suppression system which is deadly to humans when released . In the beginning the gas was called Halotron II B/FS49C2 but later only the name FS 49 C2 is used . It is a gaseous solution of 60-80 % tetrafluoroethane ( R-134a ) , 10-30 % pentafluoroethane ( R-125 ) and 10-30 % carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Former fire chief Einar Gjessing made an article about the product to inform firemen how this gas works in case they need to enter a fire site with FS 49 C2 .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Clean_agent_FS_49_C2", "rank": 38, "score": 130307 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Atmosphere", "rank": 39, "score": 129840 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 40, "score": 128924 }, { "content": "Title: Ocean acidification Content: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean . Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level . While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins . Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Ocean_acidification", "rank": 41, "score": 128171 }, { "content": "Title: Fink effect Content: The Fink effect , also known as `` diffusion anoxia '' , `` diffusion hypoxia '' , or the `` third gas effect '' , is a factor that influences the pO2 ( partial pressure of oxygen ) within the alveolus . When soluble gases ( e.g. nitrous oxide , N2O ) are breathed in large quantities they can be dissolved in body fluids rapidly . This can lead to a temporary increase in the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveolus , causing an increase in their respective partial pressures . The effect is named for Bernard Raymond Fink ( 1914 -- 2000 ) , whose 1955 paper first explained it . When a patient is recovering from N2O anaesthesia , large quantities of this gas cross from the blood into the alveolus ( down its concentration gradient ) and so for a short period of time , the O2 and CO2 in the alveolus are diluted by this gas . This could cause the partial pressure of oxygen to decrease and could temporarily lead to hypoxia . The decrease in CO2 could also potentiate this effect as ventilation would be suppressed , leading to potential hypoxaemia . Nonetheless , this effect would only last a couple of minutes and hypoxia can be avoided by increasing the fractional inspired oxygen concentration when recovering from N2O anaesthesia .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Fink_effect", "rank": 42, "score": 127355 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Hypercapnia", "rank": 43, "score": 126634 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 44, "score": 126592 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 45, "score": 126561 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon-14 Content: Carbon-14 , 14C , or radiocarbon , is a radioactive isotope of carbon with an atomic nucleus containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons . Its presence in organic materials is the basis of the radiocarbon dating method pioneered by Willard Libby and colleagues ( 1949 ) to date archaeological , geological and hydrogeological samples . Carbon-14 was discovered on 27 February 1940 , by Martin Kamen and Sam Ruben at the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley , California . Its existence had been suggested by Franz Kurie in 1934 . There are three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon on Earth : 99 % of the carbon is carbon-12 , 1 % is carbon-13 , and carbon-14 occurs in trace amounts , i.e. , making up about 1 or 1.5 atoms per 1012 atoms of the carbon in the atmosphere . Carbon-12 and carbon-13 are both stable , while the half-life of carbon-14 is 5,730 ± 40 years . Carbon-14 decays into nitrogen-14 through beta decay . A gram of carbon containing 1 atom of carbon-14 per 1012 atoms will emit 0.40 beta particles per second . The primary natural source of carbon-14 on Earth is cosmic ray action on nitrogen in the atmosphere , and it is therefore a cosmogenic nuclide . However , open-air nuclear testing between 1955 -- 1980 contributed to this pool . The different isotopes of carbon do not differ appreciably in their chemical properties . This resemblance is used in chemical and biological research , in a technique called carbon labeling : carbon-14 atoms can be used to replace nonradioactive carbon , in order to trace chemical and biochemical reactions involving carbon atoms from any given organic compound .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon-14", "rank": 46, "score": 126396 }, { "content": "Title: Oceanic carbon cycle Content: The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) . At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) . Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean . In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) . The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink . The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 . The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide . Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers . The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere . Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them . The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Oceanic_carbon_cycle", "rank": 47, "score": 126352 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 48, "score": 125802 }, { "content": "Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Paleoatmosphere", "rank": 49, "score": 125058 }, { "content": "Title: Pentacarbon dioxide Content: Pentacarbon dioxide , officially penta-1 ,2,3,4 - tetraene-1 ,5 - dione , is an oxide of carbon ( an oxocarbon ) with formula C5O2 or O = C = C = C = C = C =O . The compound is the third member of the series CnO2 with odd n , the first two members being carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and carbon suboxide ( C3O2 ) . The compound was described in 1988 by G. Maier and others , who obtained it by pyrolysis of 1,3,5-cyclohexanetrione ( phloroglucin , the tautomeric form of phloroglucinol ) . It has also been obtained by flash vapor pyrolysis of 2,4,6-tris ( diazo ) cyclohexane-1 ,3,5 - trione ( C6N6O3 ) . It is stable at room temperature in solution . The pure compound is stable up to − 96 ° C , when it polymerizes .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Pentacarbon_dioxide", "rank": 50, "score": 124904 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 51, "score": 124861 }, { "content": "Title: Clumped isotopes Content: Clumped isotopes are heavy isotopes that are bonded to other heavy isotopes . The carbonate clumped-isotope thermometer , or `` 13C -- 18O order/disorder carbonate thermometer '' , is a new approach for paleoclimate reconstruction , basing on the temperature dependence of the clumping of 13C and 18O into bonds within the carbonate mineral lattice . This approach has the advantage that the 18O ratio in water is not necessary ( different from the δ18O approach ) , but for precise paleotemperature estimation , it also needs very large and uncontaminated samples , long analytical runs , and extensive replication . Commonly used sample sources for paleoclimatological work include corals , otoliths , bivalves , and foraminifera . Results are usually expressed as Δ47 ( said as `` cap 47 '' ) , which is the deviation of the ratio of isotopologues of CO2 with a molecular weight of 47 to those with a weight of 44 from the ratio expected if they were randomly distributed .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Clumped_isotopes", "rank": 52, "score": 124459 }, { "content": "Title: Calcium bicarbonate Content: Calcium bicarbonate , also called calcium hydrogen carbonate , has a chemical formula Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 . The term does not refer to a known solid compound ; it exists only in aqueous solution containing the calcium ( Ca2 + ) , bicarbonate ( HCO3 − ) , and carbonate ( CO32 − ) ions , together with dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The relative concentrations of these carbon-containing species depend on the pH ; bicarbonate predominates within the range 6.36-10 .25 in fresh water . All waters in contact with the atmosphere absorb carbon dioxide , and as these waters come into contact with rocks and sediments they acquire metal ions , most commonly calcium and magnesium , so most natural waters that come from streams , lakes , and especially wells , can be regarded as dilute solutions of these bicarbonates . These hard waters tend to form carbonate scale in pipes and boilers and they react with soaps to form an undesirable scum . Attempts to prepare compounds such as calcium bicarbonate by evaporating its solution to dryness invariably yield the solid calcium carbonate , instead : Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 ( aq ) → CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) + CaCO3 ( s ) . Very few solid bicarbonates other than those of the alkali metals and ammonium ion are known to exist . The above reaction is very important to the formation of stalactites , stalagmites , columns , and other speleothems within caves , and for that matter , in the formation of the caves themselves . As water containing carbon dioxide ( including extra CO2 acquired from soil organisms ) passes through limestone or other calcium carbonate-containing minerals , it dissolves part of the calcium carbonate , hence becomes richer in bicarbonate . As the groundwater enters the cave , the excess carbon dioxide is released from the solution of the bicarbonate , causing the much less soluble calcium carbonate to be deposited . In the reverse process , dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in rainwater ( H2O ) reacts with limestone calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) to form soluble calcium bicarbonate ( Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 ) . This soluble compound is then washed away with the rainwater . This form of weathering is called carbonation . In medicine , calcium bicarbonate is sometimes administered intravenously to immediately correct the cardiac depressor effects of hypokalemia by increasing calcium concentration in serum , and at the same time , correcting the acid usually present .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Calcium_bicarbonate", "rank": 53, "score": 124279 }, { "content": "Title: Mellitic anhydride Content: Mellitic anhydride , the anhydride of mellitic acid , is an organic compound with the formula C12O9 . Mellitic anhydride is an oxide of carbon ( oxocarbon ) , like CO2 , CO , and C3O2 . It is a white sublimable solid , apparently obtained by Liebig and Wöhler in 1830 in their study of mellite ( `` honey stone '' ) ; they assigned it the empiric formula C4O3 . The substance was properly characterized in 1913 by H. Meyer and K. Steiner . It retains the aromatic character of the benzene ring .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Mellitic_anhydride", "rank": 54, "score": 124012 }, { "content": "Title: C13 Content: C13 or C-13 may be : French Defence , Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings code C13 White Lead ( Painting ) Convention , 1921 C13 grenade , the Canadian Forces designation for a M67 grenade Autovia C-13 , a highway in Catalonia in Spain Caterpillar C13 Engine , an engine by Caterpillar Inc. . HMS C13 , a 1906 British C class submarine IEC 60320 C13 , a polarised , three pole plug used in electric power cables LNER Class C13 , a 4-4-2T steam locomotive of 1907 , built for suburban passenger services around London OTO Melara C13 Sauber C13 , a 1994 racing car Caldwell 13 ( NGC 457 , the Owl Cluster or ET Cluster ) , an open star cluster in the constellation Cassiopeia The 13th century and also : in music , a chord with the structure 1 - 3 - 5 - b7 - 9 - 13 Carbon-13 , a natural stable isotope of carbon Malignant neoplasm of hypopharynx ICD-10 code", "qid": "2942", "docid": "C13", "rank": 55, "score": 123698 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 56, "score": 123206 }, { "content": "Title: Ethylene dione Content: Ethylene dione or ethylenedione , also called dicarbon dioxide , ethenedione , or ethene-1 ,2 - dione , is the name given to a chemical compound with the formula C2O2 or OCCO . It is the carbon-carbon covalent dimer of carbon monoxide and belongs to the oxocarbon series . Because it is a dimer , it shares an empirical formula with CO. . It can be thought of as ketene of glyoxylic acid ( OHCCOOH ) . The existence of OCCO was first suggested in 1913 . However , despite its deceptively `` simple '' structure , for over a century the compound had eluded all attempts to synthesize and observe it . Such elusive nature had earned OCCO the reputation of a hypothetical compound and a mysterious , `` exceedingly coy molecule '' . It was not until 2015 that a group of chemists from the University of Arizona in Tucson ( United States ) reported the first spectroscopic characterization of OCCO , confirming its existence as a transient molecule . The Arizona group created OCCO using laser light to eject electrons from the corresponding stable singly-charged anions . The in situ preparation and characterization of the OCCO through low-energy free-electron induced single molecular engineering has also been theoretically proposed recently by scientists from Bhabha Atomic Research Centre ( India ) . Despite the existence of the closed-shell Kekulé structure , O = C = C =O , the lowest bound state of ethyledione is a triplet . Therefore , bound OCCO is formally a diradical , with an electronic structure motif similar to the oxygen molecule . However , when the molecule is distorted away from its equilibrium geometry , the potential surfaces of the triplet and singlet states intersect , allowing for intersystem crossing to the singlet state , which is unbound and dissociates to two ground-state CO molecules . The timescale of the intersystem crossing was predicted to be 0.5 ns , making triplet OCCO a transient , yet spectroscopically long-lived molecule . On the other hand , the monoanion of ethylenedione , OCCO − , as well as the divalent anion , called acetylenediolate , are both stable .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Ethylene_dione", "rank": 57, "score": 123174 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 58, "score": 122904 }, { "content": "Title: Yedoma Content: Yedoma is an organic-rich ( about 2 % carbon by mass ) Pleistocene-age permafrost with ice content of 50 -- 90 % by volume . The amount of carbon trapped in this type of permafrost is much more prevalent than originally thought and may be about 210 to 450 Gt , that is a multiple of the amount of carbon released into the air each year by the burning of fossil fuels . Thawing yedoma is a significant source of atmospheric methane ( about 4 Tg of per year ) . The Yedoma region currently occupies an area of more than one million square kilometers from northeast Siberia to Alaska and Canada , and in many regions is tens of meters thick . During the Last Glacial Maximum , when the global sea level was 120 m lower than that of today , similar deposits covered substantial areas of the exposed northeast Eurasian continental shelves . At the end of last ice age , at the Pleistocene -- Holocene transition , thawing yedoma and the resulting thermokarst lakes may have produced 33 to 87 % of the high-latitude increase in atmospheric methane concentration .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Yedoma", "rank": 59, "score": 122709 }, { "content": "Title: Free-air concentration enrichment Content: Free-Air Carbon dioxide Enrichment ( FACE ) is a method used by ecologists and plant biologists that raises the concentration of in a specified area and allows the response of plant growth to be measured . Experiments using FACE are required because most studies looking at the effect of elevated concentrations have been conducted in labs and where there are many missing factors including plant competition . Measuring the effect of elevated using FACE is a better way of estimating how plant growth will change in the future as the concentration rises in the atmosphere . FACE also allows the effect of elevated on plants that can not be grown in small spaces ( trees for example ) to be measured .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Free-air_concentration_enrichment", "rank": 60, "score": 122431 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming", "rank": 61, "score": 122420 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling (disambiguation) Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that depicts the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the twentieth century . It is named after Charles David Keeling who discovered the rise in carbon dioxide concentrations and plotted the graph . Keeling may also refer to : Keeling , Virginia North Keeling Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands Surname Charles Keeling , climatologist Edward Keeling Harold Keeling John Keeling , MP Ralph Keeling , son of Charles , also climatologist William Keeling , English sea captain", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Keeling_(disambiguation)", "rank": 62, "score": 122376 }, { "content": "Title: Dioxane tetraketone Content: Dioxane tetraketone ( or 1,4-dioxane-2 ,3,5,6 - tetrone ) is an organic compound with the formula C4O6 . It is an oxide of carbon ( an oxocarbon ) , which can be viewed as the fourfold ketone of dioxane . It can also be viewed as the cyclic dimer of oxiranedione ( C2O3 ) , the hypothetical anhydride of oxalic acid . In 1998 , Paolo Strazzolini and others synthesized this compound by reacting oxalyl chloride ( COCl ) 2 or the bromide ( COBr ) 2 with a suspension of silver oxalate ( Ag2C2O4 ) in diethyl ether at − 15 ° C , followed by evaporation of the solvent at low temperature and pressure . The substance is stable when dissolved in ether and trichloromethane at − 30 ° C , but decomposes into a 1:1 mixture of carbon monoxide ( CO ) and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) upon heating to 0 ° C . The stability and conformation of the molecule were also analyzed by theoretical methods .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Dioxane_tetraketone", "rank": 63, "score": 122207 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 64, "score": 122114 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 65, "score": 122091 }, { "content": "Title: Central chemoreceptors Content: Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system , located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves , are sensitive to the pH of their environment . These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues . An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries , often resulting from decreased CO2 output ( hypercapnia ) , indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic ; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma , as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood -- brain barrier . However , a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H + are not able to diffuse across the blood -- brain barrier into the CSF . Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across , reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains , in this way , distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors . The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia ( elevated CO2 , decreased O2 ) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal and in vitro slice preparation . These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term ( or emergency ) regulation . This system utilizes a negative feedback system , therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal `` set '' level , then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed . Peripheral chemoreceptors ( carotid and aortic bodies ) and central chemoreceptors ( medullary neurons ) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity . This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2 , pCO2 , and pH within appropriate physiological ranges . For example , a fall in arterial pO2 ( hypoxemia ) or an increase in arterial pCO2 ( hypercapnia ) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex . Chemoreceptor activity , however , also affects cardiovascular function either directly ( by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers ) or indirectly ( via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity ) . Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock ( these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH , and increase arterial pCO2 ) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Central_chemoreceptors", "rank": 66, "score": 121443 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_laser", "rank": 67, "score": 121336 }, { "content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence", "rank": 68, "score": 121165 }, { "content": "Title: 993–994 carbon-14 spike Content: The 993 -- 994 carbon-14 spike was a rapid increase in carbon-14 content from tree rings , and followed the 774 -- 775 carbon-14 spike . This event is also confirmed by a sharp increase of beryllium-10 and hence considered as solar-origin . It may have come from a massive solar storm as a series of auroral observations are known to be observed in late 992 .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "993–994_carbon-14_spike", "rank": 69, "score": 121104 }, { "content": "Title: Carbonyl fluoride Content: Carbonyl fluoride is the inorganic compound with the formula COF2 . This gas , like its analog phosgene , is colourless and highly toxic . The molecule is planar with C2v symmetry .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbonyl_fluoride", "rank": 70, "score": 120719 }, { "content": "Title: Permissive hypercapnia Content: Permissive hypercapnia is hypercapnia , ( i.e. high concentration of carbon dioxide in blood ) , in respiratory insufficient patients in which oxygenation has become so difficult that the optimal mode of mechanical ventilation ( with oxygenation in mind ) is not capable of exchanging enough carbon dioxide . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . In acute respiratory distress syndrome ( ARDS ) , decreasing the tidal volume on the ventilator ( usually 8-12 mL/kg ) to 4-6 mL/kg may decrease barotrauma by decreasing ventilatory peak airway pressures and leads to improved respiratory recovery . Hypercapnia ( increased pCO2 ) sometimes needs to be tolerated in order to achieve these lower tidal volumes . The permissive hypercapnia leads to respiratory acidosis which might have negative side effects , but given that the patient is in ARDS , improving ventilatory function is more important . Since hypoxemia is a major life-threatening condition and hypercapnia is not , one might choose to accept the latter . Hence the term , `` permissive hypercapnia . '' Altogether , the negative side effects of permissive hypercapnia may outweigh the benefits . For that reason , the implementation of extracorporeal CO2 removal ( iLA Membrane Ventilator , Novalung ) at an early stage of ARDS , has become a well established standard to allow for protective ventilation and avoid respiratory acidosis .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Permissive_hypercapnia", "rank": 71, "score": 120352 }, { "content": "Title: GD 362 Content: GD 362 is a white dwarf approximately 150 light years from Earth . In 2004 , spectroscopic observations showed that it had a relatively high concentration of metals in its atmosphere . Since the high gravitational field of white dwarfs quickly forces heavy elements to settle towards the bottom of the atmosphere , this meant that the atmosphere was being polluted by an external source . In 2005 , infrared photometric observations suggested that it was surrounded by a ring of dust with size comparable to the rings of Saturn , providing an explanation for this pollution . In 2006 , Benjamin Zuckerman , Michael Jura and other astronomers used the Keck telescope to obtain high-resolution spectra of GD 362 which showed that heavy elements in the star 's atmosphere occurred in concentrations similar to those in the Earth-Moon system . The group concluded that a possible origin for GD 362 's dust ring and atmospheric pollutants was that a rocky asteroid about 200 km in diameter was disintegrated by tidal effects between 100,000 and 1 million years ago . If this was the origin , the spectra indicate that the asteroid should have had composition similar to the Earth 's crust , suggesting that the star might have had an Earth-like planet before it entered its red giant phase . GD 362 has been a white dwarf for approximately 900 million years .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "GD_362", "rank": 72, "score": 120243 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 73, "score": 120126 }, { "content": "Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "C._Kumar_N._Patel", "rank": 74, "score": 120030 }, { "content": "Title: Ventilation/perfusion ratio Content: In respiratory physiology , the ventilation/perfusion ratio ( V̇ / Q̇ ratio or V/Q ratio ) is a ratio used to assess the efficiency and adequacy of the matching of two variables : < ref -RCB- </ref> V̇ or V -- ventilation -- the air that reaches the alveoli Q̇ or Q -- perfusion -- the blood that reaches the alveoli via the capillaries The V/Q ratio can therefore be defined as the ratio of the amount of air reaching the alveoli per minute to the amount of blood reaching the alveoli per minute -- a ratio of volumetric flow rates . These two variables , V & Q , constitute the main determinants of the blood oxygen ( O2 ) and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration . The V/Q ratio can be measured with a ventilation/perfusion scan . A V/Q mismatch can cause a type 1 respiratory failure .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Ventilation/perfusion_ratio", "rank": 75, "score": 119924 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 76, "score": 119910 }, { "content": "Title: 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene Content: 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene , or HFO-1234yf , is a hydrofluoroolefin ( HFO ) with the formula CH2 = CFCF3 . This colorless gas has been proposed as a replacement for R-134a as a refrigerant in automobile air conditioners . HFO-1234yf is the first in a new class of refrigerants acquiring a global warming potential ( GWP ) rating one 335th that of R-134a ( and only 4 times higher than carbon dioxide , which can also be used as a refrigerant but which has properties significantly different from those of R134a , especially requiring operation at around 5 times higher pressure ) and an atmospheric lifetime of about 400 times shorter .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene", "rank": 77, "score": 119685 }, { "content": "Title: Asphyxiant gas Content: An asphyxiant gas is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing air . Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by asphyxiation ( suffocation ) . Because asphyxiant gases are relatively inert and odorless , their presence in high concentration may not be noticed , except in the case of carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) . Toxic gases , by contrast , cause death by other mechanisms , such as competing with oxygen on the cellular level ( e.g. carbon monoxide ) or directly damaging the respiratory system ( e.g. phosgene ) . Far smaller quantities of these are deadly . Notable examples of asphyxiant gases are nitrogen , argon , helium , butane and propane . Along with trace gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone , these compose 79 % of Earth 's atmosphere . The atmosphere is mostly harmless because the remaining 21 % is O2 .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Asphyxiant_gas", "rank": 78, "score": 119357 }, { "content": "Title: Difluoroacetylene Content: Difluoroacetylene , C2F2 , is a compound of carbon and fluorine . A linear molecule , its two carbons are joined by a triple bond and have terminal fluorines : F-C ≡ C-F . The molecule is the perfluorocarbon analog of acetylene , C2H2 . Preparation of difluoracetylene is difficult , with danger of explosions and with low yields . Nevertheless , the compound has been made , isolated , and characterized by NMR and IR spectroscopy . The compound is of interest as a precursor to fluoropolymers containing double bonds , analogous to polyacetylene .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Difluoroacetylene", "rank": 79, "score": 119210 }, { "content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory", "rank": 80, "score": 119148 }, { "content": "Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Landfill_gas", "rank": 81, "score": 118834 }, { "content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage", "rank": 82, "score": 118798 }, { "content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide", "rank": 83, "score": 118793 }, { "content": "Title: Bohr effect Content: The Bohr effect is a physiological phenomenon first described in 1904 by the Danish physiologist Christian Bohr , stating that haemoglobin 's oxygen binding affinity ( see Oxygen -- haemoglobin dissociation curve ) is inversely related both to acidity and to the concentration of carbon dioxide . Since carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid , an increase in CO2 results in a decrease in blood pH , resulting in hemoglobin proteins releasing their load of oxygen . Conversely , a decrease in carbon dioxide provokes an increase in pH , which results in hemoglobin picking up more oxygen .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Bohr_effect", "rank": 84, "score": 118382 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon_sequestration", "rank": 85, "score": 118249 }, { "content": "Title: C14 Content: C14 , C.XIV or C-14 may be : Autovia C-14 , a highway in Catalonia in Spain Fokker C.XIV , a 1937 Dutch reconnaissance seaplane HMS C14 , a 1908 British C class submarine LSWR C14 class , a London and South Western Railway locomotive Ramal C-14 , the Argentinian track of the Salta-Antofagasta railway , famous for the Tren a las Nubes Sauber C14 , a 1995 racing car C14 , well-known nationalists ' network in Ukraine , also known as `` Medobory-Firm '' The 14th century C 14-class missile boat , a light missile boat of catamaran design Carbon-14 , a radioactive isotope of carbon C14 dating , a method for dating events IEC 60320 C14 , a polarised , three pole socket electrical connector Boeing YC-14 , an American experimental transport aircraft of the 1970s Malignant neoplasm of other and ill-defined sites in the lip , oral cavity and pharynx ICD-10 code C14 Timberwolf rifle , a Canadian .338 Lapua sniper rifle Caldwell 14 , the Double Cluster in the constellation Perseus French Defence , Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings code", "qid": "2942", "docid": "C14", "rank": 86, "score": 117981 }, { "content": "Title: Soil respiration Content: Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire . This includes respiration of plant roots , the rhizosphere , microbes and fauna . Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of CO2 . CO2 is acquired from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis . Plants use these organic compounds to build structural components or respire them to release energy . When plant respiration occurs below-ground in the roots , it adds to soil respiration . Over time , plant structural components are consumed by heterotrophs . This heterotrophic consumption releases CO2 and when this CO2 is released by below-ground organisms , it is considered soil respiration . The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors . The temperature , moisture , nutrient content and level of oxygen in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration . These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods . Other methods can be used to separate the source components , in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway ( C3/C4 ) , of the respired plant structures . Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity . This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years . Global climate change is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO2 , increasing temperature and shifting precipitation patterns . All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration . Increased nitrogen fertilization by humans also has the potential to effect rates over the entire Earth . Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO2 but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be effected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Soil_respiration", "rank": 87, "score": 117566 }, { "content": "Title: 1,3,5-Trioxanetrione Content: The chemical compound 1,3,5-trioxanetrione , or 1,3,5-trioxacyclohexane-2 ,4,6 - trione is a hypothetical oxide of carbon with formula C3O6 . It can be considered a cyclic trimer of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) or as a triple ketone of 1,3,5-trioxane ( 1,3,5-trioxacyclohexane ) . Theoretical calculations indicate that the compound is unstable at room temperature ( half-life less than 8 seconds ) ; but may be stable at -196 ° C.", "qid": "2942", "docid": "1,3,5-Trioxanetrione", "rank": 88, "score": 116760 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 89, "score": 116256 }, { "content": "Title: Microaerophile Content: A microaerophile is a microorganism that requires oxygen to survive , but requires environments containing lower levels of oxygen than are present in the atmosphere ( i.e. < 21 % O2 ; typically 2 -- 10 % O2 ) . Many microaerophiles are also capnophiles , requiring an elevated concentration of carbon dioxide ( e.g. 10 % CO2 in the case of Campylobacter species ) .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Microaerophile", "rank": 90, "score": 116097 }, { "content": "Title: Carbonic acid Content: Not to be confused with Carbolic acid , an antiquated name for phenol . Carbonic acid is a chemical compound with the chemical formula H2CO3 ( equivalently OC ( OH ) 2 ) . It is also a name sometimes given to solutions of carbon dioxide in water ( carbonated water ) , because such solutions contain small amounts of H2CO3 . In physiology , carbonic acid is described as volatile acid or respiratory acid , because it is the only acid excreted as a gas by the lungs . It plays an important role in the bicarbonate buffer system to maintain acid -- base homeostasis . Carbonic acid , which is a weak acid , forms two kinds of salts , the carbonates and the bicarbonates . In geology , carbonic acid causes limestone to dissolve producing calcium bicarbonate which leads to many limestone features such as stalactites and stalagmites . It was long believed that carbonic acid could not exist as a pure compound . However , in 1991 it was reported that NASA scientists had succeeded in making solid H2CO3 samples .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbonic_acid", "rank": 91, "score": 116089 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 92, "score": 116024 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon subsulfide Content: Carbon subsulfide is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula C3S2 . This deep red liquid is immiscible with water but soluble in organic solvents . It readily polymerizes at room temperature to form a hard black solid .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon_subsulfide", "rank": 93, "score": 115926 }, { "content": "Title: Fuel factor Content: The fuel factor , fo , is the ratio of created CO2 to depleted oxygen in a combustion reaction , used to check the accuracy of an emission measurement system . It can be calculated using the equation fo = ( 20.9 - % O2 ) / % CO2 , Where % O2 is the percent O2 by volume , dry basis , % CO2 is the percent CO2 by volume , dry basis , and 20.9 is the percent O2 by volume in ambient air . The Fuel factor can be corrected for the amount of CO , by adding the percent CO on a dry basis to the CO2 , and subtracting half of the percent CO from the O2 .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Fuel_factor", "rank": 94, "score": 115812 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio Content: A carbon-to-nitrogen ratio ( C/N ratio or C : N ratio ) is a ratio of the mass of carbon to the mass of nitrogen in a substance . It can , amongst other things , be used in analysing sediments and compost . A useful application for C/N ratios is as a proxy for paleoclimate research , having different uses whether the sediment cores are terrestrial-based or marine-based . Carbon-to-nitrogen ratios are an indicator for nitrogen limitation of plants and other organisms and can identify whether molecules found in the sediment under study come from land-based or algal plants . Further , they can distinguish between different land-based plants , depending on the type of photosynthesis they undergo . Therefore , the C/N ratio serves as a tool for understanding the sources of sedimentary organic matter , which can lead to information about the ecology , climate , and ocean circulation at different times in Earth 's history . C/N ratios in the range 4-10 :1 are usually from marine sources , whereas higher ratios are likely to come from a terrestrial source . Vascular plants from terrestrial sources tend to have C/N ratios greater than 20 . The lack of cellulose , which has a chemical formula of ( C6H10O5 ) n , and greater amount of proteins in algae versus vascular plants causes this significant difference in the C/N ratio . When composting , microbial activity utilizes a C/N ratio of 30-35 :1 and a higher ratio will result in slower composting rates . However , this assumes that carbon is completely consumed , which is often not the case . Thus , for practical agricultural purposes , a compost should have an initial C/N ratio of 20-30 :1 . Example of devices that can be used to measure this ratio are the CHN analyzer and the continuous-flow isotope ratio mass spectrometer ( CF-IRMS ) . However , for more practical applications , desired C/N ratios can be achieved by blending common used substrates of known C/N content , which are readily available and easy to use .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon-to-nitrogen_ratio", "rank": 95, "score": 115671 }, { "content": "Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Katsuko_Saruhashi", "rank": 96, "score": 115353 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 97, "score": 114789 }, { "content": "Title: Kinetic fractionation Content: Kinetic fractionation is an isotopic fractionation process that separates stable isotopes from each other by their mass during unidirectional processes . Biological processes are generally unidirectional and are very good examples of `` kinetic '' isotope reactions . All organisms preferentially use lighter isotopic species , because `` energy costs '' are lower , resulting in a significant fractionation between the substrate ( heavier ) and the biologically mediated product ( lighter ) . As an example , photosynthesis preferentially takes up the light isotope of carbon 12C during assimilation of an atmospheric CO2 molecule . This kinetic isotope fractionation explains why plant material ( and thus fossil fuels , which are derived from plants ) is typically depleted in 13C by 25 per mil ( 2.5 per cent ) relative to most inorganic carbon on Earth . A naturally occurring example of non-biological kinetic fractionation occurs during the evaporation of seawater to form clouds under conditions in which some part of the transport is unidirectional , such as evaporation into very dry air . In this instance , isotopically lighter water molecules ( i.e. , those with 16O ) will evaporate slightly more easily than will the isotopically heavier water molecules with 18O , and this difference will be greater than it would be if the evaporation was taking place under equilibrium conditions ( with bidirectional transport ) . During this process the oxygen isotopes are fractionated : the clouds become enriched with 16O , and the seawater becomes enriched in 18O . Whereas equilibrium fractionation makes the vapor about 10 per mil ( 1 % ) depleted in 18O relative to the liquid water , kinetic fractionation enhances this fractionation and often makes vapor that is about 15 per mil ( 1.5 % ) depleted . Condensation occurs almost exclusively by equilibrium processes , and so it enriches cloud droplets somewhat less than evaporation depletes the vapor . This explains part of the reason why rainwater is observed to be isotopically lighter than seawater . The isotope of hydrogen in water , deuterium , is much less sensitive to kinetic fractionation than oxygen isotopes , relative to the very large equilibrium fractionation of deuterium . For this reason kinetic fractionation does not deplete deuterium nearly as much , in a relative sense , as 18O . This gives rise to an excess of deuterium in vapor and rainfall , relative to seawater . The value of this `` deuterium excess '' , as it is called , is about +10 per mil ( 1 % ) in most meteoric waters and its non-zero value is a direct manifestation of kinetic isotope fractionation . A generalized treatment of kinetic isotopic effects is via the GEBIK and GEBIF equations describing transient kinetic isotope effects .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Kinetic_fractionation", "rank": 98, "score": 114746 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator", "rank": 99, "score": 114629 }, { "content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .", "qid": "2942", "docid": "Keith_E._Idso", "rank": 100, "score": 114552 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: C21orf62 Content: C21orf62 is a protein that , in humans , is encoded by the C21orf62 gene . C21orf62 is found on human chromosome 21 , and it is thought to be expressed in tissues of the brain and reproductive organs . Additionally , C21orf62 is highly expressed in ovarian surface epithelial cells during normal regulation , but is not expressed in cancerous ovarian surface epithelial cells .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C21orf62", "rank": 1, "score": 108377 }, { "content": "Title: Fam158a Content: UPF0172 protein FAM158A , also known as c14orf122 or CGI112 , is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FAM158A gene located on chromosome 14q11 .2 . Human FAM158A and its paralogs in other species are part of the uncharacterized protein family UPF0172 family , which is a subset of the JAB1/Mov34/MPN / PAD-1 ubiquitin protease protein family . The MPN superfamily contributes to ubiquitination and de-ubiquitination activity within the cell . The UPF0172 subset no longer has a functional ubiquitination domain and the function is uncharacterized .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Fam158a", "rank": 2, "score": 104925 }, { "content": "Title: C16orf84 Content: CTU2 ( formerly known as C16orf84 ) is a human gene located on chromosome 16 . The mRNA encodes the longer isoform . The gene encodes a cytoplasmic protein that plays a probable role in tRNA modification .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C16orf84", "rank": 3, "score": 104857 }, { "content": "Title: C12orf60 Content: Uncharacterized protein C12orf60 is a protein that in humans ( Homo sapiens ) is encoded by the C12orf60 gene . The gene is also known as LOC144608 or MGC47869 . The protein lacks transmembrane domains and helices , but it is rich in alpha-helices . It is predicted to localize in the nucleus . The C12orf60 mature mRNA transcript is 1139 nucleotides long and encodes a protein containing 245 amino acids . The protein lacks transmembrane domains and helices , but it is rich in alpha-helices . It is predicted to localize in the nucleus , but its function is not yet well understood by the scientific community . The gene was listed as a potential biomarker for detecting the efficacy of allergen immunotherapy . The gene is highly expressed in the testes and colon , but it is also expressed in the kidney , breast carcinomas , brain , and various endocrine glands .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C12orf60", "rank": 4, "score": 103611 }, { "content": "Title: C1orf38 Content: Chromosome 1 open reading frame 38 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C1orf38 gene . The gene is also known as ICB-1 and THEMIS2 in humans , and the orthologue in mice is BC013712 . C1orf38 has been associated with cancer susceptibility .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C1orf38", "rank": 5, "score": 101750 }, { "content": "Title: C11orf54 Content: Chromosome 11 open reading frame 54 ( C11orf54 ) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C11orf54 gene . The `` Homo sapiens '' gene , C11orf54 is also known as PTD012 and PTOD12 . C11orf54 exhibits hydrolase activity on p-nitrophenyl acetate and acts on ester bonds , though the overall function is still not fully understood by the scientific community . The protein is highly conserved with the most distant homolog found is in bacteria .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C11orf54", "rank": 6, "score": 101236 }, { "content": "Title: HNRNPC Content: Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins C1/C2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HNRNPC gene . It is abnormally expressed in fetuses of both IVF and ICSI , which may contribute to the increase risk of birth defects in these ART .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "HNRNPC", "rank": 7, "score": 100355 }, { "content": "Title: Apolipoprotein C2 Content: Apolipoprotein C2 or apolipoprotein C-II is a protein that in humans is encoded by the APOC2 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Apolipoprotein_C2", "rank": 8, "score": 99746 }, { "content": "Title: C16orf62 Content: Chromosome 16 open reading frame 62 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C16orf62 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C16orf62", "rank": 9, "score": 99547 }, { "content": "Title: TANGO2 Content: Transport and golgi organization 2 homolog ( TANGO2 ) also known as chromosome 22 open reading frame 25 ( C22orf25 ) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TANGO2 gene . The function of C22orf25 is not currently known . It is characterized by the NRDE superfamily domain ( DUF883 ) , which is strictly known for the conserved amino acid sequence of ( N ) - Asparagine ( R ) - Arginine ( D ) - Aspartic Acid ( E ) - Glutamic Acid . This domain is found among distantly related species from the six kingdoms : Eubacteria , Archaebacteria , Protista , Fungi , Plantae , and Animalia and is known to be involved in Golgi organization and protein secretion . It is likely that it localizes in the cytoplasm but is anchored in the cell membrane by the second amino acid . C22orf25 is also xenologous to T10 like proteins in the Fowlpox Virus and Canarypox Virus . The gene coding for C22orf25 is located on chromosome 22 and the location q11 .21 , so it is often associated with 22q11 .2 deletion syndrome .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "TANGO2", "rank": 10, "score": 99444 }, { "content": "Title: C12orf43 Content: Uncharacterized protein C12orf43 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C12orf43 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C12orf43", "rank": 11, "score": 98390 }, { "content": "Title: Rs6313 Content: In genetics , rs6313 also called T102C or C102T is a gene variation -- a single nucleotide polymorphism ( SNP ) -- in the human HTR2A gene that codes for the 5-HT2A receptor . The SNP is a synonymous substitution located in exon 1 of the gene where it is involved in coding the 34th amino acid as serine . As 5-HT2A is a neuroreceptor the SNP has been investigated in connection with brain functions and neuropsychiatric disorders , and it is perhaps the most investigated SNP for its gene . Two other SNPs in HTR2A have also received much attention : rs6311 and His452Tyr ( rs6314 ) . The T102C polymorphism has been shown to be in complete linkage disequilibrium with the rs6311 ( A-1438G ) . A less well investigated SNP of this gene is rs7997012 . Meta-analyses seem to indicate that the SNP is not directly associated with schizophrenia , not with Alzheimer 's Disease , and two initial studies seem to indicate that it is not associated with Parkinson 's Disease . There have been multiple studies of the effect of this SNP on clozapine treatment response in schizophrenia . A meta-analysis published in 1998 found an association .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Rs6313", "rank": 12, "score": 97654 }, { "content": "Title: C13orf24 Content: Progesterone-induced-blocking factor 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PIBF1 gene . It has been shown to localize to the centrosome and has also been named CEP90 .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C13orf24", "rank": 13, "score": 96418 }, { "content": "Title: C20orf132 Content: Uncharacterized protein C20orf132 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C20orf132 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C20orf132", "rank": 14, "score": 96271 }, { "content": "Title: HOXC12 Content: Homeobox C12 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HOXC12 gene . This gene belongs to the homeobox family of genes . The homeobox genes encode a highly conserved family of transcription factors that play an important role in morphogenesis in all multicellular organisms . Mammals possess four similar homeobox gene clusters , HOXA , HOXB , HOXC and HOXD , which are located on different chromosomes and consist of 9 to 11 genes arranged in tandem . This gene is one of several homeobox HOXC genes located in a cluster on chromosome 12 .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "HOXC12", "rank": 15, "score": 96216 }, { "content": "Title: Chicago Comic & Entertainment Expo Content: The Chicago Comic & Entertainment Expo ( C2E2 ) is a Chicago fan convention dedicated to comics , pop culture , graphic novels , anime , manga , video games , toys , movies , and television . The inaugural event was held April 16 -- 18 , 2010 at the McCormick Place in Chicago .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Chicago_Comic_&_Entertainment_Expo", "rank": 16, "score": 96211 }, { "content": "Title: C22orf9 Content: Uncharacterized protein C22orf9 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C22orf9 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C22orf9", "rank": 17, "score": 96136 }, { "content": "Title: C19orf62 Content: BRCA1-A complex subunit MERIT40 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C19orf62 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C19orf62", "rank": 18, "score": 96110 }, { "content": "Title: C19orf2 Content: Unconventional prefoldin RPB5 interactor , also called URI1 , is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C19orf2 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C19orf2", "rank": 19, "score": 95878 }, { "content": "Title: Complement component 2 Content: Complement C2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C2 gene . The protein encoded by this gene is part of the classical pathway of complement system , acting as a multi-domain serine protease . Deficiency of C2 has been associated with certain autoimmune diseases .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Complement_component_2", "rank": 20, "score": 95359 }, { "content": "Title: C12 road (Namibia) Content: The C12 is a highway in southern Namibia . It starts in Seeheim and ends 130 km later in Grünau . In Grünau , the B1 and B3 roads can be accessed . Category : Roads in Namibia", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C12_road_(Namibia)", "rank": 21, "score": 95341 }, { "content": "Title: C12orf40 Content: C12orf40 , also known as Chromosome 12 Open Reading Frame 40 , HEL-206 , and Epididymis Luminal Protein 206 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C12orf40 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C12orf40", "rank": 22, "score": 94256 }, { "content": "Title: C22 Content: C22 or C-22 or C. 22 may refer to : C-22 process , a photographic process Boeing C-22 , a military version of the Boeing 727-100/200 HMS C22 , a 1909 British C class submarine Aérospatiale C. 22 , a French target drone Sauber C22 , a 2003 racing car Caldwell 22 ( NGC 7662 , the Blue Snowball Nebula ) , a planetary nebula in the constellation Andromeda and also : Corydoras cochui , the barredtail corydoras , a freshwater catfish Malignant neoplasms of liver and intrahepatic bile ducts ICD-10 code Centre Municipal Airport FAA LID", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C22", "rank": 23, "score": 93480 }, { "content": "Title: Proser2 Content: PROSER2 , also known as proline and serine rich 2 , is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PROSER2 gene . PROSER2 , or c10orf47 ( Chromosome 10 open reading frame 47 ) , is found in band 14 of the short arm of chromosome 10 ( 10p14 ) and contains a highly conserved SARG domain . It is a fast evolving gene with two paralogs , c1orf116 and specifically androgen-regulated gene protein isoform 1 . The PROSER2 protein has a currently uncharacterized function however , in humans , it may play a role in cell cycle regulation , reproductive functioning , and is a potential biomarker of cancer .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Proser2", "rank": 24, "score": 93358 }, { "content": "Title: CC2D1A Content: Coiled-coil and C2 domain-containing protein 1A is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CC2D1A gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "CC2D1A", "rank": 25, "score": 92983 }, { "content": "Title: C12 Content: C12 , C.XII or C-12 may be : C12 Workmen 's Compensation ( Agriculture ) Convention , 1921 C-12 Huron , a logistics support aircraft of the U.S. Military ( military versions of the Beechcraft Super King Air ) C-12 Vega , an early transport of the United States Army Air Corps Albatros C.XII , a World War I German military reconnaissance aircraft Autovia C-12 , a highway in Catalonia , Spain Cierva C. 12 , a 1927 British experimental autogyro HMS C12 , a British C class submarine of the Royal Navy JNR Class C12 , a class of Japanese steam locomotive Sauber C12 , a 1993 racing car Spyker C12 Zagato , a 2008 Dutch car USS Columbia ( C-12 ) , a light cruiser of the United States Navy C-12 : Final Resistance , a video game for PlayStation Caldwell 12 ( NGC 6946 , the Fireworks Galaxy ) , an intermediate spiral galaxy in the constellations Cepheus and Cygnus The 12th century and also : Carbon-12 , the most abundant stable isotope of carbon Malignant neoplasm of piriform sinus ICD-10 code Bill C-12 in Canadian law", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C12", "rank": 26, "score": 92839 }, { "content": "Title: UQCRC2 Content: Cytochrome b-c1 complex subunit 2 , mitochondrial is a protein that in humans is encoded by the UQCRC2 gene . Its gene product is a subunit of the respiratory chain protein Ubiquinol Cytochrome c Reductase ( UQCR , Complex III or Cytochrome bc1 complex ) , which consists of the products of one mitochondrially encoded gene , MTCYTB ( mitochondrial cytochrome b ) and ten nuclear genes : UQCRC1 , UQCRC2 , Cytochrome c1 , UQCRFS1 ( Rieske protein ) , UQCRB , `` 11kDa protein '' , UQCRH ( cyt c1 Hinge protein ) , Rieske Protein presequence , `` cyt . c1 associated protein '' , and `` Rieske-associated protein '' .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "UQCRC2", "rank": 27, "score": 92557 }, { "content": "Title: MAGEC2 Content: Melanoma-associated antigen C2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MAGEC2 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "MAGEC2", "rank": 28, "score": 92536 }, { "content": "Title: C14orf104 Content: Chromosome 14 open reading frame 104 , also known as kintoun , is a protein that in humans is encode by the KTU gene . The now official name is DNAAF2", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C14orf104", "rank": 29, "score": 92283 }, { "content": "Title: C10orf67 Content: Chromosome 10 open reading frame 67 ( C10orf67 ) , also known as C10orf115 , LINC01552 , and BA215C7 .4 , is an un-characterized human protein-coding gene . Several studies indicate a possible link between genetic polymorphisms of this and several other genes to chronic inflammatory barrier diseases such as Crohn 's Disease and sarcoidosis .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C10orf67", "rank": 30, "score": 91991 }, { "content": "Title: L2HGDH Content: L-2-hydroxyglutarate dehydrogenase , mitochondrial is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the L2HGDH gene , also known as C14orf160 , on chromosome 14 .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "L2HGDH", "rank": 31, "score": 91357 }, { "content": "Title: C1orf131 Content: Uncharacterized protein C1orf131 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the gene C1orf131 . The first ortholog of this protein was discovered in humans . Subsequently , through the use of algorithms and bioinformatics , homologs of C1orf131 have been discovered in numerous species , and as a result , the name of the majority of the proteins in this protein family is Uncharacterized protein C1orf131 homolog .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C1orf131", "rank": 32, "score": 91147 }, { "content": "Title: C20orf42 Content: Fermitin family homolog 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FERMT1 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C20orf42", "rank": 33, "score": 91136 }, { "content": "Title: Chromosome 16 open reading frame 13 Content: Chromosome 16 open reading frame 13 , also called C16orf13 , is a protein-coding gene of unknown function , also known as JFP2 . Though the function of this gene is unknown , various data have revealed that it is expressed at high levels in various cancerous tissues . Underexpression of this gene has also been linked to disease consequences in humans .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Chromosome_16_open_reading_frame_13", "rank": 34, "score": 91058 }, { "content": "Title: Mercedes-Benz C292 Content: The Mercedes-Benz C292 was a stillborn Group C prototype race car intended for the 1992 World Sportscar Championship season as an evolution of the Mercedes-Benz C291 , but never raced due to Mercedes-Benz withdrawing from sportscar racing after a dismal 1991 season . Built by Sauber for Mercedes-Benz , the C292 featured the same Mercedes-Benz M291 3.5 L Flat-12 which had initially disappointed in 1991 , but during the offseason continued development and testing and was finally able to produce power similar to Jaguar , Peugeot , and Toyota . However , given the large amount of money Mercedes-Benz had invested in sportscar racing since their return , while receiving very little returns even after winning two championships and a 24 Hours of Le Mans , the decision was made to cancel the project after only a few C292s had been produced by Sauber . The exact number of C292s that were built is unknown , however one remaining copy is on display in the Sauber museum . With the cancellation , the C292 was never tested , and therefore its potential in comparison to its competitors was never able to be seen . It is unknown if Mercedes even got to the point of installing the M291 engine in the C292 . This would be the last Mercedes-Benz sportscar until the launch of the CLK-GTR in 1997 .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Mercedes-Benz_C292", "rank": 35, "score": 90746 }, { "content": "Title: PRR29 Content: PRR29 is a protein located on human chromosome 17 that in humans is encoded by the PRR29 gene . It is also commonly known as C17orf72 . The gene has a size of 5961 base pairs and contains five exons .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "PRR29", "rank": 36, "score": 90315 }, { "content": "Title: HMS C12 Content: HMS C12 was one of 38 C-class submarines built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . The boat survived the First World War and was sold for scrap in 1920 .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "HMS_C12", "rank": 37, "score": 90259 }, { "content": "Title: C16H26N2O2 Content: The molecular formula C26H16N2O2 may refer to : Dimethocaine , a local anesthetic Evenamide , a selective voltage-gated sodium channel blocker", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C16H26N2O2", "rank": 38, "score": 90168 }, { "content": "Title: C21orf55 Content: DnaJ homolog subfamily C member 28 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the DNAJC28 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C21orf55", "rank": 39, "score": 90090 }, { "content": "Title: C21orf59 Content: C21orf59 is a protein of unknown function . It is of interest in part for its association with various diseases . It has been found in high levels in the bone marrow of patients with a negative prognosis of acute myeloid leukemia and an abnormal karyotype . Male Alzheimer 's patients have shown a decrease in expression of C21orf59 in their blood cells . The C21orf59 gene lies within the critical region of Down Syndrome . There are no clear paralogs in humans , but the gene has homologues widely conserved among animals , fungi , and algae .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C21orf59", "rank": 40, "score": 90004 }, { "content": "Title: Chromosome 1 open reading frame 162 Content: Chromosome 1 open reading frame 162 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C1orf162 gene . It has been found to be hypomethylated in instances of gastric cancer .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Chromosome_1_open_reading_frame_162", "rank": 41, "score": 89724 }, { "content": "Title: Haplogroup C-F3393 Content: Haplogroup C1 also known as C-F3393 , is a major Y-chromosome haplogroup . It is one of two primary branches of the broader Haplogroup C , the other being C2 ( also known as C-M217 ; the former Haplogroup C3 ) . The basal paragroup , C1 * ( C-F3393 * ) , has not been found , in samples from living or dead males . Of the two primary branches , C1b is common in parts of Oceania and Asia , whereas C1a is extremely rare worldwide and has been found only amongst individuals native to Japan , Nepal , and Southern Europe .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Haplogroup_C-F3393", "rank": 42, "score": 89453 }, { "content": "Title: C16orf42 Content: C16orf42 , or chromosome 16 open reading frame 42 , is a hypothetical human protein found on chromosome 16 . Its protein is 312 amino acids long . and its cDNA has 1214 base pairs", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C16orf42", "rank": 43, "score": 89199 }, { "content": "Title: C11orf73 Content: C11orf73 is a protein important in lung and multicellular organismal development that , in humans , is encoded by the C11orf73 gene ( chromosome 11 open reading frame 73 ) . C11orf73 is found on chromosome 11 in humans and chromosome 7 in mice . Similar sequences ( orthologs ) are found in most animal and fungal species . The mouse homolog , lethal gene on chromosome 7 Rinchik 6 protein is encoded by the l7Rn6 gene . When the l7Rn6 protein is disrupted in mice , the mice display severe emphysema at birth as a result of disorganization of the Golgi apparatus and formation of aberrant vesicular structures within clara cells .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C11orf73", "rank": 44, "score": 88928 }, { "content": "Title: CSDC2 Content: Cold shock domain-containing protein C2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CSDC2 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "CSDC2", "rank": 45, "score": 88898 }, { "content": "Title: OCC-1 Content: OCC-1 ( overexpressed in colon carcinoma-1 ) is a protein , which in humans is encoded by the gene C12orf75 . The gene is approximately 40,882 bp long and encodes 63 amino acids . OCC-1 is ubiquitously expressed throughout the human body . OCC-1 has shown to be overexpressed in various colon carcinomas . Novel splice variant of this gene was also detected in various human cancer types ; in addition to encoding a novel smaller protein ( 51 amino acids ) , OCC-1 gene produces a non-protein coding RNA splice variant lncRNA ( called OCC-D variant ) .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "OCC-1", "rank": 46, "score": 88737 }, { "content": "Title: ACOT6 Content: Acyl-CoA thioesterase 6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ACOT6 gene . The protein , also known as C14orf42 , is an enzyme with thioesterase activity .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "ACOT6", "rank": 47, "score": 88552 }, { "content": "Title: C14orf93 Content: C14orf93 is a protein that is encoded in humans by the C14orf93 gene . It is a globular protein with a conserved C-terminus that is localized to the nucleus . While expressed relatively highly in all tissues except nervous tissue , it is expressed particularly highly in T cells and other immune tissues .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C14orf93", "rank": 48, "score": 88370 }, { "content": "Title: HMS C22 Content: HMS C22 was one of 38 C-class submarines built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . The boat survived the First World War and was sold for scrap in 1920 .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "HMS_C22", "rank": 49, "score": 88282 }, { "content": "Title: JNR Class C12 Content: The Class C12 is a type of 2-6-2T steam locomotive built by the Japanese Government Railways and the Japanese National Railways from 1932 to 1947 . A total of 282 Class C12 locomotives were built .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "JNR_Class_C12", "rank": 50, "score": 88201 }, { "content": "Title: PEO1 Content: Twinkle protein is a mitochondrial protein that in humans is encoded by the C10orf2 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "PEO1", "rank": 51, "score": 88026 }, { "content": "Title: BSA C12 Content: The BSA C12 was a British pre-unit motorcycle manufactured by the Birmingham Small Arms Company from 1956 to 1958 . The C12 used the same engine as the earlier C11G with the four-speed gearbox , but in a more modern chassis featuring a swinging arm rear suspension . Minor engine modifications meant it was also far more reliable .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "BSA_C12", "rank": 52, "score": 87811 }, { "content": "Title: C12A1 Content: The C12A1 target model rifle is a competition weapon used by members of the Royal Canadian Army Cadets for advanced training and target shooting competition . The C12A1 rifle is a 7.62-millimetre caliber , heavy-barrel , manually operated , bolt action , hand-fed , single-shot , competition weapon with a free-floating barrel and an ejector . The rifle was designed around the action of the RPA Quadlock rifle system . The rifle is equipped with a Robertson , synthetic , adjustable , pistol grip stock . The standard issue C12A1 also features German-made closed aperture sights and has a level on the front sight . The C12A1 fires a 7.62 × 51mm round , the same as the round used in the Heckler & Koch G3 and the FN C1A1 . It has no applied safety . The National Rifle Team ( NRT ) and cadets taking Cadet Leader Instructor Marksman Course use this rifle . On the NRT variation , it is decorated with maple leaves and is painted red for use in the Bisley yearly shooting competition in the UK .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C12A1", "rank": 53, "score": 87794 }, { "content": "Title: C20orf111 Content: Chromosome 20 open reading frame 111 , or C20orf111 , is the hypothetical protein that in humans is encoded by the C20orf111 gene . C20orf111 is also known as Perit1 ( peroxide inducible transcript 1 ) , HSPC207 , and dJ1183I21 .1 . It was originally located using genomic sequencing of chromosome 20 . The National Center for Biotechnology Information , or NCBI , shows that it is located at q13 .11 on chromosome 20 , however the genome browser at the University of California-Santa Cruz ( UCSC ) website shows that it is at location q13 .12 , and within a million base pairs of the adenosine deaminase locus . It was also found to have an increase in expression in cells undergoing hydrogen peroxide - induced apoptosis . After analyzing the amino acid content of C20orf111 , it was found to be rich in serine residues .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C20orf111", "rank": 54, "score": 87743 }, { "content": "Title: DOC2A Content: Double C2-like domain-containing protein alpha is a protein that in humans is encoded by the DOC2A gene . There are at least two protein isoforms of the Double C2 protein , namely alpha ( DOC2A ) and beta ( DOC2B ) , which contain two C2-like domains . DOC2A and DOC2B are encoded by different genes ; these genes are at times confused with the unrelated DAB2 gene which was initially named DOC-2 . DOC2A is mainly expressed in brain and is suggested to be involved in Ca ( 2 + ) - dependent neurotransmitter release .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "DOC2A", "rank": 55, "score": 87255 }, { "content": "Title: C13H12N2O Content: The molecular formula C13H12N2O may refer to : Harmine , a beta-carboline enzyme inhibitor 1,3-Diphenylurea , a cytokinin plant hormone", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C13H12N2O", "rank": 56, "score": 86805 }, { "content": "Title: OpenNebula Systems Content: OpenNebula Systems ( formerly C12G Labs ) is an international software company that develops and provides commercial support for the open source cloud management platform OpenNebula.The company was first established in 2010 as C12G Labs . Based in Madrid , C12G was founded by the original developers of OpenNebula . On October 15 , 2014 , C12G announced that it would change its name to OpenNebula Systems , associating itself more closely with its product . In May 2015 , OpenNebula Systems created a subsidiary in US . OpenNebula Systems USA , LLC is located in Cambridge , Massachusetts .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "OpenNebula_Systems", "rank": 57, "score": 86801 }, { "content": "Title: PCDHAC2 Content: Protocadherin alpha-C2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PCDHAC2 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "PCDHAC2", "rank": 58, "score": 86701 }, { "content": "Title: C1 and P1 (neuroscience) Content: The C1 and P1 ( also called the P100 ) are two human scalp-recorded event-related brain potential ( event-related potential ( ERP ) ) components , collected by means of a technique called electroencephalography ( EEG ) . The C1 is named so because it was the first component in a series of components found to respond to visual stimuli when it was first discovered . It can be a negative-going component ( when using a mastoid reference point ) or a positive going component with its peak normally observed in the 65 -- 90 ms range post-stimulus onset . The P1 is called the P1 because it is the first positive-going component ( when also using a mastoid reference point ) and its peak is normally observed in around 100 ms. Both components are related to processing of visual stimuli and are under the category of potentials called visually evoked potentials ( VEPs ) . Both components are theorized to be evoked within the visual cortices of the brain with C1 being linked to the primary visual cortex ( striate cortex ) of the human brain and the P1 being linked to other visual areas ( Extrastriate cortex ) . One of the primary distinctions between these two components is that , whereas the P1 can be modulated by attention , the C1 has been typically found to be invariable to different levels of attention .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C1_and_P1_(neuroscience)", "rank": 59, "score": 86668 }, { "content": "Title: C11H15NO2 Content: The molecular formula C11H15NO2 ( molar mass : 193.24 g/mol , exact mass : 193.110279 ) may refer to : Benzodioxolylbutanamine Butamben m-Cumenyl methylcarbamate 3,4-Ethylidenedioxyamphetamine Lobivine MDMA 2,3-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine ( 2,3-MDMA ) 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine ( 3,4-MDMA ) 2-Methyl-MDA 5-Methyl-MDA Methylenedioxyphentermine", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C11H15NO2", "rank": 60, "score": 86502 }, { "content": "Title: C11orf86 Content: Chromosome 11 open reading frame 86 , also known as C11orf86 , is a protein-coding gene in humans . It encodes for a protein known as uncharacterized protein C11orf86 , which is predicted to be a nuclear protein . The function of this protein is currently unknown .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C11orf86", "rank": 61, "score": 86307 }, { "content": "Title: C11H14N2O Content: The molecular formula C11H14N2O ( molar mass : 190.24 g/mol , exact mass : 190.110613 ) may refer to : Cytisine 4,4 ' - Dimethylaminorex 4-HO-AMT Indantadol 5-Methoxytryptamine 2-Methyl-5-hydroxytryptamine α-Methylserotonin N-Methylserotonin", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C11H14N2O", "rank": 62, "score": 86286 }, { "content": "Title: C16orf71 Content: Uncharacterized protein Chromosome 16 Open Reading Frame 71 is a protein in humans , encoded by the C16orf71 gene . The gene is expressed in epithelial tissue of the respiratory system , adipose tissue , and the testes . Predicted associated biological processes of the gene include regulation of the cell cycle , cell proliferation , apoptosis , and cell differentiation in those tissue types . 1357 bp of the gene are antisense to spliced genes ZNF500 and ANKS3 , indicating possibility of regulated alternate expression .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C16orf71", "rank": 63, "score": 86125 }, { "content": "Title: NDUFC2 Content: NADH dehydrogenase -LSB- ubiquinone -RSB- 1 subunit C2 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the NDUFC2 gene . The NDUF2 gene encodes one of the subunits of complex I , the first and largest complex of the mitochondrial respiratory chain .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "NDUFC2", "rank": 64, "score": 85902 }, { "content": "Title: C11H18N2O3 Content: The molecular formula C11H18N2O3 ( molar mass : 226.27 g/mol ) may be referred as : Amobarbital Pentobarbital Timoxeline Barbebutenol , a fictional drug that is a plot element in the film Johnny English Reborn that causes subjects to become totally submissive while induced into a brief hypnosis before Sudden Cardiac Arrest A Mind control , fictional drug appearing on the film Johnny English Reborn . This drug has similar to ` Devils Breath ' - a drug in powder-form known to leave the user in a trance-like , submissive state .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C11H18N2O3", "rank": 65, "score": 85880 }, { "content": "Title: C12orf42 Content: Chromosome 12 Open Reading Frame 42 ( C12orf42 ) is a protein-encoding gene in Homo sapiens .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C12orf42", "rank": 66, "score": 85770 }, { "content": "Title: MTHFD1 Content: C-1-tetrahydrofolate synthase , cytoplasmic also known as C1-THF synthase is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the MTHFD1 ( methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase 1 ) gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "MTHFD1", "rank": 67, "score": 85763 }, { "content": "Title: C11H16O2 Content: The molecular formula C11H16O2 ( molar mass : 180.24354 g/mol , exact mass : 180.11503 u ) may refer to : Butylated hydroxyanisole Dihydroactinidiolide Olivetol , an alkylresorcinol found in lichens", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C11H16O2", "rank": 68, "score": 85722 }, { "content": "Title: NPC1 Content: Niemann-Pick disease , type C1 ( NPC1 ) is a membrane protein that mediates intracellular cholesterol trafficking in mammals . In humans it is encoded by the NPC1 gene ( chromosome location 18q11 ) .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "NPC1", "rank": 69, "score": 85652 }, { "content": "Title: C1D Content: Nuclear nucleic acid-binding protein C1D is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C1D gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C1D", "rank": 70, "score": 85263 }, { "content": "Title: C11 (C standard revision) Content: C11 ( formerly C1X ) is an informal name for ISO/IEC 9899:2011 , the current standard for the C programming language . It replaces the previous C standard , informally known as C99 . This new version mainly standardizes features that have already been supported by common contemporary compilers , and includes a detailed memory model to better support multiple threads of execution . Due to delayed availability of conforming C99 implementations , C11 makes certain features optional , to make it easier to comply with the core language standard . The final draft , N1570 , was published in April 2011 . The new standard passed its final draft review on October 10 , 2011 and was officially ratified by ISO and published as ISO/IEC 9899:2011 on December 8 , 2011 , with no comments requiring resolution by participating national bodies . A standard macro __ STDC_VERSION __ is defined with value 201112L to indicate that C11 support is available . Some features of C11 are supported by the GCC starting with version 4.6 , Clang starting with version 3.1 , and IBM XL C starting with version 12.1 .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C11_(C_standard_revision)", "rank": 71, "score": 85226 }, { "content": "Title: C1QTNF1 Content: Complement C1q tumor necrosis factor-related protein 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C1QTNF1 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C1QTNF1", "rank": 72, "score": 85111 }, { "content": "Title: CC2D2A Content: Coiled-coil and C2 domain-containing protein 2A that in humans is encoded by the CC2D2A gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "CC2D2A", "rank": 73, "score": 85052 }, { "content": "Title: SLC35C2 Content: Solute carrier family 35 member C2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC35C2 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "SLC35C2", "rank": 74, "score": 85001 }, { "content": "Title: Paracaspase Content: Paracaspases ( human : MALT1 ) are members of the C14 family of cysteine proteases . Paracaspases are proteins related to caspases present in animals and slime mold , in contrast to metacaspases , which are present in plants , fungi , and `` protists '' . The phylogenetic distribution is a bit confusing , since slime mold diverged earlier than the animal/fungal split . Paracaspase has been first identified in a recurrent t ( 11 ; 18 ) ( q21 ; q21 ) chromosomal translocation associated with a subset of MALT lymphoma . This leads to a fusion oncoprotein consisting of the carboxyl terminus of MALT1 and the amino terminus of c-IAP2 . Paracaspases are more similar to caspases than metacaspases are , indicating that this group of proteases diverged from caspases from a common metacaspase ancestor .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Paracaspase", "rank": 75, "score": 84940 }, { "content": "Title: Multiple c2 domains, transmembrane 2 Content: Multiple C2 domains , transmembrane 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MCTP2 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Multiple_c2_domains,_transmembrane_2", "rank": 76, "score": 84866 }, { "content": "Title: C14H18N2O Content: The molecular formula C14H18N2O ( molar mass : 230.30 g/mol , exact mass : 230.141913 ) may refer to : AL-37350A , a tryptamine derivative BRL-54443 , agonist of 5-HT1E and 5-HT1F serotonin receptors CP-132 ,484 4-HO-pyr-T , a psychedelic drug Ibudilast , an antiinflammatory drug", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C14H18N2O", "rank": 77, "score": 84719 }, { "content": "Title: C13H19NO2 Content: The molecular formula C13H19NO2 ( molar mass : 221.30 g/mol ) may refer to : Ethylbenzodioxolylbutanamine F-2 ( psychedelic ) Ifoxetine Methylbenzodioxolylpentanamine Methylenedioxyisopropylamphetamine Methylenedioxypropylamphetamine PF-219 ,061", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C13H19NO2", "rank": 78, "score": 84600 }, { "content": "Title: C21orf56 Content: The uncharacterized protein , C21orf56 , is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C21orf56 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C21orf56", "rank": 79, "score": 84591 }, { "content": "Title: C1S Content: Complement C1s subcomponent is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C1S gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C1S", "rank": 80, "score": 84569 }, { "content": "Title: C11orf16 Content: Uncharacterized protein C11orf16 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C11orf16 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C11orf16", "rank": 81, "score": 84493 }, { "content": "Title: List of MeSH codes (C12) Content: The following is a list of the `` C '' codes for MeSH . It is a product of the United States National Library of Medicine . Source for content is here . ( File `` 2006 MeSH Trees '' . )", "qid": "2945", "docid": "List_of_MeSH_codes_(C12)", "rank": 82, "score": 84376 }, { "content": "Title: C13H16N2O2 Content: The molecular formula C13H16N2O2 ( molar mass : 232.27 g/mol , exact mass : 232.121178 ) may refer to : Aminoglutethimide Melatonin , a hormone Methylphenylpiracetam 5,6-MDO-DMT", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C13H16N2O2", "rank": 83, "score": 84356 }, { "content": "Title: Endrin Content: Endrin is an organochloride with the chemical formula C12H8Cl6O that was first produced in 1950 by Shell and Velsicol Chemical Corporation . It was primarily used as an insecticide , as well as a rodenticide and piscicide . It is a colourless , odorless solid , although commercial samples are often off-white . Endrin was manufactured as an emulsifiable solution known commercially as Endrex . The compound became infamous as a persistent organic pollutant and for this reason it is banned in many countries . In the environment endrin exists as either endrin aldehyde or endrin ketone and can be found mainly in bottom sediments of bodies of water . Exposure to endrin can occur by inhalation , ingestion of substances containing the compound , or skin contact . Upon entering the body , it can be stored in body fats and can act as a neurotoxin on the central nervous system , which can cause convulsions , seizures , or even death . Although endrin is not currently classified as a mutagen , nor as a human carcinogen , it is still a toxic chemical in other ways with detrimental effects . Due to these toxic effects , the manufacturers cancelled all use of endrin in the United States by 1991 . Food import concerns have been raised because some countries may have still been using endrin as a pesticide .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Endrin", "rank": 84, "score": 84258 }, { "content": "Title: Cathepsin L2 Content: Cathepsin L2 , also known as cathepsin V and encoded by the CTSL2 gene , is a human gene . The protein encoded by this gene , a member of the peptidase C1 family , is a lysosomal cysteine proteinase that may play an important role in corneal physiology . This gene is expressed in colorectal and breast carcinomas but not in normal colon , mammary gland , or peritumoral tissues , suggesting a possible role for this gene in tumor processes .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Cathepsin_L2", "rank": 85, "score": 84224 }, { "content": "Title: WWC2 Content: WW and C2 domain containing 2 ( WWC2 ) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the WWC2 gene ( 4q35 .1 ) . Though function of WWC2 remains unknown , it has been predicted that WWC2 may play a role in cancer .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "WWC2", "rank": 86, "score": 84138 }, { "content": "Title: C21H28O2 Content: The molecular formula C21H28O2 may refer to : 11-Dehydroprogesterone Demegestone Dextronorgestrel Dydrogesterone Ethisterone , a progesterone hormone Guggulsterone Levonorgestrel Norboletone Norgestrel , a progestin Tetrahydrogestrinone , an anabolic steroid Tibolone , a steroid hormone", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C21H28O2", "rank": 87, "score": 84128 }, { "content": "Title: Autophagy-related protein 101 Content: Autophagy-related protein 101 also known as ATG101 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C12orf44 gene ( chromosome 12 open reading frame 44 ) . Autophagy is the process of forming a vacuole around proteins and nucleic acids that are to be broken down in lysosomes . The transcribed mRNA sequence of C12orf44 is 1287 base pairs , and following translation the sequence is 218 amino acids in length . The ATG101 protein is localized in the cytoplasm , but can possibly also be found bound to a structure known as a phagophore , involved in autophagy . The gene is highly conserved among mammals , as well as showing conservation among most eukaryotes . It is thought to directly interact with ATG13 in the ULK1 complex , which may be important for activating phagophores .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Autophagy-related_protein_101", "rank": 88, "score": 84108 }, { "content": "Title: C11H17NO2S Content: The molecular formula C11H17NO2S ( molar mass : 227.32 g/mol ) may refer to : 2C-T , a psychedelic drug Thiomescaline TIM ( psychedelics )", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C11H17NO2S", "rank": 89, "score": 83907 }, { "content": "Title: C1 domain Content: C1 domain ( also known as phorbol esters/diacylglycerol binding domain ) binds an important secondary messenger diacylglycerol ( DAG ) , as well as the analogous phorbol esters . Phorbol esters can directly stimulate protein kinase C , PKC . The N-terminal region of PKC , known as C1 , has been shown Phorbol esters ( such as PMA ) are analogues of DAG and potent tumor promoters that cause a variety of physiological changes when administered to both cells and tissues . DAG activates a family of serine/threonine protein kinases , collectively known as protein kinase C ( PKC ) . Phorbol esters can directly stimulate PKC . The N-terminal region of PKC , known as C1 , binds PMA and DAG in a phospholipid and zinc-dependent fashion . The C1 region contains one or two copies of a cysteine-rich domain , which is about 50 amino-acid residues long , and which is essential for DAG/PMA-binding . The DAG/PMA-binding domain binds two zinc ions ; the ligands of these metal ions are probably the six cysteines and two histidines that are conserved in this domain .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C1_domain", "rank": 90, "score": 83900 }, { "content": "Title: UQCRC1 Content: Cytochrome b-c1 complex subunit 1 , mitochondrial is a protein that in humans is encoded by the UQCRC1 gene . Its gene product is a subunit of the respiratory chain protein Ubiquinol Cytochrome c Reductase ( UQCR , Complex III or Cytochrome bc1 complex ) , which consists of the products of one mitochondrially encoded gene , MTCYTB ( mitochondrial cytochrome b ) and ten nuclear genes : UQCRC1 , UQCRC2 , Cytochrome c1 , UQCRFS1 ( Rieske protein ) , UQCRB , `` 11kDa protein '' , UQCRH ( cyt c1 Hinge protein ) , Rieske Protein presequence , `` cyt . c1 associated protein '' , and Rieske-associated protein .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "UQCRC1", "rank": 91, "score": 83878 }, { "content": "Title: C11H14N2 Content: The molecular formula C11H14N2 ( molar mass : 174.24 g/mol , exact mass : 174.115698 ) may refer to : 6 - ( 2-Aminopropyl ) indole Gramine α-Methyltryptamine N-Methyltryptamine", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C11H14N2", "rank": 92, "score": 83799 }, { "content": "Title: C11orf30 Content: Protein EMSY is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C11orf30 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C11orf30", "rank": 93, "score": 83772 }, { "content": "Title: C1R (gene) Content: Complement C1r subcomponent is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C1R gene . Along with C1s and C1q complex it forms C1 , the first component of the serum complement system .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C1R_(gene)", "rank": 94, "score": 83663 }, { "content": "Title: C2orf27 Content: Uncharacterized protein C2orf27 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C2orf27A gene . Although its function is not clearly understood , through the use of bioinformatic analysis more information is being brought to light .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C2orf27", "rank": 95, "score": 83651 }, { "content": "Title: Dnaj heat shock protein family (hsp40) member c12 Content: DnaJ heat shock protein family ( Hsp40 ) member C12 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the DNAJC12 gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "Dnaj_heat_shock_protein_family_(hsp40)_member_c12", "rank": 96, "score": 83625 }, { "content": "Title: C21H26O2 Content: The molecular formula C21H26O2 ( molar mass : 310.42 g/mol , exact mass : 310.19328 ) may refer to : Altrenogest Cannabinol Gestodene , a progesterone contraceptive hormone Mestranol Plomestane", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C21H26O2", "rank": 97, "score": 83609 }, { "content": "Title: C21orf7 Content: Chromosome 21 open reading frame 7 , also known as C21orf7 , is a human gene located on chromosome 21 . It is a coding gene .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C21orf7", "rank": 98, "score": 83549 }, { "content": "Title: FAM71D Content: FAM71D , also known as chromosome 14 open reading frame 54 ( C14orf54 ) , is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FAM71D gene on Chromosome 14 . Orthologs of FAM71D reach as far back in evolution to Reptiles , however , it is closer in homology to primates than any other orthologs . FAM71D has 6 paralogs : FAM71A , FAM71B , FAM71C , FAM71E1 , FAM71F1 , and FAM71F2 which encode a protein of unknown function .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "FAM71D", "rank": 99, "score": 83488 }, { "content": "Title: C2 (classification) Content: C2 is a Paralympic cycling classification . The UCI recommends this be coded as MC2 or WC2 .", "qid": "2945", "docid": "C2_(classification)", "rank": 100, "score": 83270 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 21 Content: Solar cycle 21 was the 21st solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.5 years , beginning in March 1976 and ending in September 1986 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 232.9 , in December 1979 , and the starting minimum was 17.8 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 21 to 22 , there were a total of 273 days with no sunspots . The largest solar flare of this cycle ( X15 ) occurred on July 11 , 1978 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_21", "rank": 1, "score": 119725 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy", "rank": 2, "score": 115581 }, { "content": "Title: IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme Content: The International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme ( IEA SHC ) is one of over 40 multilateral Technology Collaboration Programmes ( also known as TCPs ) of the International Energy Agency . It was one of the first of such programmes , founded in 1977 . Its current mission is to `` advance international collaborative efforts for solar energy to reach the goal set in the vision of contributing 50 % of the low temperature heating and cooling demand by 2030 . '' . Its international solar collector statistics Solar Heat Worldwide serve as a reference document for governments , financial institutions , consulting firms and non-profit organizations .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "IEA_Solar_Heating_and_Cooling_Programme", "rank": 3, "score": 113207 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of February 26, 1979 Content: In astronomy , a total solar eclipse occurred on February 26 , 1979 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . The central shadow of the moon passed through the northwestern U.S. states of Washington , Oregon , Idaho , Montana ( where totality covered almost the entire state ) , the north-central state of North Dakota , parts of the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan , Manitoba , Ontario , Quebec , and what is now the Canadian Territory of Nunavut , and Greenland .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_February_26,_1979", "rank": 4, "score": 112911 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 2 Content: Solar cycle 2 was the second solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9 years , beginning in June 1766 and ending in June 1775 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 193.0 ( September 1769 ) , and the starting minimum was 18.6 . Sunspot observations by Alexander Wilson during this period established the Wilson effect .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_2", "rank": 5, "score": 112294 }, { "content": "Title: Wilson effect Content: In 1769 , during solar cycle 2 , a Scottish astronomer named Alexander Wilson , working at the Macfarlane Observatory , noticed that the shape of sunspots noticeably flattened as they approached the Sun 's limb due to the solar rotation . These observations showed that sunspots were features on the solar surface , as opposed to minor planets or objects above it . Moreover , he observed what is now termed the Wilson effect : the penumbra and umbra vary in the manner expected by perspective effects if the umbrae of the spots are in fact slight depressions in the surface of the photosphere . The magnitude of the depression is difficult to determine but may be as large as 1,000 km . While the surface-depression interpretation of the Wilson effect is widespread , Bray and Loughhead ( 1965 ) contended that `` the true explanation of the Wilson effect lies in the higher transparency of the spot material compared to the photosphere '' . They develop this idea on pages 93 to 99 of their book . A similar interpretation was expressed by C.H. Tong in 2005 . Sunspots result from the blockage of convective heat transport by intense magnetic fields . Sunspots are cooler than the rest of the photosphere , with effective temperatures of about 4000 ° C ( about 7000 ° F ) . Sunspot occurrence follows an approximately 11-year period known as the solar cycle , discovered by Heinrich Schwabe in the 19th century .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Wilson_effect", "rank": 6, "score": 110945 }, { "content": "Title: Explorer 7 Content: Explorer 7 was launched October 13 , 1959 at 10:36 a.m. Eastern Time by a Juno II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to an orbit of 573 km by 1073 km and inclination of 50.27 ° . It was designed to measure solar x-ray and Lyman-alpha flux , trapped energetic particles , and heavy primary cosmic rays . Also Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration and molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance . Launch was originally scheduled for late September 1959 , but the mission was delayed for a week after a Jupiter IRBM test on an adjacent pad failed shortly after liftoff , causing flying debris to hit Explorer 7 's launch vehicle . However , the damage to the booster was minor and could be easily repaired . Significantly , it also carried Verner Suomi 's flat-plate radiometer , improved with the help of Robert Parent , that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate . Using both satellite observations of the Earth 's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes , Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy . These observations established that Earth 's energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds , the surface albedo , and other absorbing constituents . Using these instruments , Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun 's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget . The satellite weighed 41.5 kg , was 75 cm high and 75 cm wide . Powered by solar cells it also carried 15 nickel-cadmium batteries around its equator . It transmitted data continuously through to February 1961 and went dead on August 24 , 1961 . It is still in orbit .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Explorer_7", "rank": 7, "score": 109716 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 10 Content: Solar cycle 10 was the tenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.3 years , beginning in December 1855 and ending in March 1867 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 186.2 ( February 1860 ) , and the starting minimum was 6.0 . During the transit from solar cycle 10 to 11 , there were a total of 406 days with no sunspots . The first observations of solar flares , by Richard Carrington and Richard Hodgson ( independently ) , occurred during this cycle .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_10", "rank": 8, "score": 107650 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 12 Content: Solar cycle 12 was the twelfth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.3 years , beginning in December 1878 and ending in March 1890 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 124.4 ( December 1883 ) , and the starting minimum was 3.7 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 12 to 13 , there were a total of 736 days with no sunspots . A very bright blood-red aurora display happened over New York on 16 April 1882 , while significant communication disturbances occurred . A geomagnetic storm later in that year produced the aurora of November 17 , 1882 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_12", "rank": 9, "score": 107422 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of April 7, 1978 Content: A partial solar eclipse occurred on April 7 , 1978 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon 's shadow misses the Earth .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_April_7,_1978", "rank": 10, "score": 107073 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 11 Content: Solar cycle 11 was the eleventh solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.8 years , beginning in March 1867 and ending in December 1878 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 234.0 ( August 1870 ) , and the starting minimum was 9.9 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 11 to 12 , there were a total of 1028 days with no sunspots ( the highest recorded of any cycle transit to date ) . Strong auroral displays were observed in October 1870 , February 1872 , and August 1872 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_11", "rank": 11, "score": 107038 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 3 Content: Solar cycle 3 was the third solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9.3 years , beginning in June 1775 and ending in September 1784 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 264.3 ( May 1778 ) , and the starting minimum was 12.0 . William Herschel began observing sunspots during this period .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_3", "rank": 12, "score": 107001 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of October 2, 1978 Content: A partial solar eclipse occurred on October 2 , 1978 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon 's shadow misses the Earth .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_October_2,_1978", "rank": 13, "score": 106538 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 17 Content: Solar cycle 17 was the seventeenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.4 years , beginning in September 1933 and ending in February 1944 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 198.6 ( April 1937 ) , and the starting minimum was 5.8 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 17 to 18 , there were a total of 269 days with no sunspots . A great aurora display was seen all over Europe on 25 January 1938 , as far south as Portugal and Sicily , frightening many people . Some thought that the red glow indicated large fires , while others linked it to the Fátima prophecies . An aurora was visible over New York on 3 April 1940 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_17", "rank": 14, "score": 106179 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 15, "score": 105270 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 15 Content: Solar cycle 15 was the fifteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.1 years , beginning in July 1913 and ending in August 1923 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 175.7 ( August 1917 ) , and the starting minimum was 2.5 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 15 to 16 , there were a total of 534 days with no sunspots . A major geomagnetic storm during 13 -- 15 May 1921 caused damage in communication systems and aurora displays in much of the eastern United States . Geomagnetic storms in March 1918 , August 1919 , October 1919 , and March 1920 affected telegraph lines , while a solar flare on 13 May 1921 also affected rail signal and switching equipment , in what was known as the `` New York Railroad Storm . ''", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_15", "rank": 16, "score": 104889 }, { "content": "Title: Solar air conditioning Content: Solar air conditioning refers to any air conditioning ( cooling ) system that uses solar power . This can be done through passive solar , solar thermal energy conversion and photovoltaic conversion ( sunlight to electricity ) . The U.S. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 created 2008 through 2012 funding for a new solar air conditioning research and development program , which should develop and demonstrate multiple new technology innovations and mass production economies of scale . Solar air conditioning might play an increasing role in zero-energy and energy-plus buildings design .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_air_conditioning", "rank": 17, "score": 104310 }, { "content": "Title: Sun Day Content: Sun Day ( May 3 , 1978 ) was designated by United States President Jimmy Carter , specifically devoted to advocacy for solar power , following a joint resolution by Congress , becoming It was modeled on the highly successful Earth Day of April 22 , 1970 . It was the idea of Denis Hayes , who also coordinated Earth Day in 1970 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Sun_Day", "rank": 18, "score": 104194 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 16 Content: Solar cycle 16 was the sixteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.1 years , beginning in August 1923 and ending in September 1933 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 130.2 ( April 1928 ) , and the starting minimum was 9.4 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 16 to 17 , there were a total of 568 days with no sunspots . Newspaper reports during this period note effects on telegraph systems , but also ( in March 1924 , January 1926 , October 1926 , and October 1927 ) on radio transmission .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_16", "rank": 19, "score": 103849 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 14 Content: Solar cycle 14 was the fourteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.5 years , beginning in January 1902 and ending in July 1913 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 107.1 , in February 1906 ( the lowest since the Dalton Minimum ) , and the starting minimum was 4.5 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 14 to 15 , there were a total of 1023 days with no sunspots ( the second highest recorded of any cycle to date ) . Geomagnetic storms in November 1903 , March 1905 , and September 1909 affected telegraph lines .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_14", "rank": 20, "score": 103537 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 20 Content: Solar cycle 20 was the twentieth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.4 years , beginning in October 1964 and ending in March 1976 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 156.6 ( November 1968 ) , and the starting minimum was 14.3 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 20 to 21 , there were a total of 272 days with no sunspots . Comparison with other cycles shows that geomagnetic activity during the declining phase of cycle 20 ( 1973 -- 1975 ) was unusually high . Data from solar cycle 20 was used to build the K-1974 solar proton fluence model , used for planning space missions during solar cycle 21 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_20", "rank": 21, "score": 103244 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 1 Content: Solar cycle 1 was the first solar cycle since extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.3 years , beginning in February 1755 and ending in June 1766 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 144.1 ( June 1761 ) , and the starting minimum was 14.0 . Cycle # 1 was discovered by Johann Rudolph Wolf who , inspired by the discovery of the solar cycle by Heinrich Schwabe in 1843 , collected all available sunspot observations going back to the first telescopic observations by Galileo . He was able to improve Schwabe 's estimate of the mean length of the cycle from about a decade to 11.11 years . However , he could not find enough observations before 1755 to reliably identify cycles , hence the 1755 -- 1766 cycle is conventionally numbered as cycle # 1 . Wolf published his results in 1852 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_1", "rank": 22, "score": 103177 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 8 Content: Solar cycle 8 was the eighth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9.7 years , beginning in November 1833 and ending in July 1843 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 244.9 ( March 1837 ) , and the starting minimum was 12.2 . Solar cycle # 8 ended in 1843 , the year that Heinrich Schwabe discovered the sunspot cycle .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_8", "rank": 23, "score": 103050 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 7 Content: Solar cycle 7 was the seventh solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.5 years , beginning in May 1823 and ending in November 1833 ( thus overlapping the Dalton Minimum ) . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 119.2 ( November 1829 ) , and the starting minimum was 0.2 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_7", "rank": 24, "score": 102447 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 6 Content: Solar cycle 6 was the sixth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 12.8 years , beginning in August 1810 and ending in May 1823 ( thus falling within the Dalton Minimum ) . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 81.2 , in May 1816 ( the lowest of any cycle to date , as a result of being part of the Dalton Minimum ) , and the starting minimum was 0.0 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_6", "rank": 25, "score": 102256 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of August 22, 1979 Content: An annular eclipse occurred on August 22 , 1979 . The eclipse occurs when Moon through Earth and Sun so totally or partially obscuring the image of the day for spectators on the ground . The annular eclipse occurs when diameter months younger than the Sun is blocking most of the sun and the sun , such as annulus to look at the ring . Annular eclipse complete the total eclipse over thousands of miles from land .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_August_22,_1979", "rank": 26, "score": 102037 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 19 Content: Solar cycle 19 was the nineteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.5 years , beginning in April 1954 and ending in October 1964 . The International Geophysical Year occurred at the peak of this solar cycle . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 285.0 , in March 1958 ( the highest on record ) , and the starting minimum was 5.1 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 19 to 20 , there were a total of 227 days with no sunspots . This was the lowest number since 1850 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_19", "rank": 27, "score": 101626 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 5 Content: Solar cycle 5 was the fifth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 12.3 years , beginning in April 1798 and ending in August 1810 ( thus falling within the Dalton Minimum ) . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 82.0 , in February 1805 ( the second-lowest of any cycle to date , as a result of being part of the Dalton Minimum ) , and the starting minimum was 5.3 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_5", "rank": 28, "score": 101474 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 24 Content: Solar Cycle 24 is the 24th solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . It is the current solar cycle , and began in December 2008 with a smoothed minimum of 2.2 ( SIDC formula ) . There was only minimal activity until early 2010 . It reached its maximum in April 2014 with smoothed sunspot number only 116.4 , the lowest in over a century .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_24", "rank": 29, "score": 101399 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 18 Content: Solar cycle 18 was the eighteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.2 years , beginning in February 1944 and ending in April 1954 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 218.7 ( May 1947 ) , and the starting minimum was 12.9 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 18 to 19 , there were a total of 446 days with no sunspots . Cycle 18 was characterized by `` giant '' sunspots . The recording of the 10.7 cm ( 2800 MHz ) solar radio flux began partway during this cycle , and values of the solar flux during this cycle turned out to be particularly high .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_18", "rank": 30, "score": 101055 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 23 Content: Solar cycle 23 was the 23rd solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 12.3 years , beginning in August 1996 and ending in December 2008 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 180.3 ( November 2001 ) , and the starting minimum was 11.2 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 23 to 24 , there were a total of 817 days with no sunspots .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_23", "rank": 31, "score": 100748 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 13 Content: Solar cycle 13 was the thirteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.8 years , beginning in March 1890 and ending in January 1902 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 146.5 ( January 1894 ) , and the starting minimum was 8.3 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 13 to 14 , there were a total of 934 days with no sunspots . There were a number of intense solar proton events during solar cycle 13 , as well as geomagnetic storms such as e.g. in September 1898 which affected telegraph lines .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_13", "rank": 32, "score": 100672 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 22 Content: Solar cycle 22 was the 22nd solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9.9 years , beginning in September 1986 and ending in August 1996 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 212.5 ( November 1989 ) , and the starting minimum was 13.5 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 22 to 23 , there were a total of 309 days with no sunspots .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_22", "rank": 33, "score": 100585 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 4 Content: Solar cycle 4 was the fourth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 13.6 years , beginning in September 1784 and ending in April 1798 ( thus overlapping the Dalton Minimum ) . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 235.3 ( in February 1788 ) , and the starting minimum was 15.9 . There are some recent speculations that cycle 4 , the longest solar cycle since 1755 , was actually two cycles , based on the appearance of new sunspots at high solar latitudes in 1793-1796 and a reconstruction of the sunspot butterfly diagram for cycles 3 and 4 , although total sunspot numbers only show a single-peaked distribution .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_4", "rank": 34, "score": 100390 }, { "content": "Title: The Dying Sun Content: The Dying Sun is a science fiction novel by Gary Blackwood , published in 1989 . Set in the mid-21st century , the book depicts a world where the sun 's light is actually diminishing over time , cooling the Earth ( as opposed to global warming ) , which causes a mass migration from the U.S. to Mexico . The large influx from the north causes overpopulation and a wave of violence in the south , and James and Robert , two friends , decide to go north to escape the crime-ridden south . The novel is a 1990 Friends of American Writers Best Young Adult Novel .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "The_Dying_Sun", "rank": 35, "score": 99852 }, { "content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Little_Ice_Age", "rank": 36, "score": 99739 }, { "content": "Title: Tottenham Court Road chiller Content: In the 1930s , London Transport Board installed an experimental refrigeration plant on the London Underground at Tottenham Court Road tube station . The plant was operational between 1938 and 1949 . The experimental plant was built because temperature measurements through the 1930s showed that the Underground was steadily getting warmer . Although the temperatures were not at unsafe levels ( peaks of 82 ° F / 27.8 ° C occurred at a few stations in summertime ) , the LTB perceived that if the trend continued , cooling in summer would be required at some time in the future , and it would be sensible to develop suitable technology . The chiller used water as the working fluid . The evaporators consisted of indirect heat exchangers mounted in the platform tunnels which were fed water at just above 0 ° C . The condenser was sited in the outflow air path of an existing tunnel cooling fan , which had been installed in a disused lift shaft at the station in 1933 . The outgoing air going through the condenser was warmed by 2 -- 3 ° C , before being discharged to atmosphere . Two descriptions of the cooling capacity exist . The first ( from 1939 ) gives the capacity as `` about half a million British thermal units per hour . '' The second ( 1982 ) states that it was `` equivalent to melting approximately 51 tonnes of ice per day . '' In SI units , these are 146 kW and 197 kW respectively . The experimental plant was not considered a success , mainly because the cooling it provided was at high cost . An extract fan of the same cooling capacity ( ` cooling capacity ' in the sense that a fan removes warm air in the tunnels and replaces it with cooler air from outside ) used up one-eighth of the electricity of the experimental refrigeration plant . Not only that , such a fan was easier to maintain and cost less to install . In the austere post-war years , the electrical power drawn by the chiller could not be justified . It was used intermittently during the 1940s , and was decommissioned in 1949 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Tottenham_Court_Road_chiller", "rank": 37, "score": 99383 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Photovoltaic Energy Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1978 Content: Solar Photovoltaic Energy Research , Development , and Demonstration Act of 1978 is a United States statute authorizing the research and development of photovoltaic systems utilizing solar energy or sunlight as a source for electricity generation . The Act of Congress promotes energy conservation by the displacement of conventional energy systems dependent upon alternative fuel and fossil fuel resources . The H.R. 12874 legislation was passed by the 95th U.S. Congressional session and enacted into law by the 39th President of the United States Jimmy Carter on November 4 , 1978 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_Photovoltaic_Energy_Research,_Development,_and_Demonstration_Act_of_1978", "rank": 38, "score": 99071 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 9 Content: Solar cycle 9 was the ninth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 12.4 years , beginning in July 1843 and ending in December 1855 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 219.9 ( February 1848 ) , and the starting minimum was 17.6 . During the solar cycle minimum transit from solar cycle 9 to solar cycle 10 , there were a total of 655 days with no sunspots . Solar cycle 9 began in 1843 , the year that Heinrich Schwabe discovered the sunspot cycle . During this cycle , Edward Sabine , Rudolf Wolf , and other scientists recognized that solar disturbances affected the Earth 's magnetic environment , so that solar cycles are identical to the Earth 's geomagnetic cycles . Wolf also introduced the Wolf number during this period . The phenomenon now known as geomagnetically induced current was seen for the first time during this cycle -- it became apparent on the emerging electric telegraph network . Francis Ronalds , Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory and Sabine 's colleague , received data from telegraph operators on the movements of their magnetic needles for comparison with his own photo-recordings of atmospheric electricity and geomagnetic intensity variations but had insufficient resources to study the causes of the unexpected currents in detail . Geomagnetic activity during solar cycle 9 followed a double-peaked distribution , with more magnetic storms during the rising ( 1847 -- 48 ) and falling ( 1851 -- 54 ) parts of the cycle .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle_9", "rank": 39, "score": 98975 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment", "rank": 40, "score": 98498 }, { "content": "Title: Dalton Minimum Content: The Dalton Minimum was a period of low sunspot count , representing low solar activity , named after the English meteorologist John Dalton , lasting from about 1790 to 1830 or 1796 to 1820 , corresponding to the period solar cycle 4 to solar cycle 7 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Dalton_Minimum", "rank": 41, "score": 98080 }, { "content": "Title: Solar maximum Content: -RSB- Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun . During solar maximum , large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun 's irradiance output grows by about 0.07 % . The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth 's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns . At solar maximum , the Sun 's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles . The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next , with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years . Large solar flares often occur during a maximum . For example , the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_maximum", "rank": 42, "score": 98036 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of June 24, 1778 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on June 24 , 1778 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . The total eclipse was visible in a path across Mexico , southeastern United States , and ended across northern Africa .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_June_24,_1778", "rank": 43, "score": 98002 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of July 29, 1878 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on July 29 , 1878 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . This eclipse was visible at sunrise at a path across northeastern Asia and passed across Alaska , western Canada , and the United States from Wyoming through Texas .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_July_29,_1878", "rank": 44, "score": 96603 }, { "content": "Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Neoglaciation", "rank": 45, "score": 95971 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of October 12, 1977 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on October 12 , 1977 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_October_12,_1977", "rank": 46, "score": 95799 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle Content: The solar cycle or solar magnetic activity cycle is the nearly periodic 11-year change in the Sun 's activity ( including changes in the levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material ) and appearance ( changes in the number and size of sunspots , flares , and other manifestations ) . They have been observed ( by changes in the sun 's appearance and by changes seen on Earth , such as auroras ) for centuries . The changes on the sun cause effects in space , in the atmosphere , and on Earth 's surface . While it is the dominant variable in solar activity , aperiodic fluctuations also occur .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_cycle", "rank": 47, "score": 95564 }, { "content": "Title: Solar minimum Content: Solar minimum is the period of least solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the sun . During this time , sunspot and solar flare activity diminishes , and often does not occur for days at a time . The date of the minimum is described by a smoothed average over 12 months of sunspot activity , so identifying the date of the solar minimum usually can only happen 6 months after the minimum takes place . Solar minima are not generally correlated with changes in climate but recent studies have shown a correlation with regional weather patterns . Solar minimum is contrasted with the solar maximum , where there may be hundreds of sunspots .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_minimum", "rank": 48, "score": 94992 }, { "content": "Title: Spörer Minimum Content: The Spörer Minimum is a hypothesized 90-year span of low solar activity , from about 1460 until 1550 , which was identified and named by John A. Eddy in a landmark 1976 paper published in Science titled `` The Maunder Minimum '' . It occurred before sunspots had been directly observed and was discovered instead by analysis of the proportion of carbon-14 in tree rings , which is strongly correlated with solar activity . It is named for the German astronomer Gustav Spörer .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Spörer_Minimum", "rank": 49, "score": 94784 }, { "content": "Title: SOLAR (ISS) Content: SOLAR is an ESA science observatory on the Columbus Laboratory , which is part of the International Space Station . SOLAR was launched with Columbus on February 2008 aboard STS-122 . It was externally mounted to Columbus with the European Technology Exposure Facility ( EuTEF ) . SOLAR has three main space science instruments : SOVIM , SOLSPEC and SOL-ACES . Together they provide detailed measurements of the Sun 's spectral irradiance . The SOLAR platform and its instruments are controlled from the Belgian User Support and Operations Centre ( B.USOC ) , located at the Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy ( BISA ) in Uccle , Belgium . SOVIM ( Solar Variantions and Irradiance Monitor ) instrument is based on an earlier instrument ( SOVA ) which flew aboard the European Retrievable Carrier , launched on STS-46 in 1992 . It is designed to measure solar radiation with wavelengths from 200 nanometers - 100 micrometers . This covers near-ultraviolet , visible and infrared areas of the spectrum . SOLSPEC ( Solar Spectral irradiance measurements ) is designed to measure the solar spectral irradiance in the 165 - to 3000-nanometer range with high spectral resolution . SOL-ACES ( Auto-calibrating Extreme Ultraviolet and Ultraviolet spectrometers ) consists of four grazing incidence grating spectrometers . They are designed to measure the EUV/UV spectral regime ( 17 nanometers - 220 nanometers ) with moderate spectral resolution . The mission was originally planned for a 2003 launch , but was delayed following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster . Some other components are also planned to be mounted externally on Columbus on future missions , including the Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space ( ACES ) . Another name for SOLAR may be Solar Monitoring Observatory or SMO . In 2012 , the entire 450-tonne station was rotated so SOLAR could observe a full rotation of the Sun continuously . A Solar rotation takes about 24 -- 28 days depending on the latitude .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "SOLAR_(ISS)", "rank": 50, "score": 94457 }, { "content": "Title: Arthur Covington Content: Arthur Edwin Covington ( 21 September 1913 -- 17 March 2001 ) was a Canadian physicist who made the first radio astronomy measurements in Canada . Through these he made the valuable discovery that sunspots generate large amounts of microwaves at the 10.7 cm wavelength , offering a simple all-weather method to measure and predict sunspot activity , and their associated effects on communications . The sunspot detection program has run continuously to this day .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Arthur_Covington", "rank": 51, "score": 93996 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of October 23, 1976 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on October 23 , 1976 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . This total solar eclipse began at sunrise in Tanzania near the border with Burundi , with the path of totality passing just north of the large Tanzanian city of Dar es Salaam . It then crossed the Indian Ocean before making landfall in southeastern Australia . The largest city that saw totality was Melbourne . After leaving the Australian mainland , the path of totality left the Earth 's surface just north of the north island of New Zealand .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_October_23,_1976", "rank": 52, "score": 93930 }, { "content": "Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_gain", "rank": 53, "score": 93501 }, { "content": "Title: Modern Maximum Content: The Modern Maximum refers to the period of relatively high solar activity which began with Solar Cycle 15 in 1914 . It reached a maximum in Cycle 19 during the late 1950s and may have ended with Cycle 23 in 2000 as Cycle 24 is recording , at best , very muted solar activity . This period is a natural example of solar variation , and one of many that are known from proxy records of past solar variability . The Modern Maximum reached a double peak once in the 1950s and again during the 1990s . The value of the maximum , and even to some extent its existence , depends somewhat on the method of counting sunspot numbers .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Modern_Maximum", "rank": 54, "score": 93325 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 55, "score": 93316 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of June 20, 1974 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on June 20 , 1974 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_June_20,_1974", "rank": 56, "score": 93274 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Peter_Thejll", "rank": 57, "score": 92318 }, { "content": "Title: Comet Howard–Koomen–Michels Content: Comet Howard -- Koomen -- Michels , formally known as C/1979 Q1 ( SOLWIND ) , was a large sungrazer that collided with the Sun on August 31 , 1979 . It is the only comet known to have made contact with the Sun 's surface , as most bodies vaporize before impact . It was observed by the white light coronagraph , SOLWIND , on the USAF Space Test Program , P78-1 satellite . It was the first comet discovered by a space instrument .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Comet_Howard–Koomen–Michels", "rank": 58, "score": 92128 }, { "content": "Title: Halloween solar storms, 2003 Content: The Halloween solar storms were a series of solar flares and coronal mass ejections that occurred from mid-October to early November 2003 , peaking around October 28 -- 29 . Satellite-based systems and communications were affected , aircraft were advised to avoid high altitudes near the polar regions , and a one-hour-long power outage occurred in Sweden as a result of the solar activity . Aurorae were observed at latitudes as far south as Texas and the Mediterranean countries of Europe . The SOHO satellite failed temporarily , and the Advanced Composition Explorer ( ACE ) was damaged by the solar activity . Numerous other spacecraft were damaged or experienced downtime due to various issues . Some of them were intentionally put into safe mode in order to protect sensitive equipment . Astronauts aboard the International Space Station ( ISS ) had to stay inside the more shielded parts of the Russian Orbital Segment to protect themselves against the increased radiation levels . Both the Ulysses spacecraft which was near Jupiter at the time , and Cassini , approaching Saturn , were able to detect the emissions . In April 2004 , Voyager 2 was also able to detect them as they reached the spacecraft . One of the solar storms was compared by some scientists in its intensity to the Carrington Event of 1859 . These events occurred during solar cycle 23 , approximately three years after its peak in 2000 , which was marked by another occurrence of solar activity known as the Bastille Day Flare .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Halloween_solar_storms,_2003", "rank": 59, "score": 91705 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of February 16, 1980 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on February 16 , 1980 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . The path of totality crossed central Africa , southern India , and into China at sunset .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_February_16,_1980", "rank": 60, "score": 91588 }, { "content": "Title: Mukul Kundu Content: Mukul R. Kundu ( 10 February 1930 - 16 June 2010 ) , was an Indian solar physicist , known best as a pioneer of radio observations of the Sun . Early in his career , he showed that the Sun 's 10.7 centimetre radio flux is correlated with the level of ionisation in the Earth 's ionosphere . The 10.7 cm flux is now used as a standard proxy for the level of magnetic activity on the Sun . He served on the editorial board of the journal Solar Physics and was awarded the George Ellery Hale Prize in 2007 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Mukul_Kundu", "rank": 61, "score": 91583 }, { "content": "Title: Cool Earth Solar Content: Cool Earth Solar has developed concentrated photovoltaic ( CPV ) technology to build solar power plants . The company is headquartered in Livermore , California , USA , and in 2008 closed its Series A round of funding with Quercus Trust as the lead investor . The company was founded in 2006 by Dr. Eric Cummings . Energy industry veteran Rob Lamkin joined the company as CEO in 2007 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Cool_Earth_Solar", "rank": 62, "score": 91528 }, { "content": "Title: Heat Capacity Mapping Mission Content: The Heat Capacity Mapping Mission ( HCMM ) was the first Applications Explorer Mission . HCMM provided comprehensive , accurate , high-spatial-resolution thermal surveys of the surface of the Earth . HCCM was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base on April 26 , 1978 by a Scout-F rocket . Its mass was 117.0 kg . The HCMM spacecraft was placed in a circular sun-synchronous orbit , allowing the spacecraft to sense surface temperatures near the maximum and minimum of the diurnal cycle . There was no on-board data storage capability , so only real-time data were transmitted when the satellite came within reception range of seven ground stations . During February 21 -- 23 , 1980 , the HCMM orbital altitude was lowered from 620 km to 540 km to stop the drift of the orbit plane to unfavorable sun angles which in turn reduced the power collection capability of the solar panels . The operations of the spacecraft were terminated on September 30 , 1980 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Heat_Capacity_Mapping_Mission", "rank": 63, "score": 91343 }, { "content": "Title: Cooling flow Content: A cooling flow occurs according to the theory that the intracluster medium ( ICM ) in the centres of galaxy clusters should be rapidly cooling at the rate of tens to thousands of solar masses per year . This should happen as the ICM ( a plasma ) is quickly losing its energy by the emission of X-rays . The X-ray brightness of the ICM is proportional to the square of its density , which rises steeply towards the centres of many clusters . Also the temperature falls to typically a third or a half of the temperature in the outskirts of the cluster . The typical -LSB- predicted -RSB- timescale for the ICM to cool is relatively short , less than a billion years . As material in the centre of the cluster cools out , the pressure of the overlying ICM should cause more material to flow inwards ( the cooling flow ) . In a steady state , the rate of mass deposition , i.e. the rate at which the plasma cools , is given by where L is the bolometric ( i.e. over the entire spectrum ) luminosity of the cooling region , T is its temperature , k is the Boltzmann constant and μm is the mean molecular mass .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Cooling_flow", "rank": 64, "score": 91200 }, { "content": "Title: History Lesson Content: `` History Lesson '' is a short story by Arthur C. Clarke , first published in 1949 . The two-part story speculates on the cooling of the Sun as a doomsday scenario for Earth and an evolutionary advent for Venus .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "History_Lesson", "rank": 65, "score": 91090 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of July 31, 1981 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on July 31 , 1981 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . The path of totality went through the Turkey and Soviet Union .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_July_31,_1981", "rank": 66, "score": 90989 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 67, "score": 90315 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of August 21, 1914 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on August 21 , 1914 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . The totality of this eclipse was visible from northern Europe and Asia . It was the first of four total solar eclipses that would be seen from Sweden during the next 40 years . Erwin Finlay-Freundlich led an expedition to Crimea in an attempt to verify the general relativity theory of Albert Einstein during this solar eclipse . However , World War I broke out and he was interned in Russia , unable to carry out the necessary measurements .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_August_21,_1914", "rank": 68, "score": 90256 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of November 1, 1948 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on November 1 , 1948 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . During this eclipse , comet C/1948 V1 , also known as the Eclipse Comet of 1948 , was discovered shining near the sun .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_November_1,_1948", "rank": 69, "score": 90015 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of April 18, 1977 Content: An annular solar eclipse occurred on April 18 , 1977 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is smaller than the Sun 's , blocking most of the Sun 's light and causing the Sun to look like an annulus ( ring ) . An annular eclipse appears as a partial eclipse over a region of the Earth thousands of kilometres wide .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_April_18,_1977", "rank": 70, "score": 89958 }, { "content": "Title: Sun (Ceylon) Content: The Sun was an English language daily newspaper in Ceylon published by Independent Newspapers Limited , part of M. D. Gunasena & Company . It was founded on 1964 and was published from Colombo . In 1966 it had an average net sales of 18,000 . It had an average circulation of 6,800 in 1970 and 32,247 in 1973 . By 1973/74 the Independent Newspapers publications had become vocal critics of Sirimavo Bandaranaike 's government . The government sealed Independent Newspapers ' presses and closed it down on 19 April 1974 using the Emergency ( Defence ) Regulations . Independent Newspapers resumed publication on 30 March 1977 but the three-year closure had taken its toll . Faced financial problems Independent Newspapers and its various publications closed down on 26 December 1990 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Sun_(Ceylon)", "rank": 71, "score": 89674 }, { "content": "Title: List of articles related to the Sun Content: Articles related to the Sun include : Corona Solar wind Coronal mass ejection Solar eclipse total eclipse annular eclipse hybrid eclipse partial eclipse Magnitude of eclipse Saros ( astronomy ) Sunspot , where most solar flares and coronal mass ejections originate Wolf number , counts sunspots Maunder Minimum , the period roughly spanning 1645 to 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare Solar flare Solar cycle , periodic change in the amount of irradiation from the Sun that is experienced on Earth List of solar cycles Solar maximum - large numbers of sunspots appear Solar minimum - sunspot and solar flare activity diminishes Dalton Minimum , lasting from about 1790 to 1830 Modern Maximum , period of relatively high solar activity that began circa 1900 Solar variation , change in the amount of solar radiation emitted Solar System Solar and celestial effects on climate ( Earth 's climate , that is )", "qid": "2948", "docid": "List_of_articles_related_to_the_Sun", "rank": 72, "score": 89632 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of August 30, 1905 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on August 30 , 1905 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . Scientists came from all over the world to Alcalà de Xivert in Spain to watch the eclipse on August 30 , 1905 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_August_30,_1905", "rank": 73, "score": 89200 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of June 30, 1954 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on June 30 , 1954 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . Totality began at sunrise over the United States over Nebraska , South Dakota , Minnesota , and Wisconsin , and crossed into Canada , across southern Greenland , Iceland and Faroe Islands , then into Europe , across Norway , Sweden , and eastern Europe . It ended before sunset over Iran , Afghanistan , Pakistan , and ending in northwestern India .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_June_30,_1954", "rank": 74, "score": 89172 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of July 22, 1990 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on July 22 , 1990 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . In Finland the solar eclipse occurred during sunrise and enabled observation and photography without protective glasses , which was however hampered by strong clouds . The Sun was totally eclipsed in Helsinki began at 06:03:07 local time .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_July_22,_1990", "rank": 75, "score": 89054 }, { "content": "Title: Sunmobile Content: Sunmobile was a model of a solar-powered automobile . William G. Cobb of the General Motors Corporation built and demonstrated his 15-inch long model at the 1955 General Motors car show in Chicago on August 31 , 1955 . The automobile was a futuristic miniature representation to show the possibilities of solar energy . Since it was a miniature model , it could not be driven by a person .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Sunmobile", "rank": 76, "score": 88835 }, { "content": "Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_activity_and_climate", "rank": 77, "score": 88823 }, { "content": "Title: Institute for Solar Physics Content: The Institute for Solar Physics ( Institutet för solfysik ) is a Swedish research institute . It is managed as an independent institute associated with Stockholm University through its Department of Astronomy . It is also a national research infrastructure under the Swedish Research Council . The institute was first established in 1951 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences as The Research Station for Astrophysics on the island of Capri , Italy . Around 1980 the station moved to La Palma in the Canary Islands . The new station is situated within the Spanish-International Observatory on the Roque de los Muchachos . It soon became obvious that the superior astronomical climate on La Palma called for a first-class solar telescope . The 47.5-cm Swedish Vacuum Solar Telescope , SVST , was erected in 1985 . During the nineties , the daily operations of the institute gradually moved from La Palma to Stockholm . The SVST was removed from the tower on 28 August 2000 after almost 15 years of successful operations . The SVST has been replaced with the Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope , which has twice as large aperture diameter . In 2013 , the institute was transferred from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to its current home with Stockholm University .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Institute_for_Solar_Physics", "rank": 78, "score": 88710 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of April 29, 1976 Content: An annular solar eclipse occurred on April 29 , 1976 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is smaller than the Sun 's , blocking most of the Sun 's light and causing the Sun to look like an annulus ( ring ) . An annular eclipse appears as a partial eclipse over a region of the Earth thousands of kilometres wide . Totality was visible from North Africa , Turkey , Middle East , central Asia , India , China .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_April_29,_1976", "rank": 79, "score": 88656 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Global_cooling_(disambiguation)", "rank": 80, "score": 88641 }, { "content": "Title: COMES Content: The French Solar Energy Authority ( Commissariat à l'Energie Solaire , ComES ) , a public scientific and industrial entity , was set up in 1978 to promote a comprehensive energy policy based on energy savings , on efficient energy management , and on renewable sources of energy ( photovoltaic , solar thermal , wind , hydraulic , biomass ) . It was supervised by the Ministry for Industry and by the Ministry for Research . When it was discontinued , its duties were taken up by the French Agency for the Environment and Energy Management , ADEME . The first Managing Director and Chief Executive of ComES was M. Henry Durand , an engineer . As a national agency , COMES defined , financed and evaluated projects using renewable energies . Shortly after this agency was created , its Department of International Affairs was set up ( by Jean-Jacques Subrenat , a career diplomat ) , and became involved in a number of projects , both multilateral and in the context of bilateral relations between France and partner countries . A new distribution of tasks among public agencies led to the French Solar Energy Authority being discontinued : its tasks were taken over , and expanded , by the Agence de l'Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l'Energie ( ADEME ) which , compared with its predecessors , has a wider purview which includes the environment . Category :1978 establishments in France Category : Renewable energy organizations Category : Organizations established in 1978", "qid": "2948", "docid": "COMES", "rank": 81, "score": 88540 }, { "content": "Title: Yohkoh Content: Yohkoh ( ようこう , Sunbeam in Japanese ) , known before launch as Solar-A , was a Solar observatory spacecraft of the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science ( Japan ) , in collaboration with space agencies in the United States and the United Kingdom . It was launched into Earth orbit on August 30 , 1991 by the M-3S-5 rocket from Kagoshima Space Center . It took its first image on September 13 , 1991 21:53:40 .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Yohkoh", "rank": 82, "score": 88532 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of September 10, 1923 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on September 10 , 1923 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . The path of totality crossed the Pacific Ocean , northwestern and northern Mexico , Yucatan peninsula , Belize . The eclipse was over 90 % in Los Angeles , San Diego and Santa Barbara in the Southern California coast .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_September_10,_1923", "rank": 83, "score": 88519 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of January 22, 1898 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on January 22 , 1898 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . It was visible across central Africa , and into India and Asia .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_January_22,_1898", "rank": 84, "score": 88306 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Wind Composition Experiment Content: The Solar Wind Composition Experiment ( SWC ) was an experiment deployed on the moon during the Apollo program ( Apollo 11 , 12 , 14 , 15 and 16 ) . The aim was to measure and sample the solar wind outside the Earth 's magnetosphere . It was the first definitive isotopic measurements of solar material . The SWC was proposed and designed by a Swiss team headed by Johannes Geiss and Peter Eberhardt of the University of Bern and Peter Signer of the Swiss Institute of Technology . It was manufactured by the Swiss National Science Foundation and the University of Bern . The experiment was partially funded by the Swiss Government . The SWC experiment consisted of a 1 X 4.6-foot sheet of ultra-pure aluminum and platinum metal foils erected on the moon 's surface with a telescopic pole . The sheet was to be exposed to the Sun as to measure the ion types and energies of the solar wind on the lunar surface . The time exposure was 77 minutes on Apollo 11 , 18 h and 42 minutes on Apollo 12 , 21 hours on Apollo 14 , 41 hours and 8 minutes on Apollo 15 , and 45 h and 5 minutes on Apollo 16 . At the end of the exposure the foil was detached from the telescopic pole , placed in a Teflon bag , and brought back to Earth for analysis . The experiment was successful and provided accurate He , Ne and Ar isotopic compositions of the solar wind .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_Wind_Composition_Experiment", "rank": 85, "score": 88238 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of August 19, 1887 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on August 19 , 1887 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . It was visible across Europe , Asia , and Japan .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_August_19,_1887", "rank": 86, "score": 88057 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of May 18, 1901 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on May 18 , 1901 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . The path of totality crossed Madagascar , Réunion , Mauritius , Indonesia , Papua , New Guinea .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_May_18,_1901", "rank": 87, "score": 88030 }, { "content": "Title: Theodor Landscheidt Content: Theodor Landscheidt ( Bremen , 1927 -- May 20 , 2004 ) was a German author , astrologer and amateur climatologist . In 1989 , Landscheidt forecast a period of sunspot minima after 1990 , accompanied by increased cold , with a stronger minimum and more intense cold which should peak in 2030 His work on solar cycles has been cited by global warming skeptics to argue that observed warming is not anthropogenic and will soon be reversed , based on an assumption that fluctuations in climate are controlled by solar activity . In 1983 he founded and financed the `` Schroeter Institute for Research in Cycles of Solar Activity '' in Lilienthal , near Bremen . The Institute later moved with him to Nova Scotia , Canada .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Theodor_Landscheidt", "rank": 88, "score": 88003 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of July 9, 1945 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on July 9 , 1945 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . The path of totality crossed northern North America , across Greenland and into Scandinavia , western Soviet , and central Asia .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_July_9,_1945", "rank": 89, "score": 87960 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of August 29, 1867 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on August 29 , 1867 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . Totality occurred across central Argentina and the southern Atlantic ocean .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_August_29,_1867", "rank": 90, "score": 87934 }, { "content": "Title: Sun Microsystems Content: Sun Microsystems , Inc. was an American company that sold computers , computer components , software , and information technology services , and that created the Java programming language , the Solaris operating system , ZFS , and the Network File System ( NFS ) . Sun contributed significantly to the evolution of several key computing technologies , among them Unix , RISC processors , thin client computing , and virtualized computing . Sun was founded on February 24 , 1982 . At its height , the Sun headquarters were in Santa Clara , California ( part of Silicon Valley ) , on the former west campus of the Agnews Developmental Center . On January 27 , 2010 , Oracle Corporation acquired Sun by for 7.4 billion , based on an agreement signed on April 20 , 2009 . Sun products included computer servers and workstations built on its own RISC-based SPARC processor architecture as well as on x86-based AMD 's Opteron and Intel 's Xeon processors ; storage systems ; and a suite of software products including the Solaris operating system , developer tools , Web infrastructure software , and identity management applications . Other technologies include the Java platform , MySQL , and NFS . Sun was a proponent of open systems in general and Unix in particular , and a major contributor to open-source software . At various times , Sun had manufacturing facilities in several locations worldwide , including Hillsboro , Oregon , Linlithgow , Scotland , and Newark , California ; however , by the time the company was acquired , it had outsourced most manufacturing .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Sun_Microsystems", "rank": 91, "score": 87871 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of May 6, 1883 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on May 6 , 1883 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . The path of totality fell across the southern Pacific Ocean with no major landfall . Partiality was visible from far eastern Australia at sunrise , and New Zealand , as well as western South America and southern Mexico near sunset . This eclipse is a member of Solar Saros 136 , and its maximum duration was 5 minutes and 58 seconds .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_May_6,_1883", "rank": 92, "score": 87866 }, { "content": "Title: Elizabeth Brown (astronomer) Content: Elizabeth Brown ( 6 August 1830 -- 5 March 1899 ) was a British astronomer who specialized in solar observation , especially sunspots and solar eclipses . She was also instrumental in founding the British Astronomical Association . Elizabeth was born in Cirencester , Gloucestershire . Her father , Thomas Brown , introduced her to the telescope , and she began observing sunspots . When her father died at age 91 , she was released of domestic and filial duties and began to travel the world to record her observations . She published two books anonymously on her travels . She joined the Liverpool Astronomical Society following the death of her father in 1883 . At this time the society operated as an association of amateur astronomers across Britain , rather than as a merely local organisation . Brown travelled a 140-mile round journey from her home near Cirencester to Liverpool to attend its meetings . She soon afterwards became the director of its Solar Section . Brown had a central role in organising in 1890 the formation of the British Astronomical Association to coordinate the work of amateur astronomers . She became the Director of the new Association 's Solar Section , a post which she held until her death in 1899 . She also contributed to the activities of other observing sections , including the lunar , variable star and coloured star sections . The British Astronomical Association accepted women as members from its start , unlike the Royal Astronomical Society . Brown was one of three women proposed for fellowship of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1892 , but all three controversially failed to attract sufficient votes to be elected ( the other two were Alice Everett and Annie Russell ; similarly , the nomination of Isis Pogson had been rejected in 1886 ; and the first female fellows were elected in 1915 ) . Elizabeth Brown travelled widely to seek for solar eclipses , an adventure she describes in her work In Pursuit of a Shadow ( 1887 ) . The title of the book reveals the influence of the earlier Quaker meteorologist Luke Howard who famously used the phrase to describe his work on clouds . A second set of memoirs , Caught in the Tropics , appeared in 1890 . Her work on the daily recording sunspots , including meticulous drawings , earned her a distinguished reputation among the astronomers of her day .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Elizabeth_Brown_(astronomer)", "rank": 93, "score": 87772 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of June 20, 1955 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on June 20 , 1955 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . With a maximum duration of 7 minutes 8 seconds , this is the longest solar eclipse of saros series 136 , as well as the longest total solar eclipse since the 11th century , and until the 22nd century . Totality beginning over the Indian Ocean and Maldives , crossing southern tip of India and Sri Lanka , moving across Indochina and the Philippines ( near the greatest eclipse ) , towards Solomon Islands ending over Southwestern Pacific Ocean .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_June_20,_1955", "rank": 94, "score": 87653 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of December 22, 1889 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on December 22 , 1889 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . It was visible from Cuba , to the coast of Brazil , and across southern Africa .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_December_22,_1889", "rank": 95, "score": 87632 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of June 26, 1824 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on June 26 , 1824 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . Totality was visible across parts of China and Japan , with a partial eclipse across much of North America near sunset .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_June_26,_1824", "rank": 96, "score": 87566 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of May 17, 1882 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on May 17 , 1882 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . Totality was visible across central Africa , the Middle East , and southeastern Asia .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_May_17,_1882", "rank": 97, "score": 87495 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of June 8, 1918 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on June 8 , 1918 . The eclipse was observed by a U.S. Naval Observatory team at Baker City in Oregon . The painting below shows totality when the moon prevented the sun 's rays from hitting that part of Oregon . The track of the eclipse went across the United States .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_June_8,_1918", "rank": 98, "score": 87485 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of March 7, 1598 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on March 7 , 1598 ( 25 February 1598 by the Julian calendar ) . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_March_7,_1598", "rank": 99, "score": 87383 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of June 8, 1937 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on June 8 , 1937 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . The path of totality crossed the pacific ocean starting in Micronesia , and ending at sunset in western South America .", "qid": "2948", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_June_8,_1937", "rank": 100, "score": 87378 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Solar irradiance Content: Solar irradiance is the power per unit area received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument . Irradiance may be measured in space or at the Earth 's surface after atmospheric absorption and scattering . It is measured perpendicular to the incoming sunlight . Total solar irradiance ( TSI ) , is a measure of the solar power over all wavelengths per unit area incident on the Earth 's upper atmosphere . The solar constant is a conventional measure of mean TSI at a distance of one astronomical Unit ( AU ) . Irradiance is a function of distance from the Sun , the solar cycle , and cross-cycle changes . Irradiance on Earth is also measured perpendicular to the incoming sunlight . Insolation is the power received on Earth per unit area on a horizontal surface . It depends on the height of the Sun above the horizon .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Solar_irradiance", "rank": 1, "score": 251398 }, { "content": "Title: ACRIMSAT Content: The Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor Satellite , or ACRIMSAT is a defunct satellite and instrument that was one of the 21 observational components of NASA 's Earth Observing System program . The instrument followed upon the ACRIM1 and ACRIM2 instruments that were launched on multi-instrument satellite platforms . ACRIMSAT was launched on 20 December 1999 from Vandenberg Air Force Base as the secondary payload on the Taurus rocket that launched KOMPSAT . It was placed into a high inclination , 700 km . sun-synchronous orbit from which the ACRIM3 instrument monitored total solar irradiance ( TSI ) . Contact with the satellite was lost on 14 December 2013 .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "ACRIMSAT", "rank": 2, "score": 176686 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment", "rank": 3, "score": 162522 }, { "content": "Title: Solar constant Content: The solar constant , a measure of flux density , is the mean solar electromagnetic radiation ( the solar irradiance ) per unit area that would be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays , at a distance of one astronomical unit ( AU ) from the Sun ( roughly the mean distance from the Sun to the Earth ) . The solar constant includes all types of solar radiation , not just the visible light . It is measured by satellite as being 1.361 kilowatts per square meter ( kW/m ² ) at solar minimum and approximately 0.1 % greater ( roughly 1.362 kW/m ² ) at solar maximum . The solar `` constant '' is not a physical constant in the modern CODATA scientific sense ; that is , it is not like the Planck constant or the speed of light , which are absolutely constant in physics . The solar constant is merely an average of the actually varying value . It has been shown to vary in the past 400 years over a range of less than 0.2 percent .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Solar_constant", "rank": 4, "score": 156165 }, { "content": "Title: Picard (satellite) Content: PICARD is a satellite dedicated to the simultaneous measurement of the absolute total and spectral solar irradiance , the diameter and solar shape , and to the Sun 's interior probing by the helioseismology method . These measurements obtained throughout the mission allow study of their variations as a function of solar activity . It launched , along with the Prisma spacecraft , on June 15 , 2010 on a Dnepr launcher from Dombarovskiy Cosmodrome , near Yasny , Russia . The mission , originally planned for two years , ended on April 4 , 2014 .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Picard_(satellite)", "rank": 5, "score": 155460 }, { "content": "Title: SOLAR (ISS) Content: SOLAR is an ESA science observatory on the Columbus Laboratory , which is part of the International Space Station . SOLAR was launched with Columbus on February 2008 aboard STS-122 . It was externally mounted to Columbus with the European Technology Exposure Facility ( EuTEF ) . SOLAR has three main space science instruments : SOVIM , SOLSPEC and SOL-ACES . Together they provide detailed measurements of the Sun 's spectral irradiance . The SOLAR platform and its instruments are controlled from the Belgian User Support and Operations Centre ( B.USOC ) , located at the Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy ( BISA ) in Uccle , Belgium . SOVIM ( Solar Variantions and Irradiance Monitor ) instrument is based on an earlier instrument ( SOVA ) which flew aboard the European Retrievable Carrier , launched on STS-46 in 1992 . It is designed to measure solar radiation with wavelengths from 200 nanometers - 100 micrometers . This covers near-ultraviolet , visible and infrared areas of the spectrum . SOLSPEC ( Solar Spectral irradiance measurements ) is designed to measure the solar spectral irradiance in the 165 - to 3000-nanometer range with high spectral resolution . SOL-ACES ( Auto-calibrating Extreme Ultraviolet and Ultraviolet spectrometers ) consists of four grazing incidence grating spectrometers . They are designed to measure the EUV/UV spectral regime ( 17 nanometers - 220 nanometers ) with moderate spectral resolution . The mission was originally planned for a 2003 launch , but was delayed following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster . Some other components are also planned to be mounted externally on Columbus on future missions , including the Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space ( ACES ) . Another name for SOLAR may be Solar Monitoring Observatory or SMO . In 2012 , the entire 450-tonne station was rotated so SOLAR could observe a full rotation of the Sun continuously . A Solar rotation takes about 24 -- 28 days depending on the latitude .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "SOLAR_(ISS)", "rank": 6, "score": 153025 }, { "content": "Title: SBUV/2 Content: The Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Radiometer , or SBUV/2 , is a series of operational remote sensors on NOAA weather satellites in Sun-synchronous orbits which have been providing global measurements of stratospheric total ozone , as well as ozone profiles , since March 1985 . The SBUV/2 instruments were developed from the SBUV experiment flown on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft which improved on the design of the original BUV instrument on Nimbus-4 . These are nadir viewing radiometric instruments operating at mid to near UV wavelengths . SBUV/2 data sets overlap with data from SBUV and TOMS instruments on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft . These extensive data sets ( January 1979 to the present ) measure the density and vertical distribution of ozone in the Earth 's atmosphere from six to 30 miles . SBUV/2 looks down at the Earth 's atmosphere and the reflected sunlight at wavelengths characteristic of ozone . The SBUV/2 wavelength `` channels '' range from 252 nanometer ( nm ) to 340 nm . Ozone is measured as a ratio of sunlight incident on the atmosphere to the amount of sunlight scattered back into space . From this information , the total ozone between the instrument and the ground can be calculated . The SBUV/2 measures solar irradiance and Earth radiance ( backscattered solar energy ) in the near ultraviolet spectrum ( 160 to 400 nm ) . The SBUV is capable of determining the global ozone concentration in the stratosphere to an absolute accuracy of 1 percent ; the vertical distribution of atmospheric ozone to an absolute accuracy of 5 percent ; the long-term solar spectral irradiance from 160 to 400 nm Photochemical process and the influence of `` trace '' constituents on the ozone layer . The Ball Aerospace-built SBUV/2 helped to discover the ozone hole over Antarctica in 1987 , and continues to monitor this phenomenon . Atmospheric ozone absorbs the sun 's ultraviolet rays , which are believed to cause gene mutations , skin cancer , and cataracts in humans . Ultraviolet rays may also damage crops and aquatic ecosystems . The first SBUV/2 instrument was launched on NOAA-9 in December 1984 and the last instrument in this series was launched in February 2009 aboard the NOAA-19 spacecraft .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "SBUV/2", "rank": 7, "score": 141936 }, { "content": "Title: ADAHELI Content: ADAHELI , ADvanced Astronomy for HELIophysics , is an Italian solar satellite project for the investigation of solar activity and dynamics . It is designed to investigate the fast dynamics of the solar photosphere and chromosphere performing visible and NIR broad-band and monochromatic observations . On board instruments will be a millimeter band radiometer and a VIS-NIR ( visible and near infrared spectrum ) high resolution telescope . Other major objectives of NASA , ESA , and the international Living with a Star program , such as the Solar Dynamics Observatory , PICARD , Solar Orbiter , and the Solar Probe missions , are complemented without overlap by the ADAHELI instrument suite .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "ADAHELI", "rank": 8, "score": 139554 }, { "content": "Title: Solrad 8 Content: The SOLRAD 8 satellite was one of the SOLRAD ( Solar Radiation ) program that began in 1960 to provide continuous coverage of solar radiation with a set of standard photometers . SOLRAD 8 was a spin-stabilized satellite oriented with its spin axis perpendicular to the sun-satellite line so that the 14 solar X-ray and ultraviolet photometers pointing radially outward from its equatorial belt viewed the sun on each revolution . Data were transmitted in real time by means of an FM/AM the satellite 's telemetry system and were recorded by the stations on the STADAN tracking network . The satellite observed the solar eclipse on May 20 , 1966 . This observation may have been the first observation of a solar eclipse by an artificial satellite . The satellite performed nominally , except for the spin system , which failed to maintain 60 rpm ( at spin rates below 10 rpm data reduction became difficult ) . The spin rate gradually decreased to 4 rpm on September 12 , 1966 . At that time , ground command succeeded in reactivating spinup to 78 rpm , which exhausted the gas supply . From this point , the spin rate gradually decreased to 10 rpm in August 1967 , when data collection was substantially decreased .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Solrad_8", "rank": 9, "score": 138004 }, { "content": "Title: Sol-air temperature Content: Sol-air temperature ( Tsol-air ) is a variable used to calculate cooling load of a building and determine the total heat gain through exterior surfaces . It is an improvement over : Where : = rate of heat transfer -LSB- W -RSB- = heat transfer surface area -LSB- m ² -RSB- = heat transfer coefficient for radiation ( long wave ) and convection -LSB- W/m ² K -RSB- = outdoor surroundings ' temperature -LSB- ° C -RSB- = outside surface temperature -LSB- ° C -RSB- The above equation only takes into account the temperature differences and ignores two important parameters , being 1 ) solar radiative flux ; and 2 ) infrared exchanges from the sky . The concept of Tsol-air was thus introduced to enable these parameters to be included within an improved calculation . The lower formula results : Where : = solar radiation absorptivity ( surface solar absorptance or the inverse of the solar reflectance of a material ) -LSB- - -RSB- = global solar irradiance ( i.e. total solar radiation incident on the surface ) -LSB- W/m ² -RSB- = extra infrared radiation due to difference between the external air temperature and the apparent sky temperature . This can be written as -LSB- W/m ² -RSB- The product just found can now be used to calculate the amount of heat transfer per unit area , as below : An equivalent , and more useful equation for the net heat loss across the whole construction is : Where : = construction U-value , according to ISO 6946 -LSB- W/m ² K -RSB- . = indoor temperature -LSB- ° C -RSB- = difference between outside dry-bulb air temperature and sky mean radiant temperature -LSB- ° C -RSB- = Form factor between the element and the sky -LSB- - -RSB- = 1 for an unshaded horizontal roof = 0,5 for an unshaded vertical wall = external radiative heat transfer coefficient -LSB- W/m ² K -RSB- By expanding the above equation through substituting the following heat loss equation is derived : The above equation is used for opaque facades in , and renders intermediate calculation of unnecessary . The main advantage of this latter approach is that it avoids the need for a different outdoor temperature node for each facade . Thus , the solution scheme is kept simple , and the solar and sky radiation terms from all facades can be aggregated and distributed to internal temperature nodes as gains/losses .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Sol-air_temperature", "rank": 10, "score": 133356 }, { "content": "Title: Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer Content: The Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer ( MISR ) is a scientific instrument on the Terra satellite launched by NASA on December 18 , 1999 . This device is designed to measure the intensity of solar radiation reflected by the Earth system ( planetary surface and atmosphere ) in various directions and spectral bands ; it became operational in February 2000 . Data generated by this sensor have been proven useful in a variety of applications including atmospheric sciences , climatology and monitoring terrestrial processes . The MISR instrument consists of an innovative configuration of nine separate digital cameras that gather data in four different spectral bands of the solar spectrum . One camera points toward the nadir , while the others provide forward and aftward view angles at 26.1 ° , 45.6 ° , 60.0 ° , and 70.5 ° . As the instrument flies overhead , each region of the Earth 's surface is successively imaged by all nine cameras in each of four wavelengths ( blue , green , red , and near-infrared ) . The data gathered by MISR are useful in climatological studies concerning the disposition of the solar radiation flux in the Earth 's system . MISR is specifically designed to monitor the monthly , seasonal , and long-term trends of atmospheric aerosol particle concentrations including those formed by natural sources and by human activities , upper air winds and cloud cover , type , height , as well as the characterization of land surface properties , including the structure of vegetation canopies , the distribution of land cover types , or the properties of snow and ice fields , amongst many other biogeophysical variables .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Multi-angle_Imaging_SpectroRadiometer", "rank": 11, "score": 130022 }, { "content": "Title: Pyrheliometer Content: A pyrheliometer is an instrument for measurement of direct beam solar irradiance . Sunlight enters the instrument through a window and is directed onto a thermopile which converts heat to an electrical signal that can be recorded . The signal voltage is converted via a formula to measure watts per square metre . It is used with a solar tracking system to keep the instrument aimed at the sun . A pyrheliometer is often used in the same setup with a pyranometer .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Pyrheliometer", "rank": 12, "score": 127849 }, { "content": "Title: LYRA Content: LYRA ( Lyman Alpha Radiometer ) is the solar UV radiometer on board Proba-2 , a European Space Agency technology demonstration satellite that was launched on November 2 , 2009 . LYRA has been designed and manufactured by a Belgian-Swiss-German consortium ( ROB-SIDC , PMOD/WRC , IMOMEC , CSL , MPS and BISA ) with additional international collaborations ( Japan , USA , Russia , and France ) . Jean-François Hochedez ( ROB ) is Principal Investigator , Yves Stockman ( CSL ) is Project Manager , and Werner Schmutz ( PMOD ) is Lead co-Investigator . LYRA will monitor the Solar irradiance in four UV passbands . They have been chosen for their relevance to solar physics , aeronomy and Space Weather : the 115-125 nm Lyman-α channel , the 200-220 nm Herzberg continuum channel , the Aluminium filter channel ( 17-50 nm ) including He II at 30.4 nm , and the Zirconium filter channel ( 1-20 nm ) . The Radiometric calibration of the instrument is traceable to Synchrotron source standards , Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt ( PTB ) and National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) . Its stability will be monitored by onboard calibration light sources ( light-emitting diodes ) , which allow distinguishing between potential degradations of the detectors and filters . Additionally , a redundancy strategy contributes to the accuracy and the stability of the measurements . LYRA will benefit from wide bandgap detectors based on diamond : it will be the first space assessment of a pioneering UV detectors program . Diamond sensors make the instruments radiation-hard and solar-blind : their high bandgap energy makes them quasi-insensitive to visible light ( see also references in Marchywka Effect ) . The SWAP extreme ultraviolet ( EUV ) imaging telescope will operate next to LYRA on Proba-2 . Together , they will establish a high performance solar monitor for operational space weather nowcasting and research . LYRA demonstrates technologies important for future missions such as the ESA Solar Orbiter mission .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "LYRA", "rank": 13, "score": 125843 }, { "content": "Title: Total body irradiation Content: Total body irradiation ( TBI ) is a form of radiotherapy used primarily as part of the preparative regimen for haematopoietic stem cell ( or bone marrow ) transplantation . As the name implies , TBI involves irradiation of the entire body , though in modern practice the lungs are often partially shielded to lower the risk of radiation-induced lung injury . Total body irradiation in the setting of bone marrow transplantation serves to destroy or suppress the recipient 's immune system , preventing immunologic rejection of transplanted donor bone marrow or blood stem cells . Additionally , high doses of total body irradiation can eradicate residual cancer cells in the transplant recipient , increasing the likelihood that the transplant will be successful .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Total_body_irradiation", "rank": 14, "score": 125611 }, { "content": "Title: Tselina (satellite) Content: Tselina ( rus . Целина ) is a Russian , formerly Soviet , military space-based radio surveillance system . It is capable of determining the exact location of radio-emitting objects and also their type , modes of operation , and how active they are . For instance , preparation for a military operation may raise the activity of the radio communications . Detection of these communications by a space-based surveillance system can provide early warning of this activity , warning that may be unavailable by other means .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Tselina_(satellite)", "rank": 15, "score": 125181 }, { "content": "Title: Pyranometer Content: A pyranometer is a type of actinometer used for measuring solar irradiance on a planar surface and it is designed to measure the solar radiation flux density ( W/m2 ) from the hemisphere above within a wavelength range 0.3 μm to 3 μm . The name pyranometer stems from the Greek words πῦρ ( pyr ) , meaning `` fire '' , and ἄνω ( ano ) , meaning `` above , sky '' . A typical pyranometer does not require any power to operate . However , recent technical development includes use of electronics in pyranometers , which do require ( low ) external power . ''", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Pyranometer", "rank": 16, "score": 122823 }, { "content": "Title: Total station Content: A total station or TST ( total station theodolite ) is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern surveying and building construction . The total station is an electronic theodolite ( transit ) integrated with an electronic distance measurement ( EDM ) to read slope distances from the instrument to a particular point , and an on-board computer to collect data and perform advanced coordinate based calculations . Robotic total stations allow the operator to control the instrument from a distance via remote control . This eliminates the need for an assistant staff member as the operator holds the reflector and controls the total station from the observed point .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Total_station", "rank": 17, "score": 122197 }, { "content": "Title: Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite Content: The Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite ( VIIRS ) is a sensor designed and manufactured by the Raytheon Company on board the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership ( Suomi NPP ) weather satellite . VIIRS is one of five key instruments associated with the Suomi NPP that was launched on October 28 , 2011 . VIIRS is a whiskbroom scanning radiometer that collects imagery and radiometric measurements of the land , atmosphere , cryosphere , and oceans in the visible and infrared bands of the electromagnetic spectrum . VIIRS is capable of generating two data processing streams that result in two different sets of land products . One is produced by NOAA , and provides operational data for use by the National Weather Service . These are known as environmental data records ( EDRs ) . The other stream is from NASA , and is intended to contribute to the larger scientific community . These are known as Earth System Data Records ( ESDRs ) .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Visible_Infrared_Imaging_Radiometer_Suite", "rank": 18, "score": 119036 }, { "content": "Title: Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer Content: Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer or TES is a satellite instrument designed to measure the state of the earth 's troposphere . It is an infrared Fourier Transform spectrometer and provides key data for studying tropospheric chemistry , troposphere-biosphere interaction , and troposphere-stratosphere exchanges . TES is built for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , California Institute of Technology in Pasadena , California . It was successfully launched into polar orbit aboard NASA 's third Earth Observing Systems spacecraft ( EOS-Aura ) at 10:02 UTC on July 15 , 2004 .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Tropospheric_Emission_Spectrometer", "rank": 19, "score": 117560 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Mesosphere Explorer Content: The Solar Mesosphere Explorer ( also known as Explorer 64 ) was a United States unmanned spacecraft to investigate the processes that create and destroy ozone in Earth 's upper atmosphere . The mesosphere is a layer of the atmosphere extending from the top of the stratosphere to an altitude of about 80 km . The spacecraft carried five instruments to measure ozone , water vapor and incoming solar radiation . Launched on October 6 , 1981 , on a Delta rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base , in California , the satellite returned data until April 4 , 1989 . The spacecraft reentered Earth 's atmosphere on March 5 , 1991 . Managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , the Solar Mesosphere Explorer was built by Ball Space Systems and operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics of the University of Colorado where one hundred undergraduate and graduate students were involved . Mass : 437 kilograms ( 963 pounds ) Power : Solar panels which charged NiCad batteries Configuration : Cylinder 1.25 meter ( 4.1 ft ) diameter by 1.7 meter ( 5.6 ft ) high Science instruments : Ultraviolet ozone spectrometer , 1.27 micrometre spectrometer , nitrogen dioxide spectrometer , four-channel infrared radiometer , solar ultraviolet monitor , solar proton alarm detector", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Solar_Mesosphere_Explorer", "rank": 20, "score": 117463 }, { "content": "Title: Odin-OSIRIS Content: OSIRIS ( Optical Spectrograph and InfraRed Imager System ) is an instrument that measures vertical profiles of spectrally dispersed , limb scattered sunlight from the upper troposphere into the lower mesosphere . OSIRIS is one of two instruments on the Odin satellite , launched February , 2001 ( the other instrument being a sub-mm radiometer ) into a sun-synchronous , 6 pm/6 am local time orbit at 600 km . This restricts OSIRIS sunlit observations to the Northern hemisphere in May , June , July August and the Southern hemisphere in November , December , January and February . Global coverage from 82 ° S to 82 ° N occurs on the months adjoining the equinoxes . OSIRIS measurements began November , 2001 and continue to the present .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Odin-OSIRIS", "rank": 21, "score": 116328 }, { "content": "Title: R.sun Content: r.sun is a solar irradiance and irradiation model for GRASS GIS , which is a free , open-source geographical information system ( GIS ) capable of handling raster , topological vector , image processing , and graphic data . r.sun computes direct ( beam ) , diffuse and reflected solar irradiation raster maps for given day , latitude , surface and atmospheric conditions . This is useful in several areas of solar energy including solar thermal heating and photovoltaics . Several solar parameters are saved in the map history file including : sunrise , sunset times , declination , extraterrestrial irradiance , daylight length Alternatively , r.sun enables users to specify a local time to compute solar incidence angle and/or irradiance raster maps , and the shadowing effect of the topography . It has recently begun to be used with GRASS for estimating potential solar photovoltaic yields .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "R.sun", "rank": 22, "score": 114917 }, { "content": "Title: Explorer 7 Content: Explorer 7 was launched October 13 , 1959 at 10:36 a.m. Eastern Time by a Juno II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to an orbit of 573 km by 1073 km and inclination of 50.27 ° . It was designed to measure solar x-ray and Lyman-alpha flux , trapped energetic particles , and heavy primary cosmic rays . Also Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration and molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance . Launch was originally scheduled for late September 1959 , but the mission was delayed for a week after a Jupiter IRBM test on an adjacent pad failed shortly after liftoff , causing flying debris to hit Explorer 7 's launch vehicle . However , the damage to the booster was minor and could be easily repaired . Significantly , it also carried Verner Suomi 's flat-plate radiometer , improved with the help of Robert Parent , that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate . Using both satellite observations of the Earth 's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes , Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy . These observations established that Earth 's energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds , the surface albedo , and other absorbing constituents . Using these instruments , Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun 's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget . The satellite weighed 41.5 kg , was 75 cm high and 75 cm wide . Powered by solar cells it also carried 15 nickel-cadmium batteries around its equator . It transmitted data continuously through to February 1961 and went dead on August 24 , 1961 . It is still in orbit .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Explorer_7", "rank": 23, "score": 114472 }, { "content": "Title: Advanced very-high-resolution radiometer Content: Advanced very-high-resolution radiometer ( AVHRR ) instruments are a type of space-borne sensor that measure the reflectance of the Earth in five spectral bands that are relatively wide by today 's standards . Most AVHRR instruments are or have been carried by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) family of polar orbiting platforms ( POES ) . The first two are centered on the red ( 0.6 micrometres , 500 THz ) and near-infrared ( 0.9 micrometres , 300 THz ) regions , the third one is located around 3.5 micrometres , and the last two sample the thermal radiation emitted by the planet , around 11 and 12 micrometres , respectively . The NOAA satellite has equator crossing times of 0730 and 1930 local solar time . The first AVHRR instrument was a four-channel radiometer , while the latest version ( known as AVHRR/3 , first carried on the NOAA-15 platform launched in May 1998 ) acquires data in a 6th channel located at 1.6 micrometres .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Advanced_very-high-resolution_radiometer", "rank": 24, "score": 114209 }, { "content": "Title: Moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer Content: The moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) is a payload scientific instrument built by Santa Barbara Remote Sensing that was launched into Earth orbit by NASA in 1999 on board the Terra ( EOS AM ) Satellite , and in 2002 on board the Aqua ( EOS PM ) satellite . The instruments capture data in 36 spectral bands ranging in wavelength from 0.4 µm to 14.4 µm and at varying spatial resolutions ( 2 bands at 250 m , 5 bands at 500 m and 29 bands at 1 km ) . Together the instruments image the entire Earth every 1 to 2 days . They are designed to provide measurements in large-scale global dynamics including changes in Earth 's cloud cover , radiation budget and processes occurring in the oceans , on land , and in the lower atmosphere . MODIS utilizes four on-board calibrators in addition to the space view in order to provide in-flight calibration : solar diffuser ( SD ) , solar diffuser stability monitor ( SDSM ) , spectral radiometric calibration assembly ( SRCA ) , and a v-groove black body . MODIS has used the marine optical buoy for vicarious calibration . MODIS is succeeded by the VIIRS instrument on board the Suomi NPP satellite launched in 2011 and future Joint Polar Satellite System ( JPSS ) satellites . The MODIS characterization support team ( MCST ) is dedicated to the production of high-quality MODIS calibrated product which is a precursor to every geophysical science product . A detailed description of the MCST mission statement and other details can be found at MCST Web .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Moderate-resolution_imaging_spectroradiometer", "rank": 25, "score": 114007 }, { "content": "Title: Glory (satellite) Content: The Glory satellite was a planned NASA satellite mission that would have collected data on the chemical , micro-physical and optical properties -- and the spatial and temporal distributions -- of sulfate and other aerosols , and would have collected solar irradiance data for the long-term climate record . The science focus areas served by Glory included : atmospheric composition ; carbon cycle , ecosystems , and biogeochemistry ; climate variability and change ; and water and energy cycles . The US$ 424 million satellite was lost on March 4 , 2011 , when its Taurus XL carrier rocket malfunctioned . A subsequent investigation revealed that the fairing system failed to open fully , causing the satellite to reenter the atmosphere at which point it likely broke up and burned .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Glory_(satellite)", "rank": 26, "score": 113824 }, { "content": "Title: Active cavity radiometer Content: Active cavity radiometer - electrically self-calibrating , cavity pyrheliometer used to measure total and spectral solar irradiance .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Active_cavity_radiometer", "rank": 27, "score": 113645 }, { "content": "Title: Infrared Spatial Interferometer Content: The Infrared Spatial Interferometer ( ISI ) is an astronomical interferometer array of three 65 inch ( 1.65 m ) telescopes operating in the mid-infrared . The telescopes are fully mobile and their current site on Mount Wilson allows for placements as far as 70 m apart , giving the resolution of a telescope of that diameter . The signals are converted to radio frequencies through heterodyne circuits and then combined electronically using techniques copied from radio astronomy . ISI is run by the UC Berkeley Space Sciences Laboratory . The longest ( 70m ) baseline provides a resolution of 0.003 arcsec at a wavelength of 11 micrometers . On July 9 , 2003 , ISI recorded the first closure phase aperture synthesis measurements in the mid infrared .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Infrared_Spatial_Interferometer", "rank": 28, "score": 113244 }, { "content": "Title: Irradiance Content: In radiometry , irradiance is the radiant flux ( power ) received by a surface per unit area . The SI unit of irradiance is the watt per square metre . The CGS unit erg per square centimetre per second is often used in astronomy . Irradiance is often called `` intensity '' in branches of physics other than radiometry , but in radiometry this usage leads to confusion with radiant intensity . Spectral irradiance is the irradiance of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . The two forms have different dimensions : spectral irradiance of a frequency spectrum is measured in watts per square metre per hertz ( W · m − 2 · Hz − 1 ) , while spectral irradiance of a wavelength spectrum is measured in watts per square metre per metre ( W · m − 3 ) , or more commonly watts per square metre per nanometre .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Irradiance", "rank": 29, "score": 113102 }, { "content": "Title: Coronal radiative losses Content: In astronomy and in astrophysics , for radiative losses of the solar corona , it is meant the energy flux irradiated from the external atmosphere of the Sun ( traditionally divided into chromosphere , transition region and corona ) , and , in particular , the processes of production of the radiation coming from the solar corona and transition region , where the plasma is optically-thin . On the contrary , in the chromosphere , where the temperature decreases from the photospheric value of 6000 K to the minimum of 4400 K , the optical depth is about 1 , and the radiation is thermal . The corona extends much further than a solar radius from the photosphere and looks very complex and inhomogeneous in the X-rays images taken by satellites ( see the figure on the right taken by the XRT on board Hinode ) . The structure and dynamics of the corona are dominated by the solar magnetic field . There are strong evidences that even the heating mechanism , responsible for its high temperature of million degrees , is linked to the magnetic field of the Sun . The energy flux irradiated from the corona changes in active regions , in the quiet Sun and in coronal holes ; actually , part of the energy is irradiated outwards , but approximately the same amount of the energy flux is conducted back towards the chromosphere , through the steep transition region . In active regions the energy flux is about 107 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , in the quiet Sun it is roughly 8 105 -- 106 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , and in coronal holes 5 105 - 8 105 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , including the losses due to the solar wind . The required power is a small fraction of the total flux irradiated from the Sun , but this energy is enough to maintain the plasma at the temperature of million degrees , since the density is very low and the processes of radiation are different from those occurring in the photosphere , as it is shown in detail in the next section .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Coronal_radiative_losses", "rank": 30, "score": 113046 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Orbiter Content: Solar Orbiter ( SolO ) is a planned Sun-observing satellite , under development by the European Space Agency ( ESA ) . The mission will be launched with an Atlas V from the Cape Canaveral AFS in Florida in October 2018 . SolO is intended to perform detailed measurements of the inner heliosphere and nascent solar wind , and perform close observations of the polar regions of the Sun , which is difficult to do from Earth , both serving to answer the question ` How does the Sun create and control the heliosphere ? ' The Solar Orbiter will make observations of the Sun from an eccentric orbit moving as close as ~ 60 solar radii ( RS ) , or 0.284 astronomical units ( AU ) , placing it inside Mercury 's perihelion of 0.3075 AU and providing it with the closest ever views of the Sun .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Solar_Orbiter", "rank": 31, "score": 113045 }, { "content": "Title: Hard X-ray Modulation Telescope Content: Hard X-ray Modulation Telescope ( HXMT ) is a planned Chinese X-ray space observatory , scheduled for launch in 2017 to observe black holes , neutron stars and other phenomena based on their X-ray and gamma ray emissions . It will be China 's first astronomy satellite . It is based on the JianBing 3 imagery reconnaissance satellite series platform . The main scientific instrument is an array of 18 NaI ( Tl ) / CsI ( na ) slat-collimated `` phoswich '' scintillation detectors , collimated to 5.7 ° × 1 ° overlapping fields of view . The main NaI detectors have an area of 286 cm2 each , and cover the 20 -- 200 keV energy range . Data analysis is planned to be by a direct algebraic method , `` direct demodulation '' , which has shown promise in de-convolving the raw data into images while preserving excellent angular and energy resolution . The project , a joint collaboration of the Ministry of Science and Technology of China , the Chinese Academy of Sciences , and Tsinghua University , has been under development since 2000 .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Hard_X-ray_Modulation_Telescope", "rank": 32, "score": 112757 }, { "content": "Title: Direct insolation Content: Direct insolation is the solar insolation measured at a given location on Earth with a surface element perpendicular to the Sun 's rays , excluding diffuse insolation ( the solar radiation that is scattered or reflected by atmospheric components in the sky ) . Direct insolation is equal to the solar irradiance above the atmosphere minus the atmospheric losses due to absorption and scattering . While the solar irradiance above the atmosphere varies with the Earth-Sun distance and solar cycles , the losses depend on the time of day ( length of light 's path through the atmosphere depending on the Solar elevation angle ) , cloud cover , moisture content , and other impurities .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Direct_insolation", "rank": 33, "score": 112740 }, { "content": "Title: Irradiance (album) Content: Irradiance is the fifth and final studio album by American progressive metal band Canvas Solaris . It was released in 2010 .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Irradiance_(album)", "rank": 34, "score": 111594 }, { "content": "Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network", "rank": 35, "score": 111394 }, { "content": "Title: Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System Content: Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) is NASA climatological experiment from Earth orbit . The CERES are scientific satellite instruments , part of the NASA 's Earth Observing System ( EOS ) , designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation from the top of the atmosphere ( TOA ) to the Earth 's surface . Cloud properties are determined using simultaneous measurements by other EOS instruments such as the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) . Results from the CERES and other NASA missions , such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , could lead to a better understanding of the role of clouds and the energy cycle in global climate change .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Clouds_and_the_Earth's_Radiant_Energy_System", "rank": 36, "score": 110714 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "NOAA-6", "rank": 37, "score": 110622 }, { "content": "Title: Tromsø Satellite Station Content: Tromsø Satellite Station ( Tromsø Satellittstasjon , TSS ) , until 1988 known as Tromsø Telemetry Station ( Tromsø telemetristasjon ) , is a satellite earth station located in Tromsø , Norway . The facility is owned by Kongsberg Satellite Services ( KSAT ) , a joint venture between the Kongsberg Group and the Norwegian Space Centre ( NSC ) . In addition to hosting its own antennas serving thirty satellites , TSS acts as the center-point of KSAT 's operations and provides backbone services for the high Arctic Svalbard Satellite Station ( SvalSat ) and the Antarctic Troll Satellite Station ( TrollSat ) . Originally proposed in 1965 , the station was established by the Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research ( NTNF ) in 1967 in close cooperation with the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment ( NDRE ) and located adjacent to Tromsø Geophysical Observatory . From its inception until 1974 , it served low-Earth orbit ( LEO ) satellites operated by the European Space Research Organization ( ESRO ) . To a lesser extent it was also used by Canadian Space Agency and National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) LEO satellites . Norway 's non-membership in ESRO and later the European Space Agency ( ESA ) caused Tromsø to not become a ground station for Landsat . A gradual increase in operations occurred from 1982 , such as for the International Cospas-Sarsat Programme and the European Remote-Sensing Satellite . TSS became part of NSC in 1990 , although it was partially sold to the Swedish Space Corporation ( SSC ) in 1995 . SvalSat merged with TSS in 2002 to form KSAT .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Tromsø_Satellite_Station", "rank": 38, "score": 110502 }, { "content": "Title: Langley extrapolation Content: Langley extrapolation is a method for determining the Sun 's irradiance at the top of the atmosphere with ground-based instrumentation , and is often used to remove the effect of the atmosphere from measurements of , for example , aerosol optical thickness or ozone . It is based on repeated measurements with a sun photometer operated at a given location for a cloudless morning or afternoon , as the Sun moves across the sky . It is named for American astronomer and physicist Samuel Pierpont Langley .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Langley_extrapolation", "rank": 39, "score": 110242 }, { "content": "Title: Noise-equivalent flux density Content: In optics the noise-equivalent flux density ( NEFD ) or noise-equivalent irradiance ( NEI ) of a system is the level of flux density required to be equivalent to the noise present in the system . It is a measure used by astronomers in determining the accuracy of observations . The NEFD can be related to a light detector 's Noise-equivalent power for a collection area A and a photon bandwidth by : , where a factor ( often 2 , in the case of switching between measuring a source and measuring off-source ) accounts for the photon statistics for the mode of operation .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Noise-equivalent_flux_density", "rank": 40, "score": 109507 }, { "content": "Title: Guenter Brueckner Content: Guenter E. Brueckner ( 1934 -- 1998 ) was a solar physicist who spent much of his career at the US Naval Research Lab . His life 's efforts included research into aspects of the sun relevant to radio signal quality , terrestrial weather , space weather and applications of plasmas such as in fusion energy . He is known for work on coronal mass ejections ; various innovations in solar observing optical systems , in particular the Skylab mission , design and development ( with John-David F. Bartoe ) of the Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SUSIM ) on the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite ( UARS ) ; and for being the principal investigator for the LASCO instrument . In the 1970s , he worked with Richard Tousey to make several notable observations including the coronal mass ejections mentioned above , lithium ions in solar flares , and various other things .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Guenter_Brueckner", "rank": 41, "score": 108717 }, { "content": "Title: Solar X-ray Imager Content: Solar X-ray Imager ( SXI ) are full-disc X-ray instruments observing the Sun aboard GOES satellites . The SXI on GOES 12 was the first of its kind and allows the U.S. NOAA to better monitor and predict space weather .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Solar_X-ray_Imager", "rank": 42, "score": 108349 }, { "content": "Title: Total electron content Content: Total electron content ( or TEC ) is an important descriptive quantity for the ionosphere of the Earth . TEC is the total number of electrons integrated between two points , along a tube of one meter squared cross section , i.e. , the electron columnar number density . It is often reported in multiples of the so-called TEC unit , defined as TECU = 1016el/m2 . TEC is significant in determining the scintillation and group and phase delays of a radio wave through a medium . Ionospheric TEC is characterized by observing carrier phase delays of received radio signals transmitted from satellites located above the ionosphere , often using Global Positioning System satellites . TEC is strongly affected by solar activity .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Total_electron_content", "rank": 43, "score": 107800 }, { "content": "Title: Trauma symptom inventory Content: The Trauma Symptom Inventory ( TSI ) is a Psychological evaluation/assessment instrument that taps symptoms of Posttraumatic stress disorder and other posttraumatic emotional problems . It was originally published in 1995 by its developer , John Briere . It is one of the most widely used measures of posttraumatic symptomatology . The TSI is relatively unique in comparison to other measures of posttraumatic symptomatology , in that it is a multi-scale instrument , including 10 scales of various forms of clinical psychopathology related to psychological trauma . Also unique , it has three validity scales in order to assess the trauma victim 's test-taking attitude , such as overreporting , underreporting and inconsistency ; however , research demonstrates that the TSI does not achieve excellent accuracy in detecting the Malingering of posttraumatic stress disorder from genuine PTSD . Original psychometric data on the TSI demonstrated adequate internal consistency ( alphas ranging from .84 to .87 ) . Validity with a civilian trauma-exposed sample has been demonstrated , with substantial relationships found between the TSI 's clinical scale scores and other established measures of PTSD . Further corroboration of the TSI 's psychometric properties , with trauma-exposed military veterans , was recently documented . More recently , a second edition of the TSI was published ( TSI-2 ) , with limited research investigating its performance thus far .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Trauma_symptom_inventory", "rank": 44, "score": 107142 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-17 Content: NOAA-17 was a weather forecasting satellite operated by NOAA . It was launched on 24 June 2002 , in a sun-synchronous orbit , 824 km above the Earth , orbiting every 101 minutes . It hosted the AMSU , AVHRR and High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HRIS ) instruments . The satellite was retired in 2013 . Automatic Picture Transmission frequency was 137.5 MHz . NOAA-17 was decommissioned on 10 April 2013 .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "NOAA-17", "rank": 45, "score": 107126 }, { "content": "Title: Thermoluminescence dating Content: Thermoluminescence ( TL ) dating is the determination , by means of measuring the accumulated radiation dose , of the time elapsed since material containing crystalline minerals was either heated ( lava , ceramics ) or exposed to sunlight ( sediments ) . As a crystalline material is heated during measurements the process of thermoluminescence starts . Thermoluminescence emits a weak light signal that is proportional to the radiation dose absorbed by the material . It is a type of luminescence dating . The technique has wide application , and is relatively cheap at some US$ 300 -- 700 per object ; ideally a number of samples are tested . Sediments are more expensive to date . The destruction of a relatively significant amount of sample material is necessary , which can be a limitation in the case of artworks . The heating must have taken the object above 500 ° C , which covers most ceramics , although very high-fired porcelain creates other difficulties . It will often work well with stones that have been heated by fire . The clay core of bronze sculptures made by lost wax casting can also be tested . Different materials vary considerably in their suitability for the technique , depending on several factors . Subsequent irradiation , for example if an x-ray is taken , can affect accuracy , as will the `` annual dose '' of radiation a buried object has received from the surrounding soil . Ideally this is assessed by measurements made at the precise findspot over a long period . For artworks , it may be sufficient to confirm whether a piece is broadly ancient or modern ( that is , authentic or a fake ) , and this may be possible even if a precise date can not be estimated .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Thermoluminescence_dating", "rank": 46, "score": 107090 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-15 Content: NOAA-15 ( designated NOAA-K before launch ) is one of the NASA-provided TIROS series of weather forecasting satellite run by NOAA . It was launched on 13 May 1998 , and is currently operational , in a sun-synchronous orbit , 807 km above the Earth , orbiting every 101 minutes . It hosts the AMSU-A and AMSU-B instruments , the AVHRR and High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS/3 ) instruments , as well as a Space Environment Monitor ( SEM/2 ) . APT transmission frequency is 137.62 MHz . Due to problems with the S-band transmitter high-gain antennas , NOAA-15 has been configured for High Resolution Picture Transmission using the S-Band Transmitter # 2 ( 1702.5 MHz ) omnidirectional antenna .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "NOAA-15", "rank": 47, "score": 106909 }, { "content": "Title: Simple Model of the Atmospheric Radiative Transfer of Sunshine (SMARTS) Content: The Simple Model of the Atmospheric Radiative Transfer of Sunshine , or SMARTS for short , is a computer program designed to evaluate the surface solar irradiance components in the shortwave spectrum ( spectral range 280 to 4000 nm ) under cloudless conditions . The program , written in FORTRAN , relies on simplifications of the equation of radiative transfer to allow extremely fast calculations of the surface irradiance . The irradiance components can be incident on a horizontal , a fixed-tilt or a 2-axis tracking surface . SMARTS can be used for example to evaluate the energy production of solar panels under variable atmospheric conditions . Many other applications are possible .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Simple_Model_of_the_Atmospheric_Radiative_Transfer_of_Sunshine_(SMARTS)", "rank": 48, "score": 106735 }, { "content": "Title: TSX-5 Content: TSX-5 ( Tri-Service-Experiments mission 5 ) is an $ 85 million satellite successfully launched into orbit on June 7 , 2000 , from Vandenberg Air Force Base on a Pegasus XL rocket . TSX-5 hosts two Department of Defense ( DOD ) payloads , STRV-2 ( the Space Test Research Vehicle-2 ) , sponsored by the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization , and CEASE ( the Compact Environmental Anomaly Sensor ) , sponsored by the Air Force 's Phillips Geophysics Laboratory . TSX-5 is managed by the Space Technology Program ( STP ) at the Space and Missiles Centre , Test and Evaluation ( SMC/TELS ) at Kirtland Air Force Base , New Mexico .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "TSX-5", "rank": 49, "score": 106697 }, { "content": "Title: Small Astronomy Satellite 2 Content: The Small Astronomy Satellite 2 , also known also as SAS-2 , SAS B or Explorer 48 , was a NASA gamma ray telescope . It was launched on 15 November 1972 into the low Earth orbit with a periapsis of 443 km and an apoapsis of 632 km . It completed its observations on 8 June 1973 . SAS 2 was the second in the series of small spacecraft designed to extend the astronomical studies in the X-ray , gamma-ray , ultraviolet , visible , and infrared regions . The primary objective of the SAS-B was to measure the spatial and energy distribution of primary galactic and extragalactic gamma radiation which energies between 20 and 300 MeV . The instrumentation consisted principally of a guard scintillation detector , an upper and a lower spark chamber , and a charged particle telescope . SAS-2 was launched from the San Marco platform off the coast of Kenya , Africa , into a nearly equatorial orbit . The orbiting spacecraft was in the shape of a cylinder approximately 59 cm in diameter and 135 cm in length . Four solar paddles were used to recharge the 6 amp-h nickel-cadmium battery and provide power to the spacecraft and telescope experiment . The spacecraft was spin stabilized , and a magnetically torqued commandable control system was used to point the spin axis of the spacecraft to any position in space within approximately 1 degree . The experiment axis lay along this axis allowing the telescope to look at any selected region of the sky with its plus or minus 30 degree acceptance aperture . The nominal spin rate was 1/12 rpm . Data were taken at 1000 bit/s and could be recorded on an onboard tape recorder and simultaneously transmitted in real time . The recorded data were transmitted once per orbit . This required approximately 5 minutes . The telescope experiment was initially turned on Nov 20 1972 , and by Nov 27 1972 , the spacecraft became fully operational . The low-voltage power supply for the experiment failed on Jun 8 1973 . No useful scientific data were obtained after that date . With the exception of a slightly degraded star sensor , the spacecraft control section performed in an excellent manner . SAS-2 first detected Geminga , a pulsar believed to be the remnant of a supernova that exploded 300,000 years ago .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Small_Astronomy_Satellite_2", "rank": 50, "score": 106465 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-18 Content: NOAA-18 , known before launch as NOAA-N , is a weather forecasting satellite run by NOAA . NOAA-N ( 18 ) was launched on May 20 , 2005 , into a sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 854 km above the Earth , with an orbital period of 102 minutes . It hosts the AMSU-A , MHS , AVHRR , Space Environment Monitor SEM/2 instrument and High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS ) instruments , as well as the SBUV/2 ozone-monitoring instrument . It is the first NOAA POES satellite to use MHS in place of AMSU-B . APT transmission frequency is 137.9125 MHz ( NOAA-18 changed frequencies with NOAA-19 on June 23 , 2009 ) .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "NOAA-18", "rank": 51, "score": 106086 }, { "content": "Title: Transformational Satellite Communications System Content: The Transformational Satellite Communications System ( TSAT ) program was a United States Department of Defense ( DOD ) program sponsored by the U.S. Air Force for a secure , high-capacity global communications network serving the Department of Defense , NASA and the United States Intelligence Community ( IC ) . It was intended as an enabler of net-centric warfare that would facilitate defense and intelligence professionals making rapid decisions based on integrated , comprehensive information . In 2003 , the estimated project costs for the period up to 2015 were estimated to US$ 12 billion ( inflation adjusted US$ billion in ) . In October 2008 , the DoD announced that it was postponing making a decision on choosing a contractor to build the system until 2010 . In April 2009 Secretary of Defence Robert M. Gates asked that the project be canceled in its entirety .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Transformational_Satellite_Communications_System", "rank": 52, "score": 105698 }, { "content": "Title: CRRES Content: The Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite ( CRRES ) was launched on July 25 , 1990 into a geosynchronous transfer orbit ( GTO ) for a nominal three-year mission to investigate fields , plasmas , and energetic particles inside the Earth 's magnetosphere . As part of the CRRES program , the SPACERAD ( Space Radiation Effects ) project , managed by Air Force Geophysics Laboratory , investigated the radiation environment of the inner and outer radiation belts and measured radiation effects on state-of-the-art microelectronics devices . Other magnetospheric , ionospheric , and cosmic ray experiments were also included onboard CRRES and supported by NASA or the Office of Naval Research . The chemical release project was managed by NASA/MSFC and utilized the release of chemicals from onboard canisters at low altitudes near dawn and dusk perigee times and at high altitudes near local midnight . The chemical releases were monitored with optical and radar instrumentation by ground-based observers to measure the bulk properties and movement of the expanding clouds of photo-ionized plasma along field lines after the releases occurred . In order to study the magnetosphere at different local times during the mission , the satellite orbit was designed to precess with respect to the Earth-Sun line such that the local time at apogee decreased by 2.5 minutes/day from 08:00 ( LT ) just after launch and returned to this position in nineteen month cycles . The CRRES spacecraft had the shape of an octagonal prism with solar arrays on the top side . The prism is 1 m high and 3 m between opposite faces . Four of the eight compartments were for the chemical canisters and the other four housed the SPACERAD and other experiments . The spacecraft body was spun at 2.2 rpm about a spin axis in the ecliptic plane and kept pointed about 12 degrees ahead of the Sun 's apparent motion in celestial coordinates . Pre-launch and in-flight operations were supported by the Space Test and Transportation Program Office of the U.S. Air Force Space Division . Contact with the CRRES spacecraft was lost on October 12 , 1991 and was presumed to be due to onboard battery failure . Taken From NASA .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "CRRES", "rank": 53, "score": 105222 }, { "content": "Title: Koronas-Foton Content: Koronas-Foton , also known as CORONAS-Photon ( Complex Orbital Observations Near-Earth of Activity of the Sun-Photon ) , was a Russian Solar research satellite . It is the third satellite in the Russian Coronas programme , and part of the international Living With a Star programme . It was launched on 30 January 2009 , from Site 32/2 at the Plesetsk Cosmodrome , aboard the final flight of the Tsyklon-3 rocket . On 1 December 2009 all scientific instruments on the satellite were turned off due to the problems with power supply that were caused by a design flaw . On 18 April 2010 the creators of the satellite announced it was lost `` with a good deal of certainty '' .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Koronas-Foton", "rank": 54, "score": 105063 }, { "content": "Title: Total shareholder return Content: Total shareholder return ( TSR ) ( or simply total return ) is a measure of the performance of different companies ' stocks and shares over time . It combines share price appreciation and dividends paid to show the total return to the shareholder expressed as an annualized percentage . It is calculated by the growth in capital from purchasing a share in the company assuming that the dividends are reinvested each time they are paid . This growth is expressed as a percentage as the compound annual growth rate . The main benefit of TSR is that it allows the performance of shares to be compared even though some of the shares may have a high growth and low dividends and others may have low growth and high dividends . Most stock market indices only use the growth of the prices of the companies making up the index . However , when they use TSR for the companies it is called a total return index or accumulation index . For example , corresponding to the S&P 500 index calculated by Standard and Poor 's , there is the S&P 500 TR index . In the Technology sector , a study has found that regardless of a company 's size , the more diverse the portfolio , the more difficult it is to generate high TSR . In practice TSR is difficult to calculate since it involves knowing the price of the shares at the time the dividends are paid . However , as an approximation over one year it can be calculated as follows with : = share price at beginning of year , = share price at end of year , Dividends = dividends paid over year and TSR = total shareholder return , TSR is computed as", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Total_shareholder_return", "rank": 55, "score": 104855 }, { "content": "Title: Tsikada Content: Tsikada ( Цикада meaning cicada ) , is a Russian satellite navigation system including ten Low Earth Orbit ( LEO ) satellites . It transmits the same two carrier frequencies as the U.S. TRANSIT satellite system . The first satellite was launched in 1974 .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Tsikada", "rank": 56, "score": 104379 }, { "content": "Title: Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer Content: The Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer ( TOMS ) is a satellite instrument for measuring ozone values . It has been flown on NASA-satellites . Of the five TOMS instruments which were built , four entered successful orbit . Nimbus-7 and Meteor-3 provided global measurements of total column ozone on a daily basis and together provide a complete data set of daily ozone from November 1978 to December 1994 . After an eighteen-month period when the program had no on-orbit capability , ADEOS TOMS was launched on August 17 , 1996 and provided data until the satellite which housed it lost power on June 29 , 1997 . Earth Probe TOMS was launched on July 2 , 1996 to provide supplemental measurements , but was boosted to a higher orbit to replace the failed ADEOS . The only total failure in the series was QuikTOMS-satellite , which was launched on September 21 , 2001 but did not achieve an orbit . The transmitter for the Earth Probe TOMS failed on December 2 , 2006 . Since January 1 , 2006 data from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument ( OMI ) has replaced Earth Probe TOMS .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Total_Ozone_Mapping_Spectrometer", "rank": 57, "score": 104232 }, { "content": "Title: Tasimeter Content: The tasimeter , or Microtasimeter , or measurer of infinitesimal pressure , is a device designed by Thomas Edison to measure infrared radiation . In 1878 , Samuel Langley , Henry Draper , and other American scientists needed a highly sensitive instrument that could be used to measure minute temperature changes in heat emitted from the Sun 's corona during a solar eclipse , due to occur along the Rocky Mountains on the 29 July of that year . To satisfy those needs Edison devised a microtasimeter employing a carbon button .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Tasimeter", "rank": 58, "score": 104140 }, { "content": "Title: ITF-1 Content: ITF-1 , also known as Yui was an amateur radio cubesat built by Tsukuba University of Japan . It has a size of 100x100x100mm ( without antenna ) and build around a standard 1U cubesat bus . The primary satellite purpose is the raising awareness of space by providing easily decoded signal to amateur radio receivers . ITF-1 's mission was unsuccessful ; no signal from the spacecraft was ever received and it reentered to Earth atmosphere on 29 June 2014 .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "ITF-1", "rank": 59, "score": 103906 }, { "content": "Title: MDS-1 Content: Mission Demonstration Satellite 1 `` Tsubasa '' ( MDS-1 ) was a Japanese technology test mission . Its aim was to test commercial off the shelf components in space , especially in the Van Allen radiation belt . The whole weight of the satellite was 475 kg . It was launched by the second H-2A on February 4 , 2002 . Tsubusa got retired on February 26 , 2003 . MDS-2 was cancelled because of budget reasons .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "MDS-1", "rank": 60, "score": 103527 }, { "content": "Title: Solarimeter Content: A solarimeter is a pyranometer , a type of measuring device used to measure combined direct and diffuse solar radiation . An integrating solarimeter measures energy developed from solar radiation based on the absorption of heat by a black body . The principle this instrument was designed on was first developed by the Italian priest , Father Angelo Bellani . He invented the actinometric method which is based on physical and chemical techniques .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Solarimeter", "rank": 61, "score": 103187 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Content: The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Atmospheric_Infrared_Sounder", "rank": 62, "score": 103005 }, { "content": "Title: Total support estimate Content: The total support estimate ( TSE ) is an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) indicator of the annual monetary value of all gross transfers from taxpayers and consumers arising from policy measures that support agriculture , net of the associated budgetary receipts , regardless of their objectives and impacts on farm production and income , or consumption of farm products . The TSE can be expressed in monetary terms or as a percentage of the gross domestic product . In addition to the TSE , other measures used to compare levels of support to agriculture across counties include the producer support estimate ( PSE ) , consumer support estimate ( CSE ) , and general services support estimate ( GSSE ) .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Total_support_estimate", "rank": 63, "score": 102944 }, { "content": "Title: Trina Solar Content: Trina Solar Limited ( TSL , ) is a Chinese company located in the province of Jiangsu , with numerous branches in the USA , Europe and Asia , which is listed on the PPVX solar share index and on the NYSE . Founded in 1997 by Jifan Gao the company develops and produces ingots , wafers , solar cells and solar modules . In the past few years Trina Solar was listed repeatedly on the Fortune list of the top 100 of the world 's fastest growing companies ( in 2011 No. 11 ) . Trina Solar has developed a vertically integrated supply chain , from the production of ingots , wafers and cells to the assembly of high quality modules . The company has shipped solar modules with a total output of 11 GW until the end of 2014 . In the financial year of 2014 a total of 3.66 GW have been shipped , making Trina Solar the top PV module supplier globally as IHS reported . Trina Solar surpassed Yingli as the world 's biggest solar panel maker .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Trina_Solar", "rank": 64, "score": 102877 }, { "content": "Title: EduSAT Content: EduSAT is an Italian microsatellite which was launched in August 2011 . The satellite was built and is operated by the Sapienza University of Rome in conjunction with the Italian Space Agency ASI , and is primarily used for educational outreach and technology demonstration . EduSAT is a 10 kg satellite , measuring 31.5 x . The spacecraft is powered by surface-mounted solar cells . It carries an experimental analogue sun sensor , a magnetometer and a temperature sensor . The satellite also tested a prototype PocketQube deployer and a passive deorbit mechanism . As of September 2013 it remained operational . EduSAT was launched aboard a Dnepr carrier rocket from Site 370/13 at the Dombarovsky launch site in Russia . The launch was conducted by Kosmotras with liftoff occurring at 07:12:20 on 17 August 2011 . The rocket carried six other satellites , with an additional payload bolted to the upper stage . The satellite was placed into a sun-synchronous low Earth orbit . As of 22 November 2013 it was in an orbit with a perigee of 644 km , an apogee of 699 km , 98.20 degrees inclination and a period of 98.04 minutes .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "EduSAT", "rank": 65, "score": 102269 }, { "content": "Title: Jansky Content: The jansky ( symbol Jy ) is a non-SI unit of spectral flux density , or spectral irradiance , used especially in radio astronomy . It is equivalent to 10 − 26 watts per square metre per hertz . The flux density or monochromatic flux , , of a source is the integral of the spectral radiance , , over the source solid angle : The unit is named after pioneering US radio astronomer Karl Guthe Jansky and is defined as ( SI ) ( cgs ) . Since the jansky is obtained by integrating over the whole source solid angle , it is most simply used to describe point sources ; for example , the Third Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources ( 3C ) reports results in Jy . For extended sources , the surface brightness is often described with units of Jy per solid angle ; for example , far-infrared ( FIR ) maps from the IRAS satellite are in MJy/sr . Although extended sources at all wavelengths can be reported with these units , for radio-frequency maps , extended sources have traditionally been described in terms of a brightness temperature ; for example the Haslam et al. 408 MHz all-sky continuum survey is reported in terms of a brightness temperature in K.", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Jansky", "rank": 66, "score": 102162 }, { "content": "Title: Two-way satellite time and frequency transfer Content: Two-way satellite time and frequency transfer ( TWSTFT ) is a high-precision long distance time and frequency transfer mechanism used between time bureaux to determine and distribute time and frequency standards . TWSTFT is being evaluated as an alternative to be used by the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures in the determination of International Atomic Time ( TAI ) , as a complement to the current standard method of simultaneous observations of GPS transmissions .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Two-way_satellite_time_and_frequency_transfer", "rank": 67, "score": 102030 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Dynamics Observatory Content: The Solar Dynamics Observatory ( SDO ) is a NASA mission which has been observing the Sun since 2010 . Launched on February 11 , 2010 , the observatory is part of the Living With a Star ( LWS ) program . The goal of the LWS program is to develop the scientific understanding necessary to effectively address those aspects of the connected Sun -- Earth system directly affecting life and society . The goal of the SDO is to understand the influence of the Sun on the Earth and near-Earth space by studying the solar atmosphere on small scales of space and time and in many wavelengths simultaneously . SDO has been investigating how the Sun 's magnetic field is generated and structured , how this stored magnetic energy is converted and released into the heliosphere and geospace in the form of solar wind , energetic particles , and variations in the solar irradiance .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Solar_Dynamics_Observatory", "rank": 68, "score": 101720 }, { "content": "Title: PI curve Content: The PI ( photosynthesis-irradiance ) curve is a graphical representation of the empirical relationship between solar irradiance and photosynthesis . A derivation of the Michaelis -- Menten curve , it shows the generally positive correlation between light intensity and photosynthetic rate . Plotted along the x-axis is the independent variable , light intensity ( irradiance ) , while the y-axis is reserved for the dependent variable , photosynthetic rate .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "PI_curve", "rank": 69, "score": 101586 }, { "content": "Title: The Svedberg Laboratory Content: The The Svedberg Laboratory ( TSL ) is a university facility , based in Uppsala , Sweden . The activities at TSL are based around the particle accelerator Gustaf Werner cyclotron . The main activity is proton therapy for the treatment of cancer , based on an agreement between the Oncology clinic at Uppsala University Hospital and Uppsala University . Beamtime not used for proton therapy is devoted to commercial neutron and proton irradiation projects , mainly for Radiation testing . There is also some time for basic ( academic ) research and in this case the experiments should be associated to Uppsala University or to EC projects . TSL is supported by the European Community and belong to the EC projects ERINDA , SkyFlash and CHANDA .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "The_Svedberg_Laboratory", "rank": 70, "score": 101403 }, { "content": "Title: Matthew Pothen Thekaekara Content: Rev. Dr. Matthew Pothen Thekaekara ( 1914 -- 1974 ) was a scientist and author of many books and papers relating to spectrophotometry and the solar constant besides works on theology . He was instrumental in publishing some of the earliest AM0 spectra , which is a model spectrum of the sun in space . The historic 1973 Thekaekara spectrum was the basis for ASTM E490 ( American Society for Testing and Materials Standard Solar Constant and Zero Air Mass Solar Spectral Irradiance Table ) from 1974 to 2000 , when it was replaced by the most recent AM0 upgrade , in ASTM E490-00 . Recent publications such as a 2007 paper authored by fellow Malayali scientist P. Shahmugan made extensive reference to the Thekaekara spectrum . In 2008 a paper by authors from NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and UC Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics also made extensive application of the Thekaekara spectrum .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Matthew_Pothen_Thekaekara", "rank": 71, "score": 101167 }, { "content": "Title: Solar maximum Content: -RSB- Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun . During solar maximum , large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun 's irradiance output grows by about 0.07 % . The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth 's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns . At solar maximum , the Sun 's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles . The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next , with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years . Large solar flares often occur during a maximum . For example , the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Solar_maximum", "rank": 72, "score": 100711 }, { "content": "Title: NanoSail-D2 Content: NanoSail-D2 was a small satellite built by NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center and Ames Research Center to study the deployment of a solar sail in space . It was a three-unit CubeSat , measuring 30 * with a mass of 4 kg . Its solar sail had an area of 10 m2 , and was deployed in around five seconds . It was planned to be deployed from the FASTSAT satellite around 3 December 2010 , two weeks after launch . The satellite did not eject at that time , but on January 17 , 2011 , it ejected on its own and deployed its sail three days later on the 20th . The beacon signal began transmitting after ejection and was first received on the afternoon of January 19 , 2011 .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "NanoSail-D2", "rank": 73, "score": 100617 }, { "content": "Title: Total suspended solids Content: Total suspended solids ( TSS ) is the dry-weight of particles trapped by a filter . It is a water quality parameter used for example to assess the quality of wastewater after treatment in a wastewater treatment plant . It is listed as a conventional pollutant in the U.S. Clean Water Act . TSS was previously called non-filterable residue ( NFR ) , but was changed to TSS because of ambiguity in other scientific disciplines .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Total_suspended_solids", "rank": 74, "score": 100588 }, { "content": "Title: Transient photocurrent Content: Transient photocurrent ( TPC ) -- is a measurement technique , typically employed in the physics of thin film semiconductors . TPC allows to study the time-dependent ( on a microsecond time scale ) extraction of charges generated by photovoltaic effect in semiconductor devices , such as solar cells . A semiconductor is sandwiched between two extracting electrodes . When it is excited with a short pulse of light ( as short as 100 femtoseconds ) , the photogenerated charges are extracted on the electrodes , resulting in a current , which is detected by an oscilloscope in form of voltage across a resistor . Since the excitation pulse is square , there are two ways to measure TPC : in a `` light on '' and a `` light off '' positions . In a `` Light on '' , the signal is recorded as soon as the excitation pulse is switched on , allowing to observe the build-up of charges on the electrode after the start of excitation . `` Light off '' measurements show how the charges decay after the pulse is switched off . In contrast to transient photovoltage , TPC measurements are conducted under short circuit condition and yield information about extractable charges , charge recombination and density of states . Quite often , TPC measurements help to build `` drift-diffusion '' model which reflects trapping and detrapping of the photogenerated charges and the quality of contact between different layers . TPC allows varying different measurement parameters , such as intensity or length of the light pulse , applied voltage , etc. .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Transient_photocurrent", "rank": 75, "score": 100343 }, { "content": "Title: Dermott's law Content: Dermott 's law is an empirical formula for the orbital period of major satellites orbiting planets in the Solar System . It was identified by the celestial mechanics researcher Stanley Dermott in the 1960s and takes the form : for Where T ( n ) is the orbital period of the nth satellite , T ( 0 ) is of the order of days and C is a constant of the satellite system in question . Specific values are : Jovian system : T ( 0 ) = 0.444 d , C = 2.03 Saturnian system : T ( 0 ) = 0.462 d , C = 1.59 Uranian system : T ( 0 ) = 0.760 d , C = 1.80 Such power-laws may be a consequence of collapsing-cloud models of planetary and satellite systems possessing various symmetries ; see Titius-Bode law . They may also reflect the effect of resonance-driven commensurabilities in the various systems .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Dermott's_law", "rank": 76, "score": 100072 }, { "content": "Title: Total body surface area Content: Total body surface area ( TBSA ) is an assessment of injury to or disease of the skin , such as burns or psoriasis . In adults , the Wallace rule of nines can be used to determine the total percentage of area burned for each major section of the body . In burn cases that involve partial body areas , or when dermatologists are evaluating the Psoriasis Area and Severity Index ( PASI ) score , the patient 's palm can serve a reference point roughly equivalent to 1 % of the body surface area . For children and infants , the Lund and Browder chart is used to assess the burned body surface area . Different percentages are used because the ratio of the combined surface area of the head and neck to the surface area of the limbs is typically larger in children than that of an adult . Typical values for common groups of humans follow . ( Due to rounding , values may not add to 100 % . )", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Total_body_surface_area", "rank": 77, "score": 99977 }, { "content": "Title: Transformed social interaction Content: Transformed social interaction ( TSI ) is a research paradigm and theoretical framework related to social interaction in virtual environments .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Transformed_social_interaction", "rank": 78, "score": 99785 }, { "content": "Title: Tsiklon (satellite) Content: Tsiklon ( meaning cyclone , Циклон ) is the first Soviet satellite navigation system , developed in the former Soviet Union and now operated by the Russian Space Forces . From 1967 to 1978 a total of 31 Tsiklon satellites were launched onboard Kosmos-3 and Kosmos-3M rockets , from the Kapustin Yar and Plesetsk launch sites . The project was conceived in the 1950s and the draft proposal was approved in 1962 , but was not made operational until 1972 due to delays . The successor satellites to Tsiklon were Parus and Sfera . Currently , Russia operates the GLONASS system .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Tsiklon_(satellite)", "rank": 79, "score": 99671 }, { "content": "Title: Thrombolytic Science International Content: Thrombolytic Science International ( TSI ) is a private biopharmaceutical company beginning Phase I clinical trials of TS01 , a new-generation therapy to treat acute strokes and heart attacks . Tissue plasminogen activator ( tPA ) has remained the only clot-dissolving , thrombolytic drug available for clinical use in patients with ischemic stroke since its approval in 1996 . Only about 5 % of stroke patients are treated with tPA because of its short treatment time-window , suboptimal efficacy , and risk of intra-cranial hemorrhage . TS01 is a clot-dissolving treatment consisting of a mutated form of the first-generation thrombolytic , pro-urokinase ( pro-UK ) preceded by a bolus of plasma complement 1 esterase inhibitor ( C1-inhibitor ) . TS01 targets only the occlusive ( bad ) clots that lead to stroke , a fact which the company expects will significantly reduce the risk of bleeding . Like its parent molecule pro-UK , TS01 is also expected to show a longer treatment time-window than tPA . These attributes will allow many more patients to be treated with this potentially life-saving treatment .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Thrombolytic_Science_International", "rank": 80, "score": 99581 }, { "content": "Title: Total known weight Content: Total known weight ( TKW ) , also total known mass , is a term used mainly by dealers and meteorite collectors to indicate the combined weight of all known pieces from a single named meteorite . The total known mass of a named meteorite is a fraction of the mass of the original meteoroid that entered Earth 's atmosphere to produce the meteorite ( also called post-atmospheric mass ) .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Total_known_weight", "rank": 81, "score": 99505 }, { "content": "Title: Television Infrared Observation Satellite Content: TIROS , or Television Infrared Observation Satellite , is a series of early weather satellites launched by the United States , beginning with TIROS-1 in 1960 . TIROS was the first satellite that was capable of remote sensing of the Earth , enabling scientists to view the Earth from a new perspective : space . The program , promoted by Harry Wexler , proved the usefulness of satellite weather observation , at a time when military reconnaissance satellites were secretly in development or use . TIROS demonstrated at that time that `` the key to genius is often simplicity . '' TIROS is an acronym of `` Television InfraRed Observation Satellite '' and is also the plural of `` tiro '' which means `` a young soldier , a beginner '' . Participants in the TIROS project included the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) , United States Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory , Radio Corporation of America , the United States Weather Bureau , the United States Naval Photographic Interpretation Center ( NPIC ) , the Environmental Science Services Administration ( ESSA ) , and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Television_Infrared_Observation_Satellite", "rank": 82, "score": 99430 }, { "content": "Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Solar_gain", "rank": 83, "score": 99148 }, { "content": "Title: Radiative flux Content: Radiative flux , also known as radiative flux density or radiation flux , is the amount of power radiated through a given area , in the form of photons or other elementary particles , typically measured in W/m2 . It is used in astronomy to determine the magnitude and spectral class of a star . Radiative flux also acts as a generalization of heat flux , which is equal to the radiative flux when restricted to the infrared spectrum . When radiative flux is incident on a surface , it is often called irradiance . Flux emitted from a surface may be called radiant exitance or radiant emittance .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Radiative_flux", "rank": 84, "score": 99025 }, { "content": "Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Solar_activity_and_climate", "rank": 85, "score": 98898 }, { "content": "Title: True strength index Content: The true strength index ( TSI ) is a technical indicator used in the analysis of financial markets that attempts to show both trend direction and overbought/oversold conditions . It was first published William Blau in 1991 . The indicator uses moving averages of the underlying momentum of a financial instrument . Momentum is considered a leading indicator of price movements , and a moving average characteristically lags behind price . The TSI combines these characteristics to create an indication of price and direction more in sync with market turns than either momentum or moving average . The TSI is provided as part of the standard collection of indicators offered by various trading platforms .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "True_strength_index", "rank": 86, "score": 98767 }, { "content": "Title: CubeSat for Solar Particles Content: CubeSat for Solar Particles ( CuSP ) is a planned nanosatellite spacecraft that will study the dynamic particles and magnetic fields that stream from the Sun . CuSP is a low-cost 6U CubeSat nanosatellite that once deployed , will orbit the Sun , measuring incoming radiation that can create a wide variety of effects at Earth , from interfering with radio communications to tripping up satellite electronics to creating electric currents in power grids . The principal investigator for CuSP is Mihir Desai , at the Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio , Texas . It will fly as a secondary payload mission on the first flight of the Space Launch System , Exploration Mission 1 ( EM-1 ) scheduled to launch in 2018 .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "CubeSat_for_Solar_Particles", "rank": 87, "score": 98738 }, { "content": "Title: Raijin-2 Content: Raijin-2 ( Rising-2 ) is a Japanese micro-satellite launched in 2014 . The satellite is built around a 10 cm diameter , 1m focal length Cassegrain telescope and features the following instruments : HPT - main telescope with 5m resolution at nadir , operating in visible and near-infrared bands BOL - bolometer array camera for cloud temperature measurement WFC - wide field-of-view CCD camera LSI-N and LSI-W - 2 CMOS medium field-of-view cameras for near-infrared imaging VLF-ANT , R - radio antenna to receive signatures of lighting events All instruments are powered by GaAs solar cells mounted on the spacecraft body , with estimated electrical power of 47.6 W . The spacecraft features an unusual central-pillar bus , inherited from the Sprite-Sat satellite . The attitude control is done by means of reaction wheels and magneto-torquers , and qualified for 0.1 degrees angular accuracy .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Raijin-2", "rank": 88, "score": 98723 }, { "content": "Title: Special sensor microwave/imager Content: The special sensor microwave/imager ( SSM/I ) is a seven-channel , four-frequency , linearly polarized passive microwave radiometer system . It is flown on board the United States Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program ( DMSP ) Block 5D-2 satellites . The instrument measures surface/atmospheric microwave brightness temperatures ( TBs ) at 19.35 , 22.235 , 37.0 and 85.5 GHz . The four frequencies are sampled in both horizontal and vertical polarizations , except the 22 GHz which is sampled in the vertical only . The SSM/I has been a very successful instrument , superseding the across-track and Dicke radiometer designs of previous systems . Its combination of constant-angle rotary-scanning and total power radiometer design has become standard for passive microwave imagers , e.g. TRMM Microwave Imager , AMSR . Its predecessor , the scanning multichannel microwave radiometer ( SMMR ) , provided similar information . Its successor , the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder ( SSMIS ) , is an enhanced eleven-channel , eight-frequency system .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Special_sensor_microwave/imager", "rank": 89, "score": 98317 }, { "content": "Title: Infrared Space Observatory Content: The Infrared Space Observatory ( ISO ) was a space telescope for infrared light designed and operated by the European Space Agency ( ESA ) , in cooperation with ISAS ( part of JAXA as of 2003 ) and NASA . The ISO was designed to study infrared light at wavelengths of 2.5 to 240 micrometres . The $ 480.1-million satellite was launched on 17 November 1995 from the ELA-2 launch pad at the Guiana Space Centre near Kourou in French Guiana . The launch vehicle , an Ariane 44P rocket , placed ISO successfully into a highly elliptical geocentric orbit , completing one revolution around the Earth every 24 hours . The primary mirror of its Ritchey-Chrétien telescope measured 60 cm in diameter and was cooled to 1.7 Kelvin by means of superfluid helium . The ISO satellite contained four instruments that allowed for imaging and photometry from 2.5 to 240 micrometres and spectroscopy from 2.5 to 196.8 micrometers . Currently , ESA and IPAC continue efforts to improve the data pipelines and specialized software analysis tools to yield the best quality calibration and data reduction methods from the mission . IPAC supports ISO observers and data archive users through in-house visits and workshops .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Infrared_Space_Observatory", "rank": 90, "score": 98199 }, { "content": "Title: SCISAT-1 Content: SCISAT-1 is a Canadian satellite designed to make observations of the Earth 's atmosphere . Its main instruments are an optical Fourier transform infrared spectrometer , the ACE-FTS Instrument , and an ultraviolet spectrophotometer , MAESTRO . These devices record spectra of the Sun , as sunlight passes through the Earth 's atmosphere , making analyses of the chemical elements of the atmosphere possible .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "SCISAT-1", "rank": 91, "score": 98159 }, { "content": "Title: Sun Conference Content: The Sun Conference ( TSC ) is a college athletic conference affiliated with the NAIA . Nine of the eleven full member institutions are located in Florida , with two in Georgia and one in South Carolina . In addition there are two football-only affiliate members , one each in Florida and Georgia . The Sun Conference competes in the NAIA in all sponsored sports .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Sun_Conference", "rank": 92, "score": 98079 }, { "content": "Title: Cosmic Background Imager Content: The Cosmic Background Imager ( or CBI ) was a 13-element interferometer perched at an elevation of 5,080 metres ( 16,700 feet ) at Llano de Chajnantor Observatory in the Chilean Andes . It started operations in 1999 to study the cosmic microwave background radiation and ran until 2008 . CBI conducted measurements at frequencies between 26 and 36 GHz in ten bands of 1 GHz bandwidth . It had a resolution of better than 1/10 of a degree . ( In comparison , the pioneering COBE satellite , which produced the first detection of fluctuations in the microwave background in 1992 , had a resolution of about 7 degrees . ) Among the key findings of the CBI is the fact that fluctuations which have a small size on the sky are weaker than fluctuations which have a large size on the sky , which confirmed earlier theoretical predictions . More technically , CBI was the first experiment to detect intrinsic anisotropy in the microwave background on mass scales of galaxy clusters ; it provided the first detection of the Silk damping tail ; it found a hint of excess power at high-l multipoles ( CBI-excess ) than expected from the ΛCDM model ; and it detected fluctuations in the polarization of the microwave background obtaining the first detailed E-mode polarization spectrum providing evidence that it is out of phase with the total intensity mode spectrum . The CBI was built at the California Institute of Technology , and employed sensitive radio amplifiers from the National Radio Astronomy Observatory ; two similar experiments are the Very Small Array , operated on the island of Tenerife , and the Degree Angular Scale Interferometer , operated in Antarctica . Both of these experiments used radio interferometry to measure CMB fluctuations at lower resolution over larger areas of the sky . Another experiment operated from Antarctica , the Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver , used total power ( bolometric ) detection and a single antenna at higher frequency and similar angular resolution to obtain results comparable to the CBI . The confluence of these and other CMB experiments employing different measurement techniques in recent years is a great triumph of observational cosmology . CBI was a collaboration among a number of institutions in the US and Europe . It still closely collaborates with Chilean institutions Universidad de Chile and Universidad de Concepción through the Chajnantor Observatory . In 2006 , new 1.4 m antennas replaced the old 0.9 m dishes for more high-resolution studies in total intensity mode . During this stage , CBI was called CBI-2 . In June 2008 , CBI-2 stopped the observations and the 13-antenna instrument was removed from its mount . The new QUIET telescope instrument was installed in August 2008 on the CBI mount , replacing CBI-2 .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Cosmic_Background_Imager", "rank": 93, "score": 97969 }, { "content": "Title: Solar neutrino unit Content: The solar neutrino unit ( SNU ) is a unit of Solar neutrino flux widely used in neutrino astronomy and radiochemical neutrino experiments . It is equal to the neutrino flux producing 10 − 36 captures per target atom per second . It is convenient given the very low event rates in radiochemical experiments . Typical rate is expected to be from tens SNU to hundred SNU . In principle there are two ways of detecting solar neutrinos : radiochemical and real time experiments . The principle of radiochemical experiments is the reaction of the form . The daughter nucleus 's decay is used in the detection . Production rate of the daughter nucleus is given by , where is the solar neutrino flux is the cross section for the radiochemical reaction is the number of target atoms . With typical neutrino flux of 1010 cm − 2 s − 1 and a typical interaction cross section of about 10 − 45 cm2 , about 1030 target atoms are required to produce one event per day . Taking into account that 1 mole is equal to 6.022 atoms , this number corresponds to ktons of the target substances , whereas present neutrino detectors operate at much lower quantities of those .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Solar_neutrino_unit", "rank": 94, "score": 97618 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Submillimeter Telescope Content: The Solar Submillimeter Telescope ( SST ) is a solar dedicated instrument with the aim to study the radiation produced by high-energy particles during solar flares . Observing at 212 and 405 GHz with a focal array since 2001 , it is a unique instrument that has produced a wealth of new information . Some of its discoveries are still unexplained by current theories . SST construction started in 1995 , and it saw the first light in April 1999 ; since April 2001 it operates on a daily basis . It is installed at Complejo Astronomico El Leoncito ( San Juan Province , Argentina ) under agreement between the Argentinian National Scientific and Technical Research Council ( CONICET ) and the Brazilian Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Solar_Submillimeter_Telescope", "rank": 95, "score": 97509 }, { "content": "Title: HR 7703 Content: HR 7703 ( Gliese 783 , 279 G. Sagittarii ) is a binary star system in the constellation of Sagittarius . The brighter component has an apparent visual magnitude of 5.31 , which means it is visible from suburban skies at night . The two stars are separated by an angle of 7.10 ″ , which corresponds to an estimated semimajor axis of 56.30 AU for their orbit . Based upon an annual parallax shift of 0.16625 arc seconds as measured by the Hipparcos satellite , this system is 6.015 pc from Earth . It is approaching the Solar System at a velocity of approximately 129 kilometers per second . At this rate , it will make its closest approach in 41,100 years when it comes to within 2.05 pc of the Sun . This star system has been examined for an excess of radiation in the infrared . The presence of an infrared excess can be taken as an indication of a debris disk orbiting the star . However , no such excess was discovered around HR 7703 . Radial velocity data collected over a period of 12 years was examined for signs of periodicity caused by a planet orbiting at a distance of 3 -- 6 AU , but none was detected .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "HR_7703", "rank": 96, "score": 97331 }, { "content": "Title: Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment Content: The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment ( SAGE ) is a series of remote sensing satellite instruments used to study the chemical composition of earth 's atmosphere . Specifically , SAGE has been used to study the Earth 's ozone layer and aerosols at the troposphere through the stratosphere . The SAGE instruments use solar occultation measurement technique to determine chemical concentrations in the atmosphere . Solar occultation measurement technique measures sunlight through the atmosphere and ratios that measurement with a sunlight measurement without atmospheric attenuation . This is achieved by observing sunrises and sunsets during a satellite orbit . Physically , the SAGE instruments measure ultraviolet/visible energy and this is converted via algorithms to determine chemical concentrations . SAGE data has been used to study the atmospheres aerosols , ozone , water vapor , and other trace gases .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Stratospheric_Aerosol_and_Gas_Experiment", "rank": 97, "score": 97084 }, { "content": "Title: RSI La 1 Content: RSI LA 1 ( la uno , formerly TSI 1 ) is one of two television channels produced by Radiotelevisione Svizzera di lingua Italiana for the Italian-speaking community of Switzerland . LA 1 , which can be received in all parts of the country , is a generalist channel with a schedule encompassing news , entertainment , drama , cinema films , documentaries , and sport . As well as being transmitted digitally throughout the Confederation , LA 1 's programmes are also receivable on cable and encoded , via satellite .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "RSI_La_1", "rank": 98, "score": 97083 }, { "content": "Title: Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center Content: The Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center ( TSLC ) also known as Base 25 , is a People 's Republic of China space and defence launch facility ( spaceport ) . It is situated in Kelan County , Xinzhou , Shanxi Province and is the second of three launch sites having been founded in March 1966 and coming into full operation in 1968 . Taiyuan sits at an altitude of 1500 meters and its dry weather makes it an ideal launch site . Confusingly , U.S. intelligence designates TSLC the ` Wuzhai Missile and Space Test Centre '' , despite the fact that it is outside the borders of Wuzhai County . The site is primarily used to launch meteorological satellites , earth resource satellites and scientific satellites on Long March launch vehicles into sun-synchronous orbits . TSLC is also a major launch site for intercontinental ballistic missiles and overland Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile ( SLBM ) tests . The site has a sophisticated Technical Center and Mission Command and Control Center . It is served by two feeder railways that connect with the Ningwu -- Kelan Railway .", "qid": "2949", "docid": "Taiyuan_Satellite_Launch_Center", "rank": 99, "score": 96798 }, { "content": "Title: AEROS (satellite) Content: AEROS satellites were to study the aeronomy i. e. the science of the upper atmosphere and ionosphere , in particular the F region under the strong influence of solar extreme ultraviolet radiation . To this end the spectrum of this radiation was recorded aboard by one instrument ( of type Hinteregger ) on the one hand and a set of 4 other instruments measuring the most important neutral uand iononized parameters at the satellite 's position on the other . Aeros was built by Ball Aerospace for a co-operative project between NASA and the Bundesministerium für Foschung und Technologie ( BMwF ) , Federal Republic of Germany . Named for the Greek god of the air at the suggestion of the BMwF . AEROS A and B carried identical instrumentation only the instrument measuring short scale varaiations of the electron density did n't work on A . A third Aeros C was planned for Earth Resources studies in a 3-axis spin-stabilized configuration , to be launched by a Shuttle in 1986 . ( Needs research )", "qid": "2949", "docid": "AEROS_(satellite)", "rank": 100, "score": 96675 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Advanced composite materials (engineering) Content: Advanced composite materials ( ACMs ) are also known as advanced polymer matrix composites . These are generally characterized or determined by unusually high strength fibres with unusually high stiffness , or modulus of elasticity characteristics , compared to other materials , while bound together by weaker matrices . These are termed advanced composite materials ( ACM ) in comparison to the composite materials commonly in use such as reinforced concrete , or even concrete itself . The high strength fibers are also low density while occupying a large fraction of the volume Advanced composites exhibit desirable physical and chemical properties that include light weight coupled with high stiffness ( elasticity ) , and strength along the direction of the reinforcing fiber , dimensional stability , temperature and chemical resistance , flex performance , and relatively easy processing . Advanced composites are replacing metal components in many uses , particularly in the aerospace industry . Composites are classified according to their matrix phase . These classifications are polymer matrix composites ( PMCs ) , ceramic matrix composites ( CMCs ) , and metal matrix composites ( MMCs ) . Also , materials within these categories are often called `` advanced '' if they combine the properties of high ( axial , longitudinal ) strength values and high ( axial , longitudinal ) stiffness values , with low weight , corrosion resistance , and in some cases special electrical properties . Advanced composite materials have broad , proven applications , in the aircraft , aerospace , and sports equipment sectors . Even more specifically ACMs are very attractive for aircraft and aerospace structural parts . ACMs have been developing for NASA 's Advanced Space Transportation Program , armor protection for Army aviation and the Federal Aviation Administration of the USA , and high-temperature shafting for the Comanche helicopter . Additionally , ACMs have a decades long history in military and government aerospace industries . However , much of the technology is new and not presented formally in secondary or undergraduate education , and the technology of advanced composites manufacture is continually evolving .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Advanced_composite_materials_(engineering)", "rank": 1, "score": 125997 }, { "content": "Title: Advanced Composites Solutions Content: Advanced Composites Solutions ( `` ACS '' ) is an engineering company specialized in composite materials technology , mainly their application to the development and construction of light aircraft . Founded by professionals with vast accumulated experience in the international aeronautic industry , the company is located in the city of São José dos Campos in the Brazilian aeronautic cluster . Besides engineering services the main current activity of ACS is the production of the ACS-100 Sora , a two-seat light sport aircraft . ACS is also involved in the development and integration of Unmanned Aircraft Systems through its subsidiary Flight Solutions .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Advanced_Composites_Solutions", "rank": 2, "score": 101626 }, { "content": "Title: American Composites Manufacturers Association Content: The American Composites Manufacturers Association ( ACMA ) is the world 's largest trade association serving the composites industry . Its mission is to provide education and information to the composites industry , lobby for the composites industry , and develop and expand markets for composite materials .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "American_Composites_Manufacturers_Association", "rank": 3, "score": 98852 }, { "content": "Title: Polymer matrix composite Content: A polymer matrix composite ( PMC ) is a composite material composed of a variety of short or continuous fibers bound together by an organic polymer matrix . PMCs are designed to transfer loads between fibers through the matrix . Some of the advantages with PMCs include their lightweight , high stiffness and their high strength along the direction of their reinforcements . Other advantages are good abrasion resistance and good corrosion resistance .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Polymer_matrix_composite", "rank": 4, "score": 94902 }, { "content": "Title: Cooperative Research Centre for Advanced Composite Structures Content: The Cooperative Research Centre for Advanced Composite Structures ( CRC-ACS ) is a research organisation partially funded by Australia 's Cooperative Research Centre Program ( CRC ) . CRC-ACS has been at the forefront of Australian research efforts into advanced composite materials/structures since its inception in 1991 . The purpose of the Composites CRC is to bring together research providers and businesses using composite materials to provide competitive technology for the Australian industry . CRC-ACS conducts core research activities considering advanced composite manufacturing and design with associated program members along with a large portfolio of commercial activities with local and international companies . CRC-ACS has forged a spin-off company , ACS Australia which now employs the core staff contributing to the CRC-ACS research program . The organisation has offices in three cities on the east side of Australia , which are provided by Australian companies as contributions to the program : Melbourne ( head office ) : provided by DSTO , Fishermans Bend Melbourne : provided by Boeing Aerostructures Australia ( formerly Hawker de Havilland ) , Fishermans Bend Sydney : provided by Boeing Aerostructures Australia , Bankstown Brisbane : provided by Australian Aerospace , Australia TradeCoast The core research activities are broken down into research programs which are undertaken in collaboration with both core and supporting participants . Each program relies upon collaborative research efforts between CRC-ACS , local and international universities and businesses invested in composite materials . CRC-ACS has produced a number of commercialised technologies that have been developed from conception to finished article . FireshieldTM : in association with Regina Glass Thermoset Composite WeldingTM", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Cooperative_Research_Centre_for_Advanced_Composite_Structures", "rank": 5, "score": 86533 }, { "content": "Title: Acetone cyanohydrin Content: Acetone cyanohydrin ( ACH ) is an organic compound used in the production of methyl methacrylate , the monomer of the transparent plastic polymethyl methacrylate ( PMMA ) , also known as acrylic . It is extremely toxic .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Acetone_cyanohydrin", "rank": 6, "score": 85585 }, { "content": "Title: List of drugs: Ac Content:", "qid": "2951", "docid": "List_of_drugs:_Ac", "rank": 7, "score": 82361 }, { "content": "Title: ACS-100 Sora Content: __ NOTOC __ The ACS-100 Sora is a Brazilian two-seat Light Sport Aircraft , designed by Advanced Composites Solutions .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "ACS-100_Sora", "rank": 8, "score": 81708 }, { "content": "Title: Composite data type Content: In computer science , a composite data type or compound data type is any data type which can be constructed in a program using the programming language 's primitive data types and other composite types . It is sometimes called a structure or aggregate data type , although the latter term may also refer to arrays , lists , etc. . The act of constructing a composite type is known as composition .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_data_type", "rank": 9, "score": 80152 }, { "content": "Title: Poly(methyl methacrylate) Content: Poly ( methyl methacrylate ) ( PMMA ) , also known as acrylic or acrylic glass as well as by the trade names Plexiglas , Acrylite , Lucite , and Perspex among several others ( see below ) , is a transparent thermoplastic often used in sheet form as a lightweight or shatter-resistant alternative to glass . The same material can be utilised as a casting resin , in inks and coatings , and has many other uses . Although not a type of familiar silica-based glass , the substance , like many thermoplastics , is often technically classified as a type of glass ( in that it is a non-crystalline vitreous substance ) hence its occasional historic designation as acrylic glass . Chemically , it is the synthetic polymer of methyl methacrylate . The material was developed in 1928 in several different laboratories by many chemists , such as William Chalmers , Otto Röhm and Walter Bauer , and was first brought to market in 1933 by the Rohm and Haas Company under the trademark Plexiglas . PMMA is an economical alternative to polycarbonate ( PC ) when tensile strength , flexural strength , transparency , polishability , and UV tolerance are more important than impact strength , chemical resistance and heat resistance . Additionally , PMMA does not contain the potentially harmful bisphenol-A subunits found in polycarbonate . It is often preferred because of its moderate properties , easy handling and processing , and low cost . Non-modified PMMA behaves in a brittle manner when under load , especially under an impact force , and is more prone to scratching than conventional inorganic glass , but modified PMMA is sometimes able to achieve high scratch and impact resistance .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Poly(methyl_methacrylate)", "rank": 10, "score": 79625 }, { "content": "Title: Composite material Content: A Composite material ( also called a composition material or shortened to composite , which is the common name ) is a material made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties that , when combined , produce a material with characteristics different from the individual components . The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure . The new material may be preferred for many reasons : common examples include materials which are stronger , lighter , or less expensive when compared to traditional materials . More recently , researchers have also begun to actively include sensing , actuation , computation and communication into composites , which are known as Robotic Materials . Typical engineered composite materials include : mortars , concrete Reinforced plastics , such as fiber-reinforced polymer Metal composites Ceramic composites ( composite ceramic and metal matrices ) Composite materials are generally used for buildings , bridges , and structures such as boat hulls , swimming pool panels , race car bodies , shower stalls , bathtubs , storage tanks , imitation granite and cultured marble sinks and countertops . The most advanced examples perform routinely on spacecraft and aircraft in demanding environments .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_material", "rank": 11, "score": 77441 }, { "content": "Title: Corima Content: Corima is a French company that designs and produces carbon-composite wheels and frames for road and track cycling , cyclocross racing , triathlon racing , and wheelchair racing .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Corima", "rank": 12, "score": 77222 }, { "content": "Title: Pmod Interface Content: Pmod interface or Peripheral Module interface is an open standard defined by Digilent Inc in the Digilent Pmod ™ Interface Specification for peripherals used with FPGAs or microcontrollers . Several types of modules are available from simple push buttons to more complex modules with network interfaces , analog to digital converters or LCD displays . These modules can be used with a variety of FPGA or micro-controller development boards from different vendors . Pmods are not necessarily plug-and-play - software and configuration is required - but the hardware interface is pre-designed and modules can be quickly assembled with host boards for prototyping or evaluation purposes with no soldering required . Pmods come in a standard 6-Pin interface with 4 signals , one ground and one power pin . Double and quad Pmods also exist . These duplicate the standard interface to allow more signals to pass through to the module . Pmods are available from multiple vendors such as Digilent , Maxim Integrated , Analog Devices and a variety of hobby sites .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Pmod_Interface", "rank": 13, "score": 76289 }, { "content": "Title: Atiprimod Content: Atiprimod ( INN , codenamed SK&F 106615 ) is a substance being studied in the treatment of certain multiple myelomas and other advanced cancers . It may block the growth of tumors and the growth of blood vessels from surrounding tissue to the tumor . This drug is also being researched as a potential treatment for various autoimmune diseases . It was first developed by GlaxoSmithKline as a potential treatment for rheumatoid arthritis . The substance is also known as azaspirane , although this more properly refers to the class of chemicals to which atiprimod belongs . This compound has also been shown to kill mantle cell lymphoma cells in vitro .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Atiprimod", "rank": 14, "score": 74960 }, { "content": "Title: Lamborghini Lab Content: The Automobili Lamborghini Advanced Composite Structures Laboratory ( ACSL ) , commonly referred to as the Lamborghini Lab , is a research and development facility based in Seattle , Washington , which focuses on the development of carbon fiber composite technologies for Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. . The ACSL also designs and develops carbon fiber products for other organizations in other industries . The hallmark technology pioneered by the Lamborghini Lab is the Forged Composite technology . For Lamborghini , the ACSL is responsible for carbon fiber technology innovation , such as experimenting with new materials and processes , as well as structural concept development and generating new body-in-white concepts . For other organizations , the ACSL provides design , engineering , testing , and educational services for carbon fiber composite products . The facility , located on the located in the Interbay neighborhood of Seattle , also has a museum on carbon fiber materials and manufacturing that opened in 2015 .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Lamborghini_Lab", "rank": 15, "score": 74645 }, { "content": "Title: Poly(methyl acrylate) Content: Poly ( methyl acrylate ) ( PMA ) is a hydrophobic synthetic acrylate polymer . PMA , though softer than polymethyl methacrylate ( PMMA ) , is tough , leathery , and flexible . It has a low glass-transition temperature about 10 ° C ( 12.5 ° C in case of PMA38 ) . High-energy radiation leads to cross linking in PMA . However in polymethyl methacrylate ( PMMA ) , a compound similar to PMA , degradation occurs instead . It is soluble in dimethyl sulfoxide ( DMSO ) . PMA is water-sensitive and unlike PMMA , is not stable against alkalies . It is used as macroinitiator to initiate the copolymerisation of HEMA and DMAEMA . Also used in leather finishing and textiles .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Poly(methyl_acrylate)", "rank": 16, "score": 74558 }, { "content": "Title: Dental composite Content: Dental composite resins are types of synthetic resins which are used in dentistry as restorative material or adhesives . Synthetic resins evolved as restorative materials since they were insoluble , aesthetic , insensitive to dehydration , easy to manipulate and reasonably inexpensive . Composite resins are most commonly composed of Bis-GMA and other dimethacrylate monomers ( TEGMA , UDMA , HDDMA ) , a filler material such as silica and in most current applications , a photoinitiator . Dimethylglyoxime is also commonly added to achieve certain physical properties such as flow ability . Further tailoring of physical properties is achieved by formulating unique concentrations of each constituent . Many studies have compared the longevity of composite restorations to the longevity of silver-mercury amalgam restorations . Depending on the skill of the dentist , patient characteristics and the type and location of damage , composite restorations can have similar longevity to amalgam restorations . ( See Longevity and clinical performance . ) In comparison to amalgam , the aesthetics of composite restorations are far superior .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Dental_composite", "rank": 17, "score": 74546 }, { "content": "Title: Forged composite Content: Forged composite is a technology that uses carbon fiber composite material and was developed jointly between Lamborghini and Callaway Golf Company who introduced it in their Sesto Elemento concept car and Diablo Octane drivers , respectively . The application of this technology was originally developed at the Automobili Lamborghini Advanced Composite Structures Laboratory ( ACSL ) in Seattle , WA , where the Lamborghini-Callaway partnership was initially formed . This partnership , along with forged composite technology , was announced at the 2010 Paris Motor Show when Lamborghini unveiled its concept car . The United States trademark for forged composite was filed on July 13 , 2010 , in the category Toys and Sporting Goods Products . Forged Composite is not a specific material , but an encompassing technology which combines the material , preform definition , molding and curing processes , and specific design features to create a forged composite carbon fiber part . The material which is used in Forged Composite technology is an evolution of carbon fiber sheet molding compounds ( CFSMC ) with improved fibers , higher fiber volume content , and an improved molding process ; all of which increase the average strength values and reduce variability over standard carbon fiber SMC . The material is one-third as dense as metal titanium but stronger , and consists of chopped carbon fiber tows that are sandwiched between two layers of filmed resin . It uses about 500,000 intertwined turbostratic fibers per square inch . The structure of the high strength carbon fibers is described as turbostratic , that is the fibers contain intertwined and folded sheets of carbon atoms aligned with the length of the fiber , and the intertwining improved the fiber strength . The result , which is superior to predecessor alloys used in the automotive and golf industries , is significantly improved load carrying capacity as measured in bending per unit of mass . Due to its chopped nature , it can be molded into much more complex geometries than traditional carbon fiber composites , and is suitable to make three-dimensional parts and parts which feature complex details such as thickness transitions , holes , compound curvature , etc. . Chopped carbon fiber materials produced by Quantum Composites Inc. of Bay City , MI , as well as Mitsubishi Rayon of Toyohashi , Japan , can be used for Forged Composite technology . Lamborghini originally used Forged Composite technology on both the inner monocoque and the wishbone suspension arms of the Sesto Elemento . Since then , Lamborghini has used Forged Composite for the interior trim and seats of the 2012 Aventador J , 2012 Urus concept , 2013 Veneno , and the 2014 Veneno Roadster . The 2015 Huracan features a Forged Composite engine bay cover and optional interior trim package which won the JEC Composites Innovation Award for Automotive Interiors in 2016 . In June 2016 , the world 's first carbon fiber connecting rods , made using Forged Composite technology , were unveiled at the Lamborghini ACSL facility in Seattle . Union Binding Company entered a partnership with the Lamborghini ACSL in order to develop a snowboard binding using Forged Composite technology . In 2014 , the all-Forged Composite `` Union FC '' snowboard binding was launched and subsequently won the 2014 ISPO Product of the Year Award . This technology marks the first collaborative product of the ongoing Callaway and Lamborghini alliance to combine research and development efforts towards their mutual goal of power-to-weight ratio and weight reduction . The effect of the improvement is that the Callaway Diablo Octane drivers average about 8 yd greater distance per drive than their predecessor Diablo Edge drivers and the Sesto Elemento , with its Forged Composite chassis , is one-third lighter than the Lamborghini Superleggera and goes from zero to 60 mph almost a full second faster .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Forged_composite", "rank": 18, "score": 73973 }, { "content": "Title: Wood-plastic composite Content: Wood-plastic composites ( WPCs ) are composite materials made of wood fiber/wood flour and thermoplastic ( s ) ( includes PE , PP , PVC etc. ) . In addition to wood fiber and plastic , WPCs can also contain other ligno-cellulosic and/or inorganic filler materials . WPCs are a subset of a larger category of materials called natural fiber plastic composites ( NFPCs ) , which may contain no cellulose-based fiber fillers such as pulp fibers , peanut hulls , bamboo , straw , digestate , etc. . Chemical additives seem practically `` invisible '' ( except mineral fillers and pigments , if added ) in the composite structure . They provide for integration of polymer and wood flour ( powder ) while facilitating optimal processing conditions . In recent years , people in the flooring industry starts referring to WPC as a type of floor that has a basic structure of top vinyl veneer plus a rigid extruded core ( the core can be made without any wood fiber ) . WPC is now an established product category within LVT . This type of WPC is different than the WPC decking and is not intended for outdoor usage .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Wood-plastic_composite", "rank": 19, "score": 73529 }, { "content": "Title: Reinforced plastic Content: Reinforced plastics are a recent class of composite materials in which the low modulus and temperature limitations of plastic is overcome by reinforcing it with fibres of high modulus . Reinforced plastics find extensive use in many fields , such as automobiles and corrosion-resistant equipment like fibre-reinforced plastic ( FRP ) tanks , vessels , etc. . Reinforced plastics , also known as polymer-matrix composite ( PMC ) and fiber reinforced plastics ( FRP ) , consist of fibers ( the discontinuous or dispersed , phase ) in a polymer matrix ( the composition phase ) . These fibers are strong and stiff and they have high specific strength ( strength-to-weight ratio ) and specific stiffness ( stiffness-to-weight ratio ) . In addition , reinforced-plastic structures have improved fatigue resistance , greater toughness and higher creep resistance than similar structures made from steel . Category : Composite materials Category : Fibre-reinforced polymers", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Reinforced_plastic", "rank": 20, "score": 73524 }, { "content": "Title: ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces Content: ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that was established in 2009 by the American Chemical Society . The current editor in chief is Kirk S. Schanze . ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces covers advanced active and passive electronic/optical materials , coatings , colloids , biomaterials and bio-interfaces , polymers , hybrid and composite materials ; and friction and wear . It is currently indexed/abstracted in : CAS , MEDLINE/PubMed , Current Contents , and Science Citation Index .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "ACS_Applied_Materials_&_Interfaces", "rank": 21, "score": 73215 }, { "content": "Title: Al-Ca composite Content: Al-Ca composite is a high-conductivity , high-strength , lightweight composite consisting of sub-micron-diameter pure calcium metal filaments embedded inside a pure aluminium metal matrix . The material is still in the development phase , but it has potential use as an overhead high-voltage power transmission conductor . It could also be used wherever an exceptionally light , high-strength conductor is needed . Its physical properties make it especially well-suited for DC transmission . Compared with conventional conductors such as aluminium-conductor steel-reinforced cable ( ACSR ) , all aluminium alloy conductors ( AAAC ) , aluminium conductor alloy reinforced ( ACAR ) , aluminium conductor composite reinforced ACCR and ACCC conductor that conduct AC current well and DC current somewhat less well ( due to the skin effect ) , Al-Ca conductor is essentially a single uniform material with high DC conductivity , allowing the core strands and the outer strands of a conductor cable to all be the same wire type . This conductor is inherently strong so that there is no need for a strong ( usually poorly conductive ) core to support its own weight as is done in conventional conductors . This eliminates the `` bird caging '' , spooling , and thermal fatigue problems caused by thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between the core and outer strands . The Al-Ca phase interfaces strengthen the composite substantially , but do not have a noticeable effect on restricting the mean free path of electrons , which gives the composite both high strength and high conductivity , a combination that is normally difficult to achieve with both pure metals and alloys . The high strength and light weight could reduce the number of towers needed per kilometer for long distance transmission lines . Since towers and their foundations often account for 50 % of a powerline 's construction cost , building fewer towers would save a substantial fraction of total construction costs . The high strength also could increase transmission reliability in wind/ice loading situations . The high conductivity has the potential to reduce Ohmic losses . Al-Ca composite conductor was invented by Russell and Anderson at Ames Laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy with the goal of developing the next generation power transmission cables . Al/Ca composite is produced by powder metallurgy and severe deformation processing ( extrusion , swaging , wire drawing ) . This process would be roughly two to three times more expensive than conventional melt processing for ACSR . But the cost saving on tower construction is projected to be substantially larger than the extra cost of the conducting cables . During deformation processing , the Ca powder particles deform into filaments surrounded by the Al matrix , which avoids exposing calcium , a reactive element , to air and moisture . The corrosion resistance of this composite has been found to be similar to that of pure aluminium . Al-Ca composite has good microstructural stability even above 300 ° C . The formation of intermetallic compounds at the interface would stabilize the microstructure to avoid the degradation of its various properties during exposure to elevated temperatures , such as those encountered during emergency overload situations .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Al-Ca_composite", "rank": 22, "score": 73208 }, { "content": "Title: Composite (finance) Content: A composite or a composite index is combination of equities or indexes intended to measure the overall market performance over time . A composite index may also be used in the natural or social sciences to summarize complex or multidimensional data or redundant measures . An example of a composite index in the social sciences is used in the European Lifelong Learning Indicators ( ELLI ) project .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_(finance)", "rank": 23, "score": 73175 }, { "content": "Title: PMEG (antiviral) Content: 9 - -LSB- 2 - ( phosphonomethoxy ) ethyl -RSB- guanine ( PMEG ) is an acyclic nucleoside phosphonates . Acyclic nucleoside phosphonates can have significant antiviral , cytostatic and antiproliferative activities . PMEG can inhibit cell proliferation and cause genotoxicity . PMEG is active against leukemia and melanoma in animal tumor models , and also has antiviral activities against herpes viruses in murine models . Successful application of PMEG and PMEG-derivatives analogs may depend on the development analogs with reduced toxicity and enhanced pharmacokinetic properties to tissues . There are no clinical trials using PMEG listed at clinicaltrials.gov . This suggests that the pharmacokinetic properties of PMEG were too toxic to process forward with . There are several different PMEG-derivatives analogs currently being investigated . GS-9191 and GS-9219 prodrugs are just two of the next generation PMEG compounds being evaluated for antiviral and anticancer activities . Both GS-9191 and GS-9219 have made it into clinical trials , but require addition study .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "PMEG_(antiviral)", "rank": 24, "score": 72815 }, { "content": "Title: Quantum chemistry composite methods Content: Quantum chemistry composite methods ( also referred to as thermochemical recipes ) are computational chemistry methods that aim for high accuracy by combining the results of several calculations . They combine methods with a high level of theory and a small basis set with methods that employ lower levels of theory with larger basis sets . They are commonly used to calculate thermodynamic quantities such as enthalpies of formation , atomization energies , ionization energies and electron affinities . They aim for chemical accuracy which is usually defined as within 1 kcal/mol of the experimental value . The first systematic model chemistry of this type with broad applicability was called Gaussian-1 ( G1 ) introduced by John Pople . This was quickly replaced by the Gaussian-2 ( G2 ) which has been used extensively . The Gaussian-3 ( G3 ) was introduced later .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Quantum_chemistry_composite_methods", "rank": 25, "score": 71447 }, { "content": "Title: Paolo Feraboli Content: Paolo Feraboli ( born September 20 , 1976 ) is the founder and current Director of the Automobili Lamborghini Advanced Composite Structures Laboratory ( ACSL ) , and founder and CEO of Gemini Composites , LLC in Seattle , Washington .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Paolo_Feraboli", "rank": 26, "score": 71319 }, { "content": "Title: Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Content: The Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation is the official journal of the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine ( ACRM ) . The journal is published monthly by Elsevier , and is the most highly cited journal in the Rehabilitation category of the Thomson Reuters Journal Citation Reports . The 2013 Impact Factor is 2.441 . The journal is edited by Leighton Chan and Allen W. Heinemann .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Archives_of_Physical_Medicine_and_Rehabilitation", "rank": 27, "score": 71075 }, { "content": "Title: Windecker Eagle Content: The Eagle AC-7 Eagle 1 ( USAF designation YE-5 ) is an aircraft that was manufactured by Windecker Industries . It was the first composite airplane ( foam and fiberglass construction ) to receive FAA certification in December 1969 at a reported development cost of US$ 20,000,000 . The fiberglass process was named `` Fibaloy '' by Windecker .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Windecker_Eagle", "rank": 28, "score": 70673 }, { "content": "Title: Cast acrylic Content: Cast Acrylic is a form of poly ( methyl methacylate ) ( PMMA ) . It is formed by casting the monomer , methyl methacrylate , mixed with initiators and possibly other additives into a form or mold . Sheet and rod stock are generated by casting into static forms , while tubing is done in rotational molds .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Cast_acrylic", "rank": 29, "score": 70650 }, { "content": "Title: Acrolith Content: An acrolith is a composite sculpture made of stone and other materials , as in the case of a figure whose clothed parts are made of wood , while the exposed flesh parts such as head , hands , and feet are made of marble . The wood was covered either by drapery or by gilding . This type of statuary was common and widespread in Classical antiquity . Greek etymology : acros and lithos , English translation : `` height '' or `` extremity '' and `` stone '' . Similarly , chryselephantine sculpture used ivory instead of marble , and often gold on parts of the body and ornaments . Acroliths are frequently mentioned by Pausanias ( 2nd century AD ) , the best known example being the Athene Areia ( `` Warlike Athena '' ) of the Plataeans .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Acrolith", "rank": 30, "score": 70598 }, { "content": "Title: Composite video Content: Composite video ( one channel ) is an analog video transmission ( without audio ) that carries standard definition video typically at 480i or 576i resolution . Video information is encoded on one channel , unlike the higher-quality S-video ( two channels ) and the even higher-quality component video ( three or more channels ) . Composite video is usually in standard formats such as NTSC , PAL , and SECAM and is often designated by the CVBS initialism , for color , video , blanking and sync , or simply as video .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_video", "rank": 31, "score": 70478 }, { "content": "Title: Composite measure Content: Composite measure in statistics and research design refer to composite measures of variables , i.e. measurements based on multiple data items . An example of a composite measure is an IQ test , which gives a single score based on a series of responses to various questions . Three common composite measures include : indexes - measures that summarize and rank specific observations , usually on the ordinal scale ; scales - advanced indexes whose observations are further transformed ( scaled ) due to their logical or empirical relationships ; typologies - measures that classify observations in terms of their attributes on multiple variables , usually on a nominal scale .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_measure", "rank": 32, "score": 70349 }, { "content": "Title: Composite order Content: The composite order is a mixed order , combining the volutes of the Ionic order capital with the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian order . In many versions the composite order volutes are larger , however , and there is generally some ornament placed centrally between the volutes . The column of the composite order is typically ten diameters high , though as with all the orders these details may be adjusted by the architect for particular buildings . The Composite order is essentially treated as Corinthian except for the capital , with no consistent differences to that above or below the capital . The composite order is not found in ancient Greek architecture and until the Renaissance was not ranked as a separate order . Instead it was considered as an imperial Roman form of the Corinthian order . Though the Arch of Titus , in the forum in Rome and built in 82 AD , is sometimes cited as the first prominent surviving example of a composite order , the order was probably invented `` a little before Augustus 's reign , and certainly well-developed before his death , the very time when the Roman version of Corinthian was being established . '' With the Tuscan order , a simplified version of the Doric order , also found in ancient Roman architecture but not included by Vitruvius in his three orders , the Composite was added by Renaissance writers to make five classical orders . Sebastiano Serlio ( 1475 -- 1554 ) published his book I sette libri d'architettura in 1537 in which he was the second to mention the composite order as its own order and not just as an evolution of the Corinthian order as previously suggested by Leon Battista Alberti . Leon Battista Alberti in his De re aedificatoria ( English : On the Art of Building ) mentions the composite order , calling it `` Italic '' .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_order", "rank": 33, "score": 70319 }, { "content": "Title: Metal matrix composite Content: A metal matrix composite ( MMC ) is composite material with at least two constituent parts , one being a metal necessarily , the other material may be a different metal or another material , such as a ceramic or organic compound . When at least three materials are present , it is called a hybrid composite . An MMC is complementary to a cermet .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Metal_matrix_composite", "rank": 34, "score": 69808 }, { "content": "Title: Composite character Content: In a work of media adapted from a real or fictional narrative , a composite character is a character based on more than one individual from the preceding story . Two or more fictional characters are often combined into a single character in the course of an adaptation of a work for a different medium , as in adapting a novel in the course of authoring a screenplay for a film . A composite character may be modeled on historical or biographical figures .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_character", "rank": 35, "score": 69777 }, { "content": "Title: SMK- Composite Bridge System Content: In dentistry , SMK , short for System kompozytowy most ( `` Composite Bridge System '' ) , is an adhesive restorative prosthodontic technique , developed in Poland during the 1990s . Using the SMK method , a prosthetic tooth is constructed and fitted without damage to the neighbouring teeth .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "SMK-_Composite_Bridge_System", "rank": 36, "score": 69747 }, { "content": "Title: Lockheed Martin X-55 Content: The Lockheed Martin X-55 Advanced Composite Cargo Aircraft ( ACCA ) is an experimental twinjet transport aircraft . It is intended to demonstrate new air cargo-carrier capabilities using advanced composite material . A project of the United States Air Force 's Air Force Research Laboratory , it was built by the international aerospace company Lockheed Martin , at its Advanced Development Programs ( Skunk Works ) facility in Palmdale , California .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Lockheed_Martin_X-55", "rank": 37, "score": 69459 }, { "content": "Title: Association of Canadian Women Composers/ Association des femmes compositeurs canadiennes Content: The Association of Canadian Women Composers / Association des femmes compositeurs canadiennes ( ACWC/AFCC ) is a not-for-profit organization that aims to promote the performance of works by women composers , to disseminate information about and to women composers in Canada and abroad , to encourage women composers to realize their creative potential , and to foster the highest standard of composition . The association 's membership categories include : active , affiliate , associate , and composer-in-training . These categories are open only to women . The association fonds were accumulated from members of the Association of Canadian Women Composers between 1988 and 2011 . The records were held by the ACWC Archivist until 2011 , when they were donated to The Banff Centre Archives . The fonds consists of records generated by the association , including the Association 's formation and its subsequent activities . Records concern the administration of the Association itself , public activities and initiatives intended to provide support for Canadian women composers .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Association_of_Canadian_Women_Composers/_Association_des_femmes_compositeurs_canadiennes", "rank": 38, "score": 69208 }, { "content": "Title: Composite aircraft Content: A composite aircraft is made up of multiple component craft . It takes off and flies initially as a single aircraft , with the components able to separate in flight and continue as independent aircraft . Typically the larger aircraft acts as a carrier aircraft or mother ship , with the smaller sometimes called a parasite or jockey craft . The first composite aircraft flew in 1916 , during World War I , when the British launched a Bristol Scout from a Felixstowe Porte Baby flying boat . Between the World Wars , American experiments with airship/biplane composites led to the construction of two airborne aircraft carriers , while the British Short Mayo seaplane composite demonstrated successful transatlantic mail delivery . During the Second World War some composites saw operational use including the Mistel ( `` mistletoe '' ) , the larger unmanned component of a composite aircraft configuration developed in Germany during the later stages of World War II , in effect a two-part manned flying bomb . Experiments continued into the jet age , with large aircraft carrying fully capable parasite fighters or reconnaissance drones , though none entered service .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_aircraft", "rank": 39, "score": 69130 }, { "content": "Title: ACMA Content: ACMA may refer to : Academy of Country Music Awards , an American country music award show Acma , a family surname particularly in the Philippines dating to the 1800s ; South America as early as the 1700s ACMA ( Ateliers de construction de motocycles et d'automobiles ) , a French builder of motorcycles , scooters and micro-cars American Composites Manufacturers Association , the trade association for composites manufacturers in the US Arts & Communication Magnet Academy , a middle and high school in Beaverton , Oregon Associate Chartered Management Accountant , a designation used by associate members of the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants , a UK-based professional body Australian Centre for Mission Aviation , an aviation training school at Coldstream airfield Australasian Computer Music Association , a non-profit Australia and New Zealand based organisation which aims to promote electroacoustic and computer music Australian Communications and Media Authority , the Australian government regulation agency for broadcasting , radio communications and telecommunications", "qid": "2951", "docid": "ACMA", "rank": 40, "score": 68771 }, { "content": "Title: Nasdaq Composite Content: The NASDAQ Composite ( ^ IXIC ) is a stock market index of the common stocks and similar securities ( e.g. ADRs , tracking stocks , limited partnership interests ) listed on the NASDAQ stock market . Along with the Dow Jones Average and S&P 500 it is one of the three most-followed indices in US stock markets . The composition of the NASDAQ Composite is heavily weighted towards information technology companies . After launching in 1971 with 50 companies and a starting value of 100 , the NASDAQ Composite peaked at a high of 5132.52 ( and a closing price of 5048.62 ) on March 10 , 2000 during the first Internet bubble , and subsequently fell to a low of 1108.49 on October 10th 2002 when the bubble burst . On April 23rd 2015 , after over 15 years , the index made a new closing high of 5056.06 . On June 18 , 2015 , the index made a new all-time high of 5143.32 , finally surpassing the high made during the tech bubble . In the days following the presidential election win of Donald Trump , the COMP made a new high of 5403.86 . The NASDAQ 100 , whose components are a subset of the NASDAQ Composite 's , accounts for over 90 % of the NASDAQ Composite 's movement , and there are many ETFs tracking its performance .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Nasdaq_Composite", "rank": 41, "score": 68684 }, { "content": "Title: Allstar SZD-59 Content: The SZD-59 Acro is a single-seat glass composite glider for aerobatics and cross-country flying by PZL Allstar of Bielsko-Biala , Poland . The SZD-59 can be flown with a 13.2 m span or a 15.0 m span . Attaching or detaching the wing-tips takes only a few minutes . With 15m wing-tips it is a competitive Club Class glider , while it is a competitive aerobatic glider in the 13.2 m configuration .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Allstar_SZD-59", "rank": 42, "score": 68645 }, { "content": "Title: P-Menthane-3,8-diol Content: p-Menthane-3 ,8 - diol , also known as para-menthane-3 ,8 - diol , PMD , or menthoglycol , is an active ingredient used in insect repellents . It smells similar to menthol and has a cooling feel . There are eight possible isomers of PMD , and the exact composition is rarely specified and is commonly assumed to be a complex mixture . PMD is found in small quantities in the essential oil from the leaves of Corymbia citriodora , formerly known as Eucalyptus citriodora . This tree is native to Australia , but is now cultivated in many warm places around the world . C. citriodora oil , when refined to increase its PMD content for use in insect repellents , is known in the United States as oil of lemon eucalyptus ( OLE ) or by the tradename Citriodiol . Some commercial PMD products are not made from C. citriodora oil , but rather from synthetic citronellal . Refined OLE contains approximately 64 % PMD ( a mixture of the cis and trans isomers of p-menthane-3 ,8 - diol ) . OLE has been notified under the European Biocidal Products Directive ( BPD ) 98/8/EC ( now BPR Regulation ( EU ) No. 528/212 ) under its generic name `` PMD rich botanic oil '' and is currently proceeding through the registration process with the Health and Safety Executive in the UK . It is also registered with Canada 's Pest Management Regulatory Agency under the generic name `` PMD and related oil of lemon eucalyptus compounds '' . It is the only natural active ingredient that is permitted to be used an insect repellent in the United States and Europe . PMD can be synthetically manufactured from materials derived from natural sources . This 2011 study also shows that C. citriodora oil contains only 1-2 % PMD and is therefore different from OLE as registered with the EPA which has a minimum 64 % PMD . A 2006 study showed that PMD is as effective as DEET when used in like quantities .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "P-Menthane-3,8-diol", "rank": 43, "score": 68558 }, { "content": "Title: Composite film Content: A composite film is a feature film whose screenplay is composed of two or more distinct stories . More generally , composite structure refers to an aesthetic principle in which the narrative structure relies on contiguity and linking rather than linearity . In a composite text or film , individual pieces are complete within themselves , yet they form a whole work that is greater than the sum of its individual parts .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_film", "rank": 44, "score": 68545 }, { "content": "Title: Partial least squares path modeling Content: The partial least squares path modeling ( PLS-PM , PLS-SEM ) method to structural equation modeling allows estimating complex cause-effect relationship models with latent variables . It is a component-based estimation approach that differs from the covariance-based structural equation modeling . Unlike covariance-based approaches to structural equation modeling , PLS-PM does not fit a common factor model to the data , it rather fits a composite model ; In doing so , it maximizes the amount of variance explained ( though what this means from a statistical point of view is unclear and PLS users do not agree on how this goal might be be achieved ) . In addition , by an adjustment PLS is capable to consistently estimate common factor models as well . This new approach is called consistent PLS ( PLSc ) . Furthermore , PLS-PM can be used for out-sample prediction purposes . The PLS structural equation model is composed of two sub-models : the measurement model and structural model . The measurement model represents the relationships between the observed data and the latent variables . The structural model represents the relationships between the latent variables . An iterative algorithm solves the structural equation model by estimating the latent variables by using the measurement and structural model in alternating steps , hence the procedure 's name , partial . The measurement model estimates the latent variables as a weighted sum of its manifest variables . The structural model estimates the latent variables by means of simple or multiple linear regression between the latent variables estimated by the measurement model . This algorithm repeats itself until convergence is achieved . With the availability of software applications ( such as PLS-Graph , SmartPLS , ADANCO and WarpPLS ) , PLS-SEM became particularly popular in social sciences disciplines such as accounting , family business , marketing , management information systems , operations management , and strategic management . Recently , areas such as engineering , environmental sciences , medicine , and political sciences more broadly use PLS-SEM to estimate complex cause-effect relationship models with latent variables . Thereby , they analyse , explore and test their established and underlying their conceptual models and theory . PLS is being viewed critically by many methodological researchers such as Rönkkö et al. ( 2016 ) . PLS is generally ignored by the mainstream statistical literature and by econometrics probably because of the ad hoc way in which PLS has been developped and the lack of analytic proofs to support its main feature : the sampling distribution of PLS weights . However , PLS-SEM is still considered preferable ( over CB-SEM ) when it is unknown whether the data 's nature is common factor - or composite-based .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Partial_least_squares_path_modeling", "rank": 45, "score": 68432 }, { "content": "Title: Mesoporous organosilica Content: Mesoporous organosilica ( periodic mesoporous organosilicas , PMO ) are a type of silica containing organic groups that give rise to mesoporosity . They exhibit pore size ranging from 2 nm - 50 nm , depending on the organic substituents . In contrast , zeolites exhibit pore sizes less than a nanometer . PMOs have potential applications as catalysts , adsorbents , trapping agents , drug delivery agents , stationary phases in chromatography and chemical sensors .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Mesoporous_organosilica", "rank": 46, "score": 68357 }, { "content": "Title: Composite chart Content: In astrology , a composite chart is a chart that is composed of the planetary midpoints of two or more horoscopes . Practitioners of astrology commonly construct a composite chart when two people meet and form a relationship . According to astrologers , the composite chart will give clues as to the nature and function of the relationship .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_chart", "rank": 47, "score": 68188 }, { "content": "Title: Composite epoxy material Content: Composite epoxy materials ( CEM ) are a group of composite materials typically made from woven glass fabric surfaces and non-woven glass core combined with epoxy synthetic resin . They are typically used in printed circuit boards . There are different types of CEMs : CEM-1 is low-cost , flame-retardant , cellulose-paper-based laminate with only one layer of woven glass fabric . CEM-2 has cellulose paper core and woven glass fabric surface . CEM-3 is very similar to the most commonly used PCB material , FR-4 . Its color is white , and it is flame-retardant . CEM-4 quite similar as CEM-3 but not flame-retardant . CEM-5 ( also called CRM-5 ) has polyester woven glass core .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_epoxy_material", "rank": 48, "score": 68014 }, { "content": "Title: FD-Composites ArrowCopter Content: The ArrowCopter is a series of Austrian autogyros , designed and produced by FD-Composites GmbH of Zeillern . The ArrowCopter AC20 series is supplied as complete , factory built ready-to-fly-aircraft .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "FD-Composites_ArrowCopter", "rank": 49, "score": 67872 }, { "content": "Title: Stoddard-Hamilton Aircraft Content: Stoddard-Hamilton Aircraft , based in Arlington , Washington , was a designer and supplier of high-performance homebuilt aircraft kits , offering parts and plans to homebuilders . The company 's popular Glasair aircraft series are low wing , two-seat ( side by side ) fiberglass designs . The Glasair TD of 1979 was the first pre-molded composite aircraft kit on the general aviation market . The company was started by Tom Hamilton and named , tongue in cheek , after the style of large aircraft manufacturers in the United States . Using Hamilton 's middle and last name , the company was incorporated as Stoddard-Hamilton . Retractable gear and up-engined models were later introduced , with the Glasair III Turbo capable of speeds in excess of 300 mph , and another model being fitted with a turboprop engine . In the mid-1990s , Glasair introduced the Glastar , a high-wing , short-field capable utility aircraft with two seats . In 2001 , Thomas W. Wathen purchased the assets of the Glasair from bankrupt Stoddard-Hamilton Aircraft . New Glasair combined with New GlaStar and continued production of the Glasair and GlaStar kits at the Arlington factory and markets them under the Glasair Aviation name .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Stoddard-Hamilton_Aircraft", "rank": 50, "score": 67864 }, { "content": "Title: Acrimeroceras Content: Acrimeroceras is an oxyconic Devonian gonitite and one of three genera included in the subfamily Paratornoceratinae . The others being Paratornoceras and Paratoceras or ex Polonites . Acrimeroceras has a shell like that of Paratornoceras with biconvex growth lines and constrictions and simple dorsal lobe . The adult shell is extremely compressed , smooth , oxyconic to lanceolate in section . Early growth stages are depressed , subglobular , smooth or ribbled , with an open umbilcus and rounded to suboxyconic venter , which sharpens relatively early during ontogeny . Sutural elements in general are broadly rounded except for the lateral lobe which is pointed and asymmetric .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Acrimeroceras", "rank": 51, "score": 67850 }, { "content": "Title: ACRIMSAT Content: The Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor Satellite , or ACRIMSAT is a defunct satellite and instrument that was one of the 21 observational components of NASA 's Earth Observing System program . The instrument followed upon the ACRIM1 and ACRIM2 instruments that were launched on multi-instrument satellite platforms . ACRIMSAT was launched on 20 December 1999 from Vandenberg Air Force Base as the secondary payload on the Taurus rocket that launched KOMPSAT . It was placed into a high inclination , 700 km . sun-synchronous orbit from which the ACRIM3 instrument monitored total solar irradiance ( TSI ) . Contact with the satellite was lost on 14 December 2013 .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "ACRIMSAT", "rank": 52, "score": 67743 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of Composite Materials Content: The Journal of Composite Materials is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers the field of materials science . Its editor-in-chief is H.Thomas Hahn ( UCLA ) . It was established in 1967 and is published by Sage Publications in association with the American Society for Composites .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Journal_of_Composite_Materials", "rank": 53, "score": 67719 }, { "content": "Title: Protokylol Content: Protokylol ( Asmetil , Caytine , Palison , Ventaire ) is a β-adrenergic receptor agonist used as a bronchodilator in Europe and the United States . It is methylenedioxyphenyl-isoproterenol . The PMA analog is twice the potency as the tenamfetamine analog .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Protokylol", "rank": 54, "score": 67714 }, { "content": "Title: Pyrimidinylpiperazine Content: 1 - ( 2-Pyrimidinyl ) piperazine ( 1-PP , 1-PmP ) is a chemical compound and piperazine derivative . It is known to act as an α2-adrenergic receptor antagonist , and as a 5-HT1A receptor partial agonist to a much lesser extent . It does not appear to have any significant affinity for the D2 or α1-adrenergic receptors . A number of pyrimidinylpiperazine derivatives are drugs , including : Buspirone - anxiolytic Dasatinib - anticancer agent Eptapirone - anxiolytic Gepirone - anxiolytic Ipsapirone - anxiolytic Piribedil - antiparkinsonian agent Revospirone - anxiolytic Tandospirone - anxiolytic Tirilazad - neuroprotective agent Umespirone - anxiolytic Zalospirone - anxiolytic The anxiolytics are also classified as azapirones due to the azaspirodecanedione moiety in their structures . 1-PP is a common metabolite of most or all of the listed agents . Alnespirone , binospirone , and enilospirone , despite being azapirones , are not piperazines and therefore do not metabolize to 1-PP , and while perospirone and tiospirone are piperazines , they are instead benzothiazole-substituted piperazines and do not metabolize to 1-PP either .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Pyrimidinylpiperazine", "rank": 55, "score": 67683 }, { "content": "Title: Composite Health Care System Content: The Composite Health Care System ( CHCS ) is a medical informatics system designed by Science Applications International Corporation ( SAIC ) and used by all United States and OCONUS military health care centers . In 1988 , SAIC won a competition for the original $ 1.02 billion contract to design , develop , and implement CHCS .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_Health_Care_System", "rank": 56, "score": 67321 }, { "content": "Title: Epsilon composite Content: Epsilon Composite is a French company created in 1987 by Stephane LULL , its current CEO . Turnover in 2012 was 21M $ with 190 employees . Epsilon Composite produces a wide range of Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer ( CFRP ) products for various applications : Manufacturing and printing machines ( flexography and textile industries ) Energy ( oil & gas offshore exploitation , wind turbines ) Civil Engineering Camera support equipments ( tripods ) Automotive and leisure applications Aerospace The main production process used by the company is pultrusion . Epsilon Composite is mainly dealing with international customers ( 90 % of the turnover comes from exports ) , mostly from Japan and Germany . The production site is located in Gaillan , France", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Epsilon_composite", "rank": 57, "score": 67205 }, { "content": "Title: Composite transposon Content: A composite transposon is similar in function to simple transposons and Insertion Sequence ( IS ) elements in that it has protein coding DNA segments flanked by inverted , repeated sequences that can be recognized by transposase enzymes . A composite transposon , however , is flanked by two separate IS elements which may or may not be exact replicas . Instead of each IS element moving separately , the entire length of DNA spanning from one IS element to the other is transposed as one complete unit . Composite transposons will also often carry one or more genes conferring antibiotic resistance .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_transposon", "rank": 58, "score": 67098 }, { "content": "Title: Boeing Persistent Munition Technology Demonstrator Content: The Persistent Munition Technology Demonstrator or PMTD is an unmanned aerial vehicle ( UAV ) developed and produced by the Advanced Weapons and Missile Systems division of Boeing as a test bed in order to further develop and flight test various UAV technologies . It has also been referred to as the Dominator . The PMTD weighs 60 lb , has a 12 ft wingspan and is powered by a single piston engine driving a pusher propeller . It was first flown in April , 2006 , at Vandalia Municipal Airport , Vandalia , Illinois . Designed for either air or ground launch and high loiter times , the PMTD has the ability to operate completely autonomously . During its maiden flight , the UAV autonomously flew to 14 programmed locations , changed altitude four times , and met all programmed speeds . The initial set of flight tests focused solely on validation of the autonomous flight mode , while future tests will include sensor integration , weapon guidance systems , munitions dispensing systems and in-flight refueling . EDO Corporation funded the development of the aircraft 's composite airframe , while Boeing funded all the flight tests . Just-in-Time Strike Augmentation ( JITSA ) is a United States Air Force program proposal for network-centric operations to command the battlefield from the air using the C-17 Globemaster III to launch large numbers of PMTD into the battlespace .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Boeing_Persistent_Munition_Technology_Demonstrator", "rank": 59, "score": 67065 }, { "content": "Title: Diaminopyrimidine Content: Diaminopyrimidines are a class of organic chemical compounds that include two amine groups on a pyrimidine ring . They include many dihydrofolate reductase inhibitor drugs ( such as pyrimethamine , trimetrexate , and piritrexim and the antibiotics Iclaprim and trimethoprim ) . Some have been patented as anti-cancer drugs .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Diaminopyrimidine", "rank": 60, "score": 67037 }, { "content": "Title: NYSE Composite Content: The NYSE Composite ( ^ NYA ) is a stock market index covering all common stock listed on the New York Stock Exchange , including American depositary receipts , real estate investment trusts , tracking stocks , and foreign listings . Over 2,000 stocks are covered in the index , of which over 1,600 are from United States corporations and over 360 are foreign listings ; however foreign companies are very prevalent among the largest companies in the index : of the 100 companies in the index having the largest market capitalization ( and thus the largest impact on the index ) , more than half ( 55 ) are non-U.S. issues . This includes corporations in each of the ten industries listed in the Industry Classification Benchmark . It uses free-float market cap weighting . It was originally given a value of 50 points , based on the market closing on December 31 , 1965 , and is weighted by the number of shares listed for each issue . It was re-introduced in January 2003 with a value of 5,000 points . The NYSE Composite outperformed the Dow Jones Industrial Average , the Nasdaq Composite , and the S&P 500 in 2004 , 2005 , and 2006 and closed above the 10,000 level for the first time on June 1 , 2007 . The NYSE Composite set a closing high of 10,311.61 on October 31 , 2007 but failed to pass the intra-day high of 10,387.17 it reached in trading on October 11 , 2007 . On September 29 , 2008 , continuing troubles in the financial sector culminated in a loss of more than 8 % . On November 20 , 2008 , the index plummeted below 5,000 to a multi-year bear market low near 4,650 . Its lifetime low ( as currently calculated ) stands at 347.77 points , reached in October 1974 . After a gradual and volatile recovery since 2009 , the index finally set fresh nominal records at the end of 2013 , closing at an all-time high of 10,406.77 on December 31 . In addition to the overall composite , there are separate indices for industrial , transportation , utility , and financial corporations . The index was the basis of the iShares NYSE Composite Index Fund , an exchange-traded fund .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "NYSE_Composite", "rank": 61, "score": 67017 }, { "content": "Title: Malonate:Sodium symporter Content: The Malonate : Na + Symporter ( MSS ) Family ( TC # 2 . A. 70 ) is a group of transport proteins belonging to the CPA superfamily . These proteins are composites with constituents ranging in size from 129 to 255 amino acyl residues ( aas ) and exhibiting 4 to 7 transmembrane segments ( TMSs ) . A representative list of proteins belonging to the MSS family can be found in the Transporter Classification Database .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Malonate:Sodium_symporter", "rank": 62, "score": 66862 }, { "content": "Title: Para-Methoxyamphetamine Content: para-Methoxyamphetamine ( PMA ; `` Death '' , `` Dr. Death '' ) , also known as 4-methoxyamphetamine ( 4-MA ) , is a designer drug of the amphetamine class with serotonergic effects . Unlike other similar drugs of this family , PMA does not produce stimulant , euphoriant , or entactogen effects , and behaves more like an antidepressant in comparison , though it does have some psychedelic properties . PMA has been found in tablets touted as MDMA ( ecstasy ) although its effects are markedly different compared to those of MDMA . The consequences of such deception has often been hospitalizations and deaths among unwitting users . PMA is commonly synthesized from anethole , the flavor compound of anise and fennel , mainly because the starting material for MDMA , safrole , has become less available due to law enforcement action , causing illicit drug manufacturers to use anethole as an alternative .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Para-Methoxyamphetamine", "rank": 63, "score": 66801 }, { "content": "Title: PMDTA Content: PMDTA ( N , N , N ′ , N ′ ′ , N ′ ′ - pentamethyldiethylenetriamine ) is an organic compound with the formula -LSB- ( CH3 ) 2NCH2CH2 -RSB- 2NCH3 . PMDTA is a basic , bulky , and flexible , tridentate ligand that is a used in organolithium chemistry . It is a colorless liquid , although impure samples appear yellowish .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "PMDTA", "rank": 64, "score": 66788 }, { "content": "Title: Composite laminate Content: In materials science , a composite laminates is an assembly of layers of fibrous composite materials which can be joined to provide required engineering properties , including in-plane stiffness , bending stiffness , strength , and coefficient of thermal expansion . The individual layers consist of high-modulus , high-strength fibers in a polymeric , metallic , or ceramic matrix material . Typical fibers used include graphite , glass , boron , and silicon carbide , and some matrix materials are epoxies , polyimides , aluminium , titanium , and alumina . Layers of different materials may be used , resulting in a hybrid laminate . The individual layers generally are orthotropic ( that is , with principal properties in orthogonal directions ) or transversely isotropic ( with isotropic properties in the transverse plane ) with the laminate then exhibiting anisotropic ( with variable direction of principal properties ) , orthotropic , or quasi-isotropic properties . Quasi-isotropic laminates exhibit isotropic ( that is , independent of direction ) inplane response but are not restricted to isotropic out-of-plane ( bending ) response . Depending upon the stacking sequence of the individual layers , the laminate may exhibit coupling between inplane and out-of-plane response . An example of bending-stretching coupling is the presence of curvature developing as a result of in-plane loading .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_laminate", "rank": 65, "score": 66631 }, { "content": "Title: Stoddard-Hamilton Glasair I Content: The Glasair I , originally built as the prototype Glasair TD taildragger , is a high-performance homebuilt aircraft built of fiberglass . Created by Tom Hamilton as a fast , two-seat kitplane , the Glasair TD was derived from the earlier Tom Hamilton Glasair and first flew in 1979 . Hamilton formed Stoddard-Hamilton Aircraft that year to produce and market the kit , which was the first pre-molded composite aircraft available to builders .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Stoddard-Hamilton_Glasair_I", "rank": 66, "score": 66553 }, { "content": "Title: Trimethylphosphine Content: Trimethylphosphine is the organophosphorus compound with the formula P ( CH3 ) 3 , commonly abbreviated as PMe3 . This colorless liquid has a strongly unpleasant odor , which is characteristic of alkylphosphines . The compound is a common ligand in coordination chemistry .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Trimethylphosphine", "rank": 67, "score": 66239 }, { "content": "Title: Composite number Content: A composite number is a positive integer that can be formed by multiplying together two smaller positive integers . Equivalently , it is a positive integer that has at least one divisor other than 1 and itself . Every positive integer is composite , prime , or the unit 1 , so the composite numbers are exactly the numbers that are not prime and not a unit . For example , the integer 14 is a composite number because it is the product of the two smaller integers 2 × 7 . Likewise , the integers 2 and 3 are not composite numbers because each of them can only be divided by one and itself . The composite numbers up to 150 are 4 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 18 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 30 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 42 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 60 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 72 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 102 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 108 , 110 , 111 , 112 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 126 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 , 136 , 138 , 140 , 141 , 142 , 143 , 144 , 145 , 146 , 147 , 148 , 150 . Every composite number can be written as the product of two or more ( not necessarily distinct ) primes . For example , the composite number 299 can be written as 13 × 23 , and the composite number 360 can be written as 23 × 32 × 5 ; furthermore , this representation is unique up to the order of the factors . This fact is called the fundamental theorem of arithmetic . There are several known primality tests that can determine whether a number is prime or composite , without necessarily revealing the factorization of a composite input .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_number", "rank": 68, "score": 66175 }, { "content": "Title: Composite index (database) Content: A database composite index or multi-column index is an index that is based on several columns .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_index_(database)", "rank": 69, "score": 65968 }, { "content": "Title: Ionic polymer–metal composites Content: Ionic polymer -- metal composites ( IPMCs ) are synthetic composite nanomaterials that display artificial muscle behavior under an applied voltage or electric field . IPMCs are composed of an ionic polymer like Nafion or Flemion whose surfaces are chemically plated or physically coated with conductors such as platinum or gold . Under an applied voltage ( 1 -- 5 V for typical 10mmx40mmx0 .2 mm samples ) , ion migration and redistribution due to the imposed voltage across a strip of IPMCs result in a bending deformation . If the plated electrodes are arranged in a non-symmetric configuration , the imposed voltage can induce all kinds of deformations such as twisting , rolling , torsioning , turning , twirling , whirling and non-symmetric bending deformation . Alternatively , if such deformations are physically applied to an IPMC strips they generate an output voltage signal ( few millivolts for typical small samples ) as sensors and energy harvesters . IPMCs are a type of electroactive polymer . They work very well in a liquid environment as well as in air . They have a force density of about 40 in a cantilever configuration , meaning that they can generate a tip force of almost 40 times their own weight in a cantilever mode . IPMCs in actuation , sensing and energy harvesting have a very broad bandwidth to kilo HZ and higher . IPMCs were first introduced in 1998 by Shahinpoor , Bar-Cohen , Xue , Simpson and Smith ( see references below ) but the original idea of ionic polymer actuators and sensors goes back to 1992-93 by Adolf , Shahinpoor , Segalman , Witkowski , Osada , Okuzaki , Hori , Doi , Matsumoto , Hirose , Oguro , Takenaka , Asaka and Kawami as depicted below : 1-Segalman D. J. , Witkowski W. R. , Adolf D. B. , Shahinpoor M. , `` Theory and Application of Electrically Controlled Polymeric Gels '' , Int . Journal of Smart Material and Structures , vol . 1 , pp. 95 -- 100 , ( 1992 ) 2-Shahinpoor M. , `` Conceptual Design , Kinematics and Dynamics of Swimming Robotic Structures Using Ionic Polymeric Gel Muscles '' , Int . Journal of Smart Material and Structures , vol .1 , pp. 91 -- 94 , ( 1992 ) 3-Y . Osada , H. Okuzaki and H. Hori , `` A Polymer Gel with Electrically Driven Motility '' , Nature , vol . 355 , pp. 242 -- 244 , ( 1992 ) 4-Oguro K. , Kawami Y.and Takenaka H. , `` Bending of an Ion-Conducting Polymer Film Electrode Composite by An Electric Stimulus at Low Voltage '' , Trans . J. Micro-Machine Society , vol . 5 , pp. 27 -- 30 , ( 1992 ) 5-M . Doi , M. Marsumoto and Y. Hirose , `` Deformation of Ionic Gels by Electric Fields '' , Macromolecules , vol . 25 , pp. 5504 -- 5511 , ( 1992 ) 6-Oguro , K. , K. Asaka , and H. Takenaka , `` Polymer film actuator driven by low voltage '' , In Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium of Micro Machines and Human Science '' , Nagoya , pp. 38 -- 40 , ( 1993 ) 7-Adolf D. , Shahinpoor M. , Segalman D. , Witkowski W. , `` Electrically Controlled Polymeric Gel Actuators '' , US Patent Office , US Patent No. 5,250,167 , Issued October 5 , ( 1993 ) 8-Oguro K. , Kawami Y.and Takenaka H. , `` Actuator Element '' , US Patent Office , US Patent No. 5,268,082 , Issued December 7 , ( 1993 ) These patents were followed by additional related patents : 9-Shahinpoor , M. , `` Spring-Loaded Ionic Polymeric Gel Linear Actuator '' , US Patent Office , US Patent No. 5,389,222 , Issued February 14 , ( 1995 ) 10-Shahinpoor , M. and Mojarrad , M. , `` Soft Actuators and Artificial Muscles '' , US Patent Office , United States Patent 6,109,852 , Issued August 29 , ( 2000 ) 11-Shahinpoor , M. and Mojarrad , M. , `` Ionic Polymer Sensors and Actuators '' , US Patent Office , No. 6,475,639 , Issued November 5 , ( 2002 ) 12-Shahinpoor , M. and Kim , K.J. , `` Method of Fabricating a Dry Electro-Active Polymeric Synthetic Muscle '' , US Patent Office , Patent No. 7,276,090 , Issued October 2 , ( 2007 ) It should also be mentioned that Tanaka , Nishio and Sun introduced the phenomenon of ionic gel collapse in an electric field : 13-T . Tanaka , I. Nishio and S.T. Sun , `` Collapse of Gells in an Electric Field '' , Science , vol . 218 , pp. 467 -- 469 , ( 1982 ) It should also be mentioned that Hamlen , Kent and Shafer introduced the electrochemical contraction of ionic polymer fibers : 14-R . P. Hamlen , C. E. Kent and S. N. Shafer , `` Electrolytically Activated Contractile Polymer '' , Nature , vol . 206 , no. 4989 , pp. 1140 -- 1141 , ( 1965 ) Credit should also be extended to Darwin G. Caldwell and Paul M. Taylor for early work on chemically stimulated gels as artificial muscles : 15-Darwin G. Caldwell and Paul M. Taylor , `` Chemically stimulated pseudo-muscular actuation '' , International Journal of Engineering Science , Volume 28 , Issue 8 , pp. 797 -- 808 , ( 1990 )", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Ionic_polymer–metal_composites", "rank": 70, "score": 65892 }, { "content": "Title: Dow Jones Composite Average Content: The Dow Jones Composite Average is a stock index from Dow Jones Indexes that tracks 65 prominent companies . The average 's components are every stock from the Dow Jones Industrial Average , the Dow Jones Transportation Average , and the Dow Jones Utility Average .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Dow_Jones_Composite_Average", "rank": 71, "score": 65652 }, { "content": "Title: Scaled Composites White Knight Two Content: The Scaled Composites Model 348 White Knight Two ( WK2 ) is a jet-powered cargo aircraft that is used to lift the SpaceShipTwo spacecraft to release altitude . It was developed by Scaled Composites from 2007 to 2010 as the first stage of Tier 1b , a two-stage to suborbital-space manned launch system . WK2 is based on the successful mothership to SpaceShipOne , White Knight , which itself is based on Proteus . With an `` open architecture '' design and explicit plans for multi-purpose use , the aircraft could also operate as a zero-g aircraft for passenger training or microgravity science flights , handle missions in high-altitude testing more generally , or be used to launch payloads other than SpaceShipTwo . A study of use of the aircraft as a forest fire water bomber has also been mentioned , one that would utilize a large carbon composite water tank that could be quickly replenished to make repeat runs over fires . Virgin Galactic has ordered two White Knight Two vehicles . Together , WK2 and SS2 form the basis for Virgin Galactic 's fleet of suborbital spaceplanes . In November 2010 , The Spaceship Company had announced that it planned to build at least three additional White Knight Two aircraft and an additional five SpaceShipTwo rocket planes , the aircraft to be built by Virgin after the initial prototypes of each craft are built by Scaled Composites . , it is not clear how many SS2 and WK2 vehicles will actually be built . The first White Knight Two is named VMS Eve after Richard Branson 's mother Eve Branson ; it was officially unveiled on July 28 , 2008 , and flew for the first time on December 21 , 2008 . The second is expected to be named VMS Spirit of Steve Fossett after Branson 's close friend Steve Fossett , who died in an aircraft accident in 2007 .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Scaled_Composites_White_Knight_Two", "rank": 72, "score": 65626 }, { "content": "Title: Multiple sclerosis functional composite Content: The multiple sclerosis functional composite is a method of measuring the severity of multiple sclerosis primarily used in research . The score is based on a combination of timed tests of walking , arm function , and cognitive ability . It was developed over two years from 1994 to 1996 by the National Multiple Sclerosis Society .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Multiple_sclerosis_functional_composite", "rank": 73, "score": 65449 }, { "content": "Title: Composite application Content: In computing , a composite application is a software application built by combining multiple existing functions into a new application . The technical concept can be compared to mashups . However , composite applications use business sources ( e.g. , existing modules or even Web services ) of information , while mashups usually rely on web-based , and often free , sources . It is wrong to assume that composite applications are by definition part of a service-oriented architecture ( SOA ) . Composite applications can be built using any technology or architecture . A composite application consists of functionality drawn from several different sources . The components may be individual selected functions from within other applications , or entire systems whose outputs have been packaged as business functions , modules , or web services . Composite applications often incorporate orchestration of `` local '' application logic to control how the composed functions interact with each other to produce the new , derived functionality . For composite applications that are based on SOA , WS-CAF is a Web services standard for composite applications .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_application", "rank": 74, "score": 65372 }, { "content": "Title: Composite Blocking List Content: In computer networking , the Composite Blocking List ( CBL ) is a DNS-based Blackhole List of suspected E-mail spam sending computer infections .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_Blocking_List", "rank": 75, "score": 65307 }, { "content": "Title: Composite bar chart Content: Composite bar charts are bar charts where each bar displays multiple data points stacked in a single row or column . This may , for instance , take the form of uniform height bars charting a time series with internal stacked colours indicating the percentage participation of a sub-type of data . Another example would be a time series displaying total numbers , with internal colors indicating participation in the total by sub-types . ( different explanation ) a composite bar chart is a chart that shows the data in a faster way . you stack the information on the top o each other , and by the use of a colour code / key you are able to recognise what is what .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_bar_chart", "rank": 76, "score": 65226 }, { "content": "Title: Advanced Composite Materials (journal) Content: . Advanced Composite Materials is a bimonthly peer-review scientific journal that was established in 1991 . It is published by Taylor & Francis on behalf of the Japan Society for Composite Materials and the Korean Society for Composite Materials . The editors-in-chief are H. Fukunaga ( Sendai , Japan ) and K.S. Han ( Seoul , Korea ) . The journal covers all scientific and technological aspects of composite materials and composite material structures , including physical , chemical , mechanical , and other properties of advanced composites as well as microscopic to macroscopic behavior studied both experimentally and theoretically . Novel fabrication techniques for composites and composite structural components are also included . In addition to original research papers , the journal publishes technical papers , review papers , and research notes . News accounts related to new materials and their processing are also included . Furthermore , some papers originally published in Japanese in the Journal of the Japan Society for Composite Materials are translated and published in this journal .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Advanced_Composite_Materials_(journal)", "rank": 77, "score": 65186 }, { "content": "Title: Epidendrum miserrimum Content: Epidendrum miserrimum ( `` the most miserable Epidendrum '' ) is a small sympodial epiphytic orchid native to northern South America , the West Indies and Central America at altitudes as low as 0.7 km and as high as 1.2 km .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Epidendrum_miserrimum", "rank": 78, "score": 65142 }, { "content": "Title: Insert (composites) Content: Inserts are pins , bolts , screws , joints and other structures that are used to transfer localized loads to a composite panel or to join two composite panels together . Metallic inserts are commonly used in the aerospace and marine industries to attach objects to sandwich composite panels . Here is some history as referenced in the forward of ASME B18 .29.1 . Helical coil screw thread inserts have been in use for many years . It was first invented in the 1930s and found initial acceptance in aircraft manufactured and serviced by the Allied Air Forces during World War II . Since that time , applications for helical coil inserts have come into broad usage in aerospace , automotive and industrial equipment . Usage originally included metric spark plus sizes that were delineated in Europe in the 1950s coming into inch using countries in the 1960s . ASME Subcommittee 29 of the B18 Committee put together the first version of a standard in 1993 . In 2010 , ANSI approved of recent revisions and ASME published a revision of B18 .29.1 - Helical Coil Screw Thread Inserts - Free Running and Screw Locking ( Inch Series ) . Category : Composite materials", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Insert_(composites)", "rank": 79, "score": 64997 }, { "content": "Title: Composite construction Content: Composite construction is a generic term to describe any building construction involving multiple dissimilar materials . Composite construction is often used in building aircraft , watercraft , and building construction . There are several reasons to use composite materials including increased strength , aesthetics , and environmental sustainability .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_construction", "rank": 80, "score": 64948 }, { "content": "Title: Composite plate Content: A composite plate is basically a plate made out of composite materials , i.e. a resin and a fibre . Its mechanical evaluation is more detailed than a normal isotropic plate as it has different material properties in different directions . Composite materials are very light and strong and hence much used in aircraft and spacecraft industries . They are also readily available . Composites are further divided into main two classification they are ... resin material and matrix material", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_plate", "rank": 81, "score": 64447 }, { "content": "Title: Composite image filter Content: A composite image filter is an electronic filter consisting of multiple image filter sections of two or more different types . The image method of filter design determines the properties of filter sections by calculating the properties they have in an infinite chain of such sections . In this , the analysis parallels transmission line theory on which it is based . Filters designed by this method are called image parameter filters , or just image filters . An important parameter of image filters is their image impedance , the impedance of an infinite chain of identical sections . The basic sections are arranged into a ladder network of several sections , the number of sections required is mostly determined by the amount of stopband rejection required . In its simplest form , the filter can consist entirely of identical sections . However , it is more usual to use a composite filter of two or three different types of section to improve different parameters best addressed by a particular type . The most frequent parameters considered are stopband rejection , steepness of the filter skirt ( transition band ) and impedance matching to the filter terminations . Image filters are linear filters and are invariably also passive in implementation .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_image_filter", "rank": 82, "score": 64320 }, { "content": "Title: Achiasi Content: Achiasi is a small town in the Birim South district , a district in the Eastern Region of Ghana .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Achiasi", "rank": 83, "score": 64229 }, { "content": "Title: Premenstrual syndrome Content: Premenstrual syndrome ( PMS ) refers to physical and emotional symptoms that occur in the one to two weeks before a woman 's period . Symptoms often vary between women and resolve around the start of bleeding . Common symptoms include acne , tender breasts , bloating , feeling tired , irritability , and mood changes . Often symptoms are present for around six days . A woman 's pattern of symptoms may change over time . Symptoms do not occur during pregnancy or following menopause . Diagnosis requires a consistent pattern of emotional and physical symptoms occurring after ovulation and before menstruation to a degree that interferes with normal life . Emotional symptoms must not be present during the initial part of the menstrual cycle . A daily list of symptoms over a few months may help in diagnosis . Other disorders that cause similar symptoms need to be excluded before a diagnosis is made . The cause of PMS is unknown . Some symptoms may be worsened by a high-salt diet , alcohol , or caffeine . The underlying mechanism is believed to involve changes in hormone levels . Reducing salt , caffeine , and stress along with increasing exercise is typically all that is recommended in those with mild symptoms . Calcium and vitamin D supplementation may be useful in some . Anti-inflammatory drugs such as naproxen may help with physical symptoms . In those with more significant symptoms birth control pills or the diuretic spironolactone may be useful . Up to 80 % women report having some symptoms prior to menstruation . These symptoms qualify as PMS in 20 to 30 % of pre-menopausal women . Premenstrual dysphoric disorder ( PMDD ) is a more severe form of PMS that has greater psychological symptoms . PMDD affects three to eight percent of pre-menopausal women . Antidepressant medication of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors class may be used in addition to usual measures for in PMDD .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Premenstrual_syndrome", "rank": 84, "score": 63738 }, { "content": "Title: Multi-age classroom Content: Multi-age classrooms or composite classes are classrooms with students from more than one grade level . They are created because of a pedagogical choice of a school or school district . They are different from split classes which are formed when there are too many students for one class - but not enough to form two classes of the same grade level . Composite classes are more common in smaller schools ; an extreme form is the one-room school . Studies of the performance of students in composite classes shows their academic performance is not substantially different from those in single-grade classrooms ; instead , outcomes tend to be a function of the teacher 's performance .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Multi-age_classroom", "rank": 85, "score": 63666 }, { "content": "Title: The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two Content: `` The Magical Number Seven , Plus or Minus Two : Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information '' is one of the most highly cited papers in psychology . It was published in 1956 by the cognitive psychologist George A. Miller of Princeton University 's Department of Psychology in Psychological Review . It is often interpreted to argue that the number of objects an average human can hold in working memory is 7 ± 2 . This is frequently referred to as Miller 's Law .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Two", "rank": 86, "score": 63276 }, { "content": "Title: Thin-film composite membrane Content: Thin-film composite membranes ( TFC or TFM ) are semipermeable membranes manufactured principally for use in water purification or water desalination systems . They also have use in chemical applications such as batteries and fuel cells . A TFC membrane can be considered as a molecular sieve constructed in the form of a film from two or more layered materials . TFC membranes are commonly classified as nanofiltration ( NF ) and reverse osmosis ( RO ) membranes . Both types are typically made out of a thin polyamide layer ( < 200 nm ) deposited on top of a polyethersulfone or polysulfone porous layer ( about 50 microns ) on top of a non-woven fabric support sheet . The three layer configuration gives the desired properties of high rejection of undesired materials ( like salts ) , high filtration rate , and good mechanical strength . The polyamide top layer is responsible for the high rejection and is chosen primarily for its permeability to water and relative impermeability to various dissolved impurities including salt ions and other small , unfilterable molecules .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Thin-film_composite_membrane", "rank": 87, "score": 63249 }, { "content": "Title: List of musical instruments by Hornbostel-Sachs number: 32 Content: This is a list of instruments by Hornbostel-Sachs number , covering those instruments that are classified under 32 under that system . This category includes all string instruments in which the resonator can not be removed without resulting in the destruction of the instrument , labelled as composite chordophones . These instruments may be classified with a suffix , based on how the strings are caused to vibrate . 4 : Hammers or beaters 5 : Bare hands and fingers 6 : Plectrum 7 : Bowing 71 : Using a bow 72 : Using a wheel 73 : Using a ribbon 8 : Keyboard 9 : Using a mechanical drive", "qid": "2951", "docid": "List_of_musical_instruments_by_Hornbostel-Sachs_number:_32", "rank": 88, "score": 63185 }, { "content": "Title: Phosphomolybdic acid Content: Phosphomolybdic acid , also known as dodeca molybdophosphoric acid or PMA is a component of Masson 's trichrome stain . It is a yellow-green compound , freely soluble in water and polar organic solvents such as ethanol . It is used as a reagent in thin layer chromatography for staining phenolics , hydrocarbon waxes , alkaloids and steroids . Conjugated , unsaturated compounds reduce PMA to molybdenum blue . The color intensifies with increasing number of double bonds in the molecule being stained .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Phosphomolybdic_acid", "rank": 89, "score": 63127 }, { "content": "Title: Composite bearing Content: A composite bearing is used to maintain separation and control friction between two moving parts . The distinguishing characteristic of a composite bearing is that the bearing is made from a combination of materials such as a resin reinforced with fibre and this may also include friction reducing lubricants and ingredients . A composite bearing is not simply a PTFE bearing in a carrier of another material , this is a PTFE bearing in a carrier . The plain composite bearing can be lighter than a rolling element bearing but this is not always a feature as some composites are extremely dense which results in lower porosity . Another distinctive feature of the composite bearing is its lightweight design - it can be one-tenth the weight of the traditional rolling element bearing . No heavy metals are used in its manufacture . Composite bearings can be customized to meet the individual requirements of many applications , such as wear - or high-temperature resistance . The weight of the composite bearing can vary depending on its backing . The PTFE liner can be applied on steel or aluminum backing . Through filler compounds , various properties of the composite bearing , such as resistance to creep , wear and electrical conductivity , can be optimized .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_bearing", "rank": 90, "score": 63002 }, { "content": "Title: Privilege Management Infrastructure Content: Privilege Management is the process of managing user authorisations based on the ITU-T Recommendation X. 509 . The 2001 edition of X. 509 specifies most ( but not all ) of the components of a Privilege Management Infrastructure ( PMI ) , based on X. 509 attribute certificates ( ACs ) . Later editions of X. 509 ( 2005 and 2009 ) have added further components to the PMI , including a delegation service ( in 2005 ) and interdomain authorisation ( in the 2009 edition ) . Privilege management infrastructures ( PMIs ) are to authorisation what public key infrastructures ( PKIs ) are to authentication . PMIs use attribute certificates ( ACs ) to hold user privileges , in the form of attributes , instead of public key certificates ( PKCs ) to hold public keys . PMIs have Sources of Authority ( SoAs ) and Attribute Authorities ( AAs ) that issue ACs to users , instead of certification authorities ( CAs ) that issue PKCs to users . Usually PMIs rely on an underlying PKI , since ACs have to be digitally signed by the issuing AA , and the PKI is used to validate the AA 's signature . An X. 509 AC is a generalisation of the well known X. 509 public key certificate ( PKC ) , in which the public key of the PKC has been replaced by any set of attributes of the certificate holder ( or subject ) . Therefore , one could in theory use X. 509 ACs to hold a user 's public key as well as any other attribute of the user . ( In a similar vein , X. 509 PKCs can also be used to hold privilege attributes of the subject , by adding them to the subject directory attributes extension of an X. 509 PKC ) . However , the life cycle of public keys and user privileges are usually very different , and therefore it is n't usually a good idea to combine both of them in the same certificate . Similarly , the authority that assigns a privilege to someone is usually different from the authority that certifies someone 's public key . Therefore , it is n't usually a good idea to combine the functions of the SoA/AA and the CA in the same trusted authority . PMIs allow privileges and authorisations to be managed separately from keys and authentication . The first open source implementation of an X. 509 was built with funding under the EC PERMIS project , and the software is available from here . A description of the implementation can be found in . X. 509 ACs and PMIs are used today in Grids ( see Grid computing ) , to assign privileges to users , and to carry the privileges around the Grid . In the most popular Grid privilege management system today , called VOMS , user privileges , in the shape of VO memberships and roles , are placed inside an X. 509 AC by the VOMS server , signed by the VOMS server , and then embedded in the user 's X. 509 proxy certificate for carrying around the Grid . Because of the rise in popularity of XML SOAP based services , SAML attribute assertions are now more popular than X. 509 ACs for transporting user attributes . However , they both have similar functionality , which is to strongly bind a set of privilege attributes to a user .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Privilege_Management_Infrastructure", "rank": 91, "score": 62908 }, { "content": "Title: Magnetic-plasmonic bifunctional nanoparticles Content: Bifunctional plasmonic-magnetic nanoparticles ( PM-NPs ) consist of optical and magnetic components . They are useful for biomedical applications that require optical sensing/imaging/heating , magnetic stimulation/manipulation , or both of these functionalities . An example of these functionalities is that PM-NPs can attach to biological entities and separate them under an external magnetic field while simultaneously detecting their chemical nature via optical sensing . These functionalities are especially useful when studying tissues deep within an organism . Current available bifunctional PM-NPs are limited to quasi-zero-dimensional ( 0D ) nanostructures . There are few reports of quasi-one-dimensional ( 1D ) nanostructures , although 1D PM nanotubes provide advantages for biomedical applications that are not available with 0D nanostructures . A specific type of 1D PM nanotube has applications in targeted single-cell sensing .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Magnetic-plasmonic_bifunctional_nanoparticles", "rank": 92, "score": 62765 }, { "content": "Title: Hybrid material Content: Hybrid materials are composites consisting of two constituents at the nanometer or molecular level . Commonly one of these compounds is inorganic and the other one organic in nature . Thus , they differ from traditional composites where the constituents are at the macroscopic ( micrometer to millimeter ) level . Mixing at the microscopic scale leads to a more homogeneous material that either show characteristics in between the two original phases or even new properties .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Hybrid_material", "rank": 93, "score": 62751 }, { "content": "Title: Euler pseudoprime Content: In arithmetic , an odd composite integer n is called an Euler pseudoprime to base a , if a and n are coprime , and ( where mod refers to the modulo operation ) . The motivation for this definition is the fact that all prime numbers p satisfy the above equation which can be deduced from Fermat 's little theorem . Fermat 's theorem asserts that if p is prime , and coprime to a , then ap − 1 = 1 ( mod p ) . Suppose that p > 2 is prime , then p can be expressed as 2q + 1 where q is an integer . Thus ; a ( 2q +1 ) − 1 = 1 ( mod p ) which means that a2q − 1 = 0 ( mod p ) . This can be factored as ( aq − 1 ) ( aq + 1 ) = 0 ( mod p ) which is equivalent to a ( p − 1 ) / 2 = ± 1 ( mod p ) . The equation can be tested rather quickly , which can be used for probabilistic primality testing . These tests are twice as strong as tests based on Fermat 's little theorem . Every Euler pseudoprime is also a Fermat pseudoprime . It is not possible to produce a definite test of primality based on whether a number is an Euler pseudoprime because there exist absolute Euler pseudoprimes , numbers which are Euler pseudoprimes to every base relatively prime to themselves . The absolute Euler pseudoprimes are a subset of the absolute Fermat pseudoprimes , or Carmichael numbers , and the smallest absolute Euler pseudoprime is 1729 = 7 × 13 × 19 .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Euler_pseudoprime", "rank": 94, "score": 62722 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials Content: Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes papers in the field of Materials Science . The journal 's editor is John W. Gillespie Jr. ( University of Delaware ) . It has been in publication since 1988 and is currently published by SAGE Publications .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Journal_of_Thermoplastic_Composite_Materials", "rank": 95, "score": 62656 }, { "content": "Title: Composite fermion Content: A composite fermion is the bound state of an electron and an even number of quantized vortices , sometimes visually pictured as the bound state of an electron and , attached , an even number of magnetic flux quanta . Composite fermions were originally envisioned in the context of the fractional quantum Hall effect , but subsequently took on a life of their own , exhibiting many other consequences and phenomena . Vortices are an example of topological defect , and also occur in other situations . Quantized vortices are found in type II superconductors , called Abrikosov vortices . Classical vortices are relevant to the Berezenskii -- Kosterlitz -- Thouless transition in two-dimensional XY model .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_fermion", "rank": 96, "score": 62617 }, { "content": "Title: SIGMOD Content: SIGMOD is the Association for Computing Machinery 's Special Interest Group on Management of Data , which specializes in large-scale data management problems and databases . The annual ACM SIGMOD Conference , which began in 1975 , is considered one of the most important in the field . While traditionally this conference had always been held within North America , it took place in Paris in 2004 , Beijing in 2007 , Athens in 2011 , and Melbourne in 2015 . The acceptance rate of the ACM SIGMOD Conference , averaged from 1996 to 2012 , was 18 % , and it was 17 % in 2012 . In association with SIGACT and SIGART , SIGMOD also sponsors the annual ACM Symposium on Principles of Database Systems ( PODS ) conference on the theoretical aspects of database systems . PODS began in 1982 , and has been held jointly with the SIGMOD conference since 1991 . Each year , the group gives out several awards to contributions to the field of data management . The most important of these is the SIGMOD Edgar F. Codd Innovations Award ( named after the computer scientist Edgar F. Codd ) , which is awarded to `` innovative and highly significant contributions of enduring value to the development , understanding , or use of database systems and databases '' . Additionally , SIGMOD presents a Best Paper Award to recognize the highest quality paper at each conference , and Jim Gray Dissertion Award to the best Ph.D thesis in data management .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "SIGMOD", "rank": 97, "score": 62599 }, { "content": "Title: Edgeworthstown Content: Edgeworthstown or Mostrim is a town in County Longford , Ireland . The town is in the east of the county , near the border with County Westmeath . Nearby towns are Longford 12 km to the west , Mullingar 26 km to the east , Athlone 40 km to the south and Cavan 42 km to the north .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Edgeworthstown", "rank": 98, "score": 62551 }, { "content": "Title: Composite odontoma Content: Composite odontoma is a rare defect in humans in which a benign tumor forms in the mouth , generally as a result of the abnormal growth of a single tooth , causing additional teeth to form within the tumor . Most cases have been found in the upper jaw of patients . Unchecked growth of the tumor can make swallowing and eating difficult , and can also lead to grotesque facial swelling . In most cases , surgery is required to remove the extra teeth and tumorous tissue . Prior to 2014 , the maximum recorded number of teeth removed in such an operation was 37 . However , in July 2014 Ashiq Gavai , a 17-year-old boy in India , suffered from an extreme case of composite odontoma in his lower jaw , which required the removal of more than 232 teeth altogether . The surgery was performed by Dr. Sunanda Dhiware at Sir J. J. Hospital in Mumbai , India .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_odontoma", "rank": 99, "score": 62453 }, { "content": "Title: Composite muscle Content: Composite or hybrid muscles are those muscles which have more than one set of fibers but perform the same function and are usually supplied by different nerves for different set of fibers .", "qid": "2951", "docid": "Composite_muscle", "rank": 100, "score": 62411 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Perpendicular recording Content: Perpendicular recording ( or Perpendicular Magnetic Recording , PMR ) is a technology for data recording on hard disks . It was first proven advantageous in 1976 by Shun-ichi Iwasaki , then professor of the Tohoku University in Japan , and first commercially implemented in 2005 . The first industry-standard demonstration showing unprecedented advantage of PMR over longitudinal magnetic recording ( LMR ) at nanoscale dimensions was made in 1998 at IBM Almaden Research Center in collaboration with researchers of Data Storage Systems Center ( DSSC ) -- a National Science Foundation ( NSF ) Engineering Research Center ( ERCs ) at Carnegie Mellon University ( CMU ) .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Perpendicular_recording", "rank": 1, "score": 127944 }, { "content": "Title: Scanning multichannel microwave radiometer Content: The Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer ( SMMR ) -LSB- pronounced simmer -RSB- was a five-frequency microwave radiometer flown on the Seasat and Nimbus 7 satellites . Both were launched in 1978 , with the Seasat mission lasting less than six months until failure of the primary bus . The Nimbus 7 SMMR lasted from 25 October 1978 until 20 August 1987 . It measured dual-polarized microwave radiances , at 6.63 , 10.69 , 18.0 , 21.0 , and 37.0 GHz , from the Earth 's atmosphere and surface . Its primary legacy has been the creation of areal sea-ice climatologies for the Arctic and Antarctic . The final few months of operation was considerably fortuitous as it allowed the calibration of the radiometers and their products with the first results from the SSMI .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Scanning_multichannel_microwave_radiometer", "rank": 2, "score": 105952 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbus Records Content: Nimbus Records is a British record company based at Wyastone Leys , Ganarew , Herefordshire , England , 2 mi from Monmouth and 8 mi from Ross-on-Wye . They specialise in classical music recordings and were the first company in the UK to produce compact discs .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbus_Records", "rank": 3, "score": 105111 }, { "content": "Title: Educational Records Bureau Content: Educational Records Bureau ( ERB ) is the only not-for-profit educational services organization offering assessments for both admission and achievement for independent and selective public schools for Pre K-grade 12 . Founded in 1927 , ERB 's mission is to create testing and learning solutions that help schools develop improved curriculum , teaching , and learning through diagnosis of assessment results that address essential learning standards . ERB is headquartered in New York City and has over 2000 independent school and public school members globally .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Educational_Records_Bureau", "rank": 4, "score": 103325 }, { "content": "Title: The Raga Guide Content: The Raga Guide is a 1999 Nimbus Records compilation of 74 Hindustani ragas on four CDs . It includes a textbook edited by Joep Bor ( of the Rotterdam Conservatory of Music ) with information and western-style transcriptions of the ragas and a catalogue of two sets of ragamala plates , dated to ca. 1610 and 1650 . The 1610 plates are painted in the Mughal style . The featured artists are Vidyadhar Vyas ( vocal ) , Shruti Sadolikar-Katkar ( vocal ) , Buddhadev Das Gupta ( sarod ) , and Hariprasad Chaurasia ( flute ) .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "The_Raga_Guide", "rank": 5, "score": 103068 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbus program Content: The Nimbus satellites were second-generation U.S. robotic spacecraft used for meteorological research and development . The spacecraft were designed to serve as stabilized , Earth-oriented platforms for the testing of advanced systems to sense and collect atmospheric science data . Seven Nimbus spacecraft have been launched into near-polar , sun-synchronous orbits beginning with Nimbus 1 on August 28 , 1964 . On board the Nimbus satellites are various instrumentation for imaging , sounding , and other studies in different spectral regions . The Nimbus satellites were launched aboard Thor-Agena rockets ( Nimbus 1-4 ) and Delta rockets ( Nimbus 5-7 ) . Over a 20-year period from the launch of the first satellite , the Nimbus series of missions was the United States ' primary research and development platform for satellite remote-sensing of the Earth . The seven Nimbus satellites , launched over a fourteen-year period , shared their space-based observations of the planet for thirty years . NASA transferred the technology tested and refined by the Nimbus missions to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) for its operational satellite instruments . The technology and lessons learned from the Nimbus missions are the heritage of most of the Earth-observing satellites NASA and NOAA have launched over the past three decades .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbus_program", "rank": 6, "score": 102363 }, { "content": "Title: RM Nimbus Content: RM Nimbus was a range of personal computers from British company Research Machines ( now RM Education ) sold from 1985 until the early 1990s , after which the designation Nimbus was discontinued . The first of these computers , the RM Nimbus PC-186 , was not IBM PC compatible , but its successors the PC-286 and PC-386 were . RM computers were predominantly sold to schools and colleges in the United Kingdom for use as LAN workstations in classrooms .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "RM_Nimbus", "rank": 7, "score": 100743 }, { "content": "Title: Akaflieg Braunschweig SB-7 Nimbus Content: The Akaflieg Braunschweig SB-7 Nimbus is a Standard class glider designed and built in Germany in the 1960s . It was one of a series of mixed glass fibre and wood designs from the students of Akaflieg Braunschweig .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Akaflieg_Braunschweig_SB-7_Nimbus", "rank": 8, "score": 98688 }, { "content": "Title: PM Records Content: PM Records was a jazz label operated by Gene Perla in 1972 . Open Sky was a trio featuring Bob Moses , Dave Liebman and Frank Tusa . Stone Alliance featured Perla , Don Alias , and Steve Grossman .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "PM_Records", "rank": 9, "score": 98326 }, { "content": "Title: Short Nimbus Content: The Short Nimbus was a British two-seat glider trainer designed in 1947 by members of the Short Brothers design office , who had recently formed the Rochester Gliding Club . The company supported this venture by providing drawing-office and workshop facilities free of charge , assigning to the Nimbus one of its constructor 's numbers ( S. 1312 ) . The glider was registered with the British Gliding Association and given the serial number BGA470 . The Nimbus was the last aircraft to be designed , built and flown from the Rochester works .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Short_Nimbus", "rank": 10, "score": 98192 }, { "content": "Title: Pro-Música Brasil Content: Pro-Música Brasil ( PMB ) , previously Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos ( ABPD ) ( English : Brazilian Association of Record Producers ) , is an official representative body of the record labels in the Brazilian phonographic market .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Pro-Música_Brasil", "rank": 11, "score": 96238 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbus (motorcycle) Content: The Nimbus was a Danish motorcycle produced from 1919 to 1960 by Fisker and Nielsen of Copenhagen , Denmark , also manufacturers of `` Nilfisk '' brand vacuum cleaners ( now Nilfisk-Advance ) . Two basic models were produced , both with a 750 cc four-cylinder engine .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbus_(motorcycle)", "rank": 12, "score": 96076 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbus Data Content: Nimbus Data is an American computer data storage software and systems company .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbus_Data", "rank": 13, "score": 95599 }, { "content": "Title: Precision Monolithics Content: Precision Monolithics , Inc. also known as PMI , was an American company based in Santa Clara , California , that developed and produced mixed signal and linear integrated circuits ( ICs ) . It was pioneer in the fields of digital-to-analog converters and operational amplifiers . The company was founded in 1969 by Marv Rudin and Garth Wilson , who had both left Fairchild Semiconductor at the end of 1968 . Wilson was circuit design manager under Rudin who managed Linear circuit R&D at the Fairchild Semiconductor R&D Laboratory in Palo Alto from 1966 to 1968 . At the beginning , Wilson was Vice President responsible for Engineering and Production , and reported to Rudin who was President , and Marketing Manager . Jim Grugan from Fairchild joined shortly after incorporation as Vice President Administration , responsible for Finance , Facilities , and Purchasing . Immediately after financing and incorporation , they offered founder stock and hired IC designers George Erdi from Fairchild and Dan Dooley from TRW Microelectronics . They also hired Jerry Bresee , a chief process engineer from Tektronix , who developed a semiconductor process far superior to what they were able to access from the Fairchild R&D processing services department ( with the exception of nitride passivation for low 1/f noise , a technology known by the founders from Fairchild ) . In 1969 Dooley designed the first fully integrated D/A converter , the 6 bit DAC01 , using diffused resistors . He recruited his thin film technician with precision resistor fabrication skills that were essential for improving the accuracy of D/A converters , which became the biggest selling type of product that helped launch the company . Semiconductor and materials engineer Wadie Khadder was hired with founder stock from Fairchild to support Bresee in both semiconductor process engineering and also the critical precision thin film technology initially needed for producing high accuracy 2-chip D/A converters . PMI pioneered the design and manufacture of the first 10 bit semiconductor IC D/A converters on the market . In March 1970 , during the IEEE Annual Convention in New York , PMI caused a major stir in engineering circles by introducing the aimDac100 , the first 10 bit 2-chip D/A converter in a DIP semiconductor package . Not only was it far more compact and reliable than the modules that were state of the art at that time , but it provided 10 bit accuracy over the full military temperature range . The MonoDac01 was used by JPL ( priced at $ 200 each ) for their first moon probe . By 1972 Dooley and Bresee , PMI 's chief process engineer who developed process uniformity never before seen in the semiconductor industry , combined to design and produce a full 10 bit D/A converter on a single chip , the monoDac02 . At that point PMI 's linear process uniformity and products capitalizing on that uniformity put PMI in a class by itself . It would be several years before any other company could match the Dac-02 . Bresee 's superior processes , and George Erdi 's outstanding design expertise enabled PMI to establish itself as a superior source of linear amplifiers , including operational amplifiers , some of which garnered U.S. patents . By superior layout and circuit design made possible by Bresee 's and Khadders superior process uniformity , transistor performance , and surface passivation , Erdi was able to design and achieve breakthrough advances in micro power amplifiers with both low input offset and 1/f noise voltage rivaling many chopper amplifiers formerly used exclusively for micro volt input amplifiers . An industry milestone was the OP07 which was the first internally compensated three stage operational amplifier . It pioneered active base current cancellation and offset trimming using Erdi 's patented zener-zapping technique . Erdi and other PMI engineers later expanded their efforts to include high-precision voltage references and additional mixed-signal semiconductors for data acquisition , data conversion , and telecommunications . PMI also bought Solid State Micro Technology . Erdi and Khadder left PMI in 1981 to co-found Linear Technology . PMI was founded with financing from Bourns , Inc. which held 70 % of the shares and 30 % was stock purchased at a nominal price by the founders . Ultimately all shares were purchased by Bourns to make PMI a wholly owned subsidiary , PMI was finally bought by Analog Devices in August 1990 . Many of PMI 's converters , amplifiers , voltage references , and other linear ICs ( including the REF0x and OP0x series ) continue to be manufactured and marketed by Analog Devices , which currently maintain the largest share of the precision linear market ( ADI sales = $ 2.5 B , Maxim = $ 2.1 B , Linear Technology = $ 1.1 B ) .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Precision_Monolithics", "rank": 14, "score": 95317 }, { "content": "Title: Nitto Records Content: was a Japanese record label , originally published by the company established in Osaka on March 20 , 1920 . The label was also called the `` Swallow Brand '' , because of their trademark artwork . Nitto was known as a prolific brand , with over 2,000 titles published in about five years . In 1925 , they were recognized as one of the two major labels in Japan at that time . The label produced numerous records of traditional Japanese music and art such as Jōruri , as well as solo plays of western music and orchestra recordings , although the latter remained small in the share of their overall production . As more record companies with foreign capital entered the market , Nitto gradually lost its competitiveness , and was taken over by in 1935 . After the takeover , Taihei renamed the newly merged company , while maintaining the `` Swallow Brand - Nitto Records '' along with other labels . In one article of a long run series ( 1997-1999 ) celebrating the 120th anniversary of phonograph , the Kobe Shimbun wrote : `` The only company which could rival Columbia Records head-to-head in the market ... ( Nitto was ) so tightly focused on traditional arts which made them late in responding to rapidly growing demand for popular music . Moreover , it was the retirement of Morishita , who was driving Nitto 's marketing strategy all alone , that determined the fate of Nitto . '' The Swallow Nitto brand finally disappeared in 1942 , when Dainippon Gramophone was absorbed by Kodansha , shareholder of King Records , to become only a production facility of the latter . Musicians who worked for the label included pop and jazz composer Ryoichi Hattori . Artists signed to the label included Korean soprano Yun Sim-deok . The British Library Sound Archive holds several Nitto 78rpm discs of the nagauta genre in its collection .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nitto_Records", "rank": 15, "score": 94733 }, { "content": "Title: Nimetazepam Content: Nimetazepam ( marketed under brand name Erimin and Lavol ) is an intermediate-acting hypnotic drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative . It was first synthesized by a team at Hoffmann-La Roche in 1962 . It possesses hypnotic , anxiolytic , sedative , and skeletal muscle relaxant properties . Nimetazepam is also an anticonvulsant . It is sold in 5 mg tablets known as Erimin and Lavol . It is generally prescribed for the short-term treatment of severe insomnia in patients who have difficulty falling asleep or maintaining sleep . The sole global manufacturer of Nimetazepam ( Sumitomo Japan ) has ceased manufacturing Erimin since early November 2015 . Patients being prescribed Erimin are being switched to Lavol and other hypnotics , e.g. estazolam , nitrazepam , flunitrazepam , etc. .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimetazepam", "rank": 16, "score": 93736 }, { "content": "Title: ADC Nimbus Content: The ADC Nimbus was a British inline aero engine that first ran in 1926 . The Nimbus was developed from the Siddeley Puma aero engine by Frank Halford of the Aircraft Disposal Company , the goal was to develop the Puma to produce its intended power output which Halford eventually achieved . The Nimbus was further developed into an air-cooled version known as the ADC Airsix which did not enter production and was not flown .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "ADC_Nimbus", "rank": 17, "score": 93579 }, { "content": "Title: Public Monuments and Sculpture Association Content: The Public Monuments and Sculpture Association , or PMSA , was established in 1991 to bring together individuals and organisations with an interest in British public sculptures and monuments , their production , preservation and history . The primary aim of the PMSA is to heighten public awareness of Britain 's monumental heritage -- past , present , and future -- through activities , publications and dialogue . It campaigns for the listing , preservation , protection and restoration of public monuments and sculpture , covering a period from the Stuart monarchy to the present day . As well as campaigning for historic monuments and public sculpture , the PMSA has been active in promoting the commissioning of new public monuments and sculpture . The PMSA 's founding members were Jo Darke , with the writer , lecturer and broadcaster Paul Atterbury , Ian Leith of the National Monuments Record , and Catherine Moriarty , then Co-ordinator of the National Inventory of War Memorials , which was founded in 1989 to create a database of war memorials throughout the UK . From the beginning , the PMSA was actively encouraged by the writer and sculpture scholar Benedict Read , and by Andrew and Janet Naylor , metal sculpture conservators . Subscriptions were opened in May 1991 and membership has now stabilised at around 250 . Since 1991 , the PMSA has initiated the National Recording Project and collaborated with the publishers Liverpool University Press on the acclaimed series Public Sculpture of Britain , and has established the much respected bi-annual Sculpture Journal . It has set up events , conferences and publications in collaboration with English Heritage , the UK Institute of Conservators , University College Dublin and many other similar institutions . The PMSA operates an advisory service and distributes newsletters and newssheets to its members . The latest projects include collaboration with other organisations and individuals to oversee production of the Custodians Handbook , published in 2005 and occasionally updated . It was designed to give guidance to families and individuals who inherit sculptors ' works , studios , archives and memorabilia ; and the campaign Save our Sculpture ( SoS ) was set to encourage concerned members of the public to keep watch over their neighbourhood sculptures , and to report damage or negligence to the PMSA . Another project is creating a digital database of public sculptures and monuments . The Association is a charitable company which is run by a board comprising its Director and the Trustees , known as the General Committee . Ad hoc sub-committees are established to organise events , projects or campaigns . The President of the PMSA is His Royal Highness the Duke of Gloucester , KG , GCVO . The current chairman is Peter Brown . It is based at 70 Cowcross Street , London .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Public_Monuments_and_Sculpture_Association", "rank": 18, "score": 92949 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbus School of Recording Arts Content: Nimbus School of Recording & Media is a private technical music production institute situated in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada , providing education in audio engineering , music production , and the music business . The school was founded in 2009 by Bob Ezrin , Garth Richardson , and Kevin Williams . Nimbus is accredited nationally by the Private Career Training Institutions Agency , regionally by the British Columbia Education Quality Assurance , and is academically certified with the media hardware/software company AVID , maker of the popular audio recording software Pro Tools Nimbus has an A rating from the Better Business Bureau .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbus_School_of_Recording_Arts", "rank": 19, "score": 92799 }, { "content": "Title: M.I.M.E.O. Content: M.I.M.E.O. ( or MIMEO ) is an experimental electroacoustic free improvisation group formed in 1997 on the initiative of several independent concert promoters in Europe . The abbreviation stands for `` Music In Movement Electronic Orchestra '' . They have issued recordings on Erstwhile Records , Cathnor , Perdition Plastics , Grob and other labels . Their latest album is Sight ( 2007 ) , inspired by painter Cy Twombly . Each of the eleven members of M.I.M.E.O. ( spread across Europe ) placed approximately five minutes of sound anywhere they chose onto a blank sixty-minute CDR . This was done independently of one another , with no communication between the musicians about how or where the music should be distributed on the disc . The CDRs were then compiled onto one CD , and sent to a pressing plant . Pianist John Tilbury joined the group to record the album The Hands of Caravaggio ( 2001 , Erstwhile ) . Critic Brian Olewnick describes the album as `` A staggering achievement , one is tempted to call The Hands of Caravaggio the first great piano concerto of the 21st century . ''", "qid": "2953", "docid": "M.I.M.E.O.", "rank": 20, "score": 92382 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbus (BR) Content: Nimbus ( 1946 -- 1972 ) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse . In a racing career which lasted from the spring of 1948 until August 1949 , he ran nine times and won six races . Nimbus ran successfully as a two-year-old in 1948 , winning the July Stakes , but reached his peak the following year . He won close finishes in both the 2000 Guineas and the Epsom Derby but was unable to attempt the Triple Crown after his career was ended by injury . He had modest success as a breeding stallion .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbus_(BR)", "rank": 21, "score": 92329 }, { "content": "Title: Mauritian general election, 1991 Content: General elections was held in Mauritius on 15 September 1991 . Three main parties gained seats in this election : the Militant Socialist Movement , Mauritian Militant Movement and the Labour Party . The MSM formed an alliance with the MMM and the Labour party formed an alliance with the Mauritian Social Democrat Party ( PMSD ) . On 17 September 1991 , results showed that MSM-MMM won 57 seats out of 60 elected seats . This gave 95 % of seats to MSM-MMM leader Anerood Jugnauth and 5 % to Labour Party-PMSD leader Navin Ramgoolam .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Mauritian_general_election,_1991", "rank": 22, "score": 92235 }, { "content": "Title: Mi plačemo iza tamnih naočara Content: Mi plačemo iza tamnih naočara ( trans . We Cry Behind Dark Glasses ) is the first and only studio album by the Serbian post-punk/darkwave band Dobri Isak , released by SKC Niš in 1986 . The album , originally released on compact cassette and with a limited printing of a hundred copies only , rapidly sold out and became a collector 's item . The original album cover features an image of fictional comic book superhero The Phantom . In December 2009 , the album was re-released by PMK Records with seven bonus tracks of unreleased material . The following year , PMK released the limited edition reissue of the album , featuring the band logo written in red on the album cover and a black CD , in 150 copies .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Mi_plačemo_iza_tamnih_naočara", "rank": 23, "score": 92196 }, { "content": "Title: Oxford University Tape Recording Society Content: The Oxford University Tape Recording Society ( OUTRS ) was a student 's club of recording enthusiasts that has existed from at least 1966 until at least 1976 . Among its members were AES fellow Michael Gerzon and Peter Craven , co-inventors of the Soundfield microphone , Nimbus Records director Jonathan Halliday and sound engineer and prolific Ambisonic recordist Paul Hodges ( father of pianist Nicolas Hodges ) . The OUTRS ' recordings have been quoted in early listening experiments on four-speaker stereo reproduction . Subsequently , the society conducted some ground-breaking experiments in full-sphere surround recording , laying the foundation for the development of the Ambisonic surround sound system .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Oxford_University_Tape_Recording_Society", "rank": 24, "score": 91961 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbus (literary magazine) Content: Nimbus , `` A Magazine of Literature , the Arts , and New Ideas '' , was a literary magazine co-founded in London in 1951 by Martin Green and Tristram Hull .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbus_(literary_magazine)", "rank": 25, "score": 91957 }, { "content": "Title: Buddhadev Das Gupta Content: Padmabhushan Pandit Buddhadev Das Gupta ( Bengali : বুদ্ধদেব দাশগুপ্ত Buddhodeb Dashgupto ) is an Indian classical musician who plays the sarod . Pandit Buddhadev Das Gupta resides in Kolkata , India . He is one of the artists featured in Nimbus Records ' The Raga Guide .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Buddhadev_Das_Gupta", "rank": 26, "score": 91643 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbus (cipher) Content: In cryptography , Nimbus is a block cipher invented by Alexis Machado in 2000 . It was submitted to the NESSIE project , but was not selected . The algorithm uses a 128-bit key . It operates on blocks of 64 bits and consists of 5 rounds of encryption . The round function is exceedingly simple . In each round the block is XORed with a subkey , the order of its bits is reversed , and then it is multiplied mod 264 by another subkey , which is forced to be odd . Nimbus was broken by Vladimir Furman ; he found a differential attack using only 256 chosen plaintexts .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbus_(cipher)", "rank": 27, "score": 91417 }, { "content": "Title: Coastal Zone Color Scanner Content: The Coastal Zone Color Scanner ( or CZCS ) was a multi-channel scanning radiometer aboard the Nimbus 7 satellite , predominately designed for water remote sensing . Nimbus 7 was launched 24 October 1978 , and CZCS became operational on 2 November 1978 . It was only designed to operate for one year ( as a proof-of-concept ) , but in fact remained in service until 22 June 1986 . Its operation on board the Nimbus 7 was limited to alternate days as it shared its power with the passive microwave Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer . CZCS measured reflected solar energy in six channels , at a resolution of 800 meters . These measurements were used to map chlorophyll concentration in water , sediment distribution , salinity , and the temperature of coastal waters and ocean currents . CZCS lay the foundations for subsequent satellite ocean color sensors , and formed a cornerstone for international efforts to understand the ocean 's role in the carbon cycle .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Coastal_Zone_Color_Scanner", "rank": 28, "score": 91298 }, { "content": "Title: Universal Core Content: Universal Core ( or UCore ) was a U.S. government project to facilitate sharing of intelligence and related digital content across U.S. government systems . In a memorandum signed on 28 March 2013 , the DoD Chief Information Officer ( CIO ) announced that DoD will adopt the National Information Exchange Model ( NIEM ) as the basis for its data exchange strategy in coordination with the NIEM Program Management Office ( PMO ) . This DoD transition to NIEM will incorporate the ongoing efforts of DoD Universal Core ( UCore ) and Command and Control ( C2 ) Core , effectively ending new development on these DoD data exchange models . The information in this article is provided for reference and background information only .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Universal_Core", "rank": 29, "score": 89670 }, { "content": "Title: United Nations Security Council Resolution 677 Content: United Nations Security Council resolution 677 , adopted unanimously on 28 November 1990 , after recalling resolutions 660 ( 1990 ) , 662 ( 1990 ) and 674 ( 1990 ) , the Council condemned attempts by Iraq to alter the demographic information of Kuwait and the restrictions on the movement of its citizens . Acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter , the Council also condemned attempts by Iraq to destroy civil records maintained by the Government of Kuwait . Therefore , the resolution mandated the Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar to take custody of a population register of Kuwait that has been certified by the `` legitimate Government of Kuwait '' and which covers the population register untli 1 August 1990 . It also asked the Secretary-General and the Kuwaiti government to establish a set of rules and regulations governing access to the register . The resolution was adopted in anticipation of the disappearance of Kuwaitis or the influx of non-Kuwaitis as a result of Iraqi policy in the occupied country .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_677", "rank": 30, "score": 89486 }, { "content": "Title: Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic Content: The Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic ( Pridnestrovian Moldavian SSR or PMSSR ; Moldovan/Romanian : Република Советикэ Сочиалистэ Молдовеняскэ Hистрянэ or Republica Sovietică Socialistă Moldovenească Nistreană ; Приднестрóвская Молда́вская Сове́тская Социалисти́ческая Респу́блика Pridnestrovskaya Moldavskaya Sovetskaya Sotsialisticheskaya Respublika ) ; also commonly known to as Soviet Transnistria or simply known as Transnistria was created on the eastern periphery of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic ( MSSR ) in 1990 by pro-Soviet separatists who hoped to remain within the Soviet Union when it became clear that the MSSR would achieve independence from the USSR . The PMSSR was never recognized as a Soviet republic by authorities in either Moscow or Chișinău . In 1991 , the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic succeeded the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Pridnestrovian_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic", "rank": 31, "score": 89337 }, { "content": "Title: Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer Content: The Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer ( TOMS ) is a satellite instrument for measuring ozone values . It has been flown on NASA-satellites . Of the five TOMS instruments which were built , four entered successful orbit . Nimbus-7 and Meteor-3 provided global measurements of total column ozone on a daily basis and together provide a complete data set of daily ozone from November 1978 to December 1994 . After an eighteen-month period when the program had no on-orbit capability , ADEOS TOMS was launched on August 17 , 1996 and provided data until the satellite which housed it lost power on June 29 , 1997 . Earth Probe TOMS was launched on July 2 , 1996 to provide supplemental measurements , but was boosted to a higher orbit to replace the failed ADEOS . The only total failure in the series was QuikTOMS-satellite , which was launched on September 21 , 2001 but did not achieve an orbit . The transmitter for the Earth Probe TOMS failed on December 2 , 2006 . Since January 1 , 2006 data from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument ( OMI ) has replaced Earth Probe TOMS .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Total_Ozone_Mapping_Spectrometer", "rank": 32, "score": 88997 }, { "content": "Title: LLMDB Content: The Lifelong Labour Market Database ( LLMDB2 ) is a panel data set , owned by the Department for Work and Pensions in Britain . LLMDB2 holds a 1 % sample from the new National Insurance Recording System ( NIRS2 ) and is a fully representative sample of around 600000 people . LLMDB2 started to record the income and other characteristics of its individuals in 1978 . It is especially useful for the analysis of private pension contributions . It is used for the Pensim2 microsimualtion model .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "LLMDB", "rank": 33, "score": 88897 }, { "content": "Title: P-Menthane-3,8-diol Content: p-Menthane-3 ,8 - diol , also known as para-menthane-3 ,8 - diol , PMD , or menthoglycol , is an active ingredient used in insect repellents . It smells similar to menthol and has a cooling feel . There are eight possible isomers of PMD , and the exact composition is rarely specified and is commonly assumed to be a complex mixture . PMD is found in small quantities in the essential oil from the leaves of Corymbia citriodora , formerly known as Eucalyptus citriodora . This tree is native to Australia , but is now cultivated in many warm places around the world . C. citriodora oil , when refined to increase its PMD content for use in insect repellents , is known in the United States as oil of lemon eucalyptus ( OLE ) or by the tradename Citriodiol . Some commercial PMD products are not made from C. citriodora oil , but rather from synthetic citronellal . Refined OLE contains approximately 64 % PMD ( a mixture of the cis and trans isomers of p-menthane-3 ,8 - diol ) . OLE has been notified under the European Biocidal Products Directive ( BPD ) 98/8/EC ( now BPR Regulation ( EU ) No. 528/212 ) under its generic name `` PMD rich botanic oil '' and is currently proceeding through the registration process with the Health and Safety Executive in the UK . It is also registered with Canada 's Pest Management Regulatory Agency under the generic name `` PMD and related oil of lemon eucalyptus compounds '' . It is the only natural active ingredient that is permitted to be used an insect repellent in the United States and Europe . PMD can be synthetically manufactured from materials derived from natural sources . This 2011 study also shows that C. citriodora oil contains only 1-2 % PMD and is therefore different from OLE as registered with the EPA which has a minimum 64 % PMD . A 2006 study showed that PMD is as effective as DEET when used in like quantities .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "P-Menthane-3,8-diol", "rank": 34, "score": 88843 }, { "content": "Title: PMC Ltd. Content: The Professional Monitor Company Limited , better known as PMC , is a British loudspeaker manufacturer , established in 1991 . The company 's products are widely used within domestic settings , professional studios and other hi-fi applications . The company is one of a handful to have won an Emmy award in recognition of its `` contribution to recording excellence '' .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "PMC_Ltd.", "rank": 35, "score": 88605 }, { "content": "Title: 1999–2000 Premier Soccer League Content: The 1999 -- 2000 Premier Soccer League , known as the 1999-2000 Castle Premiership for sponsorship purposes , was the fourth season of the Premier Soccer League since its establishment in 1996 . The season began on 30 July 1999 and ended on 4 June 1999 . Mamelodi Sundowns once again managed to secure their crown , sealing their third successive PSL title . Along with their success in the PSL 's predecessor - winning three National Soccer League titles in 1988 , 1990 and 1993 - this gave Mamelodi Sundowns their 6th South African championship . Sundowns tallied 75 points for the season , equalling the points record they jointly set with Kaizer Chiefs last season , but unlike the previous season in which the title was decided by goal difference , there was no close title race this season as Sundowns finished comfortably ahead of second placed Orlando Pirates with an 11-point margin . As before , the league was contested by 18 teams , sixteen returning from the 1997-98 season and two newly promoted clubs ; the returning African Wanderers and Tembisa Classic . The league continued to run parallel to the European football calendar ( August - May ) and not run concurrently with the African football calendar ( January - December ) .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "1999–2000_Premier_Soccer_League", "rank": 36, "score": 88388 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbus Publishing Content: Nimbus Publishing is a Canadian publishing company , founded in 1978 , based in Halifax , Nova Scotia . The company specializes in subjects relevant to the Atlantic Provinces . Nimbus produces more than thirty new titles a year on a range of subjects relevant to the Atlantic Provinces -- children 's picture books and fiction , literary non-fiction , social and cultural history , nature photography , current events , biography , sports , and cultural issues . Nimbus Publishing is the largest Canadian English-language publisher east of Toronto . In 2005 , Nimbus introduced a new fiction imprint called Vagrant Press .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbus_Publishing", "rank": 37, "score": 87797 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbus Roman No. 9 L Content: Nimbus Roman is a serif typeface created by URW Studio in 1982 . Nimbus Roman No. 9 L is a serif typeface created by URW Studio in 1987 , and eventually released under the GPL and AFPL ( as Type 1 font for Ghostscript ) in 1996 and LPPL in 2009 . It features Normal , Bold , Italic , and Bold Italic weights , and is one of several freely licensed fonts offered by URW + + . Although the characters are not exactly the same , Nimbus Roman No. 9 L has metrics almost identical to Times New Roman and Times Roman . It is one of the Ghostscript fonts , a free alternative to 35 basic PostScript fonts ( which include Times ) . It is a standard typeface in many Linux distributions .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbus_Roman_No._9_L", "rank": 38, "score": 87684 }, { "content": "Title: Earth Radiation Budget Satellite Content: The Earth Radiation Budget Satellite ( ERBS ) was a NASA scientific research satellite launched on October 5 , 1984 , to study the Earth radiation budget and stratospheric aerosol and gases . It was carried into low Earth orbit and deployed by the during the STS-41-G mission . The spacecraft was expected to have a two-year operation life , but ultimately , the mission provided scientific data about the Earth 's ozone layer for more than two decades . Data on the ozone layer provided by ERBS was key in the international community 's decision-making process during the Montreal Protocol Agreement , which has resulted in a near elimination of CFCs in industrialized countries . ERBS was one of three satellites in the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment and carried two instruments as part of that endeavor : the ERBE scanner ( three detectors that study longwave radiation , shortwave radiation and total energy radiating from the Earth along a line of the satellite 's path ) and the ERBE non-scanner ( five detectors measuring the total energy from the Sun , and the shortwave and total energy from the entire Earth disk and the area beneath the satellite ) . The second ERBE Instrument was aboard the NOAA-9 satellite when it was launched in January 1985 , and the third was aboard the NOAA-10 satellite when it was launched in October 1986 . In addition , it carried the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment ( SAGE II ) . It was retired for budgetary reasons on October 14 , 2005 , as one of the longest-running spacecraft missions to date .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Earth_Radiation_Budget_Satellite", "rank": 39, "score": 87472 }, { "content": "Title: NIST-7 Content: NIST-7 was the atomic clock used by the United States from 1993 to 1999 . It was one of a series of Atomic Clocks at the National Institute of Standards and Technology . The caesium beam clock served as the nation 's primary time and frequency standard during that time period , but it has since been replaced with the more accurate NIST-F1 , a caesium fountain atomic clock that neither gains nor loses one second in 100 million years .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "NIST-7", "rank": 40, "score": 87199 }, { "content": "Title: EROS B Content: The Earth Remote Observation System-B ( EROS-B ) is the second satellite launched in a series of the EROS family of Israeli commercial Earth observation satellites , designed and manufactured by Israel Aircraft Industries . The EROS B was launched on April 25 , 2006 from Svobodny Launch Complex in eastern Siberia .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "EROS_B", "rank": 41, "score": 87174 }, { "content": "Title: AM PM Records Content: AM : PM Records was the dance division of A&M Records Ltd in Great Britain . It was disbanded after A&M 's owner PolyGram merged with Universal Music Group . It 's currently relauched in the Netherlands as the dance label of Universal , with releases by artists such as Afrojack and Tiesto .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "AM_PM_Records", "rank": 42, "score": 86782 }, { "content": "Title: Business Is Business (album) Content: Bu $ ine $ $ I$ Bu $ ine $ $ is the second album by PMD . It was released on October 22 , 1996 through Relativity Records , with most of the production handled by 8-Off . The album peaked at 180 on the Billboard 200 and 29 on the Top R&B / Hip-Hop Albums . Two singles were released from the album , `` Rugged-N-Raw '' featuring Das EFX , and `` It 's the Pee '' featuring Mobb Deep . Both were minor hits on the R&B and Rap charts .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Business_Is_Business_(album)", "rank": 43, "score": 86614 }, { "content": "Title: Eugenics Record Office Content: The Eugenics Record Office ( ERO ) , located in Cold Spring Harbor , New York , United States , was a research institute that gathered biological and social information about the American population , serving as a center for eugenics and human heredity research from 1910 to 1939 . It was established by the Carnegie Institution of Washington 's Station for Experimental Evolution , and subsequently administered by its Department of Genetics . Both its founder , Charles Benedict Davenport , and its director , Harry H. Laughlin , were major contributors to the field of eugenics in the United States . Its mission was to collect substantial information on the ancestry of the American population , to produce propaganda that was made to fuel the eugenics movement , and to promote of the idea of race-betterment .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Eugenics_Record_Office", "rank": 44, "score": 86608 }, { "content": "Title: Eredivisie (ice hockey) Content: The Eredivisie ( `` Premier League '' ) was , during its existence , the only professional ice hockey league in the Netherlands and the highest level of competition organized by the Nederlandse IJshockey Bond ( NIJB ; English : `` Dutch Ice Hockey Federation '' ) . Formed in 1945 and playing continuously since 1964 , the league mainly featured Dutch teams , although in some seasons certain Belgian teams competed . The league featured a mix of Dutch , European and overseas players . The winner of the Eredivisie was crowned the Dutch National Champion and represented the Netherlands in the IIHF Continental Cup . In 2015 , with most of its teams facing financial problems and its top team , Tilburg Trappers , joining the German Oberliga , the Eredivise was suspended with the remaining teams joining the BeNe League .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Eredivisie_(ice_hockey)", "rank": 45, "score": 85853 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbus Communications Limited Content: Nimbus Communications Limited is a media and entertainment company and sports broadcaster , known for its Neo Cricket and Neo Sports channels . It has integrated , end-to-end media services focusing on Sports broadcasting , marketing and filmed entertainment . Headquartered in Mumbai , Nimbus was established in 1987 by Harish Thawani , and has a diverse network of customers across USA , Canada , UK , Asia , Africa , Australia , New Zealand , Europe and the Middle East . In addition to India its operations are also spread across Singapore , Middle East and the Caribbean , which will shortly be extended to USA and UK . In 2006 , the company won a four-year global media rights for cricket with BCCI , at $ 612.18 million ( Rs 2,714 crore ) . In 2010 , The Times of India Group acquired a small stake in Nimbus Communications", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbus_Communications_Limited", "rank": 46, "score": 85851 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbus (horse) Content: Nimbus is the name given to seven different Thoroughbred racehorses as of 2007 . Nimbus ( FR ) , French racehorse , foaled in 1910 Nimbus ( BR ) , English racehorse and Epsom Derby winner , foaled in 1946 Nimbus ( USA ) , foaled 1930 , 2nd in the 1933 Belmont Stakes", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbus_(horse)", "rank": 47, "score": 85690 }, { "content": "Title: PMI-80 Content: The PMI-80 was a single-board microcomputer produced by Tesla Piešťany , Czechoslovakia , since 1982 . It was based on the MHB 8080A CPU ( a Tesla clone of the Intel 8080 ) , clocked at 1.111 MHz . Instead of a raster graphic display output and classical keyboard , it had a calculator-style nine-digit seven-segment red LED display and a 25-key calculator-type keypad with hexadecimal and function keys ( including hardware REset and Interrupt ) . The PMI-80 had 1 KiB of ROM ( expandable to 2 KiB ) and fixed 1 KiB of RWM . Eight ( expandable to 32 ) I/O lines were provided for user along with complete system bus . Connected could be e.g. , a card with a DAC of 0 -- 12 V range .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "PMI-80", "rank": 48, "score": 85632 }, { "content": "Title: Executive Order 12667 Content: Executive Order 12667 established a procedure for former United States Presidents to limit access to certain records which would otherwise have been released by the National Archives and Records Administration under the Presidential Records Act of 1978 . It was issued by President Ronald Reagan on 18 January 1989 . The Executive Order was revoked by President George W. Bush 's Executive Order 13233 on 1 November 2001 , which further limited access to the records of former United States Presidents . This order was in turn revoked by President Barack Obama 's on January 21 , 2009 ( his first day in office ) , which essentially restored the provisions of with some modifications .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Executive_Order_12667", "rank": 49, "score": 85541 }, { "content": "Title: Sumerian creation myth Content: The earliest record of the Sumerian creation myth , called The Eridu Genesis by historian Thorkild Jacobsen , is found on a single fragmentary tablet excavated in Nippur . It is written in the Sumerian language and dated to around 1600 BC . Other Sumerian creation myths from around this date are called the Barton Cylinder , the Debate between sheep and grain and the Debate between Winter and Summer , also found at Nippur .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Sumerian_creation_myth", "rank": 50, "score": 85451 }, { "content": "Title: Pretty Mary Sunshine Content: Pretty Mary Sunshine was a band formed in Seattle , Washington in March 1993 . Almost as quickly as they were formed , they were signed to A&M Records . Instead of unifying the five piece , being signed to a major record label hastened their disintegration . `` PMS '' was contracted to produce two albums for A&M Records but they only `` officially '' released one . What was intended to be their first album was recorded in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma by Record producer Keith Cleversley ( one time producer of The Flaming Lips ) . The only song from the ill-fated `` Oklahoma sessions '' that A&M Records released , was `` Can I Stay ? '' ( featured in the cult movie soundtrack of S.F.W. ) . In an attempt to market Pretty Mary Sunshine as an indie-rock band , A&M Records also released two previously recorded tracks from the band 's demo tape recorded at the Electric Eel Studio , in Seattle . `` Bird Medicine '' - the full-length disc the band did manage to release was recorded at A&M Studio `` C '' in the Winter of 1994-1995 . The band was completely dissatisfied with the recording process in Hollywood , with tensions between Kurt & Patrice escalating as the producers steered the band into a sound neither liked . `` Bird Medicine '' was released with no marketing , support or promotion from A&M . The release date was held back for nearly a year due to attorney squabbles about credits in the liner notes . The band supported the release of this album solely to fulfill contractual obligations with a disastrous tour of the United States in 1995 . The band broke up in early 1996 , after finally being dropped by their label after a debauched U.S. tour . Kurt and Patrice went on to form Frownland with the original drummer , Pam Barger , Paul Hutzler ( guitar , multi-instrumentalist and bass guitar player , Sean Wheatley , of Pretty Mary Sunshine . Joe Howard , aka Joe Skyward , went on to join the Posies and Sunny Day Real Estate . Jerry O'Neill went on to record some solo material and then seemingly dropped out of the music world entirely .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Pretty_Mary_Sunshine", "rank": 51, "score": 85413 }, { "content": "Title: Pmod Interface Content: Pmod interface or Peripheral Module interface is an open standard defined by Digilent Inc in the Digilent Pmod ™ Interface Specification for peripherals used with FPGAs or microcontrollers . Several types of modules are available from simple push buttons to more complex modules with network interfaces , analog to digital converters or LCD displays . These modules can be used with a variety of FPGA or micro-controller development boards from different vendors . Pmods are not necessarily plug-and-play - software and configuration is required - but the hardware interface is pre-designed and modules can be quickly assembled with host boards for prototyping or evaluation purposes with no soldering required . Pmods come in a standard 6-Pin interface with 4 signals , one ground and one power pin . Double and quad Pmods also exist . These duplicate the standard interface to allow more signals to pass through to the module . Pmods are available from multiple vendors such as Digilent , Maxim Integrated , Analog Devices and a variety of hobby sites .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Pmod_Interface", "rank": 52, "score": 85354 }, { "content": "Title: Powerman 5000 Content: Powerman 5000 ( sometimes abbreviated to PM5K ) is an American rock band formed in 1991 . The group has released eight albums over the course of their career and gained their highest commercial success with 1999 's Tonight the Stars Revolt ! , which reached number 29 on the Billboard 200 while spawning the singles `` When Worlds Collide '' and `` Nobody 's Real '' . Their latest release , Builders of the Future , came out in 2014 by T-Boy Records , and the group has been on tour in support of the album . Frontman Spider One is the younger brother of fellow metal musician Rob Zombie .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Powerman_5000", "rank": 53, "score": 85236 }, { "content": "Title: Srebrenica: a 'safe' area Content: Srebrenica : a ` safe ' area is a 2002 report by the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation ( NIOD ) concerning the Srebrenica Massacre . The report took seven years to finalize . The size of the report is `` some four thousand pages '' . The report is also referred to as the NIOD report . It resulted in the resignation of the Second cabinet of Wim Kok , on 16 April 2002 six days after the release of the report . The cabinet was `` asked to stay as a caretaker government until a new administration -LSB- was -RSB- formed after elections '' . The report has been referred to by international media .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Srebrenica:_a_'safe'_area", "rank": 54, "score": 85220 }, { "content": "Title: NIH Record Content: The NIH Record is a publication of the United States government for employees of the National Institutes of Health . Founded in 1949 , it is published 25 times every year and circulated to 20,000 readers .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "NIH_Record", "rank": 55, "score": 85198 }, { "content": "Title: Landsat 1 Content: Landsat 1 , originally named `` Earth Resources Technology Satellite 1 '' , was the first satellite of the United States ' Landsat program . It was a modified version of the Nimbus 4 meteorological satellite and was launched on July 23 , 1972 by a Delta 900 rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California . The near-polar orbiting spacecraft served as a stabilized , Earth-oriented platform for obtaining information on agricultural and forestry resources , geology and mineral resources , hydrology and water resources , geography , cartography , environmental pollution , oceanography and marine resources , and meteorological phenomena .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Landsat_1", "rank": 56, "score": 84980 }, { "content": "Title: L-class Melbourne tram Content: The L-class was a class of six trams ordered from James Moore & Sons by the Prahran & Malvern Tramways Trust ( PMTT ) . However by the time they were delivered in 1921 , the PMTT had been taken over by the Melbourne & Metropolitan Tramways Board ( MMTB ) . In 1934 they were modified with the four narrow doors replaced with two wider doors , and new drivers cabins fitted . When introduced they were considered too fast and re-geared . The ratios were restored in the early 1950s , with the W-class having replaced many of the older trams . They were withdrawn from regular service in 1969 , but remained available as backups until the early 1980s . Two ( 104 and 106 ) were overhauled in 1981 for use on a Sundays only service from Elizabeth Street to Melbourne Zoo being based at Essendon depot . To allow for new Z-class trams to reuse the numbers , 104 and 106 were renumbered 1104 and 1106 on paper , although continued to display their original numbers . In 1982 , both were repainted in MMTB chocolate and cream for use in the film Squizzy Taylor .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "L-class_Melbourne_tram", "rank": 57, "score": 84965 }, { "content": "Title: PMCD Content: PMCD ( PreMaster CD ) is a specially formatted , recordable Compact Disc designed to be sent to a CD pressing plant for replication . The PreMaster CD format , developed in the early 1990s by the CD-ROM division of Sony , in cooperation with `` START Lab Inc. '' of Tokyo and Sonic Solutions , contained a hidden `` PreMaster Cue Sheet '' that held the metadata needed for replication that a Red Book CD-DA lacks . The PreMaster CD format made use of the fact that not all data-recording surfaces are specified for use in the Red Book CD-DA or Yellow Book CD-ROM standards . CD transports were not able to recover the data hidden in the Cue Sheet unless forced to buy proprietary software . The Cue Sheet specified a broad range of metadata , including number of channels , per track pre-emphasis status , per track copy protection bit setting , per track ISRC Codes , per disc UPC/EAN , etc. . Despite claims to the contrary , only Sonic Solutions ' `` Sonic System '' software was able to generate PreMaster CDs . PMCDs were subsequently obsoleted by the more modern and generalized DDP specification . Several factors led to the decline of the PreMaster CD standard . First , the CD-R mechanisms that were able to read and write the hidden cue sheet metadata went out of production in the late 1990s . Second , only Laser Beam Recorders or LBRs manufactured by Sony were able to read PMCDs , which limited the formats adoption by replicators . Many CD replicators now accept regular CD-R discs in place of true PMCDs , which can be created using specialized Audio CD pre-mastering software . Unfortunately , CD-Rs formatted as `` Audio CDs , '' which really are Red Book-formatted Orange Book discs , are not designed for disc replication , only content distribution . The CIRC error correction used for the audio data on these discs is not as extensive as what is used for CD-ROM or DVD formats so , corruption of the audio data during readout due to dirt or mechanical damage could result in total loss of the audio data . Modern , professional pre-mastering software relies on the DDP format , which protects both the audio data and its associated metadata .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "PMCD", "rank": 58, "score": 84896 }, { "content": "Title: Data archaeology Content: Data archaeology refers to the art and science of recovering computer data encoded and/or encrypted in now obsolete media or formats . Data archaeology can also refer to recovering information from damaged electronic formats after natural or man made disasters . The term originally appeared in 1993 as part of the Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project ( GODAR ) . The original impetus for data archaeology came from the need to recover computerized records of climatic conditions stored on old computer tape , which can provide valuable evidence for testing theories of climate change . These approaches allowed the reconstruction of an image of the Arctic that had been captured by the Nimbus 2 satellite on September 23 , 1966 , in higher resolution than ever seen before from this type of data . NASA also utilizes the services of data archaeologists to recover information stored on 1960s era vintage computer tape , as exemplified by the Lunar Orbiter Image Recovery Project ( LOIRP ) .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Data_archaeology", "rank": 59, "score": 84838 }, { "content": "Title: Nokia E7-00 Content: The Nokia E7-00 , also known as Nokia E7 , is a business-oriented QWERTY smartphone by Nokia from the Nokia Eseries . It was announced at Nokia World in September 2010 together with the Nokia C6-01 and Nokia C7 and started shipping in February 2011 . It is the second phone after the Nokia N8 to be running the Symbian ^ 3 operating system . When compared with the Nokia N8 , it has fixed mass storage of 16GB without a memory card slot , no FM transmitter and a less advanced camera , with Extended Depth of Field , instead of autofocus as in the N8 and the E90 . Like the Nokia N8 , it comes with an HDMI-out connector and a non-user-replaceable battery that is smaller than the E90 's . It has the same keyboard spring mechanism as the Nokia N97 mini , but has like the N8 an anodized aluminium casing . All this is different from the bulkier and heavier E90 . Compared to the Nokia N97 mini and E90 , the E7-00 has a multitouch capacitive touchscreen . Unlike the N8 , N97 mini , and the E90 , the E7-00 has an Active-matrix OLED ( AMOLED ) ClearBlack technology with a slightly lower resolution than the E90 . Vlasta Berka , general manager of Nokia Singapore , Malaysia and Brunei , talked about the trend of users who are using their smartphones for business .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nokia_E7-00", "rank": 60, "score": 84794 }, { "content": "Title: The Awakening (PMD album) Content: The Awakening is the third album by rapper PMD . It was released on June 17 , 2003 for the independent record label , Solid Records . The album did not make it on any album charts , nor did it have any charting singles . Despite this fact , the record had guest artists including Cypress Hill , Fat Joe , K-Solo , Rob Jackson , and Erick Sermon , who appeared on the EPMD reunion track , Look At U Now . The Awakening is also known as PMD 's only album ( including those with EPMD ) to not have the word business in the title .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "The_Awakening_(PMD_album)", "rank": 61, "score": 84627 }, { "content": "Title: Print Measurement Bureau Content: Print Measurement Bureau ( PMB ) is a non-profit Canadian company that specialises in gathering statistics about print media readership . PMB conducts surveys to assess the level of readership for many magazines sold in Canada , and also conducts industry-specific surveys such as for medical profession publications . Its first national print survey was conducted in 1973 . PMB & NADbank amalgamated in October 2015 , launching a new organization named Vividata .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Print_Measurement_Bureau", "rank": 62, "score": 84548 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbus Mono L Content: Nimbus Mono is a monospaced typeface created by URW Studio in 1984 , and eventually released under the GPL and AFPL ( as Type 1 font for Ghostscript ) in 1996 and LPPL in 2009 . It features Normal , Bold , Italic , and Bold Italic weights , and is one of several freely licensed fonts offered by URW + + . Although the characters are not exactly the same , Nimbus Mono has metrics that are very similar to Courier and Courier New . It is one of the Ghostscript fonts , free alternatives to 35 basic PostScript fonts ( which include Courier ) . It is a standard typeface in many Linux distributions .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbus_Mono_L", "rank": 63, "score": 84503 }, { "content": "Title: GRB 130427A Content: GRB 130427A was a record-setting gamma-ray burst , discovered starting on April 27 , 2013 . This GRB was associated to SN 2013cq , of which the appearance of optical signal was predicted on May 2 , 2013 and detected on May 13 , 2013 . The Fermi space observatory detected a gamma-ray with an energy of at least 94 billion electron volts . It was simultaneously detected by the Burst Alert Telescope aboard the Swift telescope and was one of the brightest bursts Swift had ever detected . It was one of the five closest GRBs , at about 3.6 billion light-years away , and was comparatively long-lasting . Swift space observatory also observed the burst , quickly determining its location . The X-ray afterglow of the burst was so bright that Swift was able to observe it for the next six months . The emission was also detected using radio , infrared and visible radiation from ground based telescopes using the sky location from Swift . The burst was observed with a 350mm optical telescope and its brightness measured . The visible apparent magnitude decreased from 13 to 15.5 over a three-hour period starting at 08:05:12 UTC 27 April 2013 . The Catalina Real-time Transient Survey also detected the burst optically , independent of the alert . It received designation CSS130502 :113233 +274156 . It was found at right ascension 11:32:32.90 , and declination +27:41:56.5 ( J2000 ) . The SDSS catalogue shows a galaxy ( SDSS J113232 .84 +274155.4 ) almost coincident with this position at magnitude r = 21.26 but with no SDSS spectrum obtained .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "GRB_130427A", "rank": 64, "score": 84433 }, { "content": "Title: HL7 aECG Content: HL7 aECG ( the HL7 Annotated Electrocardiogram ) is a standard medical record data format for storing and retrieving electrocardiogram data for a patient . Like other HL7 formats , it is XML based . The HL7 aECG standard was created in response to the Food and Drug Administration 's digital electrocardiogram initiative which was introduced November , 2001 . The FDA initiative required ECG waveforms and annotations submitted to the FDA to have a standard format for the data . At the time , no current ECG waveform standards met all the FDA 's needs . As a result , the FDA , sponsors , core laboratories , and device manufactures worked together within HL7 to create a standard to meet the FDA requirements . The aECG standard was created by HL7 's Regulated Clinical Research Information Management ( RCRIM ) . It passed final balloting in January , 2004 , and was accepted by ANSI May , 2004 .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "HL7_aECG", "rank": 65, "score": 84317 }, { "content": "Title: PMtoday Content: PMtoday was a progressive post-hardcore band from Jacksonville , Arkansas , formerly signed to Rise Records . They released two EPs as well as two full-length albums , And Then the Hurricane in 2007 and In Medias Res in 2010 . The band consisted of brothers Connor , Ryan , and Cuinn Brogan , as well as Jerrod Morgan .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "PMtoday", "rank": 66, "score": 84016 }, { "content": "Title: Bristol Siddeley Nimbus Content: The Bristol Siddeley Nimbus , later known as the Rolls-Royce Nimbus , was a British turboshaft engine developed under license by Blackburn Aircraft Ltd. from the Turbomeca Turmo in the late 1950s . It was used on the Westland Scout and Westland Wasp helicopters .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Bristol_Siddeley_Nimbus", "rank": 67, "score": 83914 }, { "content": "Title: Estonian Record Productions Content: Estonian Record Productions ( `` ERP '' ) is an Estonian music production company , founded on 1 March 2001 . The main activity was initially record production , and the company has now branched out to produce music festivals and concerts , act as artist management , publish music , and offers notation and specialised travel services for musicians . Peeter Vähi is the artistic director and Tiina Jokinen is the managing director .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Estonian_Record_Productions", "rank": 68, "score": 83838 }, { "content": "Title: IMP-16 Content: The IMP-16 , by National Semiconductor , was the first multi-chip 16-bit microprocessor in 1973 . It consisted of five PMOS integrated circuits : four identical RALU chips ( register and ALU ) providing the data path , and one CROM ( Control and ROM ) providing control sequencing and microcode storage . The IMP-16 provided four 16-bit accumulators , two of which could be used as index registers . The instruction set architecture was similar to that of the Data General Nova . The chip set could be extended with a multiply and divide CROM chip ( IMP-16A / 522D ) that implemented 16 bit multiply and divide routines using the ALU 's . The chip set was driven by a two-phase 715 kHz non-overlapping clock that had a +5 to -12 swing . An integral part of the architecture was a 16 bit input mux that provided various condition bits from the ALUs such as zero , carry , overflow along with general purpose inputs . The IMP-16 is a bit-slice processor . Each RALU chip provides a 4-bit slice of the register and arithmetic portion of a processor . Multiple RALU chips work in parallel , providing a longer word length . Each RALU chip provides 4 bits of the program counter , several registers , the ALU , a 16-word LIFO stack , and the status flags . The IMP-16 was later superseded by National Semiconductor 's PACE and INS8900 single-chip 16-bit microprocessors , which had a similar architecture but were not binary compatible .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "IMP-16", "rank": 69, "score": 83780 }, { "content": "Title: MEAP Nisou Content: MEAP Nisou is a Cypriot football club from the town of Nisou . The club 's full name is Mikti Erithrou Astera Proodou ( Select team of Erithros Asteras and Proodos ) . The club was founded in the small town of Nisou near the city of Nicosia in 1981 , following the unification of Erithros Asteras ( Red Star ) and Proodos ( Progress ) . The club is currently playing in the Cypriot Third Division .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "MEAP_Nisou", "rank": 70, "score": 83658 }, { "content": "Title: Party of the Brazilian Women Content: Party of the Brazilian Women ( Partido da Mulher Brasileira , PMB ) is a political party in Brazil which uses the number 35 . Known for its non-feminist and anti-abortion stance , the party is represented by one deputy in the Chamber of Deputies , who is a man . The PMB was founded in 2015 by Sued Haidar , who doubled as the president of the party 's National Committee . At its peak , the party was tenth largest party represented in congress , represented by 21 federal deputies in the Chamber of Deputies , only two of which are women , and one representative in the Federal Senate , Senator Hélio José . Most of the deputies have since left the party , and José switched his party affiliation to the Brazilian Democratic Movement Party in March 2016 . As of January 2017 , the PMB has 38,438 members .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Party_of_the_Brazilian_Women", "rank": 71, "score": 83650 }, { "content": "Title: ERB-dom Content: ERB-dom was a magazine devoted to the works of Edgar Rice Burroughs created by Al Guillory , Jr. and Camille Cazedessus Jr. ( `` Caz '' ) . It began publication in May 1960 as a mimeographed science-fiction fanzine . Guillory was killed in a car-train collision , but Cazedessus continued publishing ERB-dom . It won the Hugo Award for Best Fanzine in 1966 . ERB-dom was eventually printed in color , containing Russ Manning 's Tarzan newspaper comic strip pages in color and the daily strips . It went to monthly publication in 1970 and then back to quintly ( 5 times per year ) . It ceased publication with issue # 89 in late 1976 .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "ERB-dom", "rank": 72, "score": 83495 }, { "content": "Title: Presentation Manager Content: Presentation Manager ( PM ) is the graphical user interface ( GUI ) that IBM and Microsoft introduced in version 1.1 of their operating system OS/2 in late 1988 .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Presentation_Manager", "rank": 73, "score": 83170 }, { "content": "Title: Nie Er (film) Content: Nie Er , formerly romanized as Nieh Erh , is a 1959 biopic of the Chinese musician Nie Er , a Communist Party member who drowned in Japan during his flight to Russia away from Nationalist oppression . The story centers on his composition of `` The March of the Volunteers '' , the theme song to the 1935 drama Children of Troubled Times which was later adopted as the national anthem of the People 's Republic of China . The movie was released to coïncide with the 10th anniversary of the PRC 's founding .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nie_Er_(film)", "rank": 74, "score": 82870 }, { "content": "Title: Music Brokers Content: Music Brokers is a broker and former record label founded in 1997 in Argentina . It started in Argentina and expanded opening offices in Brazil , Mexico and Chile . Today it has four sub-labels : Music Brokers , PMB , Selecta and Intelikids . Each label has a specific target audience .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Music_Brokers", "rank": 75, "score": 82816 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbus (FR) Content: Nimbus ( foaled 1910 ) was a French Thoroughbred racehorse whose damsire was the 1899 British Triple Crown Champion , Flying Fox . Nimbus was owned and raced by leading French horseman Alexandre Aumont of Haras de Victot in Victot-Pontfol , Calvados . One of several horses named Nimbus , he is designated as Nimbus `` II '' in accordance with his birth year . Trained by George Cunnington , Sr. at Chantilly , he was a multiple stakes winner in France . As a sire , Nimbus notably produced Le Capucin whose wins included the 1923 Prix du Jockey Club and the 1924 Grand International d'Ostende .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbus_(FR)", "rank": 76, "score": 82684 }, { "content": "Title: Dietary Supplements (database) Content: The PubMed Dietary Supplement Subset ( PMDSS ) is a joint project between the National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) National Library of Medicine ( NLM ) and the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements ( ODS ) . PMDSS is designed to help people search for academic journal articles related to dietary supplement literature . The subset was created using a search strategy that includes terms provided by the Office of Dietary Supplements , and selected journals indexed for PubMed that include significant dietary supplement related content . It succeeds the International Bibliographic Information on Dietary Supplements ( IBIDS ) database , 1999-2010 , which was a collaboration between the Office of Dietary Supplements and the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's National Agricultural Library .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Dietary_Supplements_(database)", "rank": 77, "score": 82584 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbula Content: Nimbula was a computer software company that existed from 2008 through 2013 . It developed software for the implementation of public and private cloud computing environments .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbula", "rank": 78, "score": 82575 }, { "content": "Title: PMD 85 Content: The PMD 85 was an 8-bit personal computer produced from 1985 by the companies Tesla Piešťany and Bratislava in the former Czechoslovakia . They were deployed en masse in schools throughout Slovakia , while the IQ 151 performed a similar role in Czech part of the country . This computer was produced locally due to a lack of foreign currency with which to buy systems from the West . After the Velvet Revolution in 1989 , production of the PMD 85 was stopped . PMD 85 was not competitive in quality or features compared to foreign PCs available at that time .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "PMD_85", "rank": 79, "score": 82388 }, { "content": "Title: Schempp-Hirth Nimbus-2 Content: The Schempp-Hirth Nimbus-2 is an Open Class glider built by Schempp-Hirth during the 1970s . The Nimbus-2 first flew in April 1971 and a total of over 240 examples of all subtypes have been built until the beginning of the 1980s .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Schempp-Hirth_Nimbus-2", "rank": 80, "score": 82353 }, { "content": "Title: Nimbus Film Content: Nimbus Film is Denmark 's third largest film production company . Nimbus Film has to date produced more than 30 feature films and many shorts and documentaries . Of their more known feature films are the Dogme 95 movies The Celebration ( 1998 , directed by Thomas Vinterberg ) which won the Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival in 1998 , and Mifune 's Last Song ( 1999 , directed by Søren Kragh-Jacobsen ) which won the Silver Bear at Berlin International Film Festival 1999 . Recent successes include A Soap ( 2006 , directed by Pernille Fischer Christensen ) also winner of the Silver Bear at Berlin International Film Festival in 2006 , and the World War II film Flame & Citron ( 2008 , directed by Ole Christian Madsen ) a huge box office hit in Denmark in 2008 , and distributed worldwide . In 2010 Thomas Vinterberg 's Submarino was selected to the main competition at The Berlin Film Festival . Nimbus Film was founded in 1993 by Birgitte Hald and Bo Ehrhardt , who today own the company .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nimbus_Film", "rank": 81, "score": 82330 }, { "content": "Title: Full Members' Cup Content: The Full Members ' Cup was an association football cup competition held in English football from 1985 to 1992 . It was also known under its sponsored names of the Simod Cup from 1987 to 1989 and the Zenith Data Systems Cup from 1989 to 1992 . The competition was created after the 1985 Heysel Stadium disaster , when English clubs were banned from European competition , as an additional competition for clubs in the top two English League divisions . The competition 's name refers to the clubs that were Full Members of the Football League , with full voting rights ; teams from the lower two divisions were Associate Members and were only eligible for the Associate Members Cup ( now known as the Football League Trophy ) . The initial Full Members ' Cup did not include the six teams that had qualified for 1985 -- 86 European competitions , as these played in the English Super Cup instead . While the European ban of English clubs was partially lifted for 1990 -- 91 , and fully lifted for 1991 -- 92 , the Full Members ' Cup survived through the end of 1991 -- 92 , its seventh season . The competition was then cancelled the following season when the old Football League First Division was replaced by the Premier League . Seven finals took place between 1986 and 1992 . Blackburn Rovers and Reading were the only Second Division teams to win the Cup . Chelsea and Nottingham Forest were the most successful teams in the competition , with both of them winning it twice .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Full_Members'_Cup", "rank": 82, "score": 82217 }, { "content": "Title: 2007 Afro-Asia Cup Content: The second Afro-Asia Cup was played from 6 June until 10 June 2007 , hosted by India . The three ODI and one Twenty20 matches were broadcast live on ESPN , after Nimbus had pulled out from the deal with Asian Cricket Council . The Twenty20 match did not have official status as a Twenty20 international or a regular Twenty20 match . Asia XI claimed the first title in the competition 's history , following a tied series in 2005 , with a 3 -- 0 whitewash of the African XI . Asian XI captain Mahela Jayawardene was named player of the tournament for his 217 runs , including a half century and a century , in the three ODIs.This cup Held the Record for highest overall runs scored in a 3-match series with 1892 runs being scored until it is broken by India vs England in January 2017 with an overall total of 2090 runs .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "2007_Afro-Asia_Cup", "rank": 83, "score": 82139 }, { "content": "Title: EROS A Content: The Earth Remote Observation System A ( EROS-A ) was part of the EROS family of Israeli commercial Earth observation satellites , designed and manufactured by Israel Aircraft Industries . This was the first satellite in the series . The EROS A was launched on December 5 , 2000 from Svobodny Launch Complex in eastern Siberia .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "EROS_A", "rank": 84, "score": 82035 }, { "content": "Title: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana Content: Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana ( IPA : Pradhān Mantrī Jana Dhan Yōjanā ) ( प्रधानमंत्री जन धन योजना , Prime Minister 's People Money Scheme ) ( PMJDY ) is India 's National Mission for Financial Inclusion to ensure access to financial services , namely Banking Savings & Deposit Accounts , Remittance , Credit , Insurance , Pension in an affordable manner . This financial inclusion campaign was launched by the Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi on 28 August 2014 He had announced this scheme on his first Independence Day speech on 15 August 2014 . Run by Department of Financial Services , Ministry of Finance , on the inauguration day , 1.5 Crore ( 15 million ) bank accounts were opened under this scheme . Guinness World Records Recognises the Achievements made under PMJDY , Guinness World Records Certificate says `` The most bank accounts opened in 1 week as a part of financial inclusion campaign is 18,096,130 and was achieved by Banks in India from 23 to 29 August 2014 '' . By 1 February 2017 , over 27 crore ( 270 million ) bank accounts were opened and almost 665 billion ( US$ 10 billion ) were deposited under the scheme .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Pradhan_Mantri_Jan_Dhan_Yojana", "rank": 85, "score": 81968 }, { "content": "Title: Albion Nimbus Content: The Albion Nimbus was an underfloor-engined , ultra-lightweight ( dry weight 2.4 tonne ) midibus or coach chassis , with a four-cylinder horizontal diesel engine and a gross vehicle weight of six tons . It was largely operated on light rural bus duties and private hires . Operators who used it on heavy-duty bus routes found it insufficiently robust . It was the first Albion bus chassis to have a name that did not begin with the letter V . The design was revised twice and was produced from 1955 to 1965 .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Albion_Nimbus", "rank": 86, "score": 81950 }, { "content": "Title: NGC 3109 Content: NGC 3109 is a small barred Magellanic type spiral or irregular galaxy around 4.2 Mly away in the direction of the constellation of Hydra . In the Catalogue of Named Galaxies , it is called Nimbus Hydrae , or the cloud galaxy . NGC 3109 is believed to be tidally interacting with the dwarf elliptical galaxy Antlia Dwarf . It was discovered by John Herschel on March 24 , 1835 while he was in what is now South Africa .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "NGC_3109", "rank": 87, "score": 81844 }, { "content": "Title: Nine Inch Nails Content: Nine Inch Nails ( abbreviated as NIN and stylized as NIИ ) is an American industrial rock band founded in 1988 by Trent Reznor in Cleveland , Ohio . The band released two influential albums during the 1990s -- The Downward Spiral ( 1994 ) and The Fragile ( 1999 ) -- and has record sales exceeding over 20 million copies worldwide , with 10 million sales certified in the United States alone . Despite this , the band has had several feuds with the corporate side of the recording industry . In 2007 , after the release of their fifth studio album Year Zero ( 2007 ) , these entanglements resulted in Reznor announcing that the band would split from its longtime record label Interscope Records to release future material independently , before signing with Columbia Records for the release of their eighth album Hesitation Marks ( 2013 ) . Reznor returned to self-releasing material with the second Nine Inch Nails EP , Not the Actual Events ( 2016 ) . As the band 's main producer , singer , songwriter , and instrumentalist , Reznor is the only constant member of the group , and remains solely responsible for its direction . This changed , however , in 2016 when Atticus Ross was introduced as a permanent member of Nine Inch Nails alongside the announcement of Not the Actual Events . After recording a new album , Reznor usually assembles a live band to perform onstage with him . The touring band features a revolving lineup that often rearranges songs to fit a live setting . On stage , Nine Inch Nails often employs visual elements to accompany performances , which frequently include light shows . Nine Inch Nails has been nominated for thirteen Grammy Awards , and won twice for the songs `` Wish '' and `` Happiness in Slavery '' in 1992 and 1996 , respectively . In 1997 , Reznor appeared in Time magazine 's list of the year 's most influential people , and Spin magazine described him as `` the most vital artist in music '' . In 2004 , Rolling Stone placed Nine Inch Nails at 94 on its list of the 100 greatest artists of all time . In 2014 , Nine Inch Nails was named as nominees for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , their first year of eligibility . In 2015 , they were nominated a second time .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nine_Inch_Nails", "rank": 88, "score": 81812 }, { "content": "Title: Geraldus d'Anduze Content: Geraldus d'Anduze ( Géraud d'Anduze ) was a French prelate , bishop of Nîmes in the eleventh century . Geraldus was the son of Bernard Pelet , Lord of Anduze , and of Ermengarde , his first wife . He was a member of the , one of the oldest in Languedoc . His brother Fredol was bishop of Puy . Like his predecessor , Geraldus gave much attention to the reconstruction of Psalmody Abbey , which regained its former lustre through the virtues of the religious and the munificence of the laity . During his time , the abbey was granted jurisdiction over an abbey at Saint-Geniez .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Geraldus_d'Anduze", "rank": 89, "score": 81756 }, { "content": "Title: Ernest Record Content: Ernest George Record ( 10 May 1899 -- 25 September 1956 ) was an Australian politician . He was born in Strood , Kent , England . An accountant before entering politics , he was elected to the Tasmanian Legislative Council in 1948 as the independent member for Cornwall . He served until his retirement in 1954 . Record died in 1956 in Launceston .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Ernest_Record", "rank": 90, "score": 81678 }, { "content": "Title: Altered State (Altered State album) Content: Altered State is the debut record of the American progressive rock band Altered State , released August 27 , 1991 on Warner Bros. . Records . The album 's first single , Step Into My Groove , received radio and MTV airplay . Two alternate versions of the song went to radio as well , the Psychedelic Mix and Psychedelic Instrumental recordings , produced by Ben Grosse . Step Into My Groove garnered some movement on South American radio and a video interview for TELEMUSICA . The bands second single , Ghost Beside My Bed , received steady play at radio and short Acoustic Radio Tour followed as the band was moving into pre-production for the second album : -LSB- dos -RSB- : . Ghost Beside My Bed , went # 1 at Rock Radio in several states in the U.S. and went top 30 nationally . It was the most requested song on KQLZ Pirate Radio , the station set up a special show for the band at The Roxy in Hollywood , CA . Gregory Markel 's performance that night is highlighted in Vicki Hamilton 's book Appetite for Dysfunction : A Cautionary Tale . The Los Angeles Times hailed the album as one the Year 's Best in 1991 . Bill Hard of The Hard Report dubbed the record one of the best of 1992 .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Altered_State_(Altered_State_album)", "rank": 91, "score": 81648 }, { "content": "Title: Peripheral myelin protein 22 Content: Growth arrest-specific protein 3 ( GAS-3 ) , also called peripheral myelin protein 22 ( PMP22 ) , is a protein which in humans is encoded by the PMP22 gene . PMP22 is a 22 kDa transmembrane glycoprotein made up of 160 amino acids , and is mainly expressed in the Schwann cells of the peripheral nervous system . Schwann cells show high expression of PMP22 , where it can constitute 2-5 % of total protein content in compact myelin . Compact myelin is the bulk of the peripheral neuron 's myelin sheath , a protective fatty layer that provides electrical insulation for the neuronal axon . The level of PMP22 expression is relatively low in the central nervous system of adults . Like other membrane proteins , newly translated PMP22 protein is temporarily sequestered to the endoplasmic reticulum ( ER ) and Golgi apparatus for post-translational modifications . PMP22 protein is glycosylated with an N terminus-linked sugar and co-localized with the BiP chaperone protein in the ER . After the protein is transported to the Golgi apparatus it can then become incorporated in the plasma membrane of the cell .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Peripheral_myelin_protein_22", "rank": 92, "score": 81569 }, { "content": "Title: Nordic Football Championship Content: The Nordic Football Championship ( Nordisk Mesterskab , Nordisk Mesterskap , Nordiska Mästerskapet , Pohjoismaiden-mestaruusturnaus , commonly abbreviated NM or PM ) was an international football competition contested by the men 's national football teams of the Nordic countries . In the first tournament played 1924 -- 1928 , only Denmark , Norway and Sweden competed , but Finland joined for the second tournament , and at the last tournament played in 2000 -- 2001 , Iceland and the Faroe Islands also competed .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nordic_Football_Championship", "rank": 93, "score": 81477 }, { "content": "Title: Nie Er Content: Nie Er ( 14 February 1912 -- 17 July 1935 ) , born Nie Shouxin , courtesy name Ziyi ( 子義 or 子藝 ) , was a Chinese composer best known for March of the Volunteers , the national anthem of the People 's Republic of China . In numerous Shanghai magazines , he went by the English name George Njal .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nie_Er", "rank": 94, "score": 81387 }, { "content": "Title: Yamaha SY77 Content: Yamaha SY77 is a 16 voice multitimbral music workstation first produced by Yamaha Corporation in 1989 . The SY77 is a synthesizer whose architecture combines AFM ( Advanced Frequency Modulation ) synthesis , AWM2 ( Advanced Wave Memory 2 ) for ROM-borne sample-based synthesis , and the combination of these two methods christened Realtime Convolution and Modulation Synthesis ( RCM ) . The same technology was also packaged in a rack-mounted module released simultaneously , the TG77 . The SY77 is equipped with a 61-key keyboard with velocity and aftertouch ; has a pitch wheel and two modulation wheels ( the latter being quite a rare feature among keyboards in general ) ; and has a large backlit LCD display , expansion slots , floppy-drive , on-board effects , and a 16,000 note sequencer . Programming is performed through a keypad on the front panel . When the SY77 was released in late 1989 , its initial prices were close to $ 3000 USD / # 2000 GBP . In 1991 , it was followed by the SY99 , a successor that cost ~ $ 4000 / # 3000 and expanded its capabilities with a 76-key keyboard , the ability to load user-specified samples for AWM , a more advanced effects unit , and other features .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Yamaha_SY77", "rank": 95, "score": 81289 }, { "content": "Title: Global powder metallurgy property database Content: The Global Powder Metallurgy Database ( GPMD ) is an online searchable database that has been developed as the result of a joint project between leading regional powder metallurgy ( PM ) trade associations , the EPMA and its sister organisations in Japan ( JPMA ) and North America ( MPIF ) . This database was created in response to a worldwide recognition that the absence of a readily accessible source of design data was acting as a significant impediment to the wider application of PM products . Primarily aimed at designers and engineers in the industries using PM products , it is designed to provide verified physical , mechanical and fatigue data for a range of commercially available PM materials . This culminated in the initial launch of the database at the PM World Congress in Vienna in October 2004 . The content of the database , at this launch , was restricted to data on low alloy ferrous and stainless steel PM structural part grades and bronze and iron-based PM bearing grades . However , enhancement and extension of content and searching capability has been an ongoing process ever since . Of particular note , in January 2007 , the content was expanded with the addition of data on non-ferrous PM structural part grades , followed , in March 2007 , by the introduction of a new section covering data on Metal Injection Moulding ( MIM ) materials . The latest extension to capability involves making full SN Fatigue Curve `` pages '' ( comprising SN curves and details of individual test points ) accessible to searchers . The initial content comprises over 130 SN Curve pages , covering a range of Fe-Cu-C grades and based on published information that has been analysed and collated by the group led by Professor Paul Beiss at the Technical University of Aachen . The collated SN curves cover a range of material processing conditions and density levels and a range of fatigue testing conditions ( fatigue loading mode , mean stress level and notch factor ) . In assembling the GPMD content , a broad range of mechanical , fatigue and physical property data has been collected from the associations ' memberships and rigorously evaluated by regional accreditation committees . However , the database 's primary targets are designers and material specifiers in end-user industries who may have no prior knowledge of PM . Therefore , the bulk of the search structure has been designed to take such a searcher to the point where they can decide that they ought to contact a PM parts manufacturer to discuss a potential application in more detail .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Global_powder_metallurgy_property_database", "rank": 96, "score": 81215 }, { "content": "Title: Pilar Manalo Danao Content: Pilár Manalo Danáo ( March 10 , 1914 - November 26 , 1987 ) commonly known as Ka Pilár , Manang or PMD , is the daughter of Felix Y. Manalo who became the first Head Choir Director of the Iglesia Ni Cristo ( INC ) , serving from 1942 and until her death in 1987 . She is instrumental in the creation of hymns for INC , to which is the sole lyricist of the Tagalog hymnbook entitled `` Ang Himnario ng Iglesia ni Cristo '' . The hymnal originally contained 220 songs and is first published in 1937 bearing her name and initials ( PMD ) , imprinted on hymnals ( Tagalog and English ) and musical scores ( Tagalog ) for the choir . Upon her death , Fausto T. Perez assumed post as the Head Choir Director while Liberty Manalo-Albert on the other hand , took in-charge as the Coordinator of the choir to Executive Minister Eraño G. Manalo , and Gemma Manalo-de Guzman , daughter of Eduardo V. Manalo , held the post after the last .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Pilar_Manalo_Danao", "rank": 97, "score": 81157 }, { "content": "Title: Investigational device exemption Content: An investigational device exemption ( IDE ) allows an investigational device ( i.e. a device that is the subject of a clinical study ) to be used in order to collect safety and effectiveness data required to support a premarket approval ( PMA ) application or a premarket notification -LSB- 510 ( k ) -RSB- submission to Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) . Clinical studies are most often conducted to support a PMA . Only a small percentage of 510 ( k ) 's require clinical data to support the application . Investigational use also includes clinical evaluation of certain modifications or new intended uses of legally marketed devices . All clinical evaluations of investigational devices , unless exempt , must have an approved IDE before the study is initiated . Clinical evaluation of devices that have not been cleared for marketing requires : An IDE approved by an institutional review board ( IRB ) . If the study involves a significant risk device , the IDE must also be approved by FDA Informed consent from all patients Labeling for investigational use only Monitoring of the study and Required records and reports An approved IDE permits a device to be shipped lawfully for the purpose of conducting investigations of the device without complying with other requirements of the Food , Drug , and Cosmetic Act that would apply to devices in commercial distribution . Sponsors need not submit a PMA or premarket notification , register their establishment , or list the device while the device is under investigation . Sponsors of IDEs are also exempt from the Quality System ( QS ) Regulation except for the requirements for design control . A commercial sponsor of a significant risk device study must submit a complete IDE application to FDA . There are no preprinted forms for an IDE application ; however , an IDE application must include certain required information . The sponsor must demonstrate in the application that there is reason to believe that the risks to human subjects from the proposed investigation are outweighed by the anticipated benefits to subjects and the importance of the knowledge to be gained , that the investigation is scientifically sound , and that there is reason to believe that the device as proposed for use will be effective .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Investigational_device_exemption", "rank": 98, "score": 81138 }, { "content": "Title: Mitchell Nimbus Content: The Mitchell Nimbus is a series of American , single-seat , high-wing gliders that was designed by Don Mitchell in the 1950s . Mitchell is also well known for his ultralight Mitchell Wing A-10 and U-2 designs .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Mitchell_Nimbus", "rank": 99, "score": 81084 }, { "content": "Title: Nitro (band) Content: Nitro is an American heavy metal band from Hollywood , California . The group was formed in 1987 by vocalist Jim Gillette , guitarist Michael Angelo Batio , bassist T. J. Racer and drummer Bobby Rock . This lineup recorded the band 's debut album O.F.R. , which was released by Rampage Records , a sub-division of Rhino Entertainment , in 1989 . Rock was later replaced by K. C. Comet ( and subsequently Johnny Thunder ) , while Racer was replaced by Ralph Carter . Nitro released a second album , Nitro II : H.W.D.W.S. , in 1991 , before breaking up two years later . Following the band 's breakup , a number of demo recordings were released on the M.A.C.E. Music compilation Gunnin ' for Glory , which also featured songs by Batio 's solo band . In November 2016 , it was announced that Gillette and Batio had reformed Nitro along with drummer Chris Adler . The reunited band is set to record its third album with engineer Josh Wilbur in December , with a spring 2017 release anticipated .", "qid": "2953", "docid": "Nitro_(band)", "rank": 100, "score": 81047 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Reasons_for_concern", "rank": 1, "score": 132056 }, { "content": "Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 2, "score": 131312 }, { "content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Climate_risk", "rank": 3, "score": 127944 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 4, "score": 120693 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 5, "score": 120355 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 6, "score": 120276 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 7, "score": 119540 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''", "qid": "2959", "docid": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 8, "score": 118829 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 9, "score": 116279 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 10, "score": 114868 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 11, "score": 112270 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect", "rank": 12, "score": 111493 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow", "rank": 13, "score": 110133 }, { "content": "Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 14, "score": 109354 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report", "rank": 15, "score": 108815 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992", "rank": 16, "score": 107697 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 17, "score": 107067 }, { "content": "Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Long-term_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 18, "score": 106012 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios", "rank": 19, "score": 105126 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 20, "score": 105000 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 21, "score": 104695 }, { "content": "Title: Alan Robock Content: Alan Robock ( born 1949 ) is an American climatologist . He is currently Distinguished Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences at Rutgers University , New Jersey . He advocates nuclear disarmament and has met with Fidel Castro during a lecture trip to Cuba discuss the dangers of nuclear weapons . Alan Robock was a 2007 IPCC author , a member of the organisation when it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize , `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Alan_Robock", "rank": 22, "score": 104554 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Second Assessment Report Content: The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report", "rank": 23, "score": 104332 }, { "content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason", "rank": 24, "score": 104293 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 25, "score": 103729 }, { "content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory", "rank": 26, "score": 103582 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 27, "score": 102331 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act", "rank": 28, "score": 102252 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 29, "score": 102061 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Roger_Pulwarty", "rank": 30, "score": 101991 }, { "content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment", "rank": 31, "score": 101937 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation Content: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) published a special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) on May 9 , 2011 . The report developed under the leadership of Ottmar Edenhofer evaluates the global potential for using renewable energy to mitigate climate change . This IPCC special report provides broader coverage of renewable energy than was included in the IPCC 's 2007 climate change assessment report , as well as stronger renewable energy policy coverage . Renewable energy can contribute to `` social and economic development , energy access , secure energy supply , climate change mitigation , and the reduction of negative environmental and health impacts '' . Under favourable circumstances , cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Renewable_Energy_Sources_and_Climate_Change_Mitigation", "rank": 32, "score": 101592 }, { "content": "Title: Bert Bolin Content: Bert Rickard Johannes Bolin ( -LSB- bæʈː bʊliːn -RSB- ; 15 May 1925 -- 30 December 2007 ) was a Swedish meteorologist who served as the first chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , from 1988 to 1997 . He was professor of meteorology at Stockholm University from 1961 until his retirement in 1990 .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Bert_Bolin", "rank": 33, "score": 101352 }, { "content": "Title: Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change Content: The Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change ( or CSCCC ) is an entity that maintains a website and describes itself as a global group of non-profit organizations with a mission of `` seek -LSB- ing -RSB- to educate the public about the science and economics of climate change in an impartial manner . '' The Coalition identifies its membership as including 60 independent nonprofit organisations from 40 countries `` who share a commitment to improving public understanding about a range of public policy issues . '' It calls itself `` a free-market alternative to mainstream environmentalism . '' An Indian news media report states that it was founded by the International Policy Network , a London-based organization that receives support from Exxon Mobil . The group publishes background papers and opinion editorials on the science and economics of climate change and maintains a blog . Its Civil Society Report on Climate Change was published in 2007 , shortly before the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change conference in Bali . CSCCC experts make media appearances , such as Julian Morris 's 2007 feature on Larry King Live and his televised debate in 2008 with IPCC head Rajendra Pachauri . This IPN in the UK has Julian Morris as Executive Director . It is actually a part of the Atlas Group/Network ( aka Atlas Economic Research Institute ) which was founded by UK factory-chicken king , Sir Antony Fisher ( one of PM Margaret Thatcher 's economic gurus ) and American Loctite millionaire Richard Krieble . They had funding support from Krieble , Richard Mellon Scaife , and Philip Morris . Fisher is reputed to have had a primary hand in establishing up to 150 libertarian think-tanks around the world . Fisher 's daughter , Linda Whetstone , now works for the ( Fisher-founded ) Adam Smith Institute . She is also the chairperson of the International Policy Network , and is on the Boards of Directors of the Mont Pelerin Society , the Institute of Economic Affairs and the Atlas Group in the USA . Coalitions and networks of this kind a common with Atlas Group think-tanks , and many of their key staff and directors serve on many different organisations . This faux-multiplicity amplifies the apparent strength of the public attacks on climate-change science . See also the Stockholm Network . and", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Civil_Society_Coalition_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 34, "score": 101094 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program", "rank": 35, "score": 100718 }, { "content": "Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "John_T._Houghton", "rank": 36, "score": 100702 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)", "rank": 37, "score": 100378 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 38, "score": 99953 }, { "content": "Title: Yuri Izrael Content: Yuri Antonovich Izrael ( Юрий Антониевич Израэль 15 May 1930 , Tashkent -- 23 January 2014 , Moscow ) was a vice-chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) until September 2008 , when the new bureau was elected . He was the `` most influential scientific adviser '' for Vladimir Putin , the former president of Russia , according to CNN . Izrael was former chairman of the Committee for Hydrometeorology . He also served as director of the Institute of Global Climate and Ecology , which is a part of the Russian Academy of Sciences . He was a first vice-president of the World Meteorological Organization and helped develop the World Weather Watch . In 1992 , Izrael won the International Meteorological Organization Prize and the UNEP Sasakawa Environment Prize for , among other accomplishments , contributing to the `` success of Working Group I I '' of the IPCC .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Yuri_Izrael", "rank": 39, "score": 99034 }, { "content": "Title: Rajendra K. Pachauri Content: Rajendra Kumar Pachauri ( born 20 August 1940 ) was the chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He held the post from 2002 until his resignation in 2015 , during which time the organization was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . He resigned from IPCC in February 2015 . Following a media trial , The Energy and Resources Institute ( TERI ) Governing Council asked him to step down from the post of Director-General of the institute . The Governing Council of TERI in a meeting in February 2016 appointed Ashok Chawla , a Gujarat cadre Indian Administrative Service Office who was former Union Finance Secretary and former Chairman of the Competition Commission , as its new chairman . Ajay Mathur , a technocrat in the Bureau of Energy Efficiency , was appointed as the Director General of TERI by the Governing Council in July 2015 .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Rajendra_K._Pachauri", "rank": 40, "score": 98870 }, { "content": "Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Seita_Emori", "rank": 41, "score": 98659 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Summary for Policymakers Content: The Summary for policymakers ( SPM ) is a summary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports intended to aid policymakers . The form is approved line by line by governments : `` Negotiations occur over wording to ensure accuracy , balance , clarity of message , and relevance to understanding and policy . ''", "qid": "2959", "docid": "IPCC_Summary_for_Policymakers", "rank": 42, "score": 96812 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 43, "score": 96493 }, { "content": "Title: Arturo Villavicencio Content: Arturo Villavicencio is an Ecuadorian environmental researcher . He was nominated by Denmark in 1995 for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributed to its fourth assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Arturo_Villavicencio", "rank": 44, "score": 96395 }, { "content": "Title: C. Vernon Cole Content: Dr. C. Vernon Cole ( 1922 -- August 30 , 2013 ) was a soil scientist known primarily for his work on nutrient cycling in agroecosystems . He was a member of Working Group II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Second Assessment report , and the lead author of Chapter 23 `` Agricultural Options for Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions '' . The IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "C._Vernon_Cole", "rank": 45, "score": 96386 }, { "content": "Title: Ismail El Gizouli Content: Ismail Abdel Rahim El Gizouli is a Sudanese civil servant specializing in energy and environment and a member of the bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He has acted as interim chairman of the IPCC since 24 February 2015 , following the resignation of Rajendra Kumar Pachauri . This appointment will last until the next election for a chairman , which is due to take place at the 42nd session in October 2015 .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Ismail_El_Gizouli", "rank": 46, "score": 96263 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC (disambiguation) Content: IPCC may refer to : Independent Police Complaints Commission of England and Wales Independent Police Complaints Council of Hong Kong Integrated Professional Competency Course , a course of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations . Interworld Police Coordinating Company , a fictional organization in Jack Vance 's novels Irish Peatland Conservation Council", "qid": "2959", "docid": "IPCC_(disambiguation)", "rank": 47, "score": 95039 }, { "content": "Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera", "rank": 48, "score": 94943 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 49, "score": 94933 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation", "rank": 50, "score": 94313 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change", "rank": 51, "score": 94289 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change acronyms Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Climate_change_acronyms", "rank": 52, "score": 94274 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 53, "score": 94005 }, { "content": "Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Vicky_Pope", "rank": 54, "score": 93859 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy", "rank": 55, "score": 93804 }, { "content": "Title: Representative Concentration Pathways Content: Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) are four greenhouse gas concentration ( not emissions ) trajectories adopted by the IPCC for its fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) in 2014 . It supersedes Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) projections published in 2000 . The pathways are used for climate modeling and research . They describe four possible climate futures , all of which are considered possible depending on how much greenhouse gases are emitted in the years to come . The four RCPs , RCP2 .6 , RCP4 .5 , RCP6 , and RCP8 .5 , are named after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values ( +2.6 , +4.5 , +6.0 , and +8.5 W/m2 , respectively ) .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Representative_Concentration_Pathways", "rank": 56, "score": 93571 }, { "content": "Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy", "rank": 57, "score": 93509 }, { "content": "Title: Vincent R. Gray Content: __ NOTOC __ Vincent Richard Gray ( born 24 March 1922 ) is a New Zealand-based chemist , and a founder of the New Zealand Climate Science Coalition . Born in London on 24 March 1922 , Gray was awarded a PhD in physical chemistry by the University of Cambridge after studies on incendiary bomb fluids made from aluminium soaps . In New Zealand , he was the first Director of Building Research and later , Chief Chemist of the Coal Research Association . He has also published many articles and reports , seven in peer-reviewed journals . After retirement , he had four and a half years in China and when he returned became a critic of the claim that climate was harmed by human emissions of greenhouse gases . He has commented on every publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , with 1,898 comments on the 2007 Report . He has published critical studies on all of the reports including a book `` The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of ` Climate Change 2001 ' '' . He has published `` Confessions of a Climate Sceptic '' He is sceptical of the anthropogenic global warming : `` The two main `` scientific '' claims of the IPCC are the claim that `` the globe is warming '' and `` Increases in carbon dioxide emissions are responsible '' . Evidence for both of these claims is fatally flawed . '' Gray has called for the IPCC to be abolished , claiming it is `` fundamentally corrupt '' due to his conclusion that for significant parts of the work of the IPCC , the data collection and scientific methods employed are unsound and that the IPCC resists all efforts to try to discuss or rectify these problems . Gray was featured on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation program Counterpoint in a debate entitled `` Nine Lies about Global Warming '' , and was interviewed in a featured story in the New Zealand Herald as a `` prominent '' global warming skeptic . In 2002 , Gray also published a book , The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of `` Climate Change 2001 '' . In it , Gray argues `` that the quality and reliability of the IPCC 's measurements are poor , the system of determining how much weight should be attributed to different influences on the earth 's temperature is faulty , and the validity of evidence derived from computer modeling is questionable . ''", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Vincent_R._Gray", "rank": 58, "score": 93052 }, { "content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry", "rank": 59, "score": 92902 }, { "content": "Title: The Deniers Content: The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "The_Deniers", "rank": 60, "score": 92205 }, { "content": "Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists", "rank": 61, "score": 92151 }, { "content": "Title: Global Climate Coalition Content: The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 -- 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Global_Climate_Coalition", "rank": 62, "score": 92057 }, { "content": "Title: American College & University Presidents' Climate Commitment Content: The American College & University Presidents ' Climate Commitment ( ACUPCC ) is a `` high-visibility effort '' to address global warming ( global climate disruption ) by creating a network of colleges and universities that have committed to neutralize their greenhouse gas emissions and accelerate the research and educational efforts of higher education to equip society to re-stabilize the earth 's climate . Second Nature is the main supporting organization of the ACUPCC .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "American_College_&_University_Presidents'_Climate_Commitment", "rank": 63, "score": 92020 }, { "content": "Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 64, "score": 91812 }, { "content": "Title: Physical impacts of climate change Content: This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Physical_impacts_of_climate_change", "rank": 65, "score": 91704 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change adaptation in Nepal Content: Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal", "rank": 66, "score": 91624 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions Content: Climate Change : Global Risks , Challenges and Decisions was a conference on Climate Change held at the Bella Center by the University of Copenhagen . The event was organised with the assistance of other universities in the International Alliance of Research Universities . The stated aim of the conference was to provide `` a summary of existing scientific knowledge two years after the last IPCC report . '' The conference took place on 10 -- 12 March 2009 .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Climate_Change:_Global_Risks,_Challenges_and_Decisions", "rank": 67, "score": 91153 }, { "content": "Title: Bert Metz Content: Bert Metz ( born 15 August 1945 , The Hague ) is a Dutch climate policy expert . He was Co-chair of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group III on mitigation on climate change for the third and fourth assessment report of the IPCC . Currently he is a fellow at the european climate foundation . Metz obtained an Engineer 's degree in Chemical Engineering at Delft University of Technology and subsequently his Ph.D. degree at the same university . From 1976 to 1987 he worked for Dutch Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment in the fields of air pollution , external safety , noise pollution , chemical waste and the enforcement of environmental laws . From 1987 until 1992 he was Counsellor for Health and Environment at the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Washington DC . In 1992 he became Deputy Director for Air and Energy of the Netherlands Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment , with responsibility for climate policy . He led the Netherlands delegation to the negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the Climate Convention . In 1997 he moved to the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency at RIVM to head the group on climate change and global sustainability and was elected as co-chairman of the Working Group on Climate Change Mitigation of the IPCC for the preparation of the Third Assessment Report . In 2002 he was re-elected in that position for the 4th Assessment Report cycle . Although formally retired , Bert Metz is still very active in the climate policy arena , among others as advisor for the European Climate Foundation and as steering group member of UNEP 's annual Emissions Gap Report . In 2008 he was named Officer in the Order of Orange-Nassau . .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Bert_Metz", "rank": 68, "score": 91129 }, { "content": "Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 69, "score": 90800 }, { "content": "Title: 2007 Nobel Peace Prize Content: The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in two equal parts , between the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and Al Gore `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "2007_Nobel_Peace_Prize", "rank": 70, "score": 90657 }, { "content": "Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :", "qid": "2959", "docid": "List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis", "rank": 71, "score": 90398 }, { "content": "Title: Mohan Munasinghe Content: Mohan Munasinghe is a Sri Lankan physicist , academic and economist with a focus on energy , water resources , sustainable development and climate change . He was a Vice-Chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former Vice-President of the United States Al Gore . Munasinghe is the Chairman of the Munasinghe Institute for Development . Currently he is a Professor of Sustainable Development at the Sustainable Consumption Institute , University of Manchester , and Institute Professor at the Vale Sustainable Development Institute , Federal University of Para , Brazil . He also serves on the board of directors of Green Cross International and is a member of the Club of Rome .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Mohan_Munasinghe", "rank": 72, "score": 90096 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know", "rank": 73, "score": 89637 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 74, "score": 89293 }, { "content": "Title: Gary Yohe Content: Gary Wynn Yohe is the Huffington Foundation Professor of Economics and Environmental Studies at Wesleyan University , Middletown , Connecticut . He holds a PhD from Yale University . Yohe specializes in Microeconomic theory , Natural Resources , and Environmental Economics . He is a researcher on the economics of climate change and integrated assessment modelling . Among other works , he is an editor of the book `` Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change '' and co-author ( with Edwin Mansfield ) of `` Microeconomics | Microeconomics : Theory and Applications '' . He is a senior member of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was awarded a share of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore . He has been involved with the IPCC since the mid-1990s , has served , among other capacities , as a Lead Author for four different chapters in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , and as Convening Lead Author for the last chapter of the contribution of Working Group II to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Yohe also worked with the Core Writing Team to prepare the overall Synthesis Report for the entire Assessment . Yohe is also a member of the New York City Panel on Climate Change and the standing Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change of the National Academy of Sciences . He is also a standing member of the National Academy of Sciences ' Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change . He was a vice-chair of the Third National Climate Assessment . He is one of the four co-signers of an open letter , dated March 12 , 2010 , regarding possible errors in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and regularly advises the US government .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Gary_Yohe", "rank": 75, "score": 89248 }, { "content": "Title: Richard A. Betts Content: Richard A. Betts is Head of the Climate Impacts strategic area at the Met Office Hadley Centre in Exeter , United Kingdom . He is also Chair in Climate Impacts at the University of Exeter and the Principal Investigator of the EU FP7 project HELIX ( High-End cLimate Impacts and eXtremes ) . He was a lead author for Working Group I and a contributing author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He was a lead author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is an editor for the International Journal of Global Warming , the Journal of Environmental Investing , and for Earth System Dynamics . After studying physics at the University of Bristol , Betts switched to meteorology at the University of Birmingham and then studied for a doctorate in meteorology at the University of Reading . He is noted for engaging with critics of climate science on Twitter and was selected by TIME as one of the 140 best Twitter feeds of 2012 .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Richard_A._Betts", "rank": 76, "score": 89191 }, { "content": "Title: Stephen Schneider Content: Stephen Henry Schneider ( February 11 , 1945 -- July 19 , 2010 ) was Professor of Environmental Biology and Global Change at Stanford University , a Co-Director at the Center for Environment Science and Policy of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and a Senior Fellow in the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment . Schneider served as a consultant to federal agencies and White House staff in the Richard Nixon , Jimmy Carter , Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , George W. Bush and Barack Obama administrations . Schneider 's research included modeling of the atmosphere , climate change , and the effect of global climate change on biological systems . Schneider was the founder and editor of the journal Climatic Change and authored or co-authored over 450 scientific papers and other publications . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in Working Group II Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report and was engaged as a co-anchor of the Key Vulnerabilities Cross-Cutting Theme for the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) at the time of his death . During the 1980s , Schneider emerged as a leading public advocate of sharp reductions of greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming . In 2006 Professor Schneider was an Adelaide Thinker in Residence advising the South Australian Government of Premier Mike Rann on climate change and renewable energy policies . In ten years South Australia went from zero to 31 % of its electricity generation coming from renewables . An annual award for outstanding climate science communication was created in Schneider 's honor after his death , by the Commonwealth Club of California .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Stephen_Schneider", "rank": 77, "score": 88402 }, { "content": "Title: Kirk R. Smith Content: Kirk R. Smith is an expert on the health and climate effects of household energy use in developing nations . He is currently a professor of Global Environmental Health at the University of California , Berkeley , where his research focuses on the relationships among environmental quality , health , resource use , climate , development , and policy in developing countries . Smith contributed a great deal to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and the work of the IPCC ( including the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize . Smith is a recipient of the 2012 Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement for his work with cookstoves , health , and climate . He is also credited with designing and implementing the first randomized controlled trial of the health effects of indoor air pollution ( IAP ) from cookstoves .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Kirk_R._Smith", "rank": 78, "score": 87831 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 79, "score": 87611 }, { "content": "Title: List of environmental reports Content: This is a list of notable environmental reports . In this context they relate to the impacts of human activity on the environment . City-level Decoupling : Urban Resource Flows and the Governance of Infrastructure Transitions - by the International Resource Panel Clean Energy Trends - a series of reports by Clean Edge - beginning in 2002 Copeland Report - for the U.S. government , completed in 1933 Copenhagen Diagnosis - written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries Dioxin Reassessment Report - by the United States Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport ( `` Leopold Report '' ) - United States Department of the Interior ( 1969 ) Environmental Risks and Challenges of Anthropogenic Metals Flows and Cycles - by the International Resource Panel Forest Principles - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) The Global 2000 Report to the President - Council on Environmental Quality ( 1981 ) Global Environment Outlook - United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Hirsch report ( Peaking of World Oil Production : Impacts , Mitigation , and Risk Management ) - United States Department of Energy Index of Leading Environmental Indicators - Pacific Research Institute IPCC First Assessment Report - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) IPCC supplementary report , 1992 - IPCC IPCC Second Assessment Report - IPCC IPCC Third Assessment Report Climate Change 2001 - IPCC ( 2001 ) IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 - IPCC ( 2007 ) IPCC Fifth Assessment Report ( 2014 ) Leopold Report ( `` Wildlife Management in the National Parks '' ) - Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management ( 1963 ) Livestock 's Long Shadow - Environmental Issues and Options - United Nations ( 2006 ) Living Planet Report - WWF , every two years Making Sweden an Oil-Free Society - Government of Sweden ( 2006 ) Meat Atlas - published by the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe Nuclear Power and the Environment - UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution - 1976 Our Common Future - World Commission on Environment and Development ( 1987 ) Outlook On Renewable Energy In America ( 2 volumes ) - American Council on Renewable Energy - 2007 Phase I Environmental Site Assessment - generic Planning Policy Statement 10 : Planning for Sustainable Waste Management ( PPS 10 ) - British Government Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation - United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) - planned for 2010 Report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification - Royal Commission on Genetic Modification ( 2001 ) State of the Climate - NOAA/NCDC ( published annually ) The State of the World - Worldwatch Institute ( published yearly since 1984 ) Wegman Report - to validate criticisms of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years Windscale : Britain 's Biggest Nuclear Disaster ( 2007 ) World Climate Report - Greening Earth Society The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates - selected and published by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group ( IUCN/SSC PSG ) , the International Primatological Society ( IPS ) , and Conservation International ( CI )", "qid": "2959", "docid": "List_of_environmental_reports", "rank": 80, "score": 87439 }, { "content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage", "rank": 81, "score": 87198 }, { "content": "Title: Indur M. Goklany Content: Indur M. Goklany is a science and technology policy analyst for the United States Department of the Interior , where he holds the position of Assistant Director of Programs , Science and Technology Policy . He has represented the United States at the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and during the negotiations that led to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . He was a rapporteur for the Resource Use and Management Subgroup of Working Group III of the IPCC First Assessment Report in 1990 , and is the author of Clearing the Air ( 1999 ) , The Precautionary Principle ( 2001 ) , and The Improving State of the World ( 2007 ) .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Indur_M._Goklany", "rank": 82, "score": 86687 }, { "content": "Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "David_Karoly", "rank": 83, "score": 86534 }, { "content": "Title: Jean Palutikof Content: Jean Palutikof is founding Director of the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility ( NCCARF ) at Griffith University , Australia . She has held this position since 2008 . Prior to this , Professor Palutikof was based at the UK Met Office during which time she managed the production of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report for Working Group II ( Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability ) . Professor Palutikof is among the foremost scholars of climate change adaptation and was lead author and review editor for several assessments of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and was present in Oslo at the ceremony at which the IPCC received the Nobel Peace Prize .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Jean_Palutikof", "rank": 84, "score": 86034 }, { "content": "Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Kevin_E._Trenberth", "rank": 85, "score": 85770 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 86, "score": 85405 }, { "content": "Title: Pedro Moura Costa Content: Pedro Moura Costa ( born 1963 , Brazil ) is an entrepreneur involved in environmental finance with a focus on the international efforts for greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emission reductions . Of particular relevance , he was the founder and President of EcoSecurities Group Plc. , one of the leading project developers for the international carbon markets , and has written widely about the policy and science of climate change mitigation , including contributions to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Pedro_Moura_Costa", "rank": 87, "score": 85356 }, { "content": "Title: Patrick Michaels Content: Patrick J. ( `` Pat '' ) Michaels ( born February 15 , 1950 ) is an American climatologist . Michaels is a senior fellow in environmental studies at the Cato Institute . Until 2007 he was research professor of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia , where he had worked from 1980 . A self-described skeptic on the issue of global warming , he is a past president of the American Association of State Climatologists . He has written a number of books and papers on climate change , including Sound and Fury : The Science and Politics of Global Warming ( 1992 ) , The Satanic Gases ( 2000 ) , and Meltdown : The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by Scientists , Politicians , and the Media ( 2004 ) . He 's also the co-author of Climate of Extremes : Global Warming Science They Do n't Want You to Know ( 2009 ) . Michaels ' viewpoint , as argued in a 2002 article in the journal Climate Research , is that the planet will see `` a warming range of 1.3 -- 3.0 ° C , with a central value of 1.9 ° C '' for the 1990 to 2100 period ( an analysis far smaller than the IPCC 's average predictions ) .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Patrick_Michaels", "rank": 88, "score": 85255 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Energy and Climate Change Content: The Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) was a British government department created on 3 October 2008 , by then Prime Minister Gordon Brown to take over some of the functions related to energy of the Department for Business , Enterprise and Regulatory Reform , and those relating to climate change of the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs . It was led at time of closure by the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change , Amber Rudd MP . Following Theresa May 's appointment as Prime Minister in July 2016 , the department was disbanded and merged with the Department for Business , Innovation and Skills , to form the Department for Business , Energy and Industrial Strategy under Greg Clark MP . The Department released a major White Paper in July 2009 , setting out its purpose and plans . The majority of DECC 's budget was spent on managing the historic nuclear sites in the United Kingdom , in 2012/13 this being 69 % of its budget spent through the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority . The costs to the government of nuclear decommissioning are expected to increase when the last of the United Kingdom 's Magnox reactors are shut down and no longer produce an income .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Department_of_Energy_and_Climate_Change", "rank": 89, "score": 85121 }, { "content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "North_Report", "rank": 90, "score": 84844 }, { "content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "qid": "2959", "docid": "James_Hansen", "rank": 91, "score": 84690 }, { "content": "Title: George Kukla Content: George Kukla ( born Jiří Kukla ; 14 March 1930 -- 31 May 2014 ) was a senior research scientist at the Lamont -- Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University . Kukla was a member of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences , prior to emigrating to the US , and a pioneer in the field of astronomical climate forcing . In 1972 he became a central figure in convincing the United States government to take the dangers of climate change seriously . Kukla and geologist , Robert Matthews of Brown University , convened a historic conference , themed : `` The Present Interglacial : How and When will it End ? '' Kukla and Matthews then highlighted the dangers of global cooling in Science magazine and , to President Richard Nixon . The Nixon administration reacted swiftly to their letter , which described calamities such as killer frosts , lower food production and floods , to come . By February 1973 , the State Department had established a Panel on the Present Interglacial , which advised Drs. Kukla and Matthews that it `` was seized of the matter '' and numerous other government agencies were soon included . Kukla was co-author of a chapter in the book `` Natural Climate Variability on Decade to Century Time Scales '' published by the National Research Council . Kukla believed all glacial periods in Earth 's history began with global warming ( understood as an increase of area-weighted average global mean temperature ) . He believed Earth 's recent warming is mostly natural and will ultimately lead to a new ice age .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "George_Kukla", "rank": 92, "score": 84439 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of wind power Content: The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of fossil fuels , is relatively minor . Compared with other low carbon power sources , wind turbines have some of the lowest global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated . According to the IPCC , in assessments of the life-cycle global warming potential of energy sources , wind turbines have a median value of between 15 and 11 ( geq/kWh ) depending on whether off - or onshore turbines are being assessed . While wind turbine installations may cover a large area , they are compatible with many land uses such as farming and grazing , as only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure are made unavailable for use . Wind turbines generate some noise . At a residential distance of 300 m this may be around 45 dB , which is slightly louder than a refrigerator . At 1.5 km distance most wind turbines become inaudible . From a fundamental biological point of view , it is known that loud noise increases stress and stress causes diseases . Peer-reviewed research has generally supported the view that when properly sited wind turbines do not affect human health from noise . However , when improperly sited , data from the monitoring of two groups of growing geese revealed substantially lower body weights and higher concentrations of a stress hormone in the blood of the first group of geese who were situated 50 meters away compared to a second group which was at a distance of 500 meters from the turbine . Aesthetic aspects of wind turbines and resulting changes of the visual landscape can be significant . Conflicts arise especially in scenic and heritage protected landscapes . Siting restrictions ( such as setbacks ) have often been implemented to limit any intrusive environmental impacts . There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial structures . The scale of the ecological impact may or may not be significant , depending on specific circumstances . Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities , and protection of peat bogs , affect the siting and operation of wind turbines .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_wind_power", "rank": 93, "score": 84421 }, { "content": "Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance", "rank": 94, "score": 84421 }, { "content": "Title: Yes, Mr Brown Content: Yes , Mr Brown is a 1933 British musical comedy film directed by Herbert Wilcox and starring Jack Buchanan , Hartley Power , Elsie Randolph and Margot Grahame . The film is currently missing from the BFI National Archive , and is listed as one of the British Film Institute 's `` 75 Most Wanted '' lost films .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Yes,_Mr_Brown", "rank": 95, "score": 84418 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "rank": 96, "score": 84032 }, { "content": "Title: Mootral Content: Mootral is the name given to a programme to reduce methane emissions from ruminant animals , chiefly cows and sheep , but also goats . Methane is a major target greenhouse gas and in the 4th protocol report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is recommended to increase from a x23 to x72 multiplier because of the magnitude of its effect relative to carbon dioxide and short longevity in Earth 's atmosphere .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Mootral", "rank": 97, "score": 83866 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 98, "score": 83794 }, { "content": "Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Michael_E._Mann", "rank": 99, "score": 83741 }, { "content": "Title: Hoesung Lee Content: Hoesung Lee ( born December 31 , 1945 ) is a South Korean economist and current chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . He is professor in the economics of climate change , energy and sustainable development in the Graduate School of Energy , Environment , Policy & Technology at Korea University in the Republic of Korea . Lee received his B.A. in economics from Seoul National University and a Ph.D. in economics from Rutgers University . Lee was elected as the chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) on October 6 , 2015 . One of his elder brothers is Lee Hoi-chang , former Prime Minister of South Korea and three-time presidential candidate .", "qid": "2959", "docid": "Hoesung_Lee", "rank": 100, "score": 83727 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand Content: Climate Change Denial : Heads in the Sand is a non-fiction book about climate change denial , coauthored by Haydn Washington and John Cook , with a foreword by Naomi Oreskes . Washington had a background in environmental science prior to authoring the work , and Cook was educated in physics and founded the website Skeptical Science which compiles peer-reviewed evidence of global warming . The book was first published in hardcover and paperback formats in 2011 by Earthscan , a division of Routledge . The book presents an in-depth analysis and refutation of climate change denial , going over several arguments point-by-point and disproving them with peer-reviewed evidence from the scientific consensus for climate change . The authors assert that those denying climate change engage in tactics including cherry picking data purported to support their specific viewpoints , and attacking the integrity of climate scientists . They use social science theory to examine the phenomenon of climate change denial in the wider public , and call this phenomenon a form of pathology . The book traces financial support for climate change denial to the fossil fuel industry , asserting these companies have attempted to influence public opinion on the matter . Washington and Cook write that politicians have a tendency to use weasel words as part of a propaganda tactic through use of spin , as a way to deflect public interest away from climate change and remain passive on the issue . The authors conclude that if the public ceased engaging in denial , the problem of climate change could be realistically addressed . For his research on the book , and efforts in communicating the essence of climate change science to the general public , John Cook won the 2011 Australian Museum Eureka Prize for Advancement of Climate Change Knowledge . Climate Change Denial received a positive reception in reviews from publications including : The Ecologist , ECOS magazine , academic journal Natures Sciences Sociétés , the journal Education published by the New South Wales Teachers Federation , . An article in The New American was critical , describing the labels of `` deniers '' and `` denialists '' as cruel and forms of character assassination .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Climate_Change_Denial:_Heads_in_the_Sand", "rank": 1, "score": 83335 }, { "content": "Title: Cooks Formation Content: The Cooks Formation is a geologic formation in New Mexico . It preserves fossils dating back to the Ordovician period .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cooks_Formation", "rank": 2, "score": 81213 }, { "content": "Title: New Scandinavian Cooking Content: New Scandinavian Cooking is a Scandinavian cooking show which , over the course of ten seasons , was hosted by Andreas Viestad , Tina Nordström , and Claus Meyer , produced by the Norwegian production company Tellus Works in collaboration with American Public Television ( APT ) . A sequel series titled Perfect Day continued with the original hosts in rotation , with the cast addition of Sara La Fountain . It is also broadcast on channels such as AFC . Beginning in 2003 , the show debuted on PBS in the United States ( 72 % of the 347 regional PBS channels ) . It has also been broadcast in more than 130 other countries , including the United Kingdom , China , Germany , Italy , and France , according to the show 's producers a viewership of 100 million per episode . The first , second , fourth , fifth , and sixth seasons were hosted by Norwegian food writer Andreas Viestad , the third season by Swedish chef and television personality Tina Nordström , and the fifth season was hosted by Danish chef and cookbook author Claus Meyer . The sixth season , a sequel series Perfect Day rotated the original hosts Viestad , Nordström , and Meyer , with the addition of Finnish TV chef Sara La Fountain . The seventh season was once again named New Scandinavian Cooking , and still rotated between the Nordic hosts . During the eight and ninth seasons Andreas continued the series on his own , with his passionate storytelling , fusing history , nature , and cooking -- seeking out the origins of the food with his mobile kitchen . In season 10 which was broadcast in 2013 , the last of the Nordic countries was introduced to the series namely Iceland , the land of fire and ice . The upcoming season 11 ( 2014 ) will reintroduce Swedish chef Tina Nordström in rotation with Norwegian chef Andreas Viestad . -LSB- 5 -RSB- The success of the series is in part due to its original format , its hosts and the series production teams . The food is not prepared in a studio but executed on location outdoors , at a mobile kitchen often situated in faraway places , such as remote beaches or mountain precipices . The hosts showcase different regions and dishes of Norway , Sweden , Denmark , Finland , Iceland , and Greenland .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "New_Scandinavian_Cooking", "rank": 3, "score": 78419 }, { "content": "Title: Cookstown, New Jersey Content: Cookstown is an unincorporated community located within New Hanover Township in Burlington County , New Jersey , United States . Located near Fort Dix , the area is served as United States Postal Service ZIP Code 08511 . As of the 2000 United States Census , the population for ZIP Code Tabulation Area 08511 was 1,133 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cookstown,_New_Jersey", "rank": 4, "score": 77396 }, { "content": "Title: James Cook University Law Review Content: The James Cook University Law Review is an annual peer-reviewed law journal published by the James Cook University School of Law .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "James_Cook_University_Law_Review", "rank": 5, "score": 77240 }, { "content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change", "rank": 6, "score": 76722 }, { "content": "Title: Richard Cecil Cook Content: Richard Cecil Cook ( 2 March 1902 -- 29 July 1977 ) was an Australian judge and a member of the Industrial Commission of New South Wales .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Richard_Cecil_Cook", "rank": 7, "score": 74833 }, { "content": "Title: Orchard Cook Content: Orchard Cook ( March 24 , 1763 -- August 12 , 1819 ) was a U.S. Representative from Massachusetts . Born in Salem , Massachusetts , Cook attended the public schools , and engaged in mercantile pursuits . He served as Assessor of Pownal Borough in 1786 , and Town clerk of New Milford , district of Maine from 1795 to 1797 . He was a Justice of the Peace , served as judge of the court of common pleas for Lincoln County 1799 -- 1810 , was appointed assistant assessor of the twenty-fifth district in November 1798 , and served as overseer of Bowdoin College from 1800 to 1805 . Cook was elected as a Democratic-Republican to the Ninth , Tenth , and Eleventh Congresses ( March 4 , 1805 -- March 3 , 1811 ) . He was not a candidate for renomination in 1810 . He then served as Sheriff of Lincoln County in 1811 , and Postmaster of Wiscasset , Maine , from 1811 until his death there August 12 , 1819 . He was interred in Evergreen Cemetery .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Orchard_Cook", "rank": 8, "score": 73867 }, { "content": "Title: Cookes Range Content: The Cookes Range ( Cooke 's Range , Cooks Range or Cook 's Range ) is a small , 17-mi ( 27 km ) long mountain range in northern Luna County , New Mexico , which extends slightly north into southeastern Grant County . The range is a southern continuation of the Mimbres Mountains , itself the southeast portion of the extensive north-south running Black Range . The Cooks Range is surrounded by lower elevation areas of the northwest Chihuahuan Desert .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cookes_Range", "rank": 9, "score": 73826 }, { "content": "Title: Division of Cook (1906–55) Content: The Division of Cook was an Australian Electoral Division in New South Wales . The division was created in 1906 and abolished in 1955 . The Division was named for James Cook , who discovered the east coast of Australia in 1770 . It was located in the inner suburbs of Sydney , taking in the suburbs of Alexandria , Redfern and Surry Hills . It has been a safe seat for the Australian Labor Party , but in the 1930s and 1940s it was fiercely contested between Federal Labor and Lang Labor factions of the party .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Division_of_Cook_(1906–55)", "rank": 10, "score": 72764 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 11, "score": 72640 }, { "content": "Title: Electoral district of Cook's River Content: Cook 's River was an electoral district of the Legislative Assembly in the Australian state of New South Wales , created in 1941 , partly replacing Arncliffe , and named after inner southwestern Sydney 's Cooks River . It was abolished in 1973 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Electoral_district_of_Cook's_River", "rank": 12, "score": 72378 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus Content: Scientific consensus is the collective judgment , position , and opinion of the community of scientists in a particular field of study . Consensus implies general agreement , though not necessarily unanimity . Consensus is normally achieved through communication at conferences , the publication process , replication ( reproducible results by others ) , and peer review . These lead to a situation in which those within the discipline can often recognize such a consensus where it exists , but communicating to outsiders that consensus has been reached can be difficult , because the ` normal ' debates through which science progresses may seem to outsiders as contestation . On occasion , scientific institutes issue position statements intended to communicate a summary of the science from the `` inside '' to the `` outside '' of the scientific community . In cases where there is little controversy regarding the subject under study , establishing what the consensus is can be quite straightforward . Scientific consensus may be invoked in popular or political debate on subjects that are controversial within the public sphere but which may not be controversial within the scientific community , such as evolution or the claimed linkage of MMR vaccinations and autism .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Scientific_consensus", "rank": 13, "score": 72309 }, { "content": "Title: Orator F. Cook Content: Orator Fuller Cook , Jr. ( May 28 , 1867 -- April 23 , 1949 ) was an American botanist , entomologist , and agronomist , known for his work on cotton and rubber cultivation and for coining the term speciation , the process by which new species arise from existing ones . He published nearly 400 articles on topics such as genetics , evolution , sociology , geography , and anthropology .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Orator_F._Cook", "rank": 14, "score": 72097 }, { "content": "Title: Division of Cook Content: The Division of Cook is an Australian electoral division in the state of New South Wales . The division was created in 1969 and is named for James Cook , who mapped the east coast of Australia in 1770 . The division is located in the southern suburbs of Sydney , including Beverley Park , Burraneer , Caringbah , Caringbah South , Carss Park , Cronulla , Dolans Bay , Dolls Point , Greenhills Beach , Gymea Bay , Kangaroo Point , Kogarah Bay , Kurnell , Kyle Bay , Lilli Pilli , Miranda , Monterey , Port Hacking , Ramsgate , Ramsgate Beach , Sandringham , Sans Souci , Sylvania Waters , Taren Point , Woolooware , and Yowie Bay ; as well as parts of Blakehurst , Connells Point , Gymea , Kogarah , and Sylvania . The current Member for Cook , since the 2007 federal election , is Scott Morrison , a member of the Liberal Party of Australia .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Division_of_Cook", "rank": 15, "score": 71951 }, { "content": "Title: Administration & Society Content: Administration and Society is a peer-reviewed academic journal that covers the field of public administration . The journal 's editor-in-chief is Brian J. Cook ( Virginia Tech ) . It was established in 1969 and is currently published by SAGE Publications .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Administration_&_Society", "rank": 16, "score": 70860 }, { "content": "Title: Cook by-election, 1955 Content: A by-election was held for the Australian House of Representatives seat of Cook on 21 May 1955 . This was triggered by the death of Labor MP Tom Sheehan . The by-election was won by Labor candidate Jim Cope . The governing Liberal Party did not nominate a candidate , which resulted in Cope receiving over 85 % of the first preference vote .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook_by-election,_1955", "rank": 17, "score": 70770 }, { "content": "Title: Cooks Gardens Content: Cooks Gardens is a multi-purpose stadium in Wanganui , New Zealand . It is currently used mostly for rugby union matches , athletics and cycling . The main stadium , known as westpac stadium is able to hold 20,700 people with 3,500 covered seats .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cooks_Gardens", "rank": 18, "score": 70768 }, { "content": "Title: Cooks Source infringement controversy Content: The Cooks Source infringement controversy occurred in November 2010 , when Cooks Source , a free , advertising-supported publication distributed in the New England region of the United States , became the center of a copyright infringement dispute after the magazine reprinted an online article without permission of the author . The controversy was fueled by social media and crowdsourced investigations finding additional alleged infringement and plagiarism . The incident became an international topic of news and analysis , which expanded to become an internet meme . On the issue of copyright , the incident illustrates that `` masses of Internet users are very good at finding examples of copyright infringement , which counterbalances how easy the Internet has made plagiarism in the first place . '' At the same time , the response by the Cooks Source editor `` may well become a digital textbook example of how not to respond to grievances in the internet age . '' The incident was named journalistic Error of the Year for 2010 by Craig Silverman of website Regret the Error . The fallout from the controversy drove Cooks Source out of business within two weeks of it breaking in full .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cooks_Source_infringement_controversy", "rank": 19, "score": 70689 }, { "content": "Title: Cook Park, Orange Content: Cook Park is a historical park located in Orange , New South Wales , Australia . It was established in 1873 and covers an area of 4 hectares . The park 's main entrance is from the corner of Summer Street and Clinton Street .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook_Park,_Orange", "rank": 20, "score": 70196 }, { "content": "Title: Howard Cook Content: Howard Norton Cook ( 1901 -- 1980 ) was an American artist , particularly known for his wood engravings and murals . Cook spent much of the 1920s in Europe and returned to live in Taos , New Mexico . Cook first came to Taos , New Mexico in 1926 commissioned by The Forum to make a series of woodcuts to illustrate Death Comes for the Archbishop that would be published serially in the periodical . In Taos he was introduced to artist Barbara Latham by Victor Higgins . The couple married in May 1927 . From 1928 to 1935 , they traveled : to Europe , Mexico and the American South . Cook worked under the WPA producing murals for include courthouses in Pittsburgh and Springfield , Massachusetts . He also produced a 16 panel fresco , The Importance of San Antonio in Texas History , in a San Antonio post office , for which he was paid $ 12,000 in 1937 . In 1938 , the couple settled near Taos on the Talpa ridge . This became their base until 1976 . During World War II , Cook was an artist for the US Navy . In 1943 he was appointed Leader of a War Art Unit and served in the Solomon Islands in the Asiatic-Pacific Theater . In 1967 , Cook became the first artist in the Roswell Museum and Art Center 's Artist-in-Residence program . The couple started to spend their winters in Roswell , New Mexico , where they eventually moved in 1973 . Due to Cook 's ill health , the couple moved to Santa Fe in 1976 . Cook died in 1980 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Howard_Cook", "rank": 21, "score": 70109 }, { "content": "Title: Sarah Cook (curator) Content: Sarah Cook is a Canadian scholar , historian and curator in the field of New Media art . Cook was a Research Fellow at the University of Sunderland , where she worked with the research institute CRUMB -- Curatorial Resource for Upstart Media Bliss , that she co-founded with Beryl Graham in 2000 , and taught on the MA Curating course . In 2013 she was appointed as a Reader and Dundee Research Fellow at Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art , University of Dundee . She is a trustee of folly in Lancaster . For many years , she has curated exhibitions of New Media art and was instrumental in establishing New media as an academic subject and an accepted art form .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Sarah_Cook_(curator)", "rank": 22, "score": 69911 }, { "content": "Title: Richard Cook (painter born 1947) Content: Richard Cook ( born 1947 , Cheltenham , England ) is a British painter living and working in Newlyn , Cornwall . Cook has been exhibiting for over twenty five years and has received awards from the British Council and the Arts Council . In 2001 he was given a solo show at Tate St Ives , with a related publication , and a major painting was acquired for the collection in 2006 . Further works are held in the British Museum collection .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Richard_Cook_(painter_born_1947)", "rank": 23, "score": 69819 }, { "content": "Title: J. Samuel Cook Content: Samuel J. Cook , III ( born November 12 , 1983 ) is an African-American playwright , journalist , educator and writer currently serving as director of the 7th Ward Neighborhood Center in New Orleans , a non-profit organization designed to improve quality of life conditions for residents of New Orleans ' historic 7th Ward . His one-act play Barren Fields won an NAACP ACT-SO medal in 2002 . Also an educator , he formerly worked with at-risk youth at Walter L. Cohen Senior High in New Orleans . He was born in Toledo , Ohio .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "J._Samuel_Cook", "rank": 24, "score": 69675 }, { "content": "Title: Cook the Books (New Zealand) Content: Cook the Books is a New Zealand cooking show . It is based on the Cook the Books bookstore that focuses on NZ chefs who have released their own cookbooks and to cook from them . The show is hosted by Carly Flynn , and aired its first season on Choice TV on 30 October 2014 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook_the_Books_(New_Zealand)", "rank": 25, "score": 69531 }, { "content": "Title: Cooks Hill, New South Wales Content: Cooks Hill is an inner city suburb of Newcastle , New South Wales , Australia . It is typified by its tree lined streets , rows of Victorian terrace housing , turn of the century timber cottages and corner pubs . Cooks Hill had a population of 3,621 in 2011 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cooks_Hill,_New_South_Wales", "rank": 26, "score": 69348 }, { "content": "Title: Cooks, Michigan Content: Cooks is an unincorporated community in Schoolcraft County , Michigan , United States . Cooks is located in Inwood Township along the Canadian National Railway north of U.S. Route 2 , 11.5 mi west-southwest of Manistique . Cooks has a post office with ZIP code 49817 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cooks,_Michigan", "rank": 27, "score": 69280 }, { "content": "Title: Marv Cook Content: Marvin Eugene `` Marv '' Cook ( born February 24 , 1966 ) is a former professional American football player who was selected by the New England Patriots in the third round of the 1989 NFL Draft . A 6 ' 4 '' , 234-lb . tight end from the University of Iowa , Cook played in seven NFL seasons from 1989 to 1995 for the Patriots , the Chicago Bears , and the St. Louis Rams . He was a two-time Pro Bowl selection in 1991 and 1992 . In 1991 , Cook was fourth in NFL receptions with 83 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Marv_Cook", "rank": 28, "score": 68573 }, { "content": "Title: John Cook House Content: The John Cook House is a historic house at 35 Elm Street in New Haven , Connecticut . It is a Federal style stone building , built c. 1807 by John Cook , a tailor and merchant . It is one of the oldest stone buildings in New Haven . The house has a rare feature , in that it includes quoining with sandstone , a feature not normally found in stone buildings of the period . Its later owners include Charles Atwater , Jr. , and a number of local health service organizations . The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 . It is adjacent to the 1828 Caroline Nicoll House , another NRHP-listed building .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "John_Cook_House", "rank": 29, "score": 68353 }, { "content": "Title: Cooks River Content: The Cooks River , a semi-mature tide dominated drowned valley estuary , is a tributary of Botany Bay , located in south-eastern Sydney , New South Wales , Australia . The course of the 23 km long urban waterway has been altered to accommodate various developments along its shore . It serves as part of a stormwater system for the 100 km2 of its watershed , and many of the original streams running into it have been turned into concrete lined channels . The tidal sections support significant areas of mangroves , bird , and fish life , and are used for recreational activities .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cooks_River", "rank": 30, "score": 68331 }, { "content": "Title: Cook, Minnesota Content: Cook is a city in Saint Louis County , Minnesota , United States . The population was 574 at the 2010 census . U.S. Highway 53 and State Highway 1 ( MN 1 ) are the two main routes through the city . Cook serves as the gateway to the western half of Lake Vermilion .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook,_Minnesota", "rank": 31, "score": 68172 }, { "content": "Title: Charles D. Cook Content: thumb | Sen. Charles D. Cook Charles David Cook ( February 26 , 1935 -- May 23 , 2001 ) was a US legislator . He served in the New York State legislature for over 25 years . He was elected Senator in 1978 . During his time in office , Cook represented all or parts of 11 different counties , or one-sixth of all the counties in New York State . He is mainly remembered for his work in health care , education , rural issues , and reproductive choice .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Charles_D._Cook", "rank": 32, "score": 68120 }, { "content": "Title: Rick Cook (architect) Content: Rick ( Richard ) Cook ( born 1960 ) is a New York City architect best known for designing the Bank of America Tower at One Bryant Park , a 2100000 sqft skyscraper that is the first commercial high rise to receive the United States Green Building Council 's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) Platinum Certification . In 1992 , Cook became a founding partner in the firm Richard Cook & Associates . He developed a portfolio ranging from master planning to various commercial and residential projects , including The Caroline , one of the largest new buildings ever completed in a New York City historic district ; the Chelsea Grande , which received a Charter Award from the Congress for New Urbanism ; and 360 Madison Avenue , which was called `` the best new building in years '' by the New York Sun . Cook joined with his longtime mentor and friend Robert F. Fox , Jr. to form COOKFOX , LLP ( formerly Cook + Fox Architects ) in 2003 . To date , COOKFOX has completed 3 LEED Platinum projects in New York City , including the firm 's own office , Skanska 's full floor office in the Empire State Building and the Bank of America Tower . COOKFOX designed the award-winning redevelopment of the Historic South Street Seaport neighborhood , which received an AIA-NY/Boston Society of Architects Honor Award for Housing Design , and the new Henry Miller 's Theatre - the first green Broadway theater . COOKFOX also designed the Center for Friends Without a Border , a visitor 's center for the Angkor Hospital for Children in Siem Reap , Cambodia . As part of their involvement with this project , COOKFOX implemented `` The Green Initiative , '' a social venture to fund five local NGOs through the production of sustainable fuels ; the project was a semi-finalist in the 2010 Buckminster Fuller Challenge . Cook and Fox partnered with Bill Browning in 2006 to form Terrapin Bright Green LLC , an environmental consulting and strategic planning firm . Cook was born in Massachusetts and grew up in Latham , New York . He attended Syracuse University where he graduated cum laude with a Bachelor of Architecture in 1983 and was awarded the Norman J. Wiedersom Traveling Fellowship to study in Florence , Italy . Cook resides in Palisades , New York with his wife and children .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Rick_Cook_(architect)", "rank": 33, "score": 67705 }, { "content": "Title: New Alliance Party (Cook Islands) Content: The New Alliance Party was a political party in the Cook Islands . The party was led by Norman George , and was a continuation of his Alliance Party . The Alliance had merged with the Democratic Party to form the Democratic Alliance after the 1994 elections , but a struggle over the leadership between George and Terepai Maoate saw George split off again in 1997 , accompanied by Jim Marurai . The party won 4 seats at the 1999 election , and formed a brief coalition with the Cook Islands Party which saw George serve as Deputy Prime Minister . A coalition realignment in November 1999 saw the NAP support Democratic party leader Terepai Maoate as Prime Minister , and the party remained in coalition despite George 's subsequent sacking from Cabinet . The NAP re-merged with the Democratic Alliance in 2002 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "New_Alliance_Party_(Cook_Islands)", "rank": 34, "score": 67606 }, { "content": "Title: Cook Statue, Christchurch Content: The Cook Statue in Victoria Square , Christchurch , commemorates the three journeys of James Cook to New Zealand . The statue , sculpted by William Trethewey , was unveiled on 10 August 1932 by the Governor-General , Lord Bledisloe . It was donated by bookmaker and philanthropist Matthew Barnett ( 1861 -- 1935 ) .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook_Statue,_Christchurch", "rank": 35, "score": 67549 }, { "content": "Title: Cook River Content: The Cook River / Weheka is in the South Island of New Zealand . The headwaters are from the La Perouse Glacier on the western flanks of the Southern Alps , and it flows west , then northeast , then northwest and into the Tasman Sea . Its tributaries include the Balfour River , fed by the Balfour Glacier , and the Fox River , fed by the Fox Glacier . Much of the river lies within the Westland Tai Poutini National Park . The river was renamed from Cook River to Cook River / Weheka as a result of the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998 . Brown trout can be fished for in the river . Access along the river by foot is difficult beyond the junction with the Balfour River . There are no approved helicopter landing sites in the river valley , but there are chamois , tahr and small numbers of red deer available to hunters .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook_River", "rank": 36, "score": 67511 }, { "content": "Title: Clarence Cook Content: Clarence Chatham Cook ( September 8 , 1828 -- June 2 , 1900 ) was a 19th-century American author and art critic . Born in Dorchester , Massachusetts , Cook graduated from Harvard in 1849 and worked as a teacher . Between 1863 and 1869 , Cook wrote a series of articles about American art for The New York Tribune . In 1869 , he moved to France and was the Parisian correspondent for The New York Tribune until the onset of the Franco-Prussian War . Cook was known for his expertise in archeology and antiquities and was instrumental in the criticism of the collection of General di Cesnola . In the mid-1850s Cook began to read works by John Ruskin and associated with a group of American artists , writers , and architects who followed Ruskin 's thinking . Through this group he became aware of the British Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood . In 1863 , with Clarence King and John William Hill he helped to found the Society for the Advancement of Truth in Art , an American group , similar to the Pre-Raphaelites , who published a journal called The New Path . In 1869 Cook wrote A Description of the New York Central Park . In 1877 , articles on home furnishings that Cook had written for Scribner 's Monthly were published as a book entitled The House Beautiful . In 1879 , Cook served as editor for Wilhelm Lübke 's History of Art . Cook died at his home in Fishkill Landing , New York , from complications of Bright 's Disease . He was 71 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Clarence_Cook", "rank": 37, "score": 67468 }, { "content": "Title: Richard C. Cook Content: Richard C. Cook ( born October 20 , 1946 ) is a former U.S. federal government analyst , who was instrumental in exposing White House cover-ups regarding the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster of 1986 . As a witness to the incident and a participant in the subsequent investigations , Cook provided key documents to The New York Times and testified before the Rogers Commission . In 1990 , he received the Cavallo Foundation Award for Moral Courage in Business and Government for his testimony . In 2007 , his memoirs of the tragedy were published in a book entitled , Challenger Revealed : An Insider 's Account of How the Reagan Administration Caused the Greatest Tragedy of the Space Age . As a Policy Analyst for the U.S. Government from 1970 until 1986 , Richard Cook 's career included service with the U.S. Civil Service Commission , the Food and Drug Administration , the White House Consumer Office , and NASA . From 1986 until 2007 , Cook served as a Project Manager for the U.S. Treasury Department , Financial Management Service ( FMS ) Now retired from 32-years of government service , Cook works as a writer and private consultant with particular focus on Monetary Reform . His articles on economics , politics , and space policy have been published in numerous magazines , newspapers and websites , and have been translated into several languages . A leading spokesman for Economic Democracy , Cook 's most recent book , We Hold These Truths : The Hope of Monetary Reform was published in 2009 . He is also author of In the Footsteps of the Yogi : The 1999 U.S. Tour of Sri Sri Sri Shivabalayogi Maharaj , and was recently named the U.S. director for White Light Books , a company based in Australia that focuses on the merging of public affairs with world spiritual currents .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Richard_C._Cook", "rank": 38, "score": 67421 }, { "content": "Title: James M. Cook Content: James Merrill Cook ( November 19 , 1807 in Ballston , Saratoga County , New York -- April 12 , 1868 in Saratoga , New York ) was an American businessman , banker and politician .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "James_M._Cook", "rank": 39, "score": 67273 }, { "content": "Title: Cook County, New South Wales Content: Cook County was one of the original Nineteen Counties in New South Wales and is now one of the 141 Cadastral divisions of New South Wales . It includes the area to the west of Sydney in the Blue Mountains , between the Colo River in the north , and the Coxs River in the south and west , encompassing Lithgow , Mount Victoria , Katoomba , Wentworth Falls , Lawson and most of the other towns in the Blue Mountains . The Nepean River is the border to the east . Before 1834 , the area was part of the Westmoreland , Northumberland and Roxburgh counties . Cook County was named in honour of the navigator James Cook ( 1728-1779 ) . The Electoral district of Cook and Westmoreland was the first state electoral district for the area , between 1856 and 1859 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook_County,_New_South_Wales", "rank": 40, "score": 67215 }, { "content": "Title: Vivian E. Cook Content: Vivian E. Cook ( born May 23 , 1937 ) represents District 32 in the New York State Assembly , which comprises New York City 's Queens borough neighborhoods of Jamaica Estates , Rochdale Village , and Springfield . A native of Rock Hill , South Carolina , Cook has served as District Leader of Queens for over 25 years . She is the Chairwoman of the Queens County Democratic Committee , as well as a member of both the Queens County Executive Committee and the Democratic National Committee . In 1988 , and again in 1992 , she served as a delegate to the Democratic National Convention . Cook was first elected to the State Assembly in 1990 . She was appointed Chairwoman of the Task Force on Food and the Farm and Nutrition Policy in 2000 . She currently is Chair of the Majority Program Committee . She also serves as Treasurer of the New York State Black and Puerto Rican Legislative Caucus . Cook ran uncontested in the 2008 and 2010 general elections .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Vivian_E._Cook", "rank": 41, "score": 67105 }, { "content": "Title: Electoral district of Cook and Westmoreland Content: Cook and Westmoreland was an electoral district of the Legislative Assembly in the Australian state of New South Wales in the first and second Parliaments ( 1856 -- 1859 ) , named after Cook and Westmoreland counties in the Blue Mountains , Lithgow and Oberon areas . It was largely replaced by Hartley . It elected two members simultaneously , with voters casting two votes and the first two candidates being elected .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Electoral_district_of_Cook_and_Westmoreland", "rank": 42, "score": 67054 }, { "content": "Title: The Cooks Content: The Cooks was an Australian television drama series that ran for one season on Network Ten during the summer of 2004/05 . It was a co-production with subscription television and screened on the UKTV channel on Foxtel . It was produced by Penny Chapman and Sue Masters . The directors were Tony Tilse , Ian Gilmour , Brendan Maher and Ian Watson . The Cooks was about the love and war involving the staff of two restaurants on the same street . R&R 's Restaurant was run by chefs Rita and Ruth , with waitress Argentine Carmelita . Across the road at Snatch and Grab , its chefs are Gabe and Sachin , who 's of Indian descent , with Dishpig at the sink . The Cooks was a spin-off of a telemovie called Temptation , which screened in 2003 , starring Colin Friels as Roberto Francobelli .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "The_Cooks", "rank": 43, "score": 66883 }, { "content": "Title: Charles Cook (academic) Content: Charles Henry Herbert Cook ( 30 September 1843 -- 21 May 1910 ) was an English-born , Australian-raised , New Zealand-based mathematician . He was born in Kentish Town , Middlesex , England on 30 September 1843 , but educated in Melbourne , Australia , where he got a BA and an LLB from University of Melbourne . He then went to St John 's College , Cambridge , initially to train for the English Bar but became interested in mathematics . In 1874 , a year before being due to be called to the bar , Cook was appointed founding head of mathematics at Canterbury College , University of New Zealand ( now Canterbury University ) . He joined co-founders John Macmillan Brown and Alexander Bickerton in Christchurch , New Zealand and initially focused on Latin and mathematics . He was also involved in promoting the establishment of the University 's engineering school . He is remembered primarily for his teaching ; Nobel Prize-winning physicist Ernest Rutherford cited him as an influence : Cook was evidently a sound mathematician and an excellent teacher along orthodox lines , with no marked tendency to stray from those lines . He was involved in secondary education , acting as an examiner for the New Zealand Department of Education and holding a fellowship at the Anglican Christ 's College , Christchurch from 1891 to 1908 . Cook was a member of the Royal Commission on Higher Education 1878 -- 1800 and a member of the senate of the University of New Zealand . In 1903 , Cook appeared in the vanity press The Cyclopedia of New Zealand , with a photo and short article . He died in Marton , New Zealand on 21 May 1910 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Charles_Cook_(academic)", "rank": 44, "score": 66683 }, { "content": "Title: Electoral district of Sydney-Cook Content: Sydney-Cook was an electoral district of the Legislative Assembly in the Australian state of New South Wales , created in 1894 in inner Sydney from part of the electoral district of South Sydney and named after James Cook . It was in the Surry Hills area , bounded by Elizabeth Street , Foveaux Street , Riley Street , Tudor Street , Davies Street , Nobbs Street , South Dowling Street , and Cleveland Street . It was abolished in 1904 and partly replaced by Surry Hills .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Electoral_district_of_Sydney-Cook", "rank": 45, "score": 66642 }, { "content": "Title: League of Revolutionaries for a New America Content: The League of Revolutionaries for a New America ( LRNA ) is an organization of revolutionaries in the United States formed with the stated goal of `` educating revolutionaries and winning them over to a cooperative communist resolution to the problems faced in the economy and society . '' ( Program of the League of Revolutionaries for a New America ) The League was founded in 1993 . Its roots go back into the communist movements of the early 20th century . Nelson Peery , who was instrumental in its founding , had been a member of the Communist Party USA but left the Party in 1958 . He was part of a Provisional Organizing Committee to Reconstitute a Marxist Leninist Party ( POC ) , which felt the Communist Party USA was supporting revisionism in the Soviet Union .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "League_of_Revolutionaries_for_a_New_America", "rank": 46, "score": 66534 }, { "content": "Title: Cooks Station Content: Cooks or Cook 's Station , elevation 5000 ft , is a roadside stop on State Route 88 in Amador County in the Sierra Nevada mountains . Built in 1863 as part of the Volcano cutoff of the Carson Emigrant Trail , Cooks Station is one of two remaining `` stations '' on the highway among many that sprang up after the road was completed over the Carson Pass in the 1860s . The other remaining station is Ham 's Station , located 3.3 mi east at 6000 ft elevation . Both stations are routinely used by the California Department of Transportation ( CALTRANS ) to indicate points where snow chains are required for continued travel during snowstorms . Current conditions and requirements are posted at the CALTRANS road information website .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cooks_Station", "rank": 47, "score": 66524 }, { "content": "Title: Richard M. Cook Content: Richard M. Cook is an American academic who specializes in American literature . He was a recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship in 2009 and is the author of a biography of the critic Alfred Kazin . Cook teaches American literature at the University of Missouri -- St. Louis . He is also the recipient of fellowships from the Fulbright Foundation and the National Endowment for the Humanities .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Richard_M._Cook", "rank": 48, "score": 66479 }, { "content": "Title: Nieuwe Haagse Kookboek Content: The New Hague Cookbook , or , the Hague Cookbook , is one of the classical cookbooks of the Dutch cuisine . Since the book was first published in 1934 , it has seen more than 80 reprints .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Nieuwe_Haagse_Kookboek", "rank": 49, "score": 66282 }, { "content": "Title: David J. Cook Content: David J. Cook ( 1840/1842 -- April 2 , 1907 ) was an American western lawman and City Marshal of Denver , Colorado , responsible for over 3,000 arrests .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "David_J._Cook", "rank": 50, "score": 66267 }, { "content": "Title: Aoraki / Mount Cook Content: Aoraki / Mount Cook is the highest mountain in New Zealand . Its height since 2014 is listed as 3724 m , down from 3764 m before December 1991 , due to a rockslide and subsequent erosion . It lies in the Southern Alps , the mountain range which runs the length of the South Island . A popular tourist destination , it is also a favourite challenge for mountain climbers . Aoraki / Mount Cook consists of three summits , from South to North the Low Peak ( 3593 m ) , Middle Peak ( 3717 m ) and High Peak . The summits lie slightly south and east of the main divide of the Southern Alps , with the Tasman Glacier to the east and the Hooker Glacier to the southwest . There was a large rock fall in 1991 that turned the summit into a knife-edge ridge and reduced the height of the mountain by an estimated 10 m or so at that time . A/MC was measured in 2013 to be 3724 m , which is 30 m down from its pre-1991 rock-fall measurement .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Aoraki_/_Mount_Cook", "rank": 51, "score": 66250 }, { "content": "Title: Peerless-Premier Appliance Company Content: The Peerless-Premier Appliance Company is an appliance manufacturer located in Belleville , IL that manufactures kitchen ranges for residential use .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Peerless-Premier_Appliance_Company", "rank": 52, "score": 66048 }, { "content": "Title: Cook (crater) Content: Cook is a lunar crater that lies in the western part of the Mare Fecunditatis , just to the southeast of the prominent crater Colombo . To the southwest is Monge . The interior of this crater has been flooded with lava , leaving only a low rim projecting above the surface . This rim is not quite circular , and has a somewhat hexagonal appearance . The low wall is worn in a few places , particularly along the northeastern rim . There is a tiny craterlet called Cook A on the interior floor near the southeast rim .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook_(crater)", "rank": 53, "score": 66017 }, { "content": "Title: Cook, South Australia Content: Cook is a railway station and crossing loop on the standard gauge Trans-Australian Railway from Port Augusta to Kalgoorlie , with no inhabited places around . It is 826 km by rail from Port Augusta , and is connected to the Eyre Highway by an unsealed road about 100 km long .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook,_South_Australia", "rank": 54, "score": 66008 }, { "content": "Title: Richard J. Cook Content: Richard J. Cook is an American educator who served as the twentieth president of Allegheny College . He was previously the provost of Kalamazoo College . Prior to that , Cook served as a professor of chemistry . On April 30 , 2007 , Cook announced he would step down as president of Allegheny College at the end of the 2007-2008 academic year . According to Allegheny Magazine , Cook played a key role in the controversial change in Kalamazoo College 's K plan from a year-round calendar to a three quarter calendar . At Allegheny College , he has promoted civic engagement . Cook 's undergraduate education was at the University of Michigan , while his graduate work in Chemistry was at Princeton University .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Richard_J._Cook", "rank": 55, "score": 66001 }, { "content": "Title: Cooks Monument and Reserve Content: Cooks Monument and Reserve is a heritage-listed memorial at Charlotte Street , Cooktown , Shire of Cook , Queensland , Australia . It was designed in the office of the Queensland Colonial Architect and built by Hobbs and Carter in 1887 . It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 30 April 1997 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cooks_Monument_and_Reserve", "rank": 56, "score": 65974 }, { "content": "Title: Cookamidgera, New South Wales Content: Cookamidgera is a town , Parish of Ashburnham County and Cadastral suburb of Parkes Shire , in the state of New South Wales , Australia . Originally known as Bindegandri , the town was renamed Cookamidgera on 29 August 1895 . Cookamidgera is a stop on the Broken Hill railway line which was opened in 1893 . The passenger servies stopped in the 1970s , and passengers alight at the nearby Parkes railway station . Most retail and commercial activity has also left the town , with such services being obtained in the adjoining suburb of Parkes . The remaining services in the town are Rural Fire Service brigade , one church , Mechanics Institute and the rail platform .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cookamidgera,_New_South_Wales", "rank": 57, "score": 65891 }, { "content": "Title: Cook, Nebraska Content: Cook is a village in Johnson County , Nebraska , United States . The population was 321 at the 2010 census .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook,_Nebraska", "rank": 58, "score": 65842 }, { "content": "Title: Cook, Ohio Content: Cook is an unincorporated community in Madison Township , Fayette County , Ohio , United States . It is located at , along Cook-Yankeetown Road ( Fayette County Highway 34 ) , just west of its intersection with U.S. Route 62/State Route 3 . The community has the name of Matthew S. Cook , an original owner of the town site . The Cook Post Office was established on January 20 , 1885 , but was discontinued on March 31 , 1933 . The mail service is now sent through the Mount Sterling branch .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook,_Ohio", "rank": 59, "score": 65739 }, { "content": "Title: Lynette Cook Content: Lynette Gai Cook ( born 4 May 1959 in Penrith , New South Wales ) is an Australian former cricket player . Cook played for the ACT women 's cricket team between 1982 and 1990 . Cook played two One Day Internationals for the Australia national women 's cricket team .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Lynette_Cook", "rank": 60, "score": 65684 }, { "content": "Title: Cook, Australian Capital Territory Content: Cook ( postcode : 2614 ) is a suburb of the Belconnen district of Canberra , located within the Australian Capital Territory , Australia . On Census night 2011 , Cook had a population of 2,901 people . The suburb of Cook is named after Captain James Cook and the sixth Prime Minister of Australia Sir Joseph Cook . The streets in Cook are named after notable women from Australian history .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook,_Australian_Capital_Territory", "rank": 61, "score": 65671 }, { "content": "Title: Brave New World (Amanda Cook album) Content: Brave New World is the debut studio album from Bethel Music 's Amanda Cook . The album was released through Bethel Music on September 25 , 2015 . Cook also studio recorded two songs from previous Bethel Music albums . Joel Taylor and Brian Johnson executively produced the album .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Brave_New_World_(Amanda_Cook_album)", "rank": 62, "score": 65647 }, { "content": "Title: A. G. Cook Content: A. G. Cook ( born 1990 ) is a British music producer , singer and head of record label PC Music . Since its founding in August 2013 , PC Music has represented 17 artists producing music within a similar genre and style . Cook 's dense , chaotic arrangements are distorted versions of mainstream pop music . He was named # 12 in the Dazed 100 for `` redefining style and youth culture in 2015 and beyond '' . Cook is currently Charli XCX 's Creative Director .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "A._G._Cook", "rank": 63, "score": 65643 }, { "content": "Title: Ian Arthur Naunton Cook Content: Colonel Ian Arthur Naunton Cook OBE ( 1934 -- 1994 ) was Commander of the British Police Mobile Unit in the New Hebrides between 1978 and 1979 and Commander of the Vanuatu Mobile Police Force from Vanuatu 's independence in 1980 until 1984 . Cook was involved in quelling the Santo Rebellion and under his command the Vanuatu Mobile Force became ` a disciplined and efficient paramilitary unit , displaying fine bearing on military occasions ' . He was later an Overseas Security Adviser on diplomatic missions at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Ian_Arthur_Naunton_Cook", "rank": 64, "score": 65640 }, { "content": "Title: James Cook (broadcaster) Content: James Cook is a California-based Scottish BBC News journalist and broadcaster who is currently Los Angeles Correspondent . Has was Scotland Correspondent for the BBC and a regular reporter for Scotland 's regional news programme , Reporting Scotland . Having been educated at Forfar Academy , Cook began his career as a youngster , reading the news for his local radio station . Since joining BBC Scotland in his twenties , Cook has gone on to present numerous news and current affairs programmes for the BBC including Good Morning Scotland and Reporting Scotland . Cook has recently covered the lead up to the 2014 Scottish Independence Referendum for the BBC News Channel and has hosted various debates between Yes Scotland and Better Together . Cook hosted `` The Big , Big Debate '' at the newly opened SSE Hydro in September 2014 in front of more than 5,000 16 - to 17-year-old registered Scottish voters .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "James_Cook_(broadcaster)", "rank": 65, "score": 65583 }, { "content": "Title: The Cook Political Report Content: The Cook Political Report is an independent , non-partisan online newsletter that analyzes elections and campaigns for the United States House of Representatives , the United States Senate , Governor 's offices and the American Presidency . The Cook Political Report is led by a staff of five . It was founded by political analyst Charlie Cook in 1984 . Coverage of Senate and Gubernatorial races is headed up by Senior Editor Jennifer Duffy and coverage of House races is led by David Wasserman . Amy Walter serves as national editor . Reports include Charlie Cook 's two weekly columns for National Journal magazine , and NationalJournal Daily . In addition , changes are generally made each week to the House , Senate , and Governors At-A-Glance charts , which list every candidate running in each state and district in the country , in addition to other candidates who are rumored to be considering a run . The House Summary lists the current makeup of the House of Representatives , as well as all announced retirements , potential retirements , and candidates possibly running for higher office . All House and Senate contests are rated , regardless of competitiveness on a seven-point scale ; Solid Democrat , Likely Democrat , Lean Democrat , Toss-Up , Lean Republican , Likely Republican , and Solid Republican . The Cook Political Report employs what it calls the Cook Partisan Voting Index ( the PVI ) , which lists each congressional district in the country according to propensity for voting Democratic or Republican . Every four years following a presidential election , the PVI is updated to reflect how Democratic or Republican a district is , based on how that district voted in the presidential election compared with the rest of the country . Previously a hard copy publication , the Cook Political Report moved to an all online format in 2004 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "The_Cook_Political_Report", "rank": 66, "score": 65415 }, { "content": "Title: The Cook Report Content: The Cook Report was a British current affairs television programme shown on ITV , produced for the network by Central Television from 22 July 1987 to 24 August 1999 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "The_Cook_Report", "rank": 67, "score": 65147 }, { "content": "Title: Foreign relations of the Cook Islands Content: The Cook Islands maintains diplomatic relations with various countries and is a member of multilateral organisations . While the country is in free association with New Zealand , which can act on the Cook Islands ' `` delegated authority -LSB- ... -RSB- to assist the Cooks Islands '' in foreign affairs , the Cook Islands nevertheless enters into treaty obligations and otherwise `` interacts with the international community as a sovereign and independent state . '' In the 1980s the Cook Islands became a member of several United Nations specialized agencies : the World Health Organization in 1984 , the Food and Agriculture Organization and UNESCO in 1985 , and the International Civil Aviation Organization in 1986 . The Repertory of Practice of United Nations Organs records that in 1988 New Zealand declared `` that its future participation in international agreements would no longer extend to the Cook Islands ... '' In 1991 the Cook Islands became a full member of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) Preparatory Committee and the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for a Framework Convention on Climate Change ( INC ) , which the Repertory of Practice describes as `` further evidence that the international community had accepted the Cook Islands as a `` State '' under international law . '' The United Nations Secretariat therefore `` recognized the full treaty-making capacity of the Cook Islands '' in 1992 and the Secretary-General , in his capacity as the depository of multilateral treaties , decided that the Cook Islands could participate in treaties that were open to `` all states '' . states . It has also non-resident mission accredited to the European Union ( EU ) in Avarua . Todd McClay served as Cook Islands Ambassador to the EU from 2002 to 2008 . McClay retired from that position and moved back to New Zealand to successfully contest the Rotorua seat in the 2008 New Zealand General Election . James Gosselin , the Cook Islands Secretary of Foreign Affairs , currently serves as the Cook Islands non-resident representative to the European Union ( resident in Avarua ) . In 2000 the Cook Islands government signed the Cotonou Partnership Agreement between the European Union and African , Caribbean and Pacific Group of States ( ACP ) . Upon signature of this agreement the Cook Islands Government established a representation to the EU in Brussels . In 2002 this representation was upgraded to a full diplomatic mission with accreditation to the European Union . The establishment of this mission marked an important development in Cook Islands international relations representing the first full diplomatic mission established by the Cook Islands outside of Pacific countries . The Cook Islands Mission to the European Communities interacts with European Union institutions , the ACP Group of States and other bilateral country representations and embassies .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Foreign_relations_of_the_Cook_Islands", "rank": 68, "score": 65045 }, { "content": "Title: Mount Cook (disambiguation) Content: Mount Cook can refer to : Aoraki / Mount Cook , the official name of the highest mountain in New Zealand Mount Cook Village , the settlement at the base of the New Zealand mountain Mount Cook Airline , a regional New Zealand airline Mount Cook Group , a former New Zealand transport and tourism company Mount Cook of rivers , nickname for the Waitaha River in Westland , New Zealand Mount Cook ( Saint Elias Mountains ) in Canada/USA Mount Cook , Wellington , a suburb of Wellington , New Zealand Mount Cook near Cooktown , Queensland , Australia See also Mount Cooke ( Western Australia )", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Mount_Cook_(disambiguation)", "rank": 69, "score": 65006 }, { "content": "Title: William Douglas Cook Content: William Douglas Cook ( New Plymouth , New Zealand , 28 October 1884 -- Gisborne , New Zealand , 27 April 1967 ) was the founder of Eastwoodhill Arboretum , now the national arboretum of New Zealand , and one of the founders of Pukeiti , a rhododendron garden , close to New Plymouth . He was a `` plantsman with the soul of a poet and the vision of a philosopher '' .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "William_Douglas_Cook", "rank": 70, "score": 64956 }, { "content": "Title: YourDrive Content: YourDrive is a New Zealand peer-to-peer carsharing company . It facilitates a system in which individuals may rent their privately owned vehicles on an hourly , daily or weekly basis to other registered users of the service . Owners set their rental prices and earn a 60 percent commission from the rental revenue . It currently operates in throughout New Zealand with vehicles in Auckland , Hamilton , Palmerston North , Wellington , Christchurch , Dunedin . Peer-to-peer carsharing is an example of collaborative consumption , where assets and skills are shared or traded between neighbours for sustainability and economic benefit . Although car sharing is relatively new in New Zealand it is an area that is being encouraged due to the environmental and economic benefits . Auckland Transport is promoting a scheme that would drastically increase the number of car sharing vehicles .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "YourDrive", "rank": 71, "score": 64931 }, { "content": "Title: Peer-to-peer carsharing Content: Peer-to-peer carsharing ( also known as person-to-person carsharing and peer-to-peer car rental ) is the process whereby existing car owners make their vehicles available for others to rent for short periods of time . Peer-to-peer carsharing is a form of person-to-person lending or collaborative consumption , as part of the sharing economy . The business model is closely aligned with traditional car clubs such as Streetcar or Zipcar , but replaces a typical fleet with a ` virtual ' fleet made up of vehicles from participating owners . With peer-to-peer carsharing , participating car owners are able to charge a fee to rent out their vehicles when they are not using them . Participating renters can access nearby and affordable vehicles and pay only for the time they need to use them . Businesses within this sector screen participants ( both owners and renters ) and offer a technical platform , usually in the form of a website and mobile app , that brings these parties together , manages rental bookings and collects payment . Businesses take between 25 % and 40 % of the total income , which covers borrower/renter insurance , operating expenses , and roadside assistance . Although many personal auto insurers in the USA exclude coverage for commercial use of insured vehicles either through a livery and public transportation exclusion or a specific `` personal vehicle sharing program '' exclusion , several states in the US have passed legislation allowing individuals to share their cars without risk of losing their personal car insurance . As with person-to-person lending , enabling technology for this behavior has been the Internet and the adoption of geo-location-based service", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Peer-to-peer_carsharing", "rank": 72, "score": 64869 }, { "content": "Title: John H. Cook Content: John Henry Cook ( July 19 , 1840 to July 22 , 1916 ) was an English soldier who fought in the American Civil War . Cook received the United States ' highest award for bravery during combat , the Medal of Honor , for his action at Pleasant Hill in Louisiana on 9 April 1864 . He was honored with the award on 19 September 1890 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "John_H._Cook", "rank": 73, "score": 64863 }, { "content": "Title: Cook Records Content: Cook Records was a record label founded by Emory Cook ( 1913 -- 2002 ) , an audio engineer and inventor . From 1952 to 1966 , Cook used his Sounds of our Times and Cook Laboratories record labels to demonstrate his philosophy about sound , recording equipment , and manufacturing techniques .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook_Records", "rank": 74, "score": 64824 }, { "content": "Title: John Douglas Cook Content: John Douglas Cook ( 1808 ? -- 1868 ) was a Scottish journalist , known as the founding editor of the Saturday Review .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "John_Douglas_Cook", "rank": 75, "score": 64771 }, { "content": "Title: John Cook (rugby league) Content: John Thomas Cook ( born 1941 ) is an Australian former rugby league player from Newcastle , New South Wales .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "John_Cook_(rugby_league)", "rank": 76, "score": 64764 }, { "content": "Title: Len Cook Content: Leonard Warren Cook CBE ( born 13 April 1949 ) is a professional statistician who was Government Statistician of New Zealand from 1992 to 2000 and National Statistician and Director of the Office for National Statistics , United Kingdom , and Registrar General for England and Wales from 2000 to 2005 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Len_Cook", "rank": 77, "score": 64695 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 78, "score": 64684 }, { "content": "Title: Cook School for Christian Leadership Content: The Cook School for Christian Leadership is the educational branch of Cook Native American Ministries , an outreach and ministry organization located in Tempe , Arizona , and affiliated with the Presbyterian church .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook_School_for_Christian_Leadership", "rank": 79, "score": 64679 }, { "content": "Title: Cook (Brentford cricketer) Content: Cook ( dates unknown ) was an English professional cricketer from Brentford who played in first-class cricket for Middlesex and Brentford Cricket Club during the 1730s . He was `` reckoned one of the best bowlers in England '' .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook_(Brentford_cricketer)", "rank": 80, "score": 64613 }, { "content": "Title: George Hammell Cook Content: George Hammell Cook ( January 5 , 1818 -- September 22 , 1889 ) was the state geologist of New Jersey and vice president of Rutgers College . His geological survey of New Jersey became the predecessor for the U.S. Geological Survey .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "George_Hammell_Cook", "rank": 81, "score": 64550 }, { "content": "Title: James Cook Medal Content: The James Cook Medal is awarded on an occasional basis by the Royal Society of New South Wales for `` outstanding contributions to science and human welfare in and for the Southern Hemisphere '' . It was established in 1947 from funds donated by Henry Ferdinand Halloran , a member of the Society .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "James_Cook_Medal", "rank": 82, "score": 64487 }, { "content": "Title: James Cook High School Content: James Cook High School is a state co-ed secondary school in the South Auckland suburb of Manurewa , New Zealand .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "James_Cook_High_School", "rank": 83, "score": 64458 }, { "content": "Title: A. J. Cook (trade unionist) Content: Arthur James Cook ( 22 November 1883 -- 2 November 1931 ) , known as A. J. Cook , was a British trade union leader who was General Secretary of the Miners ' Federation of Great Britain from 1924 until 1931 , a period that included the 1926 General Strike .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "A._J._Cook_(trade_unionist)", "rank": 84, "score": 64446 }, { "content": "Title: Robert L. Cook Content: Robert L. `` Rob '' Cook ( December 10 , 1952 ) is a computer graphics researcher and developer , and the co-creator of the RenderMan rendering software . His contributions are considered to be highly influential in the field of animated arts . Cook was born in Knoxville , Tennessee and educated at Duke University and Cornell University . While at Cornell , Cook worked with Donald P. Greenberg .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Robert_L._Cook", "rank": 85, "score": 64346 }, { "content": "Title: Ashpazbashi Content: Ashpazbashi , lit . The Cook is a 2009 Iranian TV series directed by Mohammad Reza Honarmand . It tells the story of a successful couple that manage a very high-quality restaurant in Tehran , Iran . Both Parviz Parastui and Fatemeh Motamed-Arya have previously acted in Honarmand 's films and series such as The wrong man , Azizam Man Kook Nistam , and Zire Tigh", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Ashpazbashi", "rank": 86, "score": 64220 }, { "content": "Title: Araucaria columnaris Content: Araucaria columnaris , the Coral reef araucaria , Cook pine , New Caledonia pine , Cook araucaria , or columnar araucaria , is a species of conifer in the family Araucariaceae .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Araucaria_columnaris", "rank": 87, "score": 64178 }, { "content": "Title: Cook County, New Zealand Content: Cook County was one of the counties of New Zealand in the North Island .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook_County,_New_Zealand", "rank": 88, "score": 64160 }, { "content": "Title: Douglas S. Cook Content: Douglas S. Cook ( 1958 -- July 19 , 2015 ) was an American screenwriter , known for writing 1996 's film The Rock . His other credits included Payoff , Holy Matrimony , Double Jeopardy and Criminal . Cook wrote all of his screenplays along with his writing partner David Weisberg . They also wrote another action thriller script Blank Slate , which is currently un-produced at Bold Films . Cook died on July 19 , 2015 at the age of 56 in Santa Monica , California .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Douglas_S._Cook", "rank": 89, "score": 64148 }, { "content": "Title: Cook Peak Content: Cook Peak el . 9754 ft is a mountain peak in the Washburn Range of Yellowstone National Park . The peak was named in 1922 by then superintendent Horace Albright to honor of Charles W. Cook , a member of the 1869 Cook -- Folsom -- Peterson Expedition which explored the Yellowstone park region . 1922 was the 50th anniversary of the park 's creation , and Charles Cook , still living in Montana , attended ceremonies in the park . Prior to 1922 , the peak had been named Thompson Peak by Philetus Norris in 1880 and Storm Peak by members of the Arnold Hague Geological Surveys in 1885 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook_Peak", "rank": 90, "score": 63980 }, { "content": "Title: Cook Group Content: Cook Group Incorporated is an American privately held company based in Bloomington , Indiana , and primarily involved in manufacturing of medical devices . It was ranked # 324 in Forbes ' 2008 America 's Largest Private Companies . It has three main divisions : Cook Medical , Cook Services , and Cook Properties . All three divisions are made up of several subsidiary companies . The flagship company , Cook Incorporated , part of the medical division , was founded in 1963 in a spare bedroom in Bloomington . The first products of Cook Incorporated included catheters , needles , and wire guides . Today , the company manufactures over 16,000 products across 13 hospital service lines , and serves 135 countries . Other companies include also the manufacturers K-Tube and Cook Polymer Technology . Cook owns CFC Properties. , a property development company that owns residential and commercial properties in Bloomington as well as Fountain Square Mall and Grant Street Inn . Cook also restored and owns French Lick Resort , which includes the historic West Baden Springs Hotel and the French Lick Springs Hotel and Casino .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Cook_Group", "rank": 91, "score": 63840 }, { "content": "Title: New Biotechnology Content: New Biotechnology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal and the official journal of the European Federation of Biotechnology . It is published bimonthly by Elsevier . The journal covers research , industrial , and commercial aspects of biotechnology , in areas such as : healthcare and pharmaceuticals ; food and agriculture ; biofuels ; genetic engineering and molecular biology ; genomics and synthetic biology ; nanotechnology ; environment and biodiversity ; biocatalysis ; bioremediation ; andprocess engineering .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "New_Biotechnology", "rank": 92, "score": 63839 }, { "content": "Title: James Cook (American football) Content: James Cook ( November 27 , 1888 -- August 21 , 1979 ) was an American football player , a guard in the National Football League .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "James_Cook_(American_football)", "rank": 93, "score": 63813 }, { "content": "Title: Exact division Content: An exact division , also called even division or consensus division , is a division of a heterogeneous resource ( `` cake '' ) to several subsets such that each of n people with different tastes agree about the valuations of the pieces . For example , consider a cake which is half chocolate and half vanilla . Alice values only the chocolate and George values only the vanilla . The cake is divided to three pieces : one piece contains 20 % of the chocolate and 20 % of the vanilla , the second contains 50 % of the chocolate and 50 % of the vanilla , and the third contains the rest of the cake . This is a consensus division , as both Alice and George value the three pieces as 20 % , 50 % and 10 % respectively . As the example illustrates , a consensus division is not necessarily fair . For example , if the 20 % piece is given to Alice and the 50 % is given to George , this is obviously unfair to Alice . In the theory of cake , consensus divisions are often used as subroutines for creating fair divisions . Consensus divisions always exist , but they can not be found by discrete protocols ( with a finite number of queries ) . In some cases , exact divisions can be found by moving-knife protocols . Near-exact divisions can be found by discrete protocols .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Exact_division", "rank": 94, "score": 63802 }, { "content": "Title: William J. Cook Content: William John Cook ( born October 18 , 1957 in New Jersey ) is an American operations researcher and mathematician , professor in Combinatorics and Optimization at the University of Waterloo since June 2013 , after being for 10 years the Chandler Family Chair Professor of Industrial and Systems Engineering and Adjunct Professor of Mathematics at the Georgia Institute of Technology . He is known for his work on the traveling salesman problem and is one of the authors of the Concorde TSP Solver .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "William_J._Cook", "rank": 95, "score": 63796 }, { "content": "Title: Douglas Cook Content: Douglas Cook may refer to : William Douglas Cook ( 1884 -- 1967 ) , founder of Eastwoodhill Arboretum , now the national arboretum of New Zealand Douglas S. Cook ( 1958/9 -- 2015 ) , American screenwriter", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Douglas_Cook", "rank": 96, "score": 63793 }, { "content": "Title: GRV James Cook Content: GRV James Cook was a research vessel of the New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries . It was built in 1966 as the New Zealand Sea Products Export Ltd trawler Sea Harvester II and purchased by the New Zealand government in 1969 when the company went bankrupt . The ship was renamed James Cook after Captain James Cook and used as a research vessel until 1991 , when it was replaced by the RV Tangaroa . James Cook was purchased by Seafresh New Zealand Ltd for use as a fishing boat but the company ceased trading soon after . The ship was in poor condition and made its last voyage under power from Nelson to Wellington in 1997 . It was purchased by James Cook Shipping for use as a charter boat in Fiji . It was stripped of most of its equipment in July 2004 . It suffered damage after breaking free from its moorings in October 1998 and again in August 2007 . It was also set on fire by vandals several times . The hulk was scuttled in the former explosives dumping ground about 15 nmi southwest of Cape Palliser on 2 December 2007 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "GRV_James_Cook", "rank": 97, "score": 63736 }, { "content": "Title: Sally Schneider Content: Sally Schneider is a journalist and Founding Editor of the website ` the improvised life ' . A former chef , Schneider is author of The Improvisational Cook , A New Way to Cook and The Art of Low Calorie Cooking . She has won numerous awards including four James Beard Foundation Awards for her books and journalism . A New Way to Cook was named `` One of the Best Food Books of the Decade '' by the Guardian . She is a columnist for The Atlantic Monthly Food Blog as well as a radio commentator for the national public radio show `` The Splendid Table '' .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Sally_Schneider", "rank": 98, "score": 63700 }, { "content": "Title: Johnie Cooks Content: Johnie Earl Cooks ( born November 23 , 1958 ) is a former professional American football player who was drafted by the Baltimore Colts as the second overall pick in the 1982 NFL Draft . A 6 ' 4 '' , 251 lb . linebacker from Mississippi State University , Cooks played in ten NFL seasons from 1982 -- 1991 for the Colts , New York Giants , and Cleveland Browns . He was a member of the Giants when they defeated the Buffalo Bills 20-19 in Super Bowl XXV . Cooks was inducted into the Mississippi Sports Hall of Fame in 2004 .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "Johnie_Cooks", "rank": 99, "score": 63696 }, { "content": "Title: George W. Cook Content: George Washington Cook ( November 10 , 1851 -- December 18 , 1916 ) was a U.S. Representative from Colorado .", "qid": "2961", "docid": "George_W._Cook", "rank": 100, "score": 63656 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 1, "score": 136706 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 2, "score": 126896 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 3, "score": 120843 }, { "content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Kaya_identity", "rank": 4, "score": 113156 }, { "content": "Title: Emission intensity Content: An emission intensity is the average emission rate of a given pollutant from a given source relative to the intensity of a specific activity ; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced , or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to gross domestic product ( GDP ) . Emission intensities are used to derive estimates of air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions based on the amount of fuel combusted , the number of animals in animal husbandry , on industrial production levels , distances traveled or similar activity data . Emission intensities may also be used to compare the environmental impact of different fuels or activities . The related terms emission factor and carbon intensity are often used interchangeably , but `` factors '' exclude aggregate activities such as GDP , and `` carbon '' excludes other pollutants . One commonly used figure is carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour , or CIPK , which is used to compare different sources of electrical power .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Emission_intensity", "rank": 5, "score": 113122 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 6, "score": 111193 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 7, "score": 111122 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 8, "score": 109973 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 9, "score": 108745 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 10, "score": 106868 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 11, "score": 106493 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 12, "score": 105524 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas monitoring Content: Greenhouse gas monitoring is the direct measurement of greenhouse gas emissions and levels . Methods include satellite monitoring such as the Orbiting Carbon Observatory and networks of ground stations such as the Integrated Carbon Observation System . The individual units of ground stations often use an infrared detector to assess the concentration of a certain gas .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_monitoring", "rank": 13, "score": 103702 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 14, "score": 103656 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 15, "score": 103244 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 16, "score": 103238 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_emission_trading", "rank": 17, "score": 102911 }, { "content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage", "rank": 18, "score": 102742 }, { "content": "Title: Project Vulcan Content: Project Vulcan is a NASA/DOE funded effort under the North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) to quantify North American fossil fuel carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions at space/time scales much finer than has been achieved in the past . The initial purpose of the Vulcan Project was to aid in quantification of the North American carbon budget , to support inverse estimation of carbon sources and sinks , and to support the demands posed by higher resolution CO2 observations . The detail and scope of the Vulcan CO2 inventory has now made it a valuable tool for policymakers , demographers , social scientists and the public at large . Project Vulcan has achieved U.S. fossil fuel CO2 emissions at < 10 km spatial scales and an hourly time scale , based on datasets such as air quality emissions reporting , census data , highway statistics , energy statistics , and econometric data . Furthermore , Vulcan includes significant process-level detail , dividing the emissions into economic sectors and sub-sectors in addition to 23 fuel types . It has been produced for the year 2002 , and an annual product spanning 1980-2006 will be available by late-2009 . The first Vulcan inventory ( v1 .0 ) was released to the public in early April 2008 . Version 1.1 was released in February 2009 and Version 1.2 is due out in early August 2009 . In addition to the data release , establishment of the Vulcan website and a press release , a video of various aspects of atmospheric transport was released on Purdue University 's YouTube website and portions of the Vulcan inventory are available on Google Earth . As of 2015 , version 2.2 has been published on a site hosted by Arizona State University .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Project_Vulcan", "rank": 19, "score": 102170 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_footprint", "rank": 20, "score": 102141 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007", "rank": 21, "score": 101650 }, { "content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources", "rank": 22, "score": 101470 }, { "content": "Title: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative Content: ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Regional_Greenhouse_Gas_Initiative", "rank": 23, "score": 100927 }, { "content": "Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "ACEA_agreement", "rank": 24, "score": 100887 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning", "rank": 25, "score": 100314 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions Content: On 6 October 2010 , the International Energy Agency released for free download the 2008 numbers for over 140 countries/regions/economies . The list of countries below is arranged by their ratio of gross domestic product , nominal and by purchasing power parity , to carbon dioxide emissions . GDP data is for the year 2006 produced by the International Monetary Fund . Carbon dioxide emissions data is for 2006 , provided by the CDIAC for United Nations ( see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions ) . The countries at the top of the list are the most efficient . They produce the most economic output with the least emissions . Countries at the bottom of the list produce the most emissions per unit of economic output . Including French Guiana , French Polynesia , Guadeloupe , Martinique , New Caledonia , Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Réunion Including Greenland and Faroe Islands Including Netherlands Antilles Including Taiwan and Macau , excluding Hong Kong", "qid": "2963", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_ratio_of_GDP_to_carbon_dioxide_emissions", "rank": 26, "score": 100196 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_offset", "rank": 27, "score": 100104 }, { "content": "Title: Center for Negative Carbon Emissions Content: The Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) is led by Director Klaus S. Lackner , and was founded in the School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment ( SSEBE ) at Arizona State University in 2014 . CNCE is advancing carbon management technologies that can capture carbon dioxide directly from ambient air in an outdoor operating environment . CNCE aims to demonstrate systems that over time increase in scope , reliability and efficiency while lowering the cost of carbon dioxide capture from air .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Center_for_Negative_Carbon_Emissions", "rank": 28, "score": 99400 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 29, "score": 99271 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_emission_label", "rank": 30, "score": 99250 }, { "content": "Title: Airport Carbon Accreditation Content: Airport Carbon Accreditation is a global carbon management programme for airports that independently assesses and recognises airports ' efforts to manage and reduce their CO2 emissions . There are 4 different levels of accreditation : Mapping , Reduction , Optimisation and Neutrality . The programme was launched by European airports ' trade body ACI EUROPE at their Annual Congress in June 2009 . It is independently administered by WSP , an international consultancy firm . The programme provides airports with a common framework for active carbon management with measurable goal-posts . Individual airport carbon footprints are independently verified in accordance with ISO 14064 ( Greenhouse Gas Accounting ) on the basis of supporting evidence . Claims regarding airports ' carbon management processes are also independently verified by a group of 117 independent verifiers , based in 36 countries .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Airport_Carbon_Accreditation", "rank": 31, "score": 99165 }, { "content": "Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "California_Senate_Bill_32", "rank": 32, "score": 98314 }, { "content": "Title: Coal pollution mitigation Content: Coal pollution mitigation , often referred to by the public relations term clean coal , is a series of systems and technologies that seek to mitigate the pollution and other environmental effects normally associated with the burning ( though not the mining or processing ) of coal , which is widely regarded as the dirtiest of the common fuels for industrial processes and power generation . The preferred industry term `` clean coal '' has been described as `` Orwellian '' , an oxymoron , and a myth . Approaches attempt to mitigate emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and other greenhouse gases , and radioactive materials , that arise from the use of coal , mainly for electrical power generation , using various technologies . Historical efforts to reduce coal pollution focused on flue-gas desulfurization starting in the 1850s and clean burn technologies . More recent developments include carbon capture and storage , which pumps and stores CO2 emissions underground , and integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) involve coal gasification , which provides a basis for increased efficiency and lower cost in capturing CO2 emissions . There are seven technologies deployed or proposed for deployment in the United States : carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) , flue-gas desulfurization , fluidized-bed combustion , integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) , low nitrogen oxide burners , selective catalytic reduction ( SCR ) , and electrostatic precipitators . Of the 22 demonstration projects funded by the U.S. Department of Energy since 2003 , none are in operation as of February 2017 , having been abandoned or delayed due to capital budget overruns or discontinued because of excessive operating expenses .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Coal_pollution_mitigation", "rank": 33, "score": 98306 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_leakage", "rank": 34, "score": 98059 }, { "content": "Title: Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy Content: In the United States about 10 % of the population , 35 million people , live within 100 meters of a high traffic road High-traffic roads are commonly identified as being host to more than 50,000 vehicles per day , which is a source of toxic vehicle pollutants . Previous studies have found correlations between exposure to vehicle pollutants and certain diseases such as asthma , lung and heart disease , and cancer among others . Car pollutants include carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , particulate matter ( fine dusts and soot ) , and toxic air pollutants While these pollutants affect the general health of populations , they are known to also have specific adverse effects on expectant mothers and their fetuses . The purpose of this article is to outline how vehicular pollutants affect the health of expectant mothers and the adverse health effects these exposure have on the unborn babies .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy", "rank": 35, "score": 98027 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_profiling", "rank": 36, "score": 98013 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 37, "score": 97502 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions", "rank": 38, "score": 97451 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 39, "score": 97436 }, { "content": "Title: Integrated Carbon Observation System Content: Integrated Carbon Observation System ( ICOS ) is a new strategic research infrastructure to quantify the greenhouse gas balance in Europe and adjacent regions . It consists of a harmonized network of ecosystem long-term observation sites , a network of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration sites and a network of ocean observations . The network will be coordinated through a set of central facilities , including an atmospheric and an ecosystem thematic center , a central data center , an analytical laboratory and an oceanic thematic center . ICOS will provide the essential long-term observations required to understand the present state and predict future behavior of the global carbon cycle and greenhouse gas emissions . It will monitor and assess the effectiveness of carbon sequestration and/or greenhouse gases emission reduction activities on global atmospheric composition levels , including attribution of sources and sinks by region and sector . Standardized network will improved access to data and enable the development of flux products for research and political application . ICOS will be a state-of-the-art facility for the European research community . It will contribute the European share to global greenhouse gas observations under GEO , WMO-GAW and GTOS programs .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Integrated_Carbon_Observation_System", "rank": 40, "score": 97234 }, { "content": "Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 41, "score": 97134 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 42, "score": 96912 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 43, "score": 96885 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita", "rank": 44, "score": 96729 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 45, "score": 96557 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Climate_change_in_China", "rank": 46, "score": 96004 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_shifting", "rank": 47, "score": 95947 }, { "content": "Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut", "rank": 48, "score": 95729 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 49, "score": 95457 }, { "content": "Title: Direct carbon fuel cell Content: A Direct Carbon Fuel Cell ( DCFC ) is a fuel cell that uses a carbon rich material as a fuel such as bio-mass or coal . The cell produces energy by combining carbon and oxygen , which releases carbon dioxide as a by-product . It also called coal fuel cells ( CFCs ) , carbon-air fuel cells ( CAFCs ) , direct carbon/coal fuel cells ( DCFCs ) , and DC-SOFC . The total reaction of the cell is C + O2 → CO2 . The process in half cell notation : Anode : C + 2 O2 − → CO2 + 4 e − Cathode : O2 + 4 e − → 2 O2 − Despite this release of carbon dioxide , the direct carbon fuel cell is more environmentally friendly than traditional carbon burning techniques . Due to its higher efficiency , it requires less carbon to produce the same amount of energy . Also , because pure carbon dioxide is emitted , carbon capture techniques are much cheaper than for conventional power stations . Utilized carbon can be in the form of coal , coke , char , or a non-fossilized source of carbon . At least four types of DCFC exist : The first one is based on the Solid oxide fuel cell ( SOFC ) concept . Overall reaction in the solid oxide electrolyte based DCFC C + O2 → CO2 . Anode reaction <Direct electrochemical oxidation path> C + 2O2 − → CO2 + 4e − C + O2 − → CO + 2e − <Indirect electrochemical oxidation path> CO + O2 − → CO2 + 2e − <Boudouard reaction:indirect chemical reaction path> C + CO2 → 2CO Cathode reaction O2 + 4e − → 2O2 − The second one is molten hydroxides fuel cell . William W. Jacques obtained an US Patent 555,511 in this type of fuel cell in 1896 . Prototypes have been demonstrated by the research group , SARA , Inc. . The third one is based on the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell ( MCFC ) concept . William W. Jacques obtained a Canadian patent in this type of fuel cell in 1897 . It has been developed further at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory . The fourth is a molten tin anode solid oxide fuel cell design , which utilizes molten tin and tin oxide as an inter stage reaction between oxidation of the carbon dissolving in the anode and reduction of oxygen at the solid oxide cathode .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Direct_carbon_fuel_cell", "rank": 50, "score": 95285 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 51, "score": 94996 }, { "content": "Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Politics_of_global_warming", "rank": 52, "score": 94803 }, { "content": "Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme", "rank": 53, "score": 94784 }, { "content": "Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Emission_Reduction_Unit", "rank": 54, "score": 94649 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 55, "score": 94593 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon credit Content: A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or the mass of another greenhouse gas with a carbon dioxide equivalent ( tCO2e ) equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide . Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . One carbon credit is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide , or in some markets , carbon dioxide equivalent gases . Carbon trading is an application of an emissions trading approach . Greenhouse gas emissions are capped and then markets are used to allocate the emissions among the group of regulated sources . The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial processes in the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive approaches than those used when there is no cost to emitting carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere . Since GHG mitigation projects generate credits , this approach can be used to finance carbon reduction schemes between trading partners and around the world . There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis . These carbon offsetters purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon development company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects . Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade , which is like a stock exchange for carbon credits . The quality of the credits is based in part on the validation process and sophistication of the fund or development company that acted as the sponsor to the carbon project . This is reflected in their price ; voluntary units typically have less value than the units sold through the rigorously validated Clean Development Mechanism .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_credit", "rank": 56, "score": 94590 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 57, "score": 94363 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "CO2_is_Green", "rank": 58, "score": 94355 }, { "content": "Title: Fuel factor Content: The fuel factor , fo , is the ratio of created CO2 to depleted oxygen in a combustion reaction , used to check the accuracy of an emission measurement system . It can be calculated using the equation fo = ( 20.9 - % O2 ) / % CO2 , Where % O2 is the percent O2 by volume , dry basis , % CO2 is the percent CO2 by volume , dry basis , and 20.9 is the percent O2 by volume in ambient air . The Fuel factor can be corrected for the amount of CO , by adding the percent CO on a dry basis to the CO2 , and subtracting half of the percent CO from the O2 .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Fuel_factor", "rank": 59, "score": 94343 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable Silicon Valley Content: Sustainable Silicon Valley ( SSV ) is a collaboration of businesses , governments , and non-governmental organizations that are identifying and addressing environmental and resource pressures in Silicon Valley . As its first initiative , SSV engaged Valley organizations , who are the SSV Partners , to work towards a goal of reducing regional carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions 20 % below 1990 levels by 2010 . The SSV approach to reaching this goal is to facilitate strategies to reduce CO2 emissions through increased energy and fuel efficiency and through the use of renewable sources of energy .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Sustainable_Silicon_Valley", "rank": 60, "score": 94065 }, { "content": "Title: Zero carbon housing Content: Zero Carbon Housing and Zero Energy Housing are terms used interchangeably to define single family dwellings with a very high energy efficiency rating . Zero Energy Housing requires a very low amount of energy to provide the daily needs and functions for the family occupying the home . A zero carbon home has a yearly net carbon footprint of zero . The carbon footprint is the total measure of all greenhouse gas emissions generated or produced directly or indirectly by activities in the home such as heating the home or running an appliance , personal activities such as driving a car , broader services such as the use of public transportation or air travel , and individual consumption of food and other products . A home 's carbon footprint consists of the sum of two parts , the primary footprint and the secondary footprint , expressed in units of metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) . The primary carbon footprint is a measure of the CO2 emissions from the direct consumption of fossil fuels for energy consumption and transportation . The secondary carbon footprint is the measure of indirect CO2 emissions related to the manufacturing process of products used in the home and eventual decomposition of products . Examples of the parts that make up the secondary carbon footprint are the manufacturing of clothes , cars , and furnishings , as well as recreational activities by the inhabitants . The calculation of the carbon footprint becomes detailed when considering secondary factors . Secondary factors involve the home 's occupant lifestyle such as diet , foods are consumed ( example organic vs. non organic ) , frequency of yearly air travel , commuting mileage to and from work , school , etc. , use of public transportation , and number , type , and use of private vehicles . Secondary factors also include fashion or type of clothes purchased and worn , frequency of recycling , recreational activities and use of financial and other services throughout a given year . The frequency of airline flights in a year is considered due to the amount of fuel consumption and other energy usage and emissions generated by one flight . A person that travels frequently may have a significantly bigger carbon footprint than someone who flies once a year for a vacation . The emissions for an individual flight are calculated by using the greater circle method . First , the distance between airports is determined . Then calculations are completed to account for indirect distances and by an emissions factor in relation to the type of flight ( international or a short flight , and what class seating the person is in ) . Another contributing factor to a person 's carbon footprint is their personal vehicle which includes the type of car driven , the efficiency or miles per gallon ( MPG ) rating , and the amount of miles driven each year . The frequency of public transportation used by an individual , miles traveled on public transportation and the type of public transportation used such as bus , train , or subway contributes to their carbon footprint as well . Other factors , as trivial as they might seem , are included in the calculation of a person 's carbon foot print to include things such as the type of diet . A vegetarian compared to a person that eats a lot of red meat will have a lower carbon footprint . All factors being the same except diet , a vegetarian secondary carbon footprint averages three metric tonnes of CO2 , one tonne less than the individual who consumes meat . Other factors include the purchase of local and / or organically grown produce vs. imported items , the latest clothes fashions vs. more conventional purchases , buying individually packaged products vs. buying in bulk , recycling activities , and the types of recreation such as carbon-free activities like hiking and cycling or carbon-intensive activities like skydiving or boating .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Zero_carbon_housing", "rank": 61, "score": 94035 }, { "content": "Title: Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure Content: The Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure ( WLTP ) defines a global harmonized standard for determining the levels of pollutants and CO2 emissions , fuel or energy consumption , and electric range from light-duty vehicles ( passenger cars and light commercial vans ) . Experts from the European Union , Japan , and India under guidelines of UNECE World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations , are developing it , with final version expected for October 2015 .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Worldwide_harmonized_Light_vehicles_Test_Procedure", "rank": 62, "score": 93645 }, { "content": "Title: Voluntary Emission Reduction Content: Voluntary Emission Reductions or Verified Emission Reductions ( VERs ) are a type of carbon offset exchanged in the voluntary or over-the-counter market for carbon credits . Verified Emission Reductions are usually certified through a voluntary certification process . Verified Emission Reductions are usually created by projects which have been verified outside of the Kyoto Protocol . One VER is equivalent to 1 tonne of CO2e emissions . Through these schemes , industries and individuals voluntarily compensate for their emissions or provide an additional contribution to mitigating climate change . VERs may be developed and calculated in compliance with one of several VER standards . These set out rules defining how emission reductions are measured . Standards provide assurance for buyers of VERs . At a minimum , all VERs should be verified by an independent third party .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Voluntary_Emission_Reduction", "rank": 63, "score": 93560 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_sequestration", "rank": 64, "score": 93559 }, { "content": "Title: Stomatal conductance Content: By definition , stomatat conductance or stomatal conductance , usually measured in mmol m ⁻² s ⁻¹ , is the measure of the rate of passage of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) entering , or water vapor exiting through the stomata of a leaf . Stomata are small pores on the top and bottom of a leaf that are responsible for taking in and expelling CO2 and moisture from and to the outside air . The rate of stomatal conductance , or its inverse , stomatal resistance , is directly related to the boundary layer resistance of the leaf and the absolute concentration gradient of water vapor from the leaf to the atmosphere . It is under direct biological control of the leaf through the use of guard cells , which surround the stomatal pore ( Taiz/Zeiger 1991 ) . The turgor pressure and osmotic potential of guard cells is directly related to the stomatal conductance . Stomatal conductance is a function of stomatal density , stomatal aperture , and stomatal size . Stomatal conductance is integral to leaf level calculations of transpiration ( E ) . Multiple studies have shown a direct correlation between the use of herbicides and changes in physiological and biochemical growth processes in plants , particularly non-target plants , resulting in a reduction in stomatal conductance and turgor pressure in leaves .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Stomatal_conductance", "rank": 65, "score": 93448 }, { "content": "Title: Energy efficiency in British housing Content: Domestic housing in the United Kingdom presents a possible opportunity for achieving the 20 % overall cut in UK carbon dioxide emissions targeted by the Government for 2010 . However , the process of achieving that drop is proving problematic given the very wide range of age and condition of the UK housing stock .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Energy_efficiency_in_British_housing", "rank": 66, "score": 93421 }, { "content": "Title: CERINA-Plan Content: CERINA Plan is the abbreviation for `` CO2 Emissions and Renewable Investment Action Plan '' . It is a CO2 reduction concept developed by the German renewable energy institute IWR . The CERINA Plan proposes a technical investment approach linking a country 's CO2 emissions to its investment in renewable energy technology . Therefore , it is an alternative model to approaches like the Kyoto idea of mere cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . The model is meant to be flexible and to adapt to the special national circumstances of each country .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "CERINA-Plan", "rank": 67, "score": 93391 }, { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 68, "score": 93334 }, { "content": "Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "ECOCITIES_(software)", "rank": 69, "score": 93085 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_accounting", "rank": 70, "score": 93083 }, { "content": "Title: Eddy covariance Content: The eddy covariance ( also known as eddy correlation and eddy flux ) technique is a key atmospheric measurement technique to measure and calculate vertical turbulent fluxes within atmospheric boundary layers . The method analyzes high-frequency wind and scalar atmospheric data series , and yields values of fluxes of these properties . It is a statistical method used in meteorology and other applications ( micrometeorology , oceanography , hydrology , agricultural sciences , industrial and regulatory applications , etc. ) to determine exchange rates of trace gases over natural ecosystems and agricultural fields , and to quantify gas emissions rates from other land and water areas . It is frequently used to estimate momentum , heat , water vapour , carbon dioxide and methane fluxes The technique is also used extensively for verification and tuning of global climate models , mesoscale and weather models , complex biogeochemical and ecological models , and remote sensing estimates from satellites and aircraft . The technique is mathematically complex , and requires significant care in setting up and processing data . To date , there is no uniform terminology or a single methodology for the Eddy Covariance technique , but much effort is being made by flux measurement networks ( e.g. , FluxNet , Ameriflux , ICOS , CarboEurope , Fluxnet Canada , OzFlux , NEON , and iLEAPS ) to unify the various approaches . The technique has additionally proven applicable under water to the benthic zone for measuring oxygen fluxes between seafloor and overlying water . In these environments , the technique is generally known as the eddy correlation technique , or just eddy correlation . Oxygen fluxes are extracted from raw measurements largely following the same principles as used in the atmosphere , and they are typically used as a proxy for carbon exchange , which is important for local and global carbon budgets . For most benthic ecosystems , eddy correlation is the most accurate technique for measuring in-situ fluxes . The technique 's development and its applications under water remains a fruitful area of research .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Eddy_covariance", "rank": 71, "score": 93000 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme", "rank": 72, "score": 92966 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_finance", "rank": 73, "score": 92740 }, { "content": "Title: Quest Carbon Capture and Storage Project Content: The Quest Carbon Capture and Storage Project captures and stores underground one million tonnes of CO2 emissions per year . The capture unit is located at the Scotford Upgrader in Alberta , Canada , where hydrogen is produced to upgrade bitumen from oil sands into synthetic crude oil .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Quest_Carbon_Capture_and_Storage_Project", "rank": 74, "score": 92379 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon-neutral_fuel", "rank": 75, "score": 92343 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 76, "score": 92234 }, { "content": "Title: NGC 6072 Content: NGC 6072 is a type I nebulae in the constellation Scorpius . It has a dynamical age of 104 years . Its circumstellar envelope is likely to be rich in Carbon as it has very strong CN ( Cyanide ) spectral lines . CN spectral lines are generally not detected in Oxygen rich AGB ( Asymptotic giant branch ) circumstellar envelopes . NGC 6072 also shows H2 ( Hydrogen ) emission and intense CO ( Carbon Monoxide ) emission which has been mapped displaying bipolarity and some gas at high velocity . The evolution of this planetary nebulae is likely to be dominated by photodissociation and ion/radical molecular reactions . Shock chemistry is also likely to be important .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "NGC_6072", "rank": 77, "score": 92203 }, { "content": "Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme", "rank": 78, "score": 92178 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_monitoring", "rank": 79, "score": 92158 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 80, "score": 92153 }, { "content": "Title: EU Allowances Content: EU Allowances are Climate credits ( or Carbon credits ) used in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) . EU Allowances are issued by the EU Member States into Member State Registry accounts . By April 30 of each year , operators of installations covered by the EU ETS must surrender an EU Allowance for each ton of CO2 emitted in the previous year . Category : Carbon emissions in the European Union", "qid": "2963", "docid": "EU_Allowances", "rank": 81, "score": 92018 }, { "content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Fugitive_emissions", "rank": 82, "score": 91687 }, { "content": "Title: Assigned amount units Content: An Assigned Amount Unit ( AAU ) is a tradable ` Kyoto unit ' or ` carbon credit ' representing an allowance to emit greenhouse gases comprising one metric tonne of carbon dioxide equivalents calculated using their Global Warming Potential . Assigned Amount Units are issued up to the level of initial `` assigned amount '' of an Annex 1 Party to the Kyoto Protocol . The `` assigned amounts '' are the Kyoto Protocol Annex B emission targets ( or `` quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives '' ) expressed as levels of allowed emissions over the 2008-2012 commitment period .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Assigned_amount_units", "rank": 83, "score": 91630 }, { "content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 84, "score": 91463 }, { "content": "Title: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion Content: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion refers to the combustion-product gas resulting from the burning of fossil fuels . Most fossil fuels are combusted with ambient air ( as differentiated from combustion with pure oxygen ) . Since ambient air contains about 79 volume percent gaseous nitrogen ( N2 ) , which is essentially non-combustible , the largest part of the flue gas from most fossil-fuel combustion is uncombusted nitrogen . Carbon dioxide , the next largest part of flue gas , can be as much as 10 − 25 volume percent or more of the flue gas . This is closely followed in volume by water vapor ( H2O ) created by the combustion of the hydrogen in the fuel with atmospheric oxygen . Much of the ` smoke ' seen pouring from flue gas stacks is this water vapor forming a cloud as it contacts cool air . A typical flue gas from the combustion of fossil fuels contains very small amounts of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) and particulate matter . The nitrogen oxides are derived from the nitrogen in the ambient air as well as from any nitrogen-containing compounds in the fossil fuel . The sulfur dioxide is derived from any sulfur-containing compounds in the fuels . The particulate matter is composed of very small particles of solid materials and very small liquid droplets which give flue gases their smoky appearance . The steam generators in large power plants and the process furnaces in large refineries , petrochemical and chemical plants , and incinerators burn considerable amounts of fossil fuels and therefore emit large amounts of flue gas to the ambient atmosphere . The table below presents the total amounts of flue gas typically generated by the burning of fossil fuels such as natural gas , fuel oil and coal . The data were obtained by stoichiometric calculations . It is of interest to note that the total amount of flue gas generated by coal combustion is only 10 percent higher than the flue gas generated by natural-gas combustion . Note : m ³ are standard cubic meters at 0 ° C and 101.325 kPa , and scf is standard cubic feet at 60 ° F and 14.696 psia .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_combustion", "rank": 85, "score": 91329 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Low-carbon_diet", "rank": 86, "score": 91051 }, { "content": "Title: Power plant comparison Content: Power plant comparison can refer to : Comparisons of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions Relative cost of electricity generated by different sources In addition , there is a comparison of plant costs in Economics of new nuclear power plants", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Power_plant_comparison", "rank": 87, "score": 91043 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_sensor", "rank": 88, "score": 91033 }, { "content": "Title: Emissions Trading Registry Content: An Emissions Trading Registry is a web-based application that records : CO2 allowances and units allocated to and held in operator , person and Government accounts The movement of allowances and units between accounts ( including allocations , transfers , surrender and cancellations ) Annual verified emissions of installations Annual compliance status of installations . An account holder can therefore hold , transfer , cancel or acquire EU Allowances ( EUAs ) and Kyoto units ( e.g. CERs , ERUs , AAUs , RMUs , tCERs and lCERs ) . Further details regarding each of these unit types can be found in A Guide to Using Kyoto Units in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , available on the Environment Agency 's website . In addition , regulators and nominated competent authorities can manage regulated industries ( those with legal emissions reduction targets ) , and monitor national compliance and performance against international emissions reductions obligations . Computerised registries are key components of the EU Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) and wider international emissions trading under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 's ( UNFCCC 's ) Kyoto Protocol . Under Directive 2003/87/EC , EU Member States were required to put in place a standardised , electronic national registry from 2005 , whilst Parties to the Kyoto Protocol were required to put in place a national registry to allow international emissions trading from 2008 . The functional requirements of the Registry are determined by the European Commission ( through the Registry Regulations ) and the UNFCCC secretariat ( through various COP / MOP decisions ) . All national registries are connected directly to the UNFCCC 's International Transaction Log ( ITL ) . This transaction log is responsible for checking all transactions to ensure they adhere to the rules of international emissions trading under the Kyoto Protocol . The ITL also has a link to the EC 's Community Independent Transaction Log ( CITL ) . This transaction log is responsible for checking all transactions to ensure that they adhere to the rules of the EU ETS .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Emissions_Trading_Registry", "rank": 89, "score": 90513 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )", "qid": "2963", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita", "rank": 90, "score": 90381 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 91, "score": 90307 }, { "content": "Title: Cool Earth 50 Content: Cool Earth 50 ( also known as Cool Earth ) is a plan developed by Japan to reduce global CO2 emissions 50 % by 2050 , which was discussed at the 34th G8 summit . Cool Earth 50 is planned to be a framework that would continue towards the goals set forth in the Kyoto Protocols . This plan includes three proposals : a long-term strategy , a mid-term strategy and launching a national campaign for achieving the Kyoto Protocol Target . The plan was first proposed on May 24 , 2007 at an international conference called Asian Future and was initiated by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe . The program 's goal is to reduce current global green house emissions by 50 % by the year 2050 the . The goal of reduction was aimed particular towards the largest green house emitting countries The United States , China , Japan , and India . Also , for the major green house emitters to create a frame work for reduction . Cool Earth aims at reducing green house emissions by improve technology in energy fields . A large goal of Cool Earth is to promote economic prosperity through green technology and to encourage political stability domestically and internationally .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Cool_Earth_50", "rank": 92, "score": 90237 }, { "content": "Title: CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme Content: The CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme ( the CRC , formerly the Carbon Reduction Commitment ) is a mandatory carbon emissions reduction scheme in the United Kingdom that applies to large non-energy-intensive organisations in the public and private sectors . It has been estimated that the scheme will reduce carbon emissions by 1.2 million tonnes of carbon per year by 2020 . In an effort to avoid dangerous climate change , the British Government first committed to cutting UK carbon emissions by 60 % by 2050 ( compared to 1990 levels ) , and in October 2008 increased this commitment to 80 % . The scheme has also been credited with driving up demand for energy-efficient goods and services . The CRC was announced in the 2007 Energy White Paper , published on 23 May 2007 . A consultation in 2006 showed strong support for it to be mandatory , rather than voluntary . The Commitment was introduced under enabling powers in Part 3 of the Climate Change Act 2008 . A consultation into the scheme 's implementation was launched in June 2007 . The Scheme is being introduced under the CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme Order 2010 .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "CRC_Energy_Efficiency_Scheme", "rank": 93, "score": 90032 }, { "content": "Title: Emissions Trading Scheme in South Korea Content: South Korea 's Emissions Trading Scheme ( KETS ) is the second largest in scale after the European Union Emission Trading Scheme and was launched on January 1 , 2015 . South Korea is the second country in Asia to initiate a nation-wide carbon market after Kazakhstan . Complying to the country 's pledge made at the Copenhagen Accord of 2009 , the South Korean government aims to reduce its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by 30 % below its business as usual scenario by 2020 . They have officially employed the cap-and-trade system and the operation applies to over 525 companies which are accountable for approximately 68 % of the nation 's GHG output . The operation is divided up into three periods . The first and second phases consist of 3 years each , 2015 to 2017 and 2018 to 2020 . The final phase will spread out over the next 5 years from 2021 to 2025 . The cap-and-trade system is a tool of carbon pricing that has been adapted by several countries to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions through a market mechanism . It entails a market open to the transaction of trade permits , which allow participating businesses or countries to emit a given amount of greenhouse gases . A cap is set by the government which defines the maximum level of total emissions permitted during a certain time period . The South Korean government had set the emissions cap for the first year of implementation ( 2015 ) as 573 MtCO2e . The major objectives of the KETS is to place South Korea at the forefront of the global effort in reducing GHG emissions and to develop its market competitiveness in the clean energy sector . As one of the top 10 largest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions and a nation with the highest growth rate in GHG emissions , South Korea 's awareness of its carbon footprint has increased over the years . The country grows more vulnerable to climate change as the average temperature has risen by 1.5 degrees Celsius causing frequent natural disasters . Furthermore , the South Korean government aims to cut back its reliance on imported fossil fuel energy which accounts for roughly 97 % of its primary energy consumption . Lastly , by implementing the emissions trading scheme , the government has prospects of developing its green industries and increase its global share of the clean energy market .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Emissions_Trading_Scheme_in_South_Korea", "rank": 94, "score": 89972 }, { "content": "Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme", "rank": 95, "score": 89623 }, { "content": "Title: Wilson–Bappu effect Content: The Ca II K line in cool stars is among the strongest of emission lines , of electromagnetic radiation , which originates in the star 's chromosphere . In 1957 , Olin C. Wilson and M. K. Vainu Bappu reported on the remarkable correlation between the measured width of the aforementioned emission line and the absolute visual magnitude of the star . This is known as the Wilson -- Bappu effect . The correlation is independent of spectral type and is applicable to stellar classification main sequence types G , K , and Red giant type M . The greater the emission band , the brighter the star , which is correlated with distance empirically . The main interest of the Wilson -- Bappu effect resides in the following facts : the Wilson -- Bappu effect can be studied using nearby stars , for which independent distance measurements are possible , and it can be expressed in a simple analytical form . In other words , the Wilson -- Bappu effect can be calibrated with stars within 100 parsecs from the Sun ; the width of the emission core of the K line can be measured in distant stars ; knowing W0 and the analytical form expressing the Wilson -- Bappu effect , we can determine the absolute magnitude of a star the distance of a star follows immediately from the knowledge of both absolute and apparent magnitude , provided that the interstellar reddening of the star is either negligible or well known . The first calibration of the Wilson -- Bappu effect using distance from Hipparcos parallaxes was made in 1999 by Wallerstein et al. . A later work also used W0 measurements on high-resolution spectra taken with CCD , but a smaller sample . According to the latest calibration , the relation between absolute visual magnitude ( Mv ) expressed in magnitudes and W0 , transformed in km/s , is the following : The data error , however , is quite large : about 0.5 mag , rendering the effect too imprecise to significantly improve the cosmic distance ladder . Another limitation comes from the fact that the measurement of W0 in distant stars is very challenging , requires long observations at big telescopes . Sometimes the emission feature in the core of the K line is affected by the interstellar extinction . In these cases an accurate measurement of W0 is not possible . The Wilson -- Bappu effect is also valid for the Mg II k line . However , the Mg II k line is at 2796.34 Å and , since the radiation at this wavelength does not reach the earth 's surface , it can only be observed with ultraviolet satellites , such as the International Ultraviolet Explorer . In 1977 , Stencel published a spectroscopic survey that showed that the wing emission features seen in the broad wings of the K line among higher luminosity late type stars , share a correlation of line width and Mv similar to the Wilson -- Bappu effect .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Wilson–Bappu_effect", "rank": 96, "score": 89555 }, { "content": "Title: List of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions Content: This is a list of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions due to human activity . The data presented below from the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Energy Information Administration corresponds to emissions in 2014 . Interactive bar charts ( showing state rankings for total and per-capita emissions ) and interactive maps ( for both total emissions and per capita emissions ) for the 2014 data are available on Tableau Public . __ TOC __", "qid": "2963", "docid": "List_of_U.S._states_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions", "rank": 97, "score": 89528 }, { "content": "Title: Cofiring Content: Co-firing is the combustion of two different types of materials at the same time . One of the advantages of co-firing is that an existing plant can be used to burn a new fuel , which may be cheaper or more environmentally friendly . For example , biomass is sometimes co-fired in existing coal plants instead of new biomass plants . Co-firing can also be used to improve the combustion of fuels with low energy content . For example , landfill gas contains a large amount of carbon dioxide , which is non-combustible . If the landfill gas is burned without removing the carbon dioxide , the equipment may not perform properly or emissions of pollutants may increase . Co-firing it with natural gas increases the heat content of the fuel and improves combustion and equipment performance . As long as the electricity or heat produced with the biomass and landfill gas was otherwise going to be produced with non-renewable fuels , the benefits are essentially equivalent whether they are cofired or combusted alone . Also , co-firing can be used to lower the emission of some pollutants . For example , co-firing biomass with coal results in less sulfur emissions than burning coal by itself .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Cofiring", "rank": 98, "score": 89203 }, { "content": "Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Climate_footprint", "rank": 99, "score": 89174 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance", "qid": "2963", "docid": "Carbon_retirement", "rank": 100, "score": 89112 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 1, "score": 200513 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 2, "score": 198696 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 3, "score": 195402 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 4, "score": 195226 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 5, "score": 189435 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 6, "score": 176953 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 7, "score": 175429 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 8, "score": 172738 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 9, "score": 172701 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 10, "score": 171224 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 11, "score": 169294 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 12, "score": 165980 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 13, "score": 165784 }, { "content": "Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 14, "score": 163311 }, { "content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 15, "score": 162696 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 16, "score": 159762 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 17, "score": 159552 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_leakage", "rank": 18, "score": 158371 }, { "content": "Title: 1979 energy crisis Content: The 1979 ( or second ) oil crisis or oil shock occurred in the United States due to decreased oil output in the wake of the Iranian Revolution . Despite the fact that global oil supply decreased by only ~ 4 % , widespread panic resulted , driving the price far higher . The price of crude oil more than doubled to $ 39.50 per barrel over the next 12 months , and long lines once again appeared at gas stations , as they had in the 1973 oil crisis . In 1980 , following the outbreak of the Iran -- Iraq War , oil production in Iran nearly stopped , and Iraq 's oil production was severely cut as well . Economic recessions were triggered in the US and other countries . Oil prices did not subside to pre-crisis levels until the mid-1980s . After 1980 , oil prices began a 20-year decline , eventually reaching a 60 percent fall-off during the 1990s . As with the 1973 crisis , global politics and power balance were impacted . Oil exporters such as Mexico , Nigeria , and Venezuela expanded production ; the USSR became the top world producer ; North Sea and Alaskan oil flooded the market ; and OPEC lost influence .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "1979_energy_crisis", "rank": 19, "score": 157877 }, { "content": "Title: Air pollution in Germany Content: Air pollution in Germany has significantly decreased over the past decade . Air pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into the Earth 's atmosphere . These pollutants are released through human activity and natural sources . Germany took interest in reducing its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by switching to renewable energy sources . Renewable energy use rose from 6.3 % in 2000 to 34 % in 2016 . Through the transition to renewable energy sources , Germany has become the climate change policy leader and renewable energy leader in the European Union ( EU ) and in the world with ambitious climate change programs . The current goal of the German government was approved on 14 November 2016 in the German Climate Action Plan 2050 , which outlines measures by which Germany can meet its greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 . By 2050 , Germany wants to reduce their GHGs by 80 to 95 % and by 2030 they want to reduce it by 55 % , compared to the EU target of 40 % . In order to achieve these goals , a variety of strategies and policies are used rather than legislation . The four strategies the German government bases air pollution control on are laying down environmental quality standards , emission reduction requirements according to the best available technology , production regulations , and laying down emission ceilings . Through these strategies , policy instruments have been put in place that have contributed to the success of the significant air pollution reduction in Germany . These instruments include the Federal Emission Control Act and Implementing Ordinances , Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control ( TA Luft ) , Amendment to Ordinance on Small Firing Installations , Implementation of the directive on industrial emissions , and Transboundary air pollution control policy . The German Feed-in-Tariff policy introduced in 2000 led to the significant increase in renewable energy use and decreasing air pollution . They have been introduced in Germany to increase the use of renewables , such as wind power , biomass , hydropower , geothermal power , and photovoltaics , thereby reducing GHG emissions causing air pollution and combating climate change . The German government has been an agenda setter in international climate policy negotiations since the late 1980s . However , national and global climate policies have become a top priority since the conservative-social democratic government came into power in 2005 , pushing both European and international climate negotiations . Positive path dependency in Germany 's climate and energy policies has occurred over the past 20 years . There are three main triggers that put Germany on this positive path dependency and what led them to becoming a climate change policy leader . The first being the widespread damages to health , due to smog , and to nature , due to acid rain , caused by air pollution . The second being the shock of the two oil price crises , in 1973 and 1979 , that highlighted the problem of the German economy 's strong dependence on unsure foreign sources . The third being the growing opposition to the country 's growing reliance on nuclear energy . Air pollution began to be seen as a problem in Germany due to these three triggers , causing Germany to put policies into place to control air pollution . This has now developed from controlling air pollution to being a leader in climate change politics . __ TOC __", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Air_pollution_in_Germany", "rank": 20, "score": 156145 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 21, "score": 155908 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_shipping", "rank": 22, "score": 155362 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia", "rank": 23, "score": 155154 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007", "rank": 24, "score": 154872 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 25, "score": 154026 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions", "rank": 26, "score": 153171 }, { "content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Fugitive_emissions", "rank": 27, "score": 151241 }, { "content": "Title: Wildland fire emission Content: Wildland fire and wildland fire atmospheric emissions have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia . The major wildland fire emissions include greenhouse gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human health and welfare. : Compared to the preindustrial era , wildland land fire in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland fire emissions . Land use changes ( agriculture and urbanization ) are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease , and land management decisions ( land fragmentation , suppression actions , etc. ) are responsible for the remainder . Anthropogenic activities ( e.g. , industrial production , transportation , agriculture , etc. ) today have more than replaced the lost preindustrial wildland fire atmospheric emissions . The following charts compare preindustrial wildland fire emissions with contemporary emissions .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Wildland_fire_emission", "rank": 28, "score": 151168 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_rift", "rank": 29, "score": 151073 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding", "rank": 30, "score": 149520 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon pricing in Australia Content: A carbon pricing scheme in Australia , commonly dubbed by its critics as a `` carbon tax '' , was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in 2011 as the Clean Energy Act 2011 which came into effect on 1 July 2012 . It was in operation until it was repealed on 17 July 2014 , and backdated to 1 July 2014 . In its place the Abbott Government set up the Emission Reduction Fund in December 2014 . As a result of being in place for such a short time , regulated organisations responded in a rather tepid and informal manner , with very few investments in emissions reductions being made . The 2011 scheme required entities which emit over 25,000 tonnes per year of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gases and which were not in the transport or agriculture sectors to obtain emissions permits , called carbon units . Carbon units were either purchased from the government or issued free as part of industry assistance measures . The Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency stated that in June 2013 only 260 entities were subject to the scheme , of which approximately 185 were liable to pay for carbon units under the carbon price scheme . The carbon price was part of a broad energy reform package called the Clean Energy Futures Plan , which aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Australia by 5 % below 2000 levels by 2020 and 80 % below 2000 levels by 2050 . The plan set out to achieve these targets by encouraging Australia 's largest emitters to increase energy efficiency and invest in sustainable energy . The scheme was administered by the Clean Energy Regulator . Compensation to industry and households was funded by the revenue derived from the charge . As part of the scheme , personal income tax was reduced for those earning less than $ 80,000 per year and the tax-free threshold was increased from $ 6,000 to $ 18,200 . Initially the price of a permit for one tonne of carbon was fixed at $ 23 for the 2012 -- 13 financial year , with unlimited permits being available from the government . The fixed price rose to $ 24.15 for 2013 -- 14 . The government had announced that the scheme was part of a transition to an emissions trading scheme in 2014 -- 15 , where the available permits will be limited in line with a pollution cap . The scheme primarily applied to electricity generators and industrial sectors . It did not apply to road transport and agriculture . Domestic aviation did not face the carbon price scheme per se , but was subject to an additional fuel excise levy of approximately 6 cents per litre . In February 2012 , the Sydney Morning Herald reported that Clean Energy Future carbon price scheme had not deterred new investment in the coal industry , as spending on exploration had increased by 62 % in 2010-2011 , more than any other mineral commodity . The government agency Geoscience Australia reported that investment in coal prospecting reached $ 520 million in 2010-2011 . Falls in carbon emissions were observed following implementation of this policy . It was noted that emissions from sectors subject to the pricing mechanism were 1.0 % lower and nine months after the introduction of the pricing scheme , Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation had fallen to a 10-year low , with coal generation down 11 % from 2008 to 2009 . However , attribution of these trends to carbon pricing have been disputed , with Frontier Economics claiming trends are largely explained by factors unrelated to the carbon tax . Electricity demand had been falling and in 2012 was at the lowest level seen since 2006 in the National Electricity Market .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_pricing_in_Australia", "rank": 31, "score": 149013 }, { "content": "Title: Recycled fuel Content: Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Recycled_fuel", "rank": 32, "score": 148611 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in the United Kingdom Content: Energy use in the United Kingdom stood at 2,249 TWh ( 193.4 million tonnes of oil equivalent ) in 2014 . This equates to energy consumption per capita of 34.82 MWh ( 3.00 tonnes of oil equivalent ) compared to a 2010 world average of 21.54 MWh ( 1.85 tonnes of oil equivalent ) . Demand for electricity in 2014 was 34.42 GW on average ( 301.7 TWh over the year ) coming from a total electricity generation of 335.0 TWh . Successive UK governments have outlined numerous commitments to reduce carbon dioxide emissions . One such announcement was the Low Carbon Transition Plan launched by the Brown ministry in July 2009 , which aimed to generate 30 % electricity from renewable sources , and 40 % from low carbon content fuels by 2020 . Notably , the UK is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy , and wind power production is its fastest growing supply , in 2014 it generated 9.3 % of the UK 's total electricity . Government commitments to reduce emissions are occurring against a backdrop of economic crisis across Europe . During the European financial crisis , Europe 's consumption of electricity shrank by 5 % , with primary production also facing a noticeable decline . Britain 's trade deficit was reduced by 8 % due to substantial cuts in energy imports . Between 2007 and 2015 , the UK 's peak electrical demand fell from 61.5 GW to 52.7 . GW . UK government energy policy aims to play a key role in limiting greenhouse gas emissions , whilst meeting energy demand . Shifting availabilities of resources and development of technologies also change the country 's energy mix through changes in costs . In 2016 , the United Kingdom was ranked 12th in the World on the Environmental Performance Index , which measures how well a country carries through environmental policy .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Energy_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 33, "score": 148117 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme", "rank": 34, "score": 147957 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 35, "score": 147072 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 36, "score": 145548 }, { "content": "Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme", "rank": 37, "score": 145533 }, { "content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Kaya_identity", "rank": 38, "score": 145457 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 39, "score": 145073 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 40, "score": 144330 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 41, "score": 142971 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_offset", "rank": 42, "score": 141943 }, { "content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Biosequestration", "rank": 43, "score": 141088 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 44, "score": 140612 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting", "rank": 45, "score": 140240 }, { "content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence", "rank": 46, "score": 140055 }, { "content": "Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "ACEA_agreement", "rank": 47, "score": 139526 }, { "content": "Title: Clean Energy Act 2011 Content: The Clean Energy Act 2011 is the main Act in a package of legislation that established an Australian emissions trading scheme , to be preceded by a three-year period of fixed carbon pricing designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and limit global warming . The package was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in February 2011 and repealed on 17 July 2014 by the Abbott Government .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Clean_Energy_Act_2011", "rank": 48, "score": 139481 }, { "content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage", "rank": 49, "score": 139424 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 50, "score": 139267 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 51, "score": 138945 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 52, "score": 138657 }, { "content": "Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Emission_Reduction_Unit", "rank": 53, "score": 138396 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 54, "score": 138386 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Climate_change_in_China", "rank": 55, "score": 138279 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )", "qid": "2966", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita", "rank": 56, "score": 138276 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 57, "score": 138082 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 58, "score": 138026 }, { "content": "Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Wetland_methane_emissions", "rank": 59, "score": 137897 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Low-carbon_diet", "rank": 60, "score": 137595 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 61, "score": 136941 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_footprint", "rank": 62, "score": 136831 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-carbon city Content: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on renewable energy ; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet . Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal , oil and gas , unintentionally emitting carbon . Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels . To become a zero carbon city , an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease . Also , renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy , so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city . This transition which includes decarbonising electricity ( increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity ) and zero-emission transport , is undertaken as a response to climate change . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact . Instead of using established cities , many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city . This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Zero-carbon_city", "rank": 63, "score": 136816 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon-neutral_fuel", "rank": 64, "score": 136510 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 65, "score": 136345 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 66, "score": 135732 }, { "content": "Title: Chicago Climate Exchange Content: The Chicago Climate Exchange ( CCX ) was North America 's only voluntary , legally binding greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reduction and trading system for emission sources and offset projects in North America and Brazil . CCX employed independent verification , included six greenhouse gases , and traded greenhouse gas emission allowances from 2003 to 2010 . The companies joining the exchange committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 6 % by 2010 . CCX had an aggregate baseline of 680 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent . CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets , although carbon exchanges were intended to still be facilitated .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Chicago_Climate_Exchange", "rank": 67, "score": 135565 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_shifting", "rank": 68, "score": 135205 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 69, "score": 133983 }, { "content": "Title: Washington Initiative 732 Content: Washington Initiative 732 ( I-732 ) was an initiative to create a carbon tax to the Washington State Legislature , which appeared on the November 2016 ballot . The backers of I-732 submitted roughly 350,000 signatures in December 2015 to certify the initiative . The initiative was spearheaded by environmental economist Yoram Bauman , a strong advocate of carbon pricing . It was modeled after the British Columbia carbon tax , which was considered `` popular across the political spectrum '' . The carbon tax in British Columbia caused the province 's fuel consumption to decrease by 16 % and its greenhouse gas emissions to decrease 3.5 times faster than the emissions of Canada as a whole , while maintaining steady economic growth . On November 8 , it was rejected .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Washington_Initiative_732", "rank": 70, "score": 132777 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_bubble", "rank": 71, "score": 132630 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita", "rank": 72, "score": 132559 }, { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 73, "score": 132382 }, { "content": "Title: 1980s oil glut Content: The 1980s oil glut was a serious surplus of crude oil caused by falling demand following the 1970s energy crisis . The world price of oil , which had peaked in 1980 at over US$ 35 per barrel ( equivalent to $ per barrel today , when adjusted for inflation ) , fell in 1986 from $ 27 to below $ 10 ( $ to $ today ) . The glut began in the early 1980s as a result of slowed economic activity in industrial countries ( due to the crises of the 1970s , especially in 1973 and 1979 ) and the energy conservation spurred by high fuel prices . The inflation-adjusted real 2004 dollar value of oil fell from an average of $ 78.2 in 1981 to an average of $ 26.8 per barrel in 1986 . In June 1981 , The New York Times stated an `` Oil glut ! ... is here '' and Time Magazine stated : `` the world temporarily floats in a glut of oil , '' though the next week an article in The New York Times warned that the word `` glut '' was misleading , and that in reality , while temporary surpluses had brought down prices somewhat , prices were still well above pre-energy crisis levels . This sentiment was echoed in November 1981 , when the CEO of Exxon Corp also characterized the glut as a temporary surplus , and that the word `` glut '' was an example of `` our American penchant for exaggerated language . '' He wrote that the main cause of the glut was declining consumption . In the United States , Europe and Japan , oil consumption had fallen 13 % from 1979 to 1981 , due to `` in part , in reaction to the very large increases in oil prices by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries and other oil exporters , '' continuing a trend begun during the 1973 price increases . After 1980 , reduced demand and increased production produced a glut on the world market . The result was a six-year decline in the price of oil , which culminated by plunging more than half in 1986 alone .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "1980s_oil_glut", "rank": 74, "score": 131583 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Massachusetts Content: Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Massachusetts", "rank": 75, "score": 131367 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_inventory", "rank": 76, "score": 131287 }, { "content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources", "rank": 77, "score": 131229 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 78, "score": 131132 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_sequestration", "rank": 79, "score": 131109 }, { "content": "Title: Airborne fraction Content: The airborne fraction is a scaling factor defined as the ratio of the annual increase in atmospheric to the emissions from anthropogenic sources . It represents the proportion of human emitted that remains in the atmosphere . The fraction averages about 45 % , meaning that approximately half the human-emitted is absorbed by ocean and land surfaces . There is some evidence for a recent increase in airborne fraction , which would imply a faster increase in atmospheric for a given rate of human fossil-fuel burning . However , other sources suggest that the `` fraction of carbon dioxide has not increased either during the past 150 years or during the most recent five decades '' . Changes in carbon sinks can affect the airborne fraction .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Airborne_fraction", "rank": 80, "score": 130799 }, { "content": "Title: Beyond Zero Emissions Content: Beyond Zero Emissions ( BZE ) is an Australia-based , not-for-profit climate change solutions think-tank . BZE was founded in 2006 by Matthew Wright and Adrian Whitehead under the guidance of Philip Sutton . The group coordinates research and education into how the Australian economy can rapidly reduce human-caused greenhouse gas emissions to ` zero and below ' by implementing changes to stationary energy , transport , buildings , agricultural activities , industrial processes and fossil fuel export sectors . In 2010 BZE released its first publication , the Zero Carbon Australia Stationary Energy Plan ( Wright , Hearps 2010 ) a research collaboration between Beyond Zero Emissions and the University of Melbourne Energy Research Institute . The aim of the report was to provide a detailed , fully realisable , fully costed 10-year plan to replace all stationary energy needs with 100 % renewable energy sources , using only current proven technologies and engineering . This report addressed the common perception that renewables can not replace fossil fuels , either due to immaturity of the technology or due to cost concerns . The group invited pro-bono contributions from engineers , scientists , and industry specialists to work on this and all subsequent projects , similar to the way open source software is developed . Since 2006 Beyond Zero Emissions has released the following publications : Zero Carbon Australia Stationary Energy Plan ( 2010 ) , Repowering Port Augusta ( 2012 ) , Health and Social Harms of Mining in Local Communities : Spotlight on the Hunter Region report ( 2012 ) . Laggard to Leader : How Australia Can Lead the World to Zero Carbon Prosperity ( 2012 ) Zero Carbon Australia Buildings Plan ( 2013 ) , Zero Carbon Australia High Speed Rail ( 2014 ) Fossil Economy ( 2014 ) , Zero Carbon Australia Land Use - Agriculture and Forestry ( 2014 ) , Carbon Capture and Storage Report ( 2014 ) , Carbon Crisis : Systemic Risk of Carbon Emission Liabilities report ( 2015 ) Zero Carbon Australia Renewable Energy Superpower ( 2015 ) , Zero Carbon Australia Electric Vehicles ( 2016 ) , A full list of Beyond Zero Emissions publications is also available with links to free pdf downloads at the BZE website .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Beyond_Zero_Emissions", "rank": 81, "score": 130499 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation", "rank": 82, "score": 130492 }, { "content": "Title: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle Content: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle is diverse . Agricultural and industrial nitrogen ( N ) inputs to the environment currently exceed inputs from natural N fixation . As a consequence of anthropogenic inputs , the global nitrogen cycle ( Fig. 1 ) has been significantly altered over the past century . Global atmospheric nitrous oxide ( N2O ) mole fractions have increased from a pre-industrial value of ~ 270 nmol/mol to ~ 319 nmol/mol in 2005 . Human activities account for over one-third of N2O emissions , most of which are due to the agricultural sector . This article is intended to give a brief review of the history of anthropogenic N inputs , and reported impacts of nitrogen inputs on selected terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle", "rank": 83, "score": 130152 }, { "content": "Title: Eco-costs Content: Eco-costs are a measure to express the amount of environmental burden of a product on the basis of prevention of that burden . They are the costs which should be made to reduce the environmental pollution and materials depletion in our world to a level which is in line with the carrying capacity of our earth . For example : for each 1000 kg CO2 emission , one should invest $ 135 , - in offshore windmill parks ( and the other CO2 reduction systems at that price or less ) . When this is done consequently , the total CO2 emissions in the world will be reduced by 65 % compared to the emissions in 2008 . As a result , global warming will stabilise . In short : `` the eco-costs of 1000kg CO2 are $ 135 , - '' . Similar calculations can be made on the environmental burden of acidification , eutrification , summer smog , fine dust , eco-toxicity , and the use of metals , rare earth , fossil fuels , water and land ( nature ) . As such , the eco-costs are virtual costs , since they are not yet integrated in the real life costs of current production chains ( Life Cycle Costs ) . The eco-costs should be regarded as hidden obligations . The eco-costs of a product are the sum of all eco-costs of emissions and use of resources during the life cycle `` from cradle to cradle '' . The widely accepted method to make such a calculation is called Life Cycle Assessment ( LCA ) , which is basically a mass and energy balance , defined in the 14040 and ISO 14044 . The practical use of eco-costs is to compare the sustainability of several product types with the same functionality . The advantage of eco-costs is that they are expressed in a standardized monetary value which appears to be easily understood ` by instinct ' . Also the calculation is transparent and relatively easy , compared to damage based models which have the disadvantage of extremely complex calculations with subjective weighting of the various aspects contributing to the overall environmental burden . The system of eco-costs is part of the bigger model of the Ecocosts/Value Ratio , EVR", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Eco-costs", "rank": 84, "score": 129923 }, { "content": "Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "California_Senate_Bill_32", "rank": 85, "score": 129912 }, { "content": "Title: Malaise era Content: Malaise Era refers to the period of American-made vehicles in model years 1973 to 1983 , when changing government regulations and customer preferences initiated a focus on fuel efficiency and emissions controls . American automakers had a hard time competing with the smaller , more efficient import cars . This time corresponds with significantly increased oversight of the automotive industry by the US Department of Transportation in response to the 1973 oil crisis and 1979 energy crisis . The resulting vehicles were significantly less powerful and slower due to new emissions restrictions being applied to older , heavier vehicle designs which also often included aggressively detuning the existing large engine designs to meet regulations and deliver desired efficiency .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Malaise_era", "rank": 86, "score": 129881 }, { "content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry", "rank": 87, "score": 129558 }, { "content": "Title: Respiratory acidosis Content: Respiratory acidosis is a medical emergency in which decreased ventilation ( hypoventilation ) increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and decreases the blood 's pH ( a condition generally called acidosis ) . Carbon dioxide is produced continuously as the body 's cells respire , and this CO2 will accumulate rapidly if the lungs do not adequately expel it through alveolar ventilation . Alveolar hypoventilation thus leads to an increased PaCO2 ( a condition called hypercapnia ) . The increase in PaCO2 in turn decreases the HCO3 − / PaCO2 ratio and decreases pH.", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Respiratory_acidosis", "rank": 88, "score": 129484 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 89, "score": 129020 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of the oil shale industry Content: Environmental impact of the oil shale industry includes the consideration of issues such as land use , waste management , and water and air pollution caused by the extraction and processing of oil shale . Surface mining of oil shale deposits causes the usual environmental impacts of open-pit mining . In addition , the combustion and thermal processing generate waste material , which must be disposed of , and harmful atmospheric emissions , including carbon dioxide , a major greenhouse gas . Experimental in-situ conversion processes and carbon capture and storage technologies may reduce some of these concerns in future , but may raise others , such as the pollution of groundwater .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry", "rank": 90, "score": 128905 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England", "rank": 91, "score": 128762 }, { "content": "Title: UK Emissions Trading Scheme Content: The UK Emissions Trading Scheme was a voluntary emissions trading system created as a pilot prior to the mandatory European Union Emissions Trading Scheme which it now runs in parallel with . It ran from 2002 and it closed to new entrants in 2009 . Management of the scheme transferred to the Department of Energy and Climate Change in 2008 . At the time , the scheme was a novel economic approach , being the first multi-industry carbon trading system in the world . ( Denmark ran a pilot greenhouse gas trading scheme between 2001 and 2003 but this only involved eight electricity companies ) . It took note of the emerging international consensus on the benefits of carbon trading that were being proposed in the mandatory Kyoto Protocol , which had not been ratified at that time , and allowed government and corporate early movers and to gain experience in the auction process and the trading system that the later schemes have entailed . It ran in parallel to a tax on energy use , the Climate Change Levy , introduced in April 2001 , but companies could get a discount on the tax if they elected to make reductions through participation in the trading scheme . The voluntary trading scheme recruited 34 participants from UK industries and organisations who promised to make reductions in their carbon emissions , this has since expanded to 54 sectors of the UK economy . In return they received a share of a # 215 million `` incentive fund '' from the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) . Each agreed to hold sufficient allowances to cover its actual emissions for that year , and participate in a cap and trade system , with an annually reducing cap . Each participant could then decide to take action to manage its emissions to exactly meet its target , or reduce its actual emissions below its target ( thereby releasing allowances that it could sell on , or save for use in future years ) , or buy allowances from other participants to cover any excess . From March 2002 , DEFRA ran an auction of emission allowances to perform allocations to participants , after the start of the mandatory EU scheme .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "UK_Emissions_Trading_Scheme", "rank": 92, "score": 128651 }, { "content": "Title: Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) Carbon Neutral Resolution Content: The Presbyterian Church ( USA ) Carbon Neutral Resolution was a resolution passed at the June , 2006 , 217th General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) strongly urging all Presbyterians to ` immediately aspire to live carbon neutral lives ' . It is believed that resolution was the first in the world by a major religious denomination for its followers to become carbon neutral . The resolution also directed the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy to make available detail of how Presbyterians could take to reduce their energy consumption and recognised that ` the Christian mandate to care for creation and the biblical promise of the restoration of right relationships between God , human beings , and the rest of creation impels and inspires Presbyterians to act to reduce -LSB- their -RSB- energy usage ' . The resolution was based on a report by a task force prepared for the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy . After the Advisory Committee voted to postpone consideration of the report until the 2008 General Assembly , two General Assembly Commissioners bypassed the committee and were successful in getting the resolution adopted . The Church first noted its ` serious concern ' over global warming at the 1990 General Assembly , when it warned that ` the global atmospheric warming trend ( the greenhouse effect ) represents one of the most serious global environmental challenges to the health , security , and stability of human life and natural ecosystems ' . Despite this , a survey carried out in 2004 revealed that over half of all Presbyterians had not taken even the ` simplest steps to decrease their energy usage ' , and that most congregations had not implemented energy conservation programs .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Presbyterian_Church_(U.S.A.)_Carbon_Neutral_Resolution", "rank": 93, "score": 128559 }, { "content": "Title: Bomb pulse Content: The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Bomb_pulse", "rank": 94, "score": 128425 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_monitoring", "rank": 95, "score": 128196 }, { "content": "Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "ECOCITIES_(software)", "rank": 96, "score": 128077 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in Austria Content: The Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection of Austria , established in 1972 , is responsible for the coordination at the national level of all environmental protection efforts , addressing its efforts toward problems including waste disposal , pollution , noise , sulfur dioxide , and carbon monoxide levels , as well as emissions by the iron , steel , and ceramics industries . A toxic waste law enacted in 1984 established strict regulations for the collection , transport , and disposal of dangerous substances . The Austrian government has imposed strict regulations on gas emissions , which helped to reduce sulfur dioxide by two-thirds over an eight-year period beginning in 1980 . In 1992 Austria was among the 50 countries with the highest level of industrial carbon dioxide emissions , producing 56.6 million metric tons of emissions , or 7.29 m tons per capita . In 1996 , the level rose to 59.3 million metric tons . In 2000 , the total was 60.8 million metric tons .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_Austria", "rank": 97, "score": 128070 }, { "content": "Title: Emission intensity Content: An emission intensity is the average emission rate of a given pollutant from a given source relative to the intensity of a specific activity ; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced , or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to gross domestic product ( GDP ) . Emission intensities are used to derive estimates of air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions based on the amount of fuel combusted , the number of animals in animal husbandry , on industrial production levels , distances traveled or similar activity data . Emission intensities may also be used to compare the environmental impact of different fuels or activities . The related terms emission factor and carbon intensity are often used interchangeably , but `` factors '' exclude aggregate activities such as GDP , and `` carbon '' excludes other pollutants . One commonly used figure is carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour , or CIPK , which is used to compare different sources of electrical power .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Emission_intensity", "rank": 98, "score": 127736 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 99, "score": 127181 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "qid": "2966", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide", "rank": 100, "score": 127135 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 1, "score": 126444 }, { "content": "Title: 100% renewable energy Content: The endeavor to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , heating and cooling , and transport is motivated by global warming , pollution and other environmental issues , as well as economic and energy security concerns . Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system . In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . In 2014 , renewable sources such as wind , geothermal , solar , biomass , and burnt waste provided 19 % of the total energy consumed worldwide , with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass . The most important sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8 % , most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6 % , followed by wind with 3.1 % . There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy . At the national level , at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of the energy supply . Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of `` Climate stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and `` renewable energy sources , '' in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their `` wedges . '' Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program , says that producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible , and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be `` primarily social and political , not technological or economic '' . Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind , solar , and water system should be similar to today 's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies . The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will . Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that `` sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . '' The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "100%_renewable_energy", "rank": 2, "score": 124578 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 3, "score": 122065 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 4, "score": 119212 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 5, "score": 117706 }, { "content": "Title: Waste heat Content: Waste heat is by necessity produced both by machines that do work and in other processes that use energy , for example in a refrigerator warming the room air or a combustion engine releasing heat into the environment . The need for many systems to reject heat as a by-product of their operation is fundamental to the laws of thermodynamics . Waste heat has lower utility ( or in thermodynamics lexicon a lower exergy or higher entropy ) than the original energy source . Sources of waste heat include all manner of human activities , natural systems , and all organisms . Instead of being `` wasted '' by release into the ambient environment , sometimes waste heat ( or cold ) can be utilized by another process ( such as using hot engine coolant to heat a vehicle ) , or a portion of heat that would otherwise be wasted can be reused in the same process if make-up heat is added to the system ( as with heat recovery ventilation in a building ) . Thermal energy storage , which includes technologies both for short - and long-term retention of heat or cold , can create or improve the utility of waste heat ( or cold ) . One example is waste heat from air conditioning machinery stored in a buffer tank to aid in night time heating . Another is seasonal thermal energy storage ( STES ) at a foundry in Sweden . The heat is stored in the bedrock surrounding a cluster of heat exchanger equipped boreholes , and is used for space heating in an adjacent factory as needed , even months later . An example of using STES to utilize natural waste heat is the Drake Landing Solar Community in Alberta , Canada , which , by using a cluster of boreholes in bedrock for interseasonal heat storage , obtains 97 percent of its year-round heat from solar thermal collectors on the garage roofs . Another STES application is storing winter cold underground , for summer air conditioning . On a biological scale , all organisms reject waste heat as part of their metabolic processes , and will die if the ambient temperature is too high to allow this . Anthropogenic waste heat is thought by some to contribute to the urban heat island effect . The biggest point sources of waste heat originate from machines ( such as electrical generators or industrial processes , such as steel or glass production ) and heat loss through building envelopes . The burning of transport fuels is a major contribution to waste heat .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Waste_heat", "rank": 6, "score": 115703 }, { "content": "Title: Waste-to-energy Content: Waste-to-energy ( WtE ) or energy-from-waste ( EfW ) is the process of generating energy in the form of electricity and/or heat from the primary treatment of waste . WtE is a form of energy recovery . Most WtE processes produce electricity and/or heat directly through combustion , or produce a combustible fuel commodity , such as methane , methanol , ethanol or synthetic fuels .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Waste-to-energy", "rank": 7, "score": 114429 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe", "rank": 8, "score": 113790 }, { "content": "Title: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Content: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions", "rank": 9, "score": 113031 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 10, "score": 112247 }, { "content": "Title: Total equivalent warming impact Content: Total equivalent warming impact or TEWI is besides global warming potential measure used to express contributions to global warming . It is defined as sum of the direct emissions ( chemical ) and indirect emissions ( energy use ) of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Total_equivalent_warming_impact", "rank": 11, "score": 110464 }, { "content": "Title: Waste heat recovery unit Content: A waste heat recovery unit ( WHRU ) is an energy recovery heat exchanger that recovers heat from hot streams with potential high energy content , such as hot flue gases from a diesel generator or steam from cooling towers or even waste water from different cooling processes such as in steel cooling .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Waste_heat_recovery_unit", "rank": 12, "score": 109471 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 13, "score": 106371 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 14, "score": 106202 }, { "content": "Title: List of Australian environmental books Content: This is a list of Australian environmental books : Global Spin : The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism ( 1997 ) , by Sharon Beder Human Ecology , Human Economy : Ideas for an Ecologically Sustainable Future ( 1997 ) , edited by Mark Diesendorf and Clive Hamilton Running from the Storm : The Development of Climate Change Policy in Australia ( 2001 ) , by Clive Hamilton A Big Fix : Radical Solutions for Australia 's Environmental Crisis ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe The Weather Makers ( 2005 ) , by Tim Flannery Environmental Principles and Policies ( 2006 ) , by Sharon Beder Patriots : Defending Australia 's Natural Heritage ( 2006 ) , by William J Lines Chasing Kangaroos ( 2007 ) , by Tim Flannery Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy ( 2007 ) , by Mark Diesendorf High and Dry : John Howard , Climate Change and the Selling of Australia 's Future ( 2007 ) , by Guy Pearse The 3rd Degree : Frontline in Australia 's Climate War ( 2007 ) , by Murray Hogarth Maralinga : Australia 's Nuclear Waste Cover-up ( 2007 ) , by Alan Parkinson Reaction Time : Climate Change and the Nuclear Option ( 2007 ) , by Ian Lowe Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change ( 2007 ) , by Clive Hamilton Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action ( 2008 ) , by David Spratt and Philip Sutton Now or Never : A Sustainable Future for Australia ? ( 2008 ) , by Tim Flannery Quarry Vision : Coal , Climate Change and the End of the Resources Boom ( 2009 ) , by Guy Pearse Requiem for a Species ( 2010 ) , by Clive Hamilton", "qid": "2967", "docid": "List_of_Australian_environmental_books", "rank": 15, "score": 104135 }, { "content": "Title: Robert O. Mendelsohn Content: Robert O. Mendelsohn ( born 1952 in New York City ) is an American environmental economist . He is currently the Edwin Weyerhaeuser Davis Professor of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University , Professor of Economics in Economics Department at Yale University and Professor in the School of Management at Yale University.Professor Mendelsohn is a major figure in the economics of global warming , being for example a contributor to the first Copenhagen Consensus report . Mendelsohn received a BA in economics from Harvard University in 1973 and obtained his Ph.D. in economics from Yale University in 1978 . Professor Mendelsohn has written over one hundred peer-reviewed articles and edited six books . The focus of his research has been the valuation of the environment . He has developed methods to value natural ecosystems including coral reefs , old-growth forests , non-timber forest products , ecotourism , and outdoor recreation . He has also developed methods to value pollution including emissions of criteria pollutants ( such as particulates and sulfur dioxide ) and hazardous waste sites . His most recent work values the impacts of greenhouse gases , including the effects of climate change on agriculture , forests , water resources , energy , and coasts . This research carefully integrates adaptation into impact assessment and has recently been extended to developing countries around the world . He has also been involved in studies of nonrenewable resources , forest management , and specifically carbon sequestration in forests .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Robert_O._Mendelsohn", "rank": 16, "score": 104018 }, { "content": "Title: Cyclone Waste Heat Engine Content: The Cyclone Waste Heat Engine ( WHE ) is a small steam engine developed to produce power from steam created from waste heat . It is an offshoot of the development of the Cyclone Mark V Engine by the company Cyclone Power Technologies of Pampano Beach , Florida . The original versions were designed by inventor Harry Schoell , founder of Cyclone Power Technologies and the later versions have been designed by the Ohio State University Center for Automotive Research ( OSU-CAR ) . In July 2014 , Cyclone Power Technologies separated its waste heat engine product into the separate WHE Generation Corporation , which does business under the trade name Q2Power , Inc. , of Lancaster , Ohio .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Cyclone_Waste_Heat_Engine", "rank": 17, "score": 103800 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 18, "score": 103492 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 19, "score": 103362 }, { "content": "Title: Electronic waste in India Content: India has emerged as fifth largest Electronic waste producer in world . Computer devices account for nearly 70 % of e-waste , with the contribution of telecom sector being 12 % , medical equipment being 8 % , and electric equipments being 7 % of the annual e-waste production . The Government , public sector companies , and private sector companies generate nearly 75 % of electronic waste ; with the contribution of individual household being only 16 % . City-wise , Mumbai tops the list in producing electronic waste , followed by New Delhi , Bangalore and Chennai . State-wise Maharashtra ranks first in generation of electronic waste , followed by Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh . Electronic waste account for 40 % of lead and 70 % of heavy metals found in landfills . These pollutants are responsible for groundwater contamination , air pollution and soil acidification . The Ministry of Environment , Forest and Climate Change has notified E-Waste ( Management ) Rules , 2016 . The rules - for the first time in India - introduced Extended Producer Responsibility ( EPR ) . EPR stipulates for collection 30 % waste in first two years and up to 70 % in seven years . According to ASSOCHAM , an industrial body in India the , Compound Annual Growth Rate ( CAGR ) of electronic waste is 30 % . Nearly 95 % of processing of electronic waste is carried out by the unskilled informal sector .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Electronic_waste_in_India", "rank": 20, "score": 103218 }, { "content": "Title: Ross Gelbspan Content: Ross Gelbspan is a writer and environmentalist . He has written two books relating to global warming : The Heat Is On ( 1997 ) and Boiling Point ( 2004 ) . The Heat Is On received national attention when President Bill Clinton told the press he was reading it . Boiling Point was the subject of the lead review in the Sunday New York Times Book Review . That review was written by former Vice President Al Gore . Gelbspan maintains the website heatisonline.org , which he updates on a daily basis . Prior to his involvement in the climate issue , Gelbspan worked as an editor and reporter at a number of newspapers , including The Philadelphia Bulletin , The Washington Post and the Boston Globe . At the Globe , he conceived , directed and edited a series of articles that won a Pulitzer Prize in 1984 . Since becoming involved in the climate issue , Gelbspan has delivered a number of lectures , radio and television interviews and has published multiple articles on the subject . He is a regular contributor on DeSmogBlog . He has published op-ed articles in a number of major newspapers -- as well as articles in a number of other outlets including Harper 's , The Atlantic Monthly , The American Prospect , Sierra Magazine , The Nation , and many others . He has spoken in venues that include the World Economic Forum and the Boston Social Forum . His media interviews include , among others , appearances on Nightline , All Things Considered , Talk of the Nation , World News Tonight and other outlets .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Ross_Gelbspan", "rank": 21, "score": 102807 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 22, "score": 102395 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 23, "score": 102175 }, { "content": "Title: Waste in the United States Content: As a nation , Americans generate more waste than any other nation in the world , officially with 4.4 pounds ( 2.0 kg ) of municipal solid waste ( MSW ) per person per day , with another study estimating 7.1 pounds per capita per day . Fifty five percent of this waste is contributed as residential garbage , while the remaining forty five percent of waste in the U.S. 's ` waste stream ' comes from manufacturing , retailing , and commercial trade in the U.S. economy . Based on proprietary data released to the public , Nevada was named America 's `` Most Wasteful State '' for the years 2005-2010 ; where each resident threw away over 14 pounds of non-recycled , unreused items , often ending up into landfills and incinerators per day , eight pounds over the national state daily throwaway average . `` Wasteful '' states Michigan , New Mexico , Wisconsin and Oregon as well as Washington also dominated the list 's 5-year period .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Waste_in_the_United_States", "rank": 24, "score": 101813 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 25, "score": 101770 }, { "content": "Title: World Wide Views on Global Warming Content: World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 . World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "World_Wide_Views_on_Global_Warming", "rank": 26, "score": 100401 }, { "content": "Title: Energy recycling Content: Energy recycling is the energy recovery process of utilizing energy that would normally be wasted , usually by converting it into electricity or thermal energy . Undertaken at manufacturing facilities , power plants , and large institutions such as hospitals and universities , it significantly increases efficiency , thereby reducing energy costs and greenhouse gas pollution simultaneously . The process is noted for its potential to mitigate global warming profitably . This work is usually done in the form of combined heat and power ( also called cogeneration ) or waste heat recovery .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Energy_recycling", "rank": 27, "score": 100350 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 28, "score": 100051 }, { "content": "Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "European_Climate_Change_Programme", "rank": 29, "score": 99916 }, { "content": "Title: Energy mix Content: The energy mix is the group of different primary energy sources from which secondary energy for direct use - usually electricity - is produced . Primary energy in the form of fossil fuels is nowadays still mostly used directly for motor-driven vehicles , i.e. transport . Further energy conversion of the co-produced waste heat after burning is not possible . In 2009 , the global primary energy use corresponded to 12.5 e6t oil equivalent corresponding to 145,375 GWh ) . According to the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) 13,6 % of that was used by the EU . Within the EU , 75.9 % came from fossil fuels , 14.1 % from nuclear energy , 7 % from biofuels , 2.9 from renewable energy resources . Overall primary energy consumption in the U.S. in 2015 relied most on petroleum ( 35 e15BTU ) , natural gas ( 29 e15BTU ) and coal ( 16 e15BTU ) . Renewables contributed 9 e15BTU and nuclear power 8 e15BTU . In the same year , about 4 million GWh of electricity were generated in the U.S. , 67 % of which was generated from fossil fuels ( coal , natural gas , and < 1 % petroleum ) , 20 % from nuclear power , 6 % hydropower and 7 % other renewables . While the rise of global energy consumption with the global population growth can not immediately be counteracted , the sustainability of growth can partially be improved by changing the energy mix towards renewables . The main forces in this process are national and transnational energy policy and the energy industry together with their lobbyists .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Energy_mix", "rank": 30, "score": 99634 }, { "content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Climate_sensitivity", "rank": 31, "score": 99589 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Performance Index Content: The Climate Change Performance Index ( CCPI ) is an annual publication by Germanwatch and Climate Action Network Europe . It evaluates the climate protection performance of 58 countries , responsible for over 90 % of global energy-related emissions . CCPI 2013 publication covers emissions from the fossil fuels , except emissions from the shipping industry . Following CCPI 2013 publication may include emissions from deforestation , agriculture and waste . 50 % of the evaluation is based on emissions trend , 30 % on emissions level and 20 % on national and international climate policy assessments made by more than 200 experts . The most recent results ( published December 2014 ) illustrate that efforts are still insufficient to prevent dangerous climate change . Thus , no country received rankings one to three in the results for 2015 although Denmark which topped the list was praised for its efforts .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Climate_Change_Performance_Index", "rank": 32, "score": 99388 }, { "content": "Title: Tristram Stuart Content: Tristram Stuart ( born 1977 in London ) is an English author and campaigner . In 2011 Tristram Stuart won the international environmental Sophie Prize and the `` Observer Food Monthly Outstanding Contribution Award '' for his ongoing campaign to solve the global food waste scandal . Stuart read English at Trinity Hall , Cambridge , and won the Betha Wolferstan Rylands prize and the Graham Storey prize ; his directors of studies were Peter Holland and John Lennard . He is the author of The Bloodless Revolution : Radical Vegetarians and the Discovery of India ( Harper Collins Ltd , 2006 ) published in the United States as The Bloodless Revolution : A Cultural History of Vegetarianism From 1600 to Modern Times ( W.W. Norton , 2007 ) . His second book Waste : Uncovering the Global Food Scandal ( Penguin , 2009 ; W.W. Norton , 2009 ) has been translated into several languages and won the IACP Cookbook Award for Literary Food Writing . He is a regular contributor to newspapers , and radio and television programs in the UK , US and Europe on the subject of food , the environment and freeganism . He lives in England and in December 2009 launched a food waste campaign by organising `` Feeding the 5000 '' in London 's Trafalgar Square in which 5,000 people were served free curry , smoothies and fresh groceries from cast off vegetables and other food that otherwise would have been wasted to raise awareness for reducing food waste . He founded the charity Feedback which has replicated the Feeding the 5000 campaign and event model in several countries and has now been commissioned by the European Commission and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to spread the campaign globally . Other campaigns by Feedback include The Pig Idea and the Gleaning Network . Stuart spoke at the We are fed up ! - demonstrations together with 30,000 other people in January 2014 in Berlin . In May 2012 , Stuart presented a TED talk entitled `` The Global Food Waste Scandal '' .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Tristram_Stuart", "rank": 33, "score": 99168 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal Credits Content: Thermal credits is a new holistic concept which corresponds to the percentage of the climate impact saving obtained through mitigation and adaptation measures applied against global warming , taking as reference the global temperature rise projected in a given time scale . Thermal credits are measured in percentages of global warming reduction in a given time .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Thermal_Credits", "rank": 34, "score": 98243 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Russia Content: Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Russia", "rank": 35, "score": 97841 }, { "content": "Title: Urban heat island Content: An urban heat island ( UHI ) is an urban area or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities . The temperature difference usually is larger at night than during the day , and is most apparent when winds are weak . UHI is most noticeable during the summer and winter . The main cause of the urban heat island effect is from the modification of land surfaces . Waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor . As a population center grows , it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature . The less-used term heat island refers to any area , populated or not , which is consistently hotter than the surrounding area . Monthly rainfall is greater downwind of cities , partially due to the UHI . Increases in heat within urban centers increases the length of growing seasons , and decreases the occurrence of weak tornadoes . The UHI decreases air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone , and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on their ecosystems . Not all cities have a distinct urban heat island . Mitigation of the urban heat island effect can be accomplished through the use of green roofs and the use of lighter-colored surfaces in urban areas , which reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat . There are concerns raised about possible contribution from urban heat islands to global warming . Research on China and India indicates that urban heat island effect contributes to climate warming by about 30 % . On the other hand , one 1999 comparison between urban and rural areas proposed that the urban heat island effects have little influence on global mean temperature trends . Many studies reveal increases in the severity of the effect with the progress of climate change .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Urban_heat_island", "rank": 36, "score": 97680 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 37, "score": 97355 }, { "content": "Title: GWP Content: GWP can stand for : Global-warming potential , a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere Global Water Partnership , an international network offering practical advice for sustainably managing water resources Gross world product , the combined GNP of all countries in the world Gross Written Premiums , a measure of revenues for insurance businesses Guild Wars Prophecies , an MMORPG Guinea-Bissau peso , the currency code for Guinea-Bissau 's peso from 1975 to 1997 Gigawatt-peak , a measure in gigawatts of the nominal power of a photovoltaic solar energy device under laboratory illumination conditions", "qid": "2967", "docid": "GWP", "rank": 38, "score": 97175 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 39, "score": 97143 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 40, "score": 96764 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 41, "score": 96701 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 42, "score": 96475 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Policy Foundation Content: The Global Warming Policy Foundation ( GWPF ) is a think tank in the United Kingdom , whose stated aims are to challenge `` extremely damaging and harmful policies '' envisaged by governments to mitigate anthropogenic global warming . It promotes climate change denial . In 2014 , when the Charity Commission ruled that the GWPF had breached rules on impartiality , a non-charitable organisation called the `` Global Warming Policy Forum '' or `` GWPF '' was created as a wholly owned subsidiary , to do lobbying that a charity could not . The GWPF website carries an array of articles `` sceptical '' of scientific findings of anthropogenic global warming and its impacts .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Global_Warming_Policy_Foundation", "rank": 43, "score": 95707 }, { "content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Fugitive_emissions", "rank": 44, "score": 95701 }, { "content": "Title: Lucia Liljegren Content: Lucia Liljegren is an American mechanical engineer who has worked at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory ( on projects related to remediation and storage of radioactive waste ) and as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at Iowa State University . She is best known ( as Lucia ) for her global warming/climate change blog The Blackboard ( Where Climate Talk Gets Hot ! ) , online since 2007 . Professor Judith Curry , a climatologist at Georgia Tech , calls Lucia `` probably the least controversial person in the climate blogosphere , because of her cheerfulness and sense of humor , honesty , and open mindedness . '' In the climate change debate , Lucia classifies herself as a `` lukewarmer '' : a person who recognizes global warming , but doubts the severity of the problem , and the certainty of climate science predictions . The Blackboard was one of the first sites to post some of the CRU emails leaked in the 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Lucia_Liljegren", "rank": 45, "score": 95169 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Report Content: World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels , was produced by the Greening Earth Society , a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association . Early editions were paper based ; it was then transferred to a web-only format , having ceased publication as a physically based report with Volume 8 in 2002 . It continues to exist in blog form at www.worldclimatereport.com , although the website itself has not been updated since late 2012 . World Climate Report presents a scientific skeptical view of populist anthropogenic-driven mass global climate change , or as it describes , ` Global Warming Alarmism ' . However , it does not reject the concepts of global climate change or greenhouse theory ( or other well-established and widely accepted scientific theories or empirical studies ) , in general attempting to engender itself as giving a well balanced and scientific view of the sources ( though often at a contrary expense of its perceived adversaries : the aforementioned alleged ` Global Warming Alarmists ' ) . WCR says of itself : World Climate Report , a concise , hard-hitting and scientifically correct response to the global change reports which gain attention in the literature and popular press . As the nation 's leading publication in this realm , World Climate Report is exhaustively researched , impeccably referenced , and always timely . This popular biweekly newsletter points out the weaknesses and outright fallacies in the science that is being touted as `` proof '' of disastrous warming . It 's the perfect antidote against those who argue for proposed changes to the Rio Climate Treaty , such as the Kyoto Protocol , which are aimed at limiting carbon emissions from the United States ... World Climate Report has become the definitive and unimpeachable source for what nature now calls the `` mainstream skeptic '' point of view . . In addition to Patrick Michaels ( chief editor ) , the staff is listed as Robert C. Balling , Jr ( contributing editor ) , Robert Davis ( contributing editor ) , and Paul Knappenberger ( Administrator ) . New Hope Environmental Services , an advocacy science consulting firm , claims WCR as its biweekly newsletter .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "World_Climate_Report", "rank": 46, "score": 94820 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 47, "score": 94671 }, { "content": "Title: Global Climate Network Content: The Global Climate Network ( GCN ) is an alliance of influential think tanks and research institutes in different countries that collaborate on research into climate change policy and whose stated aim is to help address the political blockages to ambitious action to tackle global warming . The Network has members in nine countries worldwide , including the USA , China , India , UK , Australia , Brazil , Norway , South Africa and Nigeria . Its Secretariat is housed at the Institute for Public Policy Research in London , UK . GCN members are engaged jointly in a programme of research projects , the results of which each member feeds into policy making at the domestic and international levels . Collectively , members of the Global Climate Network are committed to a vision of a prosperous and secure world in which greenhouse gas emissions have been reduced to a level that is no longer harmful to the climate system . Working together , the Network construct a narrative for action on climate change that is concerned with human and economic progress as well as environmental wellbeing . The Network 's patrons are Dr Rajendra Pachauri , chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and director-general of the Energy and Resources Institute in India ; John Podesta , former Chief of Staff to President Bill Clinton and director of Center for American Progress , and Lord Christopher Patten of Barnes , former European Commissioner for External Affairs .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Global_Climate_Network", "rank": 48, "score": 94613 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 49, "score": 94578 }, { "content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources", "rank": 50, "score": 94285 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 51, "score": 94257 }, { "content": "Title: Global waste trade Content: The global waste trade is the international trade of waste between countries for further treatment , disposal , or recycling . Toxic or hazardous wastes are often exported from developed countries to developing countries , also known as countries of the Global South . Therefore , the burden of the toxicity of wastes from Western countries falls predominantly onto developing countries in Africa , Asia , and Latin America . The World Bank Report What a Waste : A Global Review of Solid Waste Management , describes the amount of solid waste produced in a given country . Specifically , countries which produce more solid waste are more economically developed and more industrialized . The report explains that '' -LSB- g -RSB- enerally , the higher the economic development and rate of urbanization , the greater the amount of solid waste produced . '' Therefore , countries in the Global North , which are more economically developed and urbanized , produce more solid waste than Global South countries . Current international trade flows of waste follow a pattern of waste being produced in the Global North and being exported to and disposed of in the Global South . Multiple factors affect which countries produce waste and at what magnitude , including geographic location , degree of industrialization , and level of integration into the global economy . Numerous scholars and researchers have linked the sharp increase in waste trading and the negative impacts of waste trading to the prevalence of neoliberal economic policy . With the major economic transition towards neoliberal economic policy in the 1980s , the shift towards `` free-market '' policy has facilitated the sharp increase in the global waste trade . Henry Giroux , Chair of Cultural Studies at McMaster University , gives his definition of neoliberal economic policy : `` Neoliberalism ... removes economics and markets from the discourse of social obligations and social costs . ... As a policy and political project , neoliberalism is wedded to the privatization of public services , selling off of state functions , deregulation of finance and labor , elimination of the welfare state and unions , liberalization of trade in goods and capital investment , and the marketization and commodification of society . '' Given this economic platform of privatization , neoliberalism is based on expanding free-trade agreements and establishing open-borders to international trade markets . Trade liberalization , a neoliberal economic policy in which trade is completely deregulated , leaving no tariffs , quotas , or other restrictions on international trade , is designed to further developing countries ' economies and integrate them into the global economy . Critics claim that although free-market trade liberalization was designed to allow any country the opportunity to reach economic success , the consequences of these policies have been devastating for Global South countries , essentially crippling their economies in a servitude to the Global North . Even supporters such as the International Monetary Fund , `` progress of integration has been uneven in recent decades '' Specifically , developing countries have been targeted by trade liberalization policies to import waste as a means of economic expansion . The guiding neoliberal economic policy argues that the way to be integrated into the global economy is to participate in trade liberalization and exchange in international trade markets . The claim is that smaller countries , with less infrastructure , less wealth , and less manufacturing ability , should take in hazardous wastes as a way to increase profits and stimulate their economies .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Global_waste_trade", "rank": 52, "score": 94079 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)", "rank": 53, "score": 93823 }, { "content": "Title: Global Climate Coalition Content: The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 -- 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Global_Climate_Coalition", "rank": 54, "score": 93547 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 55, "score": 93517 }, { "content": "Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Landfill_gas", "rank": 56, "score": 93438 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 57, "score": 93425 }, { "content": "Title: Norwegian Climate and Pollution Agency Content: The Norwegian Climate and Pollution Agency ( Klima - og forurensningsdirektoratet , Klif ) , named Norwegian Pollution Control Authority ( Statens forurensningstilsyn ) , SFT ) until 2010 , was a Norwegian government agency from 1974 to 2013 when it was merged into the Norwegian Environment Agency . The agency was responsible for insuring that pollution , waste and other harmful substances did n't result in health damage , inflict the well-being or hinder the production and reproduction of nature . In particular it had a responsibility of pollution related to sea and water , chemicals , waste and recycling , global warming , air pollution and noise . It was subordinate to the Norwegian Ministry of the Environment and was responsible to ensure that the Pollution Act , the Product Control Act and the Climate Quota Act were followed , including issuing permits for submission , including controlling that these permissions are followed . The agency had 325 employees based in Oslo . Pollution Control Authority Category : Government agencies established in 1974 Category : Organisations based in Oslo Category : Environmental agencies Category : Ministry of Climate and the Environment ( Norway )", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Norwegian_Climate_and_Pollution_Agency", "rank": 58, "score": 93379 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture", "rank": 59, "score": 93058 }, { "content": "Title: Mobile incinerator Content: The role of incineration of waste and equipment used for it has changed radically in the recent years . While they were formerly notorious as pollutant spewing technical monsters in the eyes of citizens ' groups , nowadays , thermal waste treatment facilities are considered to be the essential pillars of sustainable , forward-looking recycling and raw material sectors . One benefit of thermal waste treatment facilities is to avoid the yield of methane gas that is a by-product of decay that damages the climate strongly . Another is the production of energy during incineration which helps protection of the environment . Valuable resources will also be conserved by means of separation and exploitation of the recyclables in the waste before incineration .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Mobile_incinerator", "rank": 60, "score": 92884 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Grenada", "rank": 61, "score": 92696 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 62, "score": 92494 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents", "rank": 63, "score": 92393 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 64, "score": 92128 }, { "content": "Title: Virgin Earth Challenge Content: The Virgin Earth Challenge is a competition offering a $ 25 million prize for whoever can demonstrate a commercially viable design which results in the permanent removal of greenhouse gases out of the Earth 's atmosphere to contribute materially in global warming avoidance . The prize was conceived and financed by Sir Richard Branson , a successful British entrepreneur , and was announced in London on 9 February 2007 by Branson and former US Vice President and 2007 Nobel Prize winner Al Gore , creator of the 2006 film An Inconvenient Truth on climate change . Among more than 2600 applications , 11 finalists were announced on 2 November 2011 . These are Biochar Solutions , from the US ; Biorecro , Sweden ; Black Carbon , Denmark ; Carbon Engineering , Canada ; Climeworks , Switzerland ; COAWAY , US ; Full Circle Biochar , US ; Global Thermostat , US ; Kilimanjaro Energy , US ; Smartstones -- Olivine Foundation , Netherlands , and The Savory Institute , US .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Virgin_Earth_Challenge", "rank": 65, "score": 92090 }, { "content": "Title: Heat transfer coefficient Content: The heat transfer coefficient or film coefficient , or film effectiveness , in thermodynamics and in mechanics is the proportionality constant between the heat flux and the thermodynamic driving force for the flow of heat ( i.e. , the temperature difference , ΔT ) : where : q : amount of heat transferred ( heat flux ) , W/m2 i.e. , thermal power per unit area , q = d/dA h : heat transfer coefficient , W / ( m2 • K ) ΔT : difference in temperature between the solid surface and surrounding fluid area , K. It is used in calculating the heat transfer , typically by convection or phase transition between a fluid and a solid . The heat transfer coefficient has SI units in watts per squared meter kelvin : W / ( m2K ) . The heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of thermal insulance . This is used for building materials ( R-value ) and for clothing insulation . There are numerous methods for calculating the heat transfer coefficient in different heat transfer modes , different fluids , flow regimes , and under different thermohydraulic conditions . Often it can be estimated by dividing the thermal conductivity of the convection fluid by a length scale . The heat transfer coefficient is often calculated from the Nusselt number ( a dimensionless number ) . There are also online calculators available specifically for heat transfer fluid applications . Experimental assessment of the heat transfer coefficient poses some challenges especially when small fluxes are to be measured ( e.g. ) .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Heat_transfer_coefficient", "rank": 66, "score": 91916 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's internal heat budget Content: The flow of heat from Earth 's interior to the surface is estimated at 47 terawatts ( TW ) and comes from two main sources in roughly equal amounts : the radiogenic heat produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle and crust , and the primordial heat left over from the formation of the Earth . Earth 's internal heat powers most geological processes and drives plate tectonics . Despite its geological significance , this heat energy coming from Earth 's interior is actually only 0.03 % of Earth 's total energy budget at the surface , which is dominated by 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation . The insolation that eventually , after reflection , reaches the surface penetrates only several tens of centimeters on the daily cycle and only several tens of meters on the annual cycle . This renders solar radiation irrelevant for internal processes .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Earth's_internal_heat_budget", "rank": 67, "score": 91898 }, { "content": "Title: Zero emission Content: Zero emission refers to an engine , motor , process , or other energy source , that emits no waste products that pollutes the environment or disrupts the climate .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Zero_emission", "rank": 68, "score": 91633 }, { "content": "Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007", "rank": 69, "score": 91289 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 70, "score": 91009 }, { "content": "Title: American College & University Presidents' Climate Commitment Content: The American College & University Presidents ' Climate Commitment ( ACUPCC ) is a `` high-visibility effort '' to address global warming ( global climate disruption ) by creating a network of colleges and universities that have committed to neutralize their greenhouse gas emissions and accelerate the research and educational efforts of higher education to equip society to re-stabilize the earth 's climate . Second Nature is the main supporting organization of the ACUPCC .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "American_College_&_University_Presidents'_Climate_Commitment", "rank": 71, "score": 90701 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "World_Climate_Research_Programme", "rank": 72, "score": 90595 }, { "content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Leipzig_Declaration", "rank": 73, "score": 90183 }, { "content": "Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :", "qid": "2967", "docid": "List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis", "rank": 74, "score": 90046 }, { "content": "Title: Waste autoclave Content: A waste autoclave is a form of solid waste treatment that uses heat , steam and pressure of an industrial autoclave in the processing of waste . Waste autoclaves process waste either in batches or in continuous-flow processes . In batch processes , saturated steam is pumped into the autoclave at temperatures around 160 ° C . The steam pressure in the vessel is maintained up to 6 bar ( gauge ) for a period of up to 45 minutes to allow the process to fully ` cook ' the waste . The autoclave process gives a very high pathogen and virus kill rate , although the fibrous products which come from the process are susceptible to bacteria and fungus as they are high in starch , cellulose and amino acids . Some autoclaves , also referred to as waste converters , can operate in the atmospheric pressure range to achieve full sterilization of pathogenic waste . Super heating conditions and steam generation are achieved by variable pressure control , which cycles between ambient and negative pressure within the sterilization vessel . The advantage of this new approach is the elimination of complexities associated with operating pressure vessels . However , steam that is not 97 % saturated may not contain sufficient energy to kill the spores that may be on the surface of the items it comes in contact with .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Waste_autoclave", "rank": 75, "score": 89939 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Conference Content: The World Climate Conferences are a series of international meetings , organized by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , about global climate issues principally global warming in addition to climate research and forecasting .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "World_Climate_Conference", "rank": 76, "score": 89847 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Massachusetts Content: Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Massachusetts", "rank": 77, "score": 89525 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "rank": 78, "score": 89309 }, { "content": "Title: Incineration Content: Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of organic substances contained in waste materials . Incineration and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are described as `` thermal treatment '' . Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash , flue gas and heat . The ash is mostly formed by the inorganic constituents of the waste , and may take the form of solid lumps or particulates carried by the flue gas . The flue gases must be cleaned of gaseous and particulate pollutants before they are dispersed into the atmosphere . In some cases , the heat generated by incineration can be used to generate electric power . Incineration with energy recovery is one of several waste-to-energy ( WtE ) technologies such as gasification , pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion . While incineration and gasification technologies are similar in principle , the energy product from incineration is high-temperature heat whereas combustible gas is often the main energy product from gasification . Incineration and gasification may also be implemented without energy and materials recovery . In several countries , there are still concerns from experts and local communities about the environmental effect of incinerators ( see arguments against incineration ) . In some countries , incinerators built just a few decades ago often did not include a materials separation to remove hazardous , bulky or recyclable materials before combustion . These facilities tended to risk the health of the plant workers and the local environment due to inadequate levels of gas cleaning and combustion process control . Most of these facilities did not generate electricity . Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original waste by 80 -- 85 % and the volume ( already compressed somewhat in garbage trucks ) by 95 -- 96 % , depending on composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling . This means that while incineration does not completely replace landfilling , it significantly reduces the necessary volume for disposal . Garbage trucks often reduce the volume of waste in a built-in compressor before delivery to the incinerator . Alternatively , at landfills , the volume of the uncompressed garbage can be reduced by approximately 70 % by using a stationary steel compressor , albeit with a significant energy cost . In many countries , simpler waste compaction is a common practice for compaction at landfills . Incineration has particularly strong benefits for the treatment of certain waste types in niche areas such as clinical wastes and certain hazardous wastes where pathogens and toxins can be destroyed by high temperatures . Examples include chemical multi-product plants with diverse toxic or very toxic wastewater streams , which can not be routed to a conventional wastewater treatment plant . Waste combustion is particularly popular in countries such as Japan where land is a scarce resource . Denmark and Sweden have been leaders in using the energy generated from incineration for more than a century , in localised combined heat and power facilities supporting district heating schemes . In 2005 , waste incineration produced 4.8 % of the electricity consumption and 13.7 % of the total domestic heat consumption in Denmark . A number of other European countries rely heavily on incineration for handling municipal waste , in particular Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Germany , and France .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Incineration", "rank": 79, "score": 89164 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Greenhouse_debt", "rank": 80, "score": 89037 }, { "content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Climate_risk", "rank": 81, "score": 88928 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 82, "score": 88886 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming taxes Content:", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Global_warming_taxes", "rank": 83, "score": 88834 }, { "content": "Title: Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory Content: The Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory is an atmospheric baseline station operated by Environment and Climate Change Canada located at Alert , Nunavut , on the north-eastern tip of Ellesmere Island , about 800 km south of the geographic north pole . The observatory is the northernmost of 31 Global Stations in an international network coordinated by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) under its Global Atmosphere Watch ( GAW ) program to study the long-term effects of pollution on the atmospheric environment . Among these 31 stations , Alert is one of three greenhouse gas `` intercomparison supersites '' , along with Mauna Loa in Hawaii and Cape Grim in Australia , which , due to their locations far from industrial activity , provide the international scientific community with a baseline record of atmospheric chemistry .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Dr._Neil_Trivett_Global_Atmosphere_Watch_Observatory", "rank": 84, "score": 88705 }, { "content": "Title: Save the Climate Content: Save The Climate ( Sauvons le Climat ) is a French association created in 2004 by Hervé Nifenecker , Roger Balian , Rémy Carle and Bernard Lerouge . In May 2012 , five associations are members and thousands of people have signed its manifesto . Its purpose is to fight against global warming and provide public information on topics fundamental to sustainable development , the environment , and energy , through eliminating the use of fossil fuels in France by maintaining the share of nuclear power generation in parallel with the use of `` heat-like '' renewable energy . The association is approved by the French government as a combination of popular education .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Save_the_Climate", "rank": 85, "score": 88454 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 86, "score": 88323 }, { "content": "Title: Waste Atlas Content: Waste Atlas is an interactive waste management map that visualises global solid waste management data for comparison and benchmarking purposes . Waste Atlas partnership is a non-commercial initiative is supported by significant global range non-profit organizations , including D-Waste , ISWA , WtERT , SWEEP-Net , SWAPI , and University of Leeds -LSB- 1 -RSB- . Currently , Waste Atlas hosts waste data for 164 countries ; more than 1,800 cities from all over the world and approximately 2,500 waste management facilities ( 1,626 sanitary landfills , 716 WtE , 129 MBT , 78 BT and 89 of the world 's biggest dumpsites ) .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Waste_Atlas", "rank": 87, "score": 88077 }, { "content": "Title: M31 HEAT rifle grenade Content: The M31 HEAT is a fin-stabilized anti-tank rifle grenade designed in the late 1950s to replace the Belgian ENERGA rifle grenade which was adopted by the US Army and US Marines as an emergency stop-gap measure during the Korean War . Like the ENERGA , it has a nose-initiated , based-detonated HEAT warhead , but unlike the ENERGA , the mechanical impact fuse system is replaced with a less complex and more reliable piezo-electric fuse system which also allows higher angles of impact , up to 65 degrees . On impact , the nose cover collapses , crushing a crystal-like material , which sends an electric current through a separate wire to the warhead 's detonator , located in the base of the warhead . A mechanical safety , comprising a set back system located in the warhead 's base , grounds the firing circuit and prevents the accidental explosion of the warhead . On firing , the sudden launch acceleration causes the set-back 's three disks to rotate 90 degrees , each in succession to the other , with the rotation of the third disk removing the grounding after approximately 10 meters of flight and completing a firing circuit for the current to flow from the nose to the detonator in the base . Compared to the ENERGA , the M31 is slightly lighter in weight and has a smaller-diameter warhead -- i.e. 75mm vs 66mm . Penetration for the M31 is estimated to be 200 mm / 8 inches for steel armor plating and twice that estimate for concrete . The warhead technology developed for the M31 was used for the future M72 LAW antitank rocket . The M31 was originally designed to be fired only from the M1 Garand , but could be fired from the M14 rifle . To launch the M31 , a detachable spigot-type grenade launcher ( M7A3 launcher for M1 rifle , and M76 launcher for the M14 rifle ) is fitted to the muzzle of the rifle . A M3 ballistic cartridge ( two are supplied in the packing container with each grenade and are crimped to indicate the cartridges are only for launching rifle grenades ) is loaded into the rifle 's chamber . The hollow tail unit of the rifle grenade is fitted over the grenade launcher . Official military manuals recommend that the M31 HEAT be fired from either the standing or kneeling position and that it is only accurate against armored vehicles if fired at extremely close ranges . While claimed to be effective against main battle tanks ( except in frontal engagements ) and lightly armored vehicles when first introduced , in 1972 the US Army stated in its revised anti-armor warfare manual that the M31 HEAT was only effective against light tanks and thin-skinned vehicles . Various US military manuals issued in 1972 still had sections on the M31 , but by the end of the Vietnam War , both the US Army and US Marines had essentially phased out muzzle-launched rifle grenades , in favor of the M72 LAW disposable rocket in the anti-armor role and the M203 under-barrel grenade launcher in the squad fire-support role . In the 1977 revision of US military anti-armor warfare manuals , the M31 HEAT was no longer listed .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "M31_HEAT_rifle_grenade", "rank": 88, "score": 87963 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 89, "score": 87669 }, { "content": "Title: Agustín Carbó Content: Agustín F. Carbó Lugo is an energy and environmental attorney and the President & CEO of ClimaTHINK Institute for Climate Law & Policy . Previous to that position he was the first chairman of the Puerto Rico Energy Commission ( PREC ) and the executive director of the Puerto Rico Solid Waste Authority under the administration of governor Alejandro García Padilla . He holds a bachelor of science and master of science degree in civil and environmental engineering from Northeastern University , a juris doctor from Vermont Law School , and a master of environmental management from Yale University . Carbó is also a member of the Phi Sigma Alpha fraternity .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Agustín_Carbó", "rank": 90, "score": 87412 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 91, "score": 87376 }, { "content": "Title: Aquifer thermal energy storage Content: Aquifer thermal energy storage ( ATES ) is the storage and recovery of thermal energy in the subsurface . ATES is applied to provide heating and cooling to buildings . Storage and recovery of thermal energy is achieved by extraction and injection of groundwater from aquifers using groundwater wells . Systems commonly operate in a seasonal mode . The groundwater that is extracted in summer , is used for cooling by transferring heat from the building to the groundwater by means of a heat exchanger . Subsequently , the heated groundwater is injected back into the aquifer , which creates a storage of heated groundwater . In wintertime , the flow direction is reversed such that the heated groundwater is extracted and can be used for heating ( often in combination with a heat pump ) . Therefore , operating an ATES system uses the subsurface as a temporal storage to buffer seasonal variations in heating and cooling demand . When replacing traditional fossil fuel dependent heating and cooling systems , ATES can serve as a cost-effective technology to reduce the primary energy consumption of a building and the associated CO2 emissions . In 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , many countries and regions have made targets for global climate protection . The European Union also set a target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , increase use of sustainable energy and improve energy efficiency . For this target , ATES can actually contribute significantly , as about 40 % of global energy consumption is done by buildings , and is mainly for heating and cooling . Therefore , the development of ATES has been paid a lot of attention and the number of ATES has increased dramatically , especially in Europe . For example , in the Netherlands , it was estimated that about 20,000 ATES systems could be achieved by 2020 . This can yield a CO2 emission reduction of about 11 % , for the target of the Netherlands . Besides the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Turkey , and Sweden are also increasing the application of ATES . ATES can be applied worldwide , as long as the climatic conditions and geohydrological conditions are right . As ATES systems cumulate in urban areas optimisation of subsurface space requires attention in areas with suitable conditions .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Aquifer_thermal_energy_storage", "rank": 92, "score": 87375 }, { "content": "Title: Global Climate and Energy Project Content: The Global Climate and Energy Project ( GCEP ) at Stanford University , `` seeks new solutions to one of the grand challenges of this century : supplying energy to meet the changing needs of a growing world population in a way that protects the environment . '' Beginning in December 2002 , GCEP is a 10-year , $ 225m research project aimed at developing new energy technologies . These new energy technologies include areas of interest such as renewable energy , CO2 capture and storage , hydrogen storage and electrocatalysis . It has the support of four major companies - ExxonMobil , General Electric , Schlumberger , and Toyota . Under the heading `` Grand Challenge '' , it identifies a global warming-related need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through future energy development .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Global_Climate_and_Energy_Project", "rank": 93, "score": 87202 }, { "content": "Title: Food waste Content: Food waste or food loss is food that is discarded or lost uneaten . The causes of food waste or loss are numerous , and occur at the stages of production , processing , retailing and consumption . Global food loss and waste amounts to between one-third and one-half of all food produced . Loss and wastage occurs at all stages of the food supply chain or value chain . In low-income countries , most loss occurs during production , while in developed countries much food -- about 100 kg per person per year -- is wasted at the consumption stage .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Food_waste", "rank": 94, "score": 87190 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 95, "score": 87069 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 96, "score": 87068 }, { "content": "Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme", "rank": 97, "score": 86788 }, { "content": "Title: World Mayors Council on Climate Change Content: The World Mayors Council on Climate Change ( WMCCC ) is an alliance of mayors who have made a commitment to the protection of climate change . Since 2012 , the Chair is Park Won-soon , Mayor of Seoul , South Korea . The Vice-Chair is Juergen Nimptsch , Mayor of Bonn , Germany .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "World_Mayors_Council_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 98, "score": 86715 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 99, "score": 86700 }, { "content": "Title: Robert E. Davis (climatologist) Content: Robert E. Davis is a Professor of Climatology at the University of Virginia 's Department of Environmental Sciences . Davis received his Ph.D. in 1988 from the University of Delaware . His research contributions include the development of a system for measuring the power of Nor'easter s . In his studies of global warming , he has suggested that it may manifest more by milder winters than by hotter summers , and predicted that its effects on human population will not be severe .", "qid": "2967", "docid": "Robert_E._Davis_(climatologist)", "rank": 100, "score": 86604 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 1, "score": 217313 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 2, "score": 191890 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Carbon_bubble", "rank": 3, "score": 189219 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 4, "score": 183242 }, { "content": "Title: Energy mix Content: The energy mix is the group of different primary energy sources from which secondary energy for direct use - usually electricity - is produced . Primary energy in the form of fossil fuels is nowadays still mostly used directly for motor-driven vehicles , i.e. transport . Further energy conversion of the co-produced waste heat after burning is not possible . In 2009 , the global primary energy use corresponded to 12.5 e6t oil equivalent corresponding to 145,375 GWh ) . According to the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) 13,6 % of that was used by the EU . Within the EU , 75.9 % came from fossil fuels , 14.1 % from nuclear energy , 7 % from biofuels , 2.9 from renewable energy resources . Overall primary energy consumption in the U.S. in 2015 relied most on petroleum ( 35 e15BTU ) , natural gas ( 29 e15BTU ) and coal ( 16 e15BTU ) . Renewables contributed 9 e15BTU and nuclear power 8 e15BTU . In the same year , about 4 million GWh of electricity were generated in the U.S. , 67 % of which was generated from fossil fuels ( coal , natural gas , and < 1 % petroleum ) , 20 % from nuclear power , 6 % hydropower and 7 % other renewables . While the rise of global energy consumption with the global population growth can not immediately be counteracted , the sustainability of growth can partially be improved by changing the energy mix towards renewables . The main forces in this process are national and transnational energy policy and the energy industry together with their lobbyists .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Energy_mix", "rank": 5, "score": 182180 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrocarbon economy Content: Hydrocarbon economy is a term referencing the global hydrocarbon industry and its relationship to world markets . Energy used mostly comes from three hydrocarbons : petroleum , coal , and natural gas . Hydrocarbon economy is often used when talking about possible alternatives like the hydrogen economy .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Hydrocarbon_economy", "rank": 6, "score": 177158 }, { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 7, "score": 175895 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon-based fuel Content: Carbon-based fuel is any fuel principally from the oxidation or burning of carbon . Carbon-based fuels are of two main kinds , biofuels and fossil fuels . Whereas biofuels are derived from recent-growth organic matter and are typically harvested , as with logging of forests and cutting of corn , fossil fuels are of prehistoric origin and are extracted from the ground , the principal fossil fuels being oil , coal , and natural gas . From an economic policy perspective , an important distinction between biofuels and fossil fuels is that only the former is sustainable or renewable . Whereas we can continue to obtain energy from biofuels indefinitely in principle , the Earth 's reserves of fossil fuels was determined millions of years ago and is therefore fixed as far as our foreseeable future is concerned . The great variability in the ease of extraction of fossil fuels however makes its endgame scenario one of increasing prices over one or more centuries rather than of abrupt exhaustion . From the perspective of climate and ecology , biofuels and fossil fuels have in common that they contribute to the production of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which has emerged in recent decades as the fastest-changing greenhouse gas , whose principal impacts are global warming and ocean acidification . However biofuels actively participate in the carbon cycle today by photosynthesizing carbon dioxide , unlike fossil fuels whose participation was long ago , and can therefore in principle bring atmospheric CO2 into an equilibrium not possible with the continued use of fossil fuel . But in practice photosynthesis is a slow process , and the additional fuel produced by artificial methods of accelerating it such as application of fertilizer tends to be offset by the energy consumed by the accelerating processes , to a degree currently under active debate . In contrast the speed of photosynthesis is immaterial for fossil fuels because they had millions of years in which to accumulate . Burning of both fossil fuels and biofuels usually also produces carbon monoxide , which is toxic and can kill a person after mixing with the haemoglobin of the blood , increasing its concentration in the body . Biofuels and fossil fuels may also produce many other air pollutants depending on the contents of the fuel .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Carbon-based_fuel", "rank": 8, "score": 173329 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 9, "score": 171569 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of the energy industry Content: The environmental impact of the energy industry is diverse . Energy has been harnessed by human beings for millennia . Initially it was with the use of fire for light , heat , cooking and for safety , and its use can be traced back at least 1.9 million years . In recent years there has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of various renewable energy sources . Consumption of fossil fuel resources leads to global warming and climate change . In most parts of the world little change is being made to slow these changes . If the peak oil theory proves true , and more explorations of viable alternative energy sources are made , our impact could be less hostile to our environment . Rapidly advancing technologies can achieve a transition of energy generation , water and waste management , and food production towards better environmental and energy usage practices using methods of systems ecology and industrial ecology .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry", "rank": 10, "score": 169508 }, { "content": "Title: Fossil fuel Content: Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms , containing energy originating in ancient photosynthesis . The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years , and sometimes exceeds 650 million years . Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum , coal , and natural gas . Other commonly used derivatives include kerosene and propane . Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon to hydrogen ratios like methane , to liquids like petroleum , to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon , like anthracite coal . Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields either alone , associated with oil , or in the form of methane clathrates . The theory that fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth 's crust over millions of years was first introduced by Georgius Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century . The Energy Information Administration estimates that in 2007 the primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0 % , coal 27.4 % , natural gas 23.0 % , amounting to an 86.4 % share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world . Non-fossil sources in 2006 included nuclear 8.5 % , hydroelectric 6.3 % , and others ( geothermal , solar , tidal , wind , wood , waste ) amounting to 0.9 % . World energy consumption was growing about 2.3 % per year . Although fossil fuels are continually being formed via natural processes , they are generally considered to be non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form and the known viable reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made . The use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns . The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes ( 21.3 gigatonnes ) of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) per year . It is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount , so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year . Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that increases radiative forcing and contributes to global warming . A global movement towards the generation of renewable energy is underway to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Fossil_fuel", "rank": 11, "score": 166833 }, { "content": "Title: 21st-century fossil fuel regulations in the United States Content: Fossil fuel regulations are part of the energy policy in the United States and have gained major significance with the strong dependence on fossil fuel based energy . Regulatory processes are established at the federal and state level due to the immense economic , socio-political and environmental impact of fossil fuel extraction and production . Over 80 % of the United States ' energy comes from fossil fuels such as coal , natural gas , and oil . The Bush administration was marked by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , which provided a monetary incentive for renewable energy adoption and addressed the issue of climate change . The Obama administration was made up of advocates for renewable energy and natural gas , while Donald Trump built his campaign on promises to revive the coal industry . Oil , gas , and coal companies have been at odds with policy makers who have supported a wider implementation of renewable energy , with the former often spending millions of dollars to lobby against cleaner energy . The Washington Post reported on February 22 , 2017 Scott Pruitt 's potential special interests with the fossil fuel industry as he began his term as the appointed head of the EPA under the Trump administration . Fossil fuel emission disproportionately affects working class , poor and minority populations . The people most adversely affected also have the least political influence and least access to health care .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "21st-century_fossil_fuel_regulations_in_the_United_States", "rank": 12, "score": 166536 }, { "content": "Title: Natural gas Content: Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane , but commonly including varying amounts of other higher alkanes , and sometimes a small percentage of carbon dioxide , nitrogen , hydrogen sulfide , or helium . It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years . The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in the gas . Natural gas is a fossil fuel used as a source of energy for heating , cooking , and electricity generation . It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals . Fossil fuel based natural gas is a non-renewable resource . Natural gas is found in deep underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds and as methane clathrates . Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in close proximity to and with natural gas . Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms : biogenic and thermogenic . Biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes , bogs , landfills , and shallow sediments . Deeper in the earth , at greater temperature and pressure , thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material . In petroleum production gas is often burnt as flare gas . The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of natural gas are flared or vented annually . Before natural gas can be used as a fuel , most , but not all , must be processed to remove impurities , including water , to meet the specifications of marketable natural gas . The by-products of this processing include : ethane , propane , butanes , pentanes , and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons , hydrogen sulfide ( which may be converted into pure sulfur ) , carbon dioxide , water vapor , and sometimes helium and nitrogen . Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as `` gas '' , especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal . However , it is not to be confused with gasoline , especially in North America , where the term gasoline is often shortened in colloquial usage to gas . Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE ( possibly even 1000 BCE ) . They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to extract the salt , in the Ziliujing District of Sichuan . The world 's first industrial extraction of natural gas started at Fredonia , New York , United States in 1825 . By 2009 , 66 000 km ³ ( or 8 % ) had been used out of the total 850 000 km ³ of estimated remaining recoverable reserves of natural gas . Based on an estimated 2015 world consumption rate of about 3400 km ³ of gas per year , the total estimated remaining economically recoverable reserves of natural gas would last 250 years at current consumption rates . An annual increase in usage of 2 -- 3 % could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less , perhaps as few as 80 to 100 years .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Natural_gas", "rank": 13, "score": 164240 }, { "content": "Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Politics_of_global_warming", "rank": 14, "score": 162974 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 15, "score": 159723 }, { "content": "Title: Soot Content: Soot -LSB- ˈsʊt -RSB- is a mass of impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons . It is more properly restricted to the product of the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly extended to include the residual pyrolysed fuel particles such as coal , cenospheres , charred wood , and petroleum coke that may become airborne during pyrolysis and that are more properly identified as cokes or chars . Soot causes cancer and lung disease , and is the second-biggest human cause of global warming .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Soot", "rank": 16, "score": 159426 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 17, "score": 159009 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in South Korea Content: South Korea is a major energy importer , importing nearly all of its oil needs and the second-largest importer of liquefied natural gas in the world . Electricity generation in the country mainly comes from conventional thermal power , which accounts for more than two thirds of production , and from nuclear power . Energy producers were dominated by government enterprises , although privately operated coal mines and oil refineries also existed . The National Assembly enacted a broad electricity sector restructuring program in 2000 , but the restructuring process was halted amid political controversy in 2004 and remains a topic of intense political debate . South Korea has no proven oil reserves . Exploration until the 1980s in the Yellow Sea and on the continental shelf between Korea and Japan did not find any offshore oil . Coal supply in the country is insufficient and of low quality . The potential for hydroelectric power is limited because of high seasonal variations in the weather and the concentration of most of the rainfall in the summer . Accordingly , the government is increasingly focused on developing nuclear power generation .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Energy_in_South_Korea", "rank": 18, "score": 158335 }, { "content": "Title: Coal gasification commercialization Content: Coal gasification is a process whereby a hydrocarbon feedstock ( coal ) is converted into gaseous components by applying heat under pressure in the presence of steam . Rather than burning , most of the carbon-containing feedstock is broken apart by chemical reactions that produce `` syngas . '' Syngas is primarily hydrogen and carbon monoxide , but the exact composition can vary . In Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle ( IGCC ) systems , the syngas is cleaned and burned as fuel in a combustion turbine which then drives an electric generator . Exhaust heat from the combustion turbine is recovered and used to create steam for a steam turbine-generator . The use of these two types of turbines in combination is one reason why gasification-based power systems can achieve high power generation efficiencies . Currently , commercially available gasification-based systems can operate at around 40 % efficiencies . Syngas , however , emits more greenhouse gases than natural gas , and almost twice as much carbon as a coal plant . Coal gasification is also water-intensive . According to the Gasification and Syngas Technologies Council , a trade association , there are globally 272 operating gasification plants with 686 gasifiers and 74 plants with 238 gasifiers under construction . Most of them use coal as feedstock . As of 2017 large scale expansion of the coal gasification industry was occurring only in China where local governments and energy companies promote the industry for the sake of jobs and a market for coal . The central government is aware of the conflict with environmental goals . For the most part the plants are located in remote coal rich areas . In addition to producing a great deal of carbon dioxide the plants use a great deal of water in areas where water is scarce .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Coal_gasification_commercialization", "rank": 19, "score": 158241 }, { "content": "Title: Coal power in the United States Content: Coal power in the United States accounted for 39 % of the country 's electricity production at utility-scale facilities in 2014 , 33 % in 2015 , and 30.4 % in 2016 Coal supplied 16.5 quadrillion BTUs of primary energy to electric power plants in 2013 , which made up nearly 92 % of coal 's contribution to energy supply . Utilities buy more than 90 percent of the coal consumed in the United States . Coal has been used to generate electricity in the United States since an Edison plant was built in New York City in 1882 . The first alternating current power station was opened by General Electric in Ehrenfeld , Pennsylvania in 1902 , servicing the Webster Coal and Coke Company . By the mid-twentieth century , coal had become the leading fuel for generating electricity in the US . The long , steady rise of coal-fired generation of electricity shifted to a decline after 2007 . The decline has been linked to the increased availability of natural gas , decreased consumption , renewable power , and more stringent environmental regulations . The Environmental Protection Administration has advanced restrictions on coal plants to counteract mercury pollution , smog , and global warming .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Coal_power_in_the_United_States", "rank": 20, "score": 158110 }, { "content": "Title: Canadian Centre for Energy Information Content: The Canadian Centre for Energy Information ( CCEI ) is a non-profit organization created by the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers ( CAPP ) in 2002 to create a voice for the Canadian oil and gas industry on all aspects of the Canadian energy system from oil , natural gas , coal , geo-thermal , and hydroelectric power through to nuclear , solar , wind , and other sources of energy , with a focus on hydrocarbon energy sources . Developed and funded by the oil and gas industry for Canadian audiences , the Centre for Energy provides access to industry-funded information on the Canadian energy system through its print publications and web portal . Currently the Centre for Energy website provides visitors with an overview of Canada 's energy sources , maps of energy use and production , classroom tools , current industry news , and live feeds of petroleum prices on major world markets . It also contains a large database of links to industry partners and related associations .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Canadian_Centre_for_Energy_Information", "rank": 21, "score": 158031 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrogen production Content: Hydrogen production is the family of industrial methods for generating hydrogen . Currently the dominant technology for direct production is steam reforming from hydrocarbons . Many other methods are known including electrolysis and thermolysis . In 2006 , the United States was estimated to have a production capacity of 11 million tons of hydrogen . 5 million tons of hydrogen were consumed on-site in oil refining , and in the production of ammonia ( Haber process ) and methanol ( reduction of carbon monoxide ) . 0.4 million tons were an incidental by-product of the chlor-alkali process . Hydrogen production is an estimated $ 100 billion industry . According to the U.S. Department of Energy , only in 2004 , 53 million metric tons were consumed worldwide . There are no natural hydrogen deposits , and for this reason the production of hydrogen plays a key role in modern society . As of 1999 , the majority of hydrogen ( ∼ 95 % ) is produced from fossil fuels by steam reforming or partial oxidation of methane and coal gasification with only a small quantity by other routes such as biomass gasification or electrolysis of water . Around 8GW of electrolysis capacity is installed worldwide , accounting for around 4 % of global hydrogen production ( Decourt et al. , 2014 ) .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Hydrogen_production", "rank": 22, "score": 156598 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 23, "score": 156085 }, { "content": "Title: Exploitation of natural resources Content: The exploitation of natural resources is the use of natural resources for economic growth , sometimes with a negative connotation of accompanying environmental degradation . It started to emerge on an industrial scale in the 19th century as the extraction and processing of raw materials ( such as in mining , steam power , and machinery ) developed much further than it had in preindustrial eras . During the 20th century , energy consumption rapidly increased . Today , about 80 % of the world 's energy consumption is sustained by the extraction of fossil fuels , which consists of oil , coal and gas . Another non-renewable resource that is exploited by humans is subsoil minerals such as precious metals that are mainly used in the production of industrial commodities . Intensive agriculture is an example of a mode of production that hinders many aspects of the natural environment , for example the degradation of forests in a terrestrial ecosystem and water pollution in an aquatic ecosystem . As the world population rises and economic growth occurs , the depletion of natural resources influenced by the unsustainable extraction of raw materials becomes an increasing concern .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Exploitation_of_natural_resources", "rank": 24, "score": 154843 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia", "rank": 25, "score": 154823 }, { "content": "Title: Peak gas Content: According to M. King Hubbert 's Hubbert peak theory , Peak gas is the point in time at which the maximum global natural gas ( fossil gas ) production rate will be reached , after which the rate of production will enter its terminal decline . Natural gas is a fossil fuel formed from plant matter over the course of millions of years . It is a finite resource and thus considered to be a non-renewable energy source . The concept of peak gas follows from Hubbert peak theory , which is most commonly associated with peak oil . Hubbert saw gas , coal and oil as natural resources , each of which would peak in production and eventually run out for a region , a country , or the world . Since Hubbert 's initial predictions in 1956 , `` the proper application of ever more powerful statistical techniques has reduced much of the uncertainty about the supply of oil and natural gas '' . One view in 1997 was that Hubbert 's use of an exponential decline model was statistically adequate in explaining real world data . However , longer-term experience has shown the predictions to be incorrect .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Peak_gas", "rank": 26, "score": 154611 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 27, "score": 154140 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in Denmark Content: Denmark has considerable sources of oil and natural gas in the North Sea and ranked as number 32 in the world among net exporters of crude oil in 2008 . Denmark expects to be self-sufficient with oil until 2050 . However , gas resources are expected to decline , and production may decline below consumption in 2020 , making imports necessary . A large but decreasing proportion of electricity is produced from coal , and hydropower and 3-4 % nuclear power is imported while wind turbines supply the equivalent of about 42 % of electricity demand by 2015 ( see Wind power in Denmark ) . In February 2011 the Danish government announced the `` Energy Strategy 2050 '' with the aim to be fully independent of fossil fuels by 2050 , and a new government repeated the goal in 2015 despite public scepticism . The European Renewables Directive set a mandatory target at 20 % share of energy from renewable sources by 2020 ( EU combined ) . In 2012 the Danish government adopted a plan to increase the share of electricity production from wind to 50 % by 2020 , and to 84 % in 2035 . Denmark 's electrical grid is connected by transmission lines to other European countries , and had ( according to the World Economic Forum ) the best energy security in the EU in 2013 although this had fallen to third in the EU by 2014 . Denmark imports around 12 % of its energy .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Energy_in_Denmark", "rank": 28, "score": 152459 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 29, "score": 152152 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in the United States Content: The United States was the 2nd largest energy consumer in 2010 ( after China ) considering total use . The U.S. ranks seventh in energy consumption per-capita after Canada and a number of small nations . Not included is the significant amount of energy used overseas in the production of retail and industrial goods consumed in the U.S. The majority of this energy is derived from fossil fuels : in 2010 , data showed 25 % of the nation 's energy came from petroleum , 22 % from coal , and 22 % from natural gas . Nuclear power supplied 8.4 % and renewable energy supplied 8 % , which was mainly from hydroelectric dams and biomass but also included other renewable sources such as wind power , geothermal and solar energy . Energy consumption has increased at a faster rate than domestic energy production over the last fifty years in the U.S. ( when they were roughly equal ) . This difference is now largely met through imports . According to the Energy Information Administration 's statistics , the per-capita energy consumption in the US has been somewhat consistent from the 1970s to today . The average has been 334 million British thermal units ( BTUs ) per person from 1980 to 2010 . One explanation suggested for this is that the energy required to produce the increase in US consumption of manufactured equipment , cars , and other goods has been shifted to other countries producing and transporting those goods to the US with a corresponding shift of green house gases and pollution . In comparison , the world average has increased from 63.7 in 1980 to 75 million BTU 's per person in 2008 . On the other hand , US `` off-shoring '' of manufacturing is sometimes exaggerated : US domestic manufacturing has grown by 50 % since 1980 .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Energy_in_the_United_States", "rank": 30, "score": 151281 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 31, "score": 151223 }, { "content": "Title: Coal in Australia Content: Coal in Australia is mined primarily in Queensland , New South Wales and Victoria . Coal is used to generate electricity and most of the coal mined in Australia is exported , mostly to eastern Asia . In fiscal year 2013/14 , 430.9 million tonnes of coal was mined , and 375.1 million tonnes was exported . Coal provides about 69 % of Australia 's electricity production . In fiscal year 2008/09 , 487 million tonnes of coal was mined , and 261 million tonnes was exported . In 2013 , Australia was the world 's fifth-largest coal producer , after China , the United States , India , and Indonesia . However , in terms of proportion of production exported , Australia was the world 's second largest coal exporter , with exports accounting for roughly 73 % of coal production . Indonesia exports about 87 % of its coal production . Coal mining in Australia has been criticised by members of the environmental movement , due to carbon dioxide emissions during combustion . This criticism is primarily directed at thermal coal , for its connection to coal-fired power stations as a major source of carbon dioxide emissions , and the link to climate change and the effects of global warming on Australia . The burning of coal for electricity produces 29 % of Australia 's total greenhouse gas emissions , based on 2013-2014 Clean Energy Regulator data . Both Greenpeace Australia Pacific ( Energy -LSB- R -RSB- evolution ) and Beyond Zero Emissions ( Zero Carbon Australia 2020 ) have produced reports claiming a transition can be made to renewable energy and Greenpeace has called for a just transition for coal based communities , but others argue at present there is no strong evidence of a viable alternative for the vast majority of Australia 's electricity generation , or for the significant economic and social benefits coal mining delivers to regional communities . Many of these arguments specifically ignore the differentiation between thermal and metallurgical coal , and the different application they play in modern society . Coal Seam Gas , methane-based gas associated with deposits of coal has historically been flared , however over the past 10 years has been recovered and used to generate further electricity . The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme , which followed the draft report of the Garnaut Climate Change Review , has placed a price on carbon emissions through a reducing cap and trade emissions trading scheme and this would be likely to impact most heavily on brown coal usage within Australia ( particularly in the Latrobe Valley in Victoria ) for power generation .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Coal_in_Australia", "rank": 32, "score": 150551 }, { "content": "Title: Cubic mile of oil Content: The cubic mile of oil ( CMO ) is a unit of energy . It was created by Hew Crane of SRI International to aid in public understanding of global-scale energy consumption and resources . Significant sources of energy include oil , coal , natural gas , nuclear , hydroelectric , and biomass ( primarily the burning of wood ) . Other energy sources include geothermal , wind , photovoltaic , and solar thermal . The various energy units commonly used to measure these sources ( e.g. , joules , BTUs , kilowatt hours , therms ) are only somewhat familiar to the general public , and their relationships can be confusing . These common energy units are sized for everyday activities ( a joule is the energy required to lift a small apple one metre vertically ) . For regional , national , and global scales , larger energy units , such as the exajoule , the billion barrels of oil equivalent ( BBOE ) and the quad are used . Derived by multiplying the small common units by large powers of ten these larger units pose additional conceptual difficulties for many citizens . Crane intended the cubic mile of oil to provide a visualizable scale for comparing the contributions of these diverse energy components as a percentage of total worldwide , energy use . The global economy consumes approximately 30 billion barrels of oil ( 1.26 trillion U.S. gallons or 4.75 trillion litres ) each year . Numbers of this magnitude are difficult to conceive by most people . The volume occupied by one trillion U.S. gallons is about one cubic mile . Crane felt that a cubic mile would be an easier concept for the general public than a trillion gallons .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Cubic_mile_of_oil", "rank": 33, "score": 150447 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 34, "score": 150251 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in Victoria Content: Energy in Victoria , Australia is generated using a number of fuels or technologies , including coal , natural gas and renewable energy sources - hydro , wind and solar . Brown coal is the primary energy source in the generation of electricity in the State of Victoria , Australia . Brown coal is also one of the largest contributors to Australia 's total domestic greenhouse gas emissions and a source of huge controversy for the country . Australia is one the highest polluters of greenhouse gas per capita in the world . Brown coal is used for the generation of approximately 85 % of Victoria 's household , commercial and industrial electricity consumption .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Energy_in_Victoria", "rank": 35, "score": 149671 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in China Content: China is the world 's leading country in electricity production from renewable energy sources , with over double the generation of the second-ranking country , the United States . China 's renewable energy sector is growing faster than its fossil fuels and nuclear power capacity . In 2013 the country had a total capacity of 378 GW of renewable power , mainly from hydroelectric and wind power . Although China currently has the world 's largest installations of hydro , solar and wind power , its energy needs are so large that in 2013 renewables provided just a little over 20 % of its power generation , with most of the remainder provided by traditional coal power facilities . Nevertheless , the share of renewables in the energy mix had been gradually rising from 2013 and targets from 2015 onwards have represented a step change in ambition . China sees renewables as a source of energy security and not just only to reduce carbon emission . China 's Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution issued by China 's State Council in September 2013 , illustrates the government 's desire to increase the share of renewables in China 's energy mix . Unlike oil , coal and gas , the supplies of which are finite and subject to geopolitical tensions , renewable energy systems can be built and used wherever there is sufficient water , wind , and sun . From 2005 to 2014 , production of solar cells in China has expanded 100-fold . As Chinese renewable manufacturing has grown , the costs of renewable energy technologies have dropped dramatically . Innovation has helped , but the main driver of reduced costs has been market expansion . In 2015 China became the world 's largest producer of photovoltaic power , with 43 GW of total installed capacity .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_China", "rank": 36, "score": 149107 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 37, "score": 148841 }, { "content": "Title: Energy policy of Australia Content: The energy policy of Australia is subject to the regulatory and fiscal influence of all three levels of government in Australia , although only the State and Federal levels determine policy for primary industries such as coal . As of 2016 , Federal energy policies continue to support the coal mining and natural gas industries through subsidies for fossil fuel use and production as the exports by those industries contribute significantly to the earnings of foreign exchange and government revenues . Australia is one of the most coal-dependent countries in the world . Coal and natural gas , along with oil-based products , are currently the primary sources of Australian energy usage and the coal industry produces approximately 38 % of Australia 's total greenhouse gas emissions . In 2015 Federal policy reverted to a pro-coal economy with cuts to alternate and renewable energy government offices , targets and subsidies Federal climate change policy changed following the election of the Labor Rudd Government in December 2007 , which committed to introduce an Emissions Trading Scheme in 2010 , and to expand the mandatory renewable energy target to ensure 20 % of electricity supply in Australia was from renewable sources by 2020 . After a contentious political debate , a carbon pricing mechanism entered force on 1 July 2012 under Prime Minister Julia Gillard , but was repealed by the Abbott Government in 2014 . In June 2015 the Abbott Government downgraded the renewable energy target from 41,000 GWh per year to 33,000 GWh . As of 2013 , Australia was now only the 12th highest emitter of greenhouse gases per capita in the world , and 16th ( behind China , Russia . the US , Germany , the UK , Japan , India and other major developed nations ) , in total CO2 emissions ( kt per year ) . Renewable energy commercialisation in Australia is an area of growing activity . Australia 's renewable energy industries are diverse , covering numerous energy sources and scales of operation , and currently contribute about 8 -- 10 % of Australia 's total energy supply . The major area where renewable energy is growing is in electricity generation following the introduction of government Mandatory Renewable Energy Targets . The two most populous states , New South Wales and Victoria have renewable energy targets of 20 % and 25 % respectively by 2020 .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Energy_policy_of_Australia", "rank": 38, "score": 148243 }, { "content": "Title: Coal in Europe Content: Coal in Europe describes coal as energy fuel in Europe today . Coal includes hard coal , brown coal , and lignite . Coal production in Europe is falling , and imports exceed production . If production and consumption continue at the present rate , proven and economically recoverable world reserves would last for about 150 years . According to IEA Coal Information ( 2007 ) world production and use of coal have increased considerably in recent years . There is , however , growing controversy in Europe over the use of coal , as many denounce it for reasons such as health risks and links to global warming .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Coal_in_Europe", "rank": 39, "score": 148149 }, { "content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources", "rank": 40, "score": 147255 }, { "content": "Title: Shale gas Content: Shale gas is natural gas that is found trapped within shale formations . Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States since the start of this century , and interest has spread to potential gas shales in the rest of the world . In 2000 shale gas provided only 1 % of U.S. natural gas production ; by 2010 it was over 20 % and the U.S. government 's Energy Information Administration predicts that by 2035 , 46 % of the United States ' natural gas supply will come from shale gas . Some analysts expect that shale gas will greatly expand worldwide energy supply . China is estimated to have the world 's largest shale gas reserves . The Obama administration believed that increased shale gas development would help reduce greenhouse gas emissions . In 2012 , US carbon dioxide emissions dropped to a 20-year low . A 2013 review by the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Climate Change noted that most studies of the subject have estimated that life-cycle greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from shale gas are similar to those of conventional natural gas , and are much less than those from coal , usually about half the greenhouse gas emissions of coal ; the noted exception was a 2011 study by Howarth and others of Cornell University , which concluded that shale GHG emissions were as high as those of coal . More recent studies have also concluded that life-cycle shale gas GHG emissions are much less than those of coal , among them , studies by Natural Resources Canada ( 2012 ) , and a consortium formed by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory with a number of universities ( 2012 ) . Some 2011 studies pointed to high rates of decline of some shale gas wells as an indication that shale gas production may ultimately be much lower than is currently projected . But shale-gas discoveries are also opening up substantial new resources of tight oil / `` shale oil '' .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Shale_gas", "rank": 41, "score": 146911 }, { "content": "Title: Ende Gelände 2016 Content: Ende Gelände 2016 was a large civil disobedience protest movement in Germany to limit global warming through fossil fuel phase-out . 3,500 -- 4,000 environmental activists from twelve countries blocked the Welzow-Süd open-pit coal mine and the coal-fired Schwarze Pumpe power station , then owned by Vattenfall ( Spremberg ) , from 13 to 15 May 2016 .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Ende_Gelände_2016", "rank": 42, "score": 146711 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-carbon city Content: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on renewable energy ; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet . Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal , oil and gas , unintentionally emitting carbon . Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels . To become a zero carbon city , an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease . Also , renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy , so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city . This transition which includes decarbonising electricity ( increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity ) and zero-emission transport , is undertaken as a response to climate change . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact . Instead of using established cities , many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city . This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Zero-carbon_city", "rank": 43, "score": 145866 }, { "content": "Title: Power Down: Options and Actions for a Post-Carbon World Content: Power Down : Options and Actions for a Post-Carbon World ( ISBN 978-0865715103 ) is a 2004 book by Richard Heinberg in which Heinberg discusses peak oil and its attendant implications for the global economy . Due to the dependence of industrialized society on cheap and readily available petroleum ( fossil fuel oil ) , Heinberg argues that the post-peak period of global history is likely to be characterized by social and economic turmoil , disruption of trade , declining standard of living , and warfare . Heinberg outlines four possible strategies nations could employ to respond to the economic challenges associated with declining oil production : Last One Standing : Global competition for remaining resources Powerdown : Global cooperation in reducing energy usage , conservation , resource management , and reducing population Denial : Waiting , and hoping that some unforeseen element will solve the problem Building Lifeboats : Preparing local areas to be sustainable in the event that the global economic project collapses Heinberg fleshes out each of these strategies in detail and describes the current political and economic environment in terms of these elements .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Power_Down:_Options_and_Actions_for_a_Post-Carbon_World", "rank": 44, "score": 144901 }, { "content": "Title: Coal gas Content: Coal gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made from coal and supplied to the user via a piped distribution system . Town gas is a more general term referring to manufactured gaseous fuels produced for sale to consumers and municipalities . Coal gas contains a variety of calorific gases including hydrogen , carbon monoxide , methane and volatile hydrocarbons together with small quantities of non-calorific gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen . Prior to the development of natural gas supply and transmissionduring the 1940s and 1950s in the United States and during the late 1960s and 1970s in Great Britainvirtually all gas for fuel and lighting was manufactured from coal . Town gas was supplied to households via municipally-owned piped distribution systems . Originally created as a by-product of the coking process , its use developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries tracking the industrial revolution and urbanization . By-products from the production process included coal tars and ammonia , which were important chemical feedstock for the dye and chemical industry with a wide range of artificial dyes being made from coal gas and coal tar . Facilities where the gas was produced were often known as a manufactured gas plant ( MGP ) or a gasworks . The discovery of large reserves of natural gas in the North Sea off the Scottish coast during the early 1960s led to the expensive conversion or replacement of most of the UK 's gas cookers and gas heaters , except in Northern Ireland , from the late 1960s onwards . The production process is distinct , both physically and chemically , from that used to create a range of gaseous fuels known variously as manufactured gas , syngas , hygas , Dowson gas , and producer gas . These gases are made by partial combustion of a wide variety of feed stocks in some mixture of air , oxygen , or steam , to reduce the latter to hydrogen and carbon dioxide although some destructive distillation may also occur .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Coal_gas", "rank": 45, "score": 144471 }, { "content": "Title: Oil shale Content: Oil shale is an organic-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen ( a solid mixture of organic chemical compounds ) from which liquid hydrocarbons called shale oil ( not to be confused with tight oil -- crude oil occurring naturally in shales ) can be produced . Shale oil is a substitute for conventional crude oil ; however , extracting shale oil from oil shale is more costly than the production of conventional crude oil both financially and in terms of its environmental impact . Deposits of oil shale occur around the world , including major deposits in the United States . Estimates of global deposits range from 4.8 to of oil in place . Heating oil shale to a sufficiently high temperature causes the chemical process of pyrolysis to yield a vapor . Upon cooling the vapor , the liquid shale oil -- an unconventional oil -- is separated from combustible oil-shale gas ( the term shale gas can also refer to gas occurring naturally in shales ) . Oil shale can also be burned directly in furnaces as a low-grade fuel for power generation and district heating or used as a raw material in chemical and construction-materials processing . Oil shale gains attention as a potential abundant source of oil whenever the price of crude oil rises . At the same time , oil-shale mining and processing raise a number of environmental concerns , such as land use , waste disposal , water use , waste-water management , greenhouse-gas emissions and air pollution . Estonia and China have well-established oil shale industries , and Brazil , Germany , and Russia also utilize oil shale . General composition of oil shales constitutes inorganic matrix , bitumens , and kerogen . Oil shales differ from oil-bearing shales , shale deposits that contain petroleum ( tight oil ) that is sometimes produced from drilled wells . Examples of oil-bearing shales are the Bakken Formation , Pierre Shale , Niobrara Formation , and Eagle Ford Formation .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Oil_shale", "rank": 46, "score": 143960 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Massachusetts Content: Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Massachusetts", "rank": 47, "score": 143879 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 48, "score": 143717 }, { "content": "Title: Oil and gas industry in Myanmar Content: Burma , officially known as Myanmar , is a developing country and an important natural gas and petroleum producer in Asia . It is home to one of the world 's oldest petroleum industries , with its first crude oil exports dating back to 1853 . Today , the country is one of the major natural gas producers in the Asian continent . Decades of isolation , sanctions , a lack of technical capacity , opaque government policies and insufficient investment has impeded the country 's efforts to develop an upstream hydrocarbon sector . Recent but slow political reform has led the international community to ease sanctions on Burma , giving rise to hopes of greater investment and economic growth .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Oil_and_gas_industry_in_Myanmar", "rank": 49, "score": 142672 }, { "content": "Title: Mining industry of Algeria Content: Hydrocarbons are the leading sector in Algeria 's mineral industry , which includes diverse but modest production of metals and industrial minerals . In 2006 , helium production in Algeria accounted for about 13 % of total world output . Hydrocarbons produced in Algeria accounted for about 2.9 % of total world natural gas output and about 2.2 % of total world crude oil output in 2006 . Algeria held about 21 % of total world identified resources of helium , 2.5 % of total world natural gas reserves , and about 1 % of total world crude oil reserves .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Mining_industry_of_Algeria", "rank": 50, "score": 142578 }, { "content": "Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme", "rank": 51, "score": 142224 }, { "content": "Title: Save the Climate Content: Save The Climate ( Sauvons le Climat ) is a French association created in 2004 by Hervé Nifenecker , Roger Balian , Rémy Carle and Bernard Lerouge . In May 2012 , five associations are members and thousands of people have signed its manifesto . Its purpose is to fight against global warming and provide public information on topics fundamental to sustainable development , the environment , and energy , through eliminating the use of fossil fuels in France by maintaining the share of nuclear power generation in parallel with the use of `` heat-like '' renewable energy . The association is approved by the French government as a combination of popular education .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Save_the_Climate", "rank": 52, "score": 142180 }, { "content": "Title: Electricity sector in the United Kingdom Content: The electricity sector in the United Kingdom relies mainly on fossil fuelled power and 15-20 % in nuclear power and similar amounts of renewable power . Fossil fuel generator use in general and coal use in particularly is shrinking , with coal generators now only mainly being run in Winter due to pollution and costs . In 2008 nuclear electricity production was 860 kWh pro person . In 2014 , 28.1 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , which contributed 9.3 % of the UK 's electricity requirement . In 2015 , 40.4 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , and the quarterly generation record was set in the three-month period from October to December 2015 , with 13 % of the nation 's electricity demand met by wind . 2015 saw 1.2 GW of new wind power capacity brought online , a 9.6 % increase of the total UK installed capacity . The United Kingdom voluntarily ended the use of incandescent lightbulbs in 2011 . Between 2007 and 2012 , the UK 's peak electrical demand has fallen from 61.5 GW to 57.5 GW The use of electricity declined 11 % in 2009 compared to 2004 and respectively . The UK is planning to reform its Electricity Market . It plans to introduce a capacity mechanism and contracts for difference to encourage the building of new generation .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Electricity_sector_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 53, "score": 141700 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 54, "score": 141229 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 55, "score": 140735 }, { "content": "Title: Natural gas and petroleum in Bangladesh Content: Bangladesh is the seventh-largest producer of natural gas in Asia . Gas supplies meet 56 % of domestic energy demand . However , the country faces an acute energy crisis in meeting the demands of its vast and growing population . Bangladesh is a net importer of crude oil and petroleum products . The energy sector is dominated by state-owned companies , including Petrobangla and the Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation . Chevron , ConocoPhilips , Statoil , Gazprom and ONGC are major international companies engaged in Bangladesh 's hydrocarbon industry ; with Chevron 's gas fields accounting 50 % of natural gas production . Geologists believe the country 's maritime exclusive economic zone holds one of the largest oil and gas reserves in the Asia-Pacific . Protectionism and a lack of technical capacity have impeded Bangladesh 's potential to emerge as a major global hydrocarbon producer .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Natural_gas_and_petroleum_in_Bangladesh", "rank": 56, "score": 140586 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in Israel Content: Energy in Israel comes mostly from hydrocarbon fuels . The country 's total primary energy demand is significantly higher than its total primary energy production , relying heavily on imports to meet its energy needs . Total primary energy consumption was 285.5 TWh in 2011 , or 24.5 Mtoe ( million tonne of oil equivalent ) . Electricity consumption in Israel was 59.83 TWh in 2014 , while production was 64.44 TWh , with net exports of 4.94 TWh . The installed generating capacity was about 16.25 GW in the same year , almost all from hydrocarbon fuel plants , mostly coal and gas fueled . Renewable energy accounted for a minor share of electricity production , with a small photovoltaic installed capacity . However , there are a total of over 1.3 million solar water heaters installed as a result of mandatory solar water heating regulations .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Energy_in_Israel", "rank": 57, "score": 140308 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrous pyrolysis Content: Hydrous pyrolysis refers to the thermal decomposition which takes place when organic compounds are heated to high temperatures in the presence of water . Many hydrous pyrolysis processes use superheated water in the liquid phase , whereas steam cracking uses water in the gas phase . Steam cracking is used in the petroleum industry to produce the lighter alkenes . Hydrous pyrolysis may be a significant process in the creation of fossil fuels . Simple heating without water , anhydrous pyrolysis has long been considered to take place naturally during the catagenesis of kerogens to fossil fuels . In recent decades it has been found that water under pressure causes more efficient breakdown of kerogens at lower temperatures than without it . The carbon isotope ratio of natural gas also suggests that hydrogen from water has been added during creation of the gas . U.S. patent 2,177,557 , describes a two-stage process in which a mixture of water , wood chips , and calcium hydroxide is heated in the first stage at temperatures in a range of 220 to , with the pressure `` higher than that of saturated steam at the temperature used . '' This produces `` oils and alcohols '' which are collected . The materials are then subjected in a second stage to what is called `` dry distillation '' , which produces `` oils and ketones '' . Temperatures and pressures for this Second stage are not disclosed . Zhang et al. , at the University of Illinois , report on a hydrous pyrolysis process in which swine manure is converted to oil by heating the swine manure and water in the presence of carbon monoxide in a closed container . For that process they report that a temperatures of at least 275 ° C is required to convert the swine manure to oil , and temperatures above about 335 ° C reduces the amount of oil produced . The Zhang et al. process produces pressures of about 7 to 18 Mpa ( 1000 to 2600 psi - 69 to 178 atm ) , with higher temperatures producing higher pressures . Zhang et al. used a retention time of 120 minutes for the reported study , but report at higher temperatures a time of less than 30 minutes results in significant production of oil . A commercialized process using hydrous pyrolysis ( see the article Thermal depolymerization ) used by Changing World Technologies , Inc. ( CWT ) and its subsidiary Renewable Environmental Solutions , LLC ( RES ) to convert turkey offal . As a two-stage process , the first stage to convert the turkey offal to hydrocarbons at a temperature of 200 to and a second stage to crack the oil into light hydrocarbons at a temperature of near 500 ° C. Adams et al. report only that the first stage heating is `` under pressure '' ; Lemley , in a non-technical article on the CWT process , reports that for the first stage ( for conversion ) a temperature of about 260 ° C and a pressure of about 600 psi , with a time for the conversion of `` usually about 15 minutes '' . For the second stage ( cracking ) , Lemley reports a temperature of about 480 ° C. The EROEI -LSB- Energy Returned On Energy Invested -RSB- of these processes is uncertain and/or has not been measured . Furthermore , products of hydrous pyrolysis might not meet current fuel standards . Further processing may be required to produce fuels .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Hydrous_pyrolysis", "rank": 58, "score": 140128 }, { "content": "Title: Nuclear power in Australia Content: Australia currently has no nuclear facilities generating electricity . Australia has 33 % of the world 's uranium deposits and is the world 's third largest producer of uranium after Kazakhstan and Canada . At the same time , Australia 's extensive low-cost coal and natural gas reserves have historically been used as strong arguments for avoiding nuclear power . The Liberal Party has advocated for the development of nuclear power and nuclear industries in Australia since the 1950s . An anti-nuclear movement developed in Australia in the 1970s , initially focusing on the banning of nuclear weapons testing and limiting the development of uranium mining and export . The movement also challenged the environmental and economic costs of developing nuclear power . A modern resurgence of interest in nuclear power was prompted by Prime Minister John Howard in 2007 in response to the need to move to low-carbon methods of power generation in order to reduce the impact of climate change . In 2015 , South Australian Premier Jay Weatherill announced that a Royal Commission would be held to investigate the state 's role in the nuclear fuel cycle . South Australia is currently home to four of Australia 's five uranium mines and the possibility of the state developing nuclear power generation , enrichment and waste storage facilities have previously proven to be contentious issues . The Royal Commission comes at a time of economic contraction for South Australia , which is suffering from job losses in mining and manufacturing sectors .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Nuclear_power_in_Australia", "rank": 59, "score": 139918 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 60, "score": 139873 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Carbon-neutral_fuel", "rank": 61, "score": 139637 }, { "content": "Title: Kerogen Content: Kerogen ( Greek κηρός `` wax '' and - gen , γένεση `` birth '' ) is a mixture of organic chemical compounds that make up a portion of the organic matter in sedimentary rocks . It is insoluble in normal organic solvents because of the high molecular weight ( upwards of 1,000 daltons or 1000 Da ; 1Da = 1 atomic mass unit ) of its component compounds . The soluble portion is known as bitumen . When heated to the right temperatures in the Earth 's crust , ( oil window c. 50 -- 150 ° C , gas window c. 150 -- 200 ° C , both depending on how quickly the source rock is heated ) some types of kerogen release crude oil or natural gas , collectively known as hydrocarbons ( fossil fuels ) . When such kerogens are present in high concentration in rocks such as shale , they form possible source rocks . Shales rich in kerogens that have not been heated to a warmer temperature to release their hydrocarbons may form oil shale deposits . The name `` kerogen '' was introduced by the Scottish organic chemist Alexander Crum Brown in 1906 .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Kerogen", "rank": 62, "score": 139621 }, { "content": "Title: Hydroelectricity Content: Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower . In 2015 hydropower generated 16.6 % of the world 's total electricity and 70 % of all renewable electricity , and was expected to increase about 3.1 % each year for the next 25 years . Hydropower is produced in 150 countries , with the Asia-Pacific region generating 33 percent of global hydropower in 2013 . China is the largest hydroelectricity producer , with 920 TWh of production in 2013 , representing 16.9 percent of domestic electricity use . The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low , making it a competitive source of renewable electricity . The hydro station consumes no water , unlike coal or gas plants . The average cost of electricity from a hydro station larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour . With a dam and reservoir it is also a flexible source of electricity since the amount produced by the station can be changed up or down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands . Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed , the project produces no direct waste , and has a considerably lower output level of greenhouse gases than fossil fuel powered energy plants .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Hydroelectricity", "rank": 63, "score": 139539 }, { "content": "Title: Fossil fuel exporters Content: Petroleum , natural gas , and coal are exported from various source countries to countries reliant on these fossil fuels .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Fossil_fuel_exporters", "rank": 64, "score": 139387 }, { "content": "Title: Oil and gas industry in the United Kingdom Content: The oil and gas industry in the United Kingdom produced 1.42 million boepd in 2014 , of which 59 % was oil/liquids . In 2013 the UK consumed 1.508 million bpd of oil and 2.735 tcf of gas , so is now an importer of hydrocarbons having been a significant exporter in the 1980s and 1990s . 98 % of production comes from offshore fields and the services industry in Aberdeen has been a leader in developing technology for hydrocarbon extraction offshore . Historically most gas came from Morecambe Bay and the Southern North Sea off East Anglia , but both areas are now in decline . Oil comes mainly from the North Sea Central Graben close to the median line with Norway in two main clusters - around the Forties oilfield east of Aberdeen and the Brent oilfield east of Shetland . There have been recent discoveries in challenging conditions west of Shetland . there were 15729 kmof pipelines linking 113 oil installations and 189 gas installations . The only major onshore field is Wytch Farm in Dorset but there are a handful oil wells scattered across England . There is significant shale potential in the Weald and in the Bowland Shale under Lancashire & Yorkshire , but only a few wells have been drilled amongst considerable protests . The UK 's strengths in financial services have led it to play a leading role in energy trading through markets such as ICE Futures ( formerly the International Petroleum Exchange ) . The price of Brent Crude from the British North Sea remains the major benchmark for the international oil trade , and the National Balancing Point market is the benchmark for most of the gas traded across Europe . The difficult offshore conditions make the UK a high-cost producer ; in 2014 the average development cost was $ 20.40 / boe and the operating cost was $ 27.80 / boe for a total of $ 48.20 / boe . In 2014 the industry spent # 1.1 bn on exploration , # 14.8 bn on capital investment and # 9.6 bn on operating costs . Fields developed since 1993 are taxed through an additional corporation tax on profits , in 2014 the industry generated # 2.8 bn in direct taxes .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Oil_and_gas_industry_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 65, "score": 138902 }, { "content": "Title: Fuel Content: A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work . The concept was originally applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy ( via nuclear fission and nuclear fusion ) . The heat energy released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine . Other times the heat itself is valued for warmth , cooking , or industrial processes , as well as the illumination that comes with combustion . Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a process known as cellular respiration , where organic molecules are oxidized to release usable energy . Hydrocarbons and related oxygen-containing molecules are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans , but other substances , including radioactive metals , are also utilized . Fuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential energy , such as those that directly release electrical energy ( such as batteries and capacitors ) or mechanical energy ( such as flywheels , springs , compressed air , or water in a reservoir ) .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Fuel", "rank": 66, "score": 138579 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical study of energy data Content: Energy statistics refers to collecting , compiling , analyzing and disseminating data on commodities such as coal , crude oil , natural gas , electricity , or renewable energy sources ( biomass , geothermal , wind or solar energy ) , when they are used for the energy they contain . Energy is the capability of some substances , resulting from their physico-chemical properties , to do work or produce heat . Some energy commodities , called fuels , release their energy content as heat when they burn . This heat could be used to run an internal or external combustion engine . The need to have statistics on energy commodities became obvious during the 1973 oil crisis that brought tenfold increase in petroleum prices . Before the crisis , to have accurate data on global energy supply and demand was not deemed critical . Another concern of energy statistics today is a huge gap in energy use between developed and developing countries . As the gap narrows ( see picture ) , the pressure on energy supply increases tremendously . The data on energy and electricity come from three principal sources : Energy industry Other industries ( `` self-producers '' ) Consumers The flows of and trade in energy commodities are measured both in physical units ( e.g. , metric tons ) , and , when energy balances are calculated , in energy units ( e.g. , terajoules or tons of oil equivalent ) . What makes energy statistics specific and different from other fields of economic statistics is the fact that energy commodities undergo greater number of transformations ( flows ) than other commodities . In these transformations energy is conserved , as defined by and within the limitations of the first and second laws of thermodynamics .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Statistical_study_of_energy_data", "rank": 67, "score": 137950 }, { "content": "Title: Enhanced coal bed methane recovery Content: Enhanced coal bed methane recovery is a method of producing additional coalbed methane from a source rock , similar to enhanced oil recovery applied to oil fields . Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) injected into a bituminous coal bed would occupy pore space and also adsorb onto the carbon in the coal at approximately twice the rate of methane ( CH4 ) , allowing for potential enhanced gas recovery . This technique may be used in conjunction with carbon capture and storage in mitigation of global warming where the carbon dioxide that is sequestered is captured from the output of fossil fuel power plants . A research project at ETH Zurich is studying the process of pumping carbon dioxide into unminable coal seams and recovering the methane that is subsequently displaced . An extensive experimental investigation about the process of desorbing methane by adsorbing carbon dioxide in real coal samples was performed . The proof of principle and the technical feasibility of the method could be verified with these measurements . These research results indicate that CBM can become an alternative to conventional natural gas . ECBM provides additional to CBM the advantage of long-term CO2 storage in the underground coal seams . However , without other incentives , enhanced coal bed methane recovery is not economical as the commercial value of the released methane does not completely offset the cost of pumping . Penetration of CO2 into coal is simulated using a stress-enhanced diffusion model .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Enhanced_coal_bed_methane_recovery", "rank": 68, "score": 137870 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in Australia Content: Energy in Australia includes energy and electricity production , consumption and export in Australia . Energy policy of Australia describes the politics of Australia as it relates to energy . Australia is a net energy exporter , and was the fourth-highest coal producer in the world in 2009 . Historically -- and until recent times -- energy in Australia was sourced largely from coal and natural gas , however due to the increasing effects of global warming and human-induced climate change on the global environment , there has been a greater shift towards renewable energy such as solar power and wind power both in Australia and abroad . This in turn has led to a decrease in the demand of coal worldwide .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Energy_in_Australia", "rank": 69, "score": 137754 }, { "content": "Title: History of coal mining Content: The history of coal mining goes back thousands of years . It became important in the Industrial Revolution of the 19th and 20th centuries , when it was primarily used to power steam engines , heat buildings and generate electricity . Coal mining continues as an important economic activity today . Compared to wood fuels , coal yields a higher amount of energy per mass and can often be obtained in areas where wood is not readily available . Though it was used historically as a domestic fuel , coal is now used mostly in industry , especially in smelting and alloy production as well as electricity generation . Large-scale coal mining developed during the Industrial Revolution , and coal provided the main source of primary energy for industry and transportation in industrial areas from the 18th century to the 1950s . Coal remains an important energy source because of its low cost and abundance compared to other fuels , particularly for electricity generation . Coal is also mined today on a large scale by open pit methods wherever the coal strata strike the surface or are relatively shallow . Britain developed the main techniques of underground coal mining from the late 18th century onward , with further progress being driven by 19th century and early 20th century progress . However , oil and its associated fuels began to be used as alternatives from the 1860s onward . By the late 20th century , coal was , for the most part , replaced in domestic as well as industrial and transportation usage by oil , natural gas or electricity produced from oil , gas , nuclear power or renewable energy sources . By 2010 , coal produced over a fourth of the world 's energy , and by 2050 it is expected to produce about a third . Since 1890 , coal mining has also been a political and social issue . Coal miners ' labour and trade unions became powerful in many countries in the 20th century , and often , the miners were leaders of the Left or Socialist movements ( as in Britain , Germany , Poland , Japan , Chile , Canada and the U.S. ) Since 1970 , environmental issues have been increasingly important , including the health of miners , destruction of the landscape from strip mines and mountaintop removal , air pollution , and coal combustion 's contribution to global warming .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "History_of_coal_mining", "rank": 70, "score": 137607 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in Italy Content: Italy consumed about 185 Mtoe of primary energy in 2010 . This came mostly from fossil fuels . Among the most used resources are petroleum ( mostly used for the transport sector ) , natural gas ( used for electric energy production and heating ) , coal and renewables . An important share of electricity comes from import , mainly from Switzerland and France . The share of primary energy dedicated to electricity production is above 35 % , and grew steadily since the 1970s . Electricity is produced mainly from natural gas , which accounts for the source of more than half of the total final electric energy produced . Another important source is hydroelectric power , which was practically the only source of electricity until 1960 . Wind and solar power grew rapidly between 2010 and 2013 thanks to high incentives . Italy has few energy resources , and most of supplies are imported .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Energy_in_Italy", "rank": 71, "score": 137583 }, { "content": "Title: Coal oil Content: Coal oil is a shale oil obtained from the destructive distillation of cannel coal , mineral wax , or bituminous shale , once used widely for illumination . Chemically similar to the more refined , petroleum-derived kerosene , it consists mainly of several hydrocarbons of the alkane series , with 10 to 16 carbon atoms in each molecule and a higher boiling point ( 175 -- 325 ° C ) than gasoline or the petroleum ethers and lower than the oils . The term was in use by the late 18th century , for oil produced as a byproduct of the production of coal gas and coal tar . In the early 19th century it was discovered that coal oil distilled from cannel coal could be used in lamps as an illuminant , although the early coal oil burned with a smokey flame , so that it was used only for outdoor lamps ; cleaner-burning whale oil was used in indoor lamps . Coal oil that burned cleanly enough to compete with whale oil as an indoor illuminant was first produced in 1850 by James Young on the Union Canal in Scotland , who patented the process . Production thrived in Scotland , creating much wealth for Young . In the United States , coal oil was widely manufactured in the 1850s under the trade name Kerosene , manufactured by a process invented by Canadian geologist Abraham Gesner . Young triumphed in his patent lawsuit against the Gesner process in the United States in 1860 . But by that time , US coal oil distillers were switching over to refining cheaper petroleum , after the discovery of abundant petroleum in western Pennsylvania in 1859 , and oil from coal operations ceased in the US . Because kerosene was first derived from cannel coal , classified as terrestrial type of oil shale , it continued to be popularly referred to as `` coal oil '' even after production shifted to petroleum as a feedstock . Technically , refined hydrocarbons of the alkane series with 10 to 16 carbon atoms are the same thing whether taken from coal or petroleum .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Coal_oil", "rank": 72, "score": 136776 }, { "content": "Title: Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Content: Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited ( ONGC ) is an Indian multinational oil and gas company headquartered in Dehradun , Uttarakhand , India . It is a Public Sector Undertaking ( PSU ) of the Government of India , under the administrative control of the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas . It is India 's largest oil and gas exploration and production company . It produces around 77 % of India 's crude oil ( equivalent to around 30 % of the country 's total demand ) and around 62 % of its natural gas . On 31 March 2013 , its market capitalisation was INR 2.6 trillion ( US$ 48.98 billion ) , making it India 's second largest publicly traded company . In a government survey for fiscal year 2011 -- 12 , it was ranked as the largest profit making PSU in India . ONGC has been ranked 449th in the Fortune Global 500 list of the world 's biggest corporations for the year 2015 . It is ranked 17th among the Top 250 Global Energy Companies by Platts . ONGC was founded on 14 August 1956 by Government of India , which currently holds a 68.94 % equity stake . It is involved in exploring for and exploiting hydrocarbons in 26 sedimentary basins of India , and owns and operates over 11,000 kilometers of pipelines in the country . Its international subsidiary ONGC Videsh currently has projects in 17 countries . ONGC has discovered 6 of the 7 commercially producing Indian Basins , in the last 50 years , adding over 7.1 billion tonnes of In-place Oil & Gas volume of hydrocarbons in Indian basins . Against a global decline of production from matured fields , ONGC has maintained production from its brownfields like Mumbai High , with the help of aggressive investments in various IOR ( Improved Oil Recovery ) and EOR ( Enhanced Oil Recovery ) schemes . ONGC has many matured fields with a current recovery factor of 25 -- 33 % . Its Reserve Replacement Ratio for between 2005 and 2013 , has been more than one . During FY 2012 -- 13 , ONGC had to share the highest ever under-recovery of INR 494.2 billion ( an increase of INR 49.6 million over the previous financial year ) towards the under-recoveries of Oil Marketing Companies ( IOC , BPCL and HPCL ) .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Oil_and_Natural_Gas_Corporation", "rank": 73, "score": 136714 }, { "content": "Title: Energy policy of Canada Content: Canada has access to all main sources of energy including oil and gas , coal , hydropower , biomass , solar , geothermal , wind , marine and nuclear . It is the world 's second largest producer of uranium , third largest producer of hydro-electricity , fourth largest natural gas producer , and the fifth largest in producer of crude oil . Only Russia , the People 's Republic of China , the United States and Saudi Arabia produce more total energy than Canada . The United States is Canada 's major trade market for energy products and services . Canada sends around 98 % of its total energy exports to the United States , meaning that Canada is the largest supplier of energy exports to the world 's largest economy . Canada also exports significant amounts of uranium and coal to Asia , Europe and Latin America . Despite being a net energy exporter , Canada also imports large/small amounts of energy products .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Energy_policy_of_Canada", "rank": 74, "score": 136472 }, { "content": "Title: Allocation (oil and gas) Content: In the petroleum industry , allocation refers to practices of breaking down measures of quantities of extracted hydrocarbons across various contributing sources . Allocation aids the attribution of ownerships of hydrocarbons as each contributing element to a commingled flow or to a storage of petroleum may have a unique ownership . Contributing sources in this context are typically producing petroleum wells delivering flows of petroleum or flows of natural gas to a commingled flow or storage . The terms hydrocarbon accounting and allocation are sometimes used interchangeably . Hydrocarbon accounting has a wider scope , taking advantages of allocation results , it is the petroleum management process by which ownership of extracted hydrocarbons is determined and tracked from a point of sale or discharge back to the point of extraction . In this way , hydrocarbon accounting also covers inventory control , material balance , and practices to trace ownership of hydrocarbons being transported in a transportation system , e.g. through pipelines to customers distant from the production plant . In an allocation problem , contributing sources are more widely natural gas streams , fluid flows or multiphase flows derived from formations or zones in a well , from wells , and from fields , unitised production entities or production facilities . In hydrocarbon accounting , quantities of extracted hydrocarbon can be further split by ownership , by `` cost oil '' or `` profit oil '' categories , and broken down to individual composition fraction types . Such components may be alkane hydrocarbons , boiling point fractions , and mole weight fractions .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Allocation_(oil_and_gas)", "rank": 75, "score": 136410 }, { "content": "Title: Bergius process Content: The Bergius process is a method of production of liquid hydrocarbons for use as synthetic fuel by hydrogenation of high-volatile bituminous coal at high temperature and pressure . It was first developed by Friedrich Bergius in 1913 . In 1931 Bergius was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his development of high pressure chemistry .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Bergius_process", "rank": 76, "score": 136017 }, { "content": "Title: 100% renewable energy Content: The endeavor to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , heating and cooling , and transport is motivated by global warming , pollution and other environmental issues , as well as economic and energy security concerns . Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system . In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . In 2014 , renewable sources such as wind , geothermal , solar , biomass , and burnt waste provided 19 % of the total energy consumed worldwide , with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass . The most important sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8 % , most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6 % , followed by wind with 3.1 % . There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy . At the national level , at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of the energy supply . Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of `` Climate stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and `` renewable energy sources , '' in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their `` wedges . '' Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program , says that producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible , and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be `` primarily social and political , not technological or economic '' . Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind , solar , and water system should be similar to today 's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies . The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will . Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that `` sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . '' The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "100%_renewable_energy", "rank": 77, "score": 135914 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 78, "score": 135461 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon power Content: Low-carbon power comes from processes or technologies that , produce power with substantially lower amounts of carbon dioxide emissions than is emitted from conventional fossil fuel power generation . It includes low carbon power generation sources such as wind power , solar power , hydropower and , including fuel preparation and decommissioning , nuclear power . The term largely excludes conventional fossil fuel plant sources , and is only used to describe a particular subset of operating fossil fuel power systems , specifically , those that are successfully coupled with a flue gas carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) system .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Low-carbon_power", "rank": 79, "score": 135351 }, { "content": "Title: List of energy resources Content: These are modes of energy production , energy storage , or energy conservation , listed alphabetically . Note that not all sources are accepted as legitimate or have been proven to be tappable . Atomic energy Banki turbine -- hydro power , like overshot or even like turbine ... Battery ( electricity ) Bioalcohol Biodiesel Biodiesel production Biofuel Biogas Biomass Bio-nano generator Bitumen Breeder reactor Bubble fusion -- a nuclear fusion reaction hypothesized to occur during sonoluminescence , an extreme form of acoustic cavitation . Coal Coal mining Cold fusion Combustion Compound turbine -- two axle , steam Compressed air energy storage Concentrated solar power Deep lake water cooling Diesel Dyson sphere Electrical grid Energy tower External combustion engine Fischer-Tropsch process Flywheel ( storage ) Fossil fuel Fossil-fuel power station Francis turbine Fuel -- a substance used as a source of energy , usually by the heat produced in combustion . Fuel cell Fuel efficiency Fusion power Gas turbine Gasohol Geothermal exchange heat pump Geothermal heating Geothermal power Grid energy storage High-altitude wind power - Energy can be captured from the wind by kites , aerostats , airfoil matrices , balloons , bladed turbines , kytoon , tethered gliders sailplanes Hydroelectricity Hydrogen economy Hydrogen storage , Underground hydrogen storage Hydropower-Energy from moving water Implosion Kaplan turbine Light crude Liquid fuel Liquid nitrogen economy Marine current power Magnetohydrodynamic , generator , MHD generator or dynamo transforms thermal energy or kinetic energy directly into electricity Methane clathrate Methanol Methanol economy Natural gas Natural gas field Natural gas vehicle Nuclear energy -- energy in the nucleus or core of atoms Nuclear fusion Nuclear reactor Nuclear reprocessing Oil drilling Oil platform Oil refinery Oil shale Oil well Osmotic power - or salinity gradient power - is the energy available from the difference in the salt concentration between seawater and river water OTEC -- Ocean thermal energy conversion Oxidation Peat Perpetuum Mobile Petroleum Photovoltaics Piezoelectricity Pneumatics -- compressed air Products based on refined oil Propellant Pumped-storage hydroelectricity Pyrolysis Renewable energy Savonius wind turbine -- wind Small hydro Solar box cooker Solar cell Solar chimney Solar panel Solar energy Solar power satellite Solar thermal energy Solar updraft tower -- large version of the solar chimney concept Solar water heating Solid fuel Sonoluminescence -- the emission of short bursts of light from imploding bubbles in a liquid when excited by sound . SSTAR -- small , sealed , transportable , autonomous reactor Steam turbine Stirling engine Straight vegetable oil Stranded gas reserve Sulfur-iodine cycle Sustainable design Synfuel Syngas Tar sands Tesla turbine Thermal depolymerization Thermal power station Thorium Tidal power Transmutation Turgo turbine -- impulse water turbine designed for medium head applications Tyson turbine -- for river flow harnessing UASB Uranium Vacuum energy Vibration energy scavenging Vortex energy Water turbine Wave power Wind energy Wind farm Wind turbine Wood fuel Wood gas Zero-point energy", "qid": "2970", "docid": "List_of_energy_resources", "rank": 80, "score": 135202 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 81, "score": 135155 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia", "rank": 82, "score": 134856 }, { "content": "Title: Petrochemical Content: Petrochemicals , also called petroleum distillates , are chemical products derived from petroleum . Some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained from other fossil fuels , such as coal or natural gas , or renewable sources such as corn or sugar cane . The two most common petrochemical classes are olefins ( including ethylene and propylene ) and aromatics ( including benzene , toluene and xylene isomers ) . Oil refineries produce olefins and aromatics by fluid catalytic cracking of petroleum fractions . Chemical plants produce olefins by steam cracking of natural gas liquids like ethane and propane . Aromatics are produced by catalytic reforming of naphtha . Olefins and aromatics are the building-blocks for a wide range of materials such as solvents , detergents , and adhesives . Olefins are the basis for polymers and oligomers used in plastics , resins , fibers , elastomers , lubricants , and gels . Global ethylene and propylene production are about 115 million tonnes and 70 million tonnes per annum , respectively . Aromatics production is approximately 70 million tonnes . The largest petrochemical industries are located in the USA and Western Europe ; however , major growth in new production capacity is in the Middle East and Asia . There is substantial inter-regional petrochemical trade . Primary petrochemicals are divided into three groups depending on their chemical structure : Olefins includes ethylene , propylene , and butadiene . Ethylene and propylene are important sources of industrial chemicals and plastics products . Butadiene is used in making synthetic rubber . Aromatics includes benzene , toluene , and xylenes . Benzene is a raw material for dyes and synthetic detergents , and benzene and toluene for isocyanates MDI and TDI used in making polyurethanes . Manufacturers use xylenes to produce plastics and synthetic fibers . Synthesis gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen used to make ammonia and methanol . Ammonia is used to make the fertilizer urea and methanol is used as a solvent and chemical intermediate . The prefix `` petro - '' is an arbitrary abbreviation of the word `` petroleum '' ; since `` petro - '' is Ancient Greek for `` rock '' and `` oleum '' means `` oil '' . Therefore , the etymologically correct term would be `` oleochemicals '' . However , the term oleochemical is used to describe chemicals derived from plant and animal fats .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Petrochemical", "rank": 83, "score": 134831 }, { "content": "Title: 2004 Argentine energy crisis Content: The Argentine energy crisis was a natural gas supply shortage experienced by Argentina in 2004 . After the recession triggered by the economic crisis and ending in 2002 , Argentina 's energy demands grew quickly as industry recovered , but extraction and transportation of natural gas , a cheap and relatively abundant fossil fuel , did not match the surge . According to estimates , 50 % of the electricity generated in Argentina depends on gas-powered plants . The national energy matrix has no emergency reserves and by 2004 it was functioning at the top of its capacity . At this point , barely emerging from the seasonal low demand caused by summer , a large number of industrial facilities and power plants started suffering intermittent cuts in their supply of natural gas . Between February and May the cuts amounted to an average of 9.5 million m ³ a day , about 13 % of industrial demand , and by the end of May they grew to a maximum of 22 million m ³ . The most seriously affected regions were the capital , certain regions of the province of Buenos Aires , and the province of La Pampa . As winter approached , the Argentine government announced that it would restrict natural gas exports in order to preserve the supply for internal consumption , both domestic and industrial , in compliance with the Hydrocarbons Law . These export cuts would seriously harm Chile and affect Uruguay and Brazil . The Chilean Minister of Economy and Energy , Jorge Rodríguez , warned Argentina that supply contracts with Chilean companies must be fulfilled . This caused a mild diplomatic crisis . Chile imports more than 90 % of its natural gas from Argentina and depends heavily on it to generate electricity ; it has shifted the focus from coal and oil towards gas , and had five gas pipelines built for the specific purpose of getting gas from Argentina .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "2004_Argentine_energy_crisis", "rank": 84, "score": 134804 }, { "content": "Title: Greening Earth Society Content: The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Greening_Earth_Society", "rank": 85, "score": 134798 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Mafia Content: Greenhouse Mafia is the title of a TV program aired by the ABC on the 13 February 2006 episode of its weekly current affairs program Four Corners . The program says the term greenhouse mafia is the `` in house '' name used by Australia 's carbon lobby for itself . The program featured former Liberal Party member Guy Pearse and Four Corners host Janine Cohen , while others concerned about the influence exerted by the fossil fuel lobby also participated . The report was based on a thesis Pearse wrote at the Australian National University between 1999 and 2005 regarding the response of Australian business to global warming . According to the program , lobby groups representing the coal , car , oil , and aluminium industries have wielded their power to prevent Australia from reducing its greenhouse gas emissions , which were already among the highest per capita in the world in 1990 .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Greenhouse_Mafia", "rank": 86, "score": 134762 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in Queensland Content: Queensland 's energy policy is based on the year 2000 document called the Queensland Energy Policy : A Cleaner Energy Strategy . The Queensland Government assists energy development through the Department of Energy and Water Supply . The state is noted for its significant contribution to coal mining in Australia . The primary fuel for electricity generation in the state is coal with coal seam gas becoming a significant fuel source . Queensland has 98 % of Australia 's reserves of coal seam gas . An expansion of energy-intensive industries such as mining , economic growth and population growth have created increased demand for energy in Queensland . Early energy development in the middle of the 20th century facilitated the extraction of fossil fuels and distribution of natural gas and oil in pipelines from the south west of the state , under the leadership of Joh Bjelke-Petersen . In 2006 , Queensland became the biggest emitter of greenhouse gases in Australia due to its reliance on coal power and road transport . A 2005 government report highlighted the state 's vulnerability to rising oil prices . Queensland was the state to first to produce commercial oil , the first to find natural gas and the first to supply a capital city with natural gas by pipeline . It has Australia 's largest onshore oil field at Jackson . It was also the first state to use a form of hydro-electric power at Thargomindah when water pressure from a well sunk into the Great Artesian Basin was harnessed to generate electric power .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Energy_in_Queensland", "rank": 87, "score": 134604 }, { "content": "Title: List of largest power stations Content: This article lists the largest power stations in the world , the ten overall and the five of each type , in terms of current installed electrical capacity . Non-renewable power stations are those that run on coal , fuel oils , nuclear , natural gas , oil shale and peat , while renewable power stations run on fuel sources such as biomass , geothermal heat , hydro , solar energy , solar heat , tides , waves and the wind . Only the most significant fuel source is listed for power stations that run on multiple sources . At present , the largest power generating facility ever built is the Three Gorges Dam in China . The facility generates power by utilizing 32 Francis turbines each of a capacity of and two turbines , totalling the installed capacity to , more than twice the installed capacity of the largest nuclear power station , the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa ( Japan ) at . As of 2012 no power station comparable to Three Gorges is under construction , as the largest under construction power stations are hydroelectric Baihetan Dam and Belo Monte Dam . Although currently only a proposal , the Grand Inga Dam in the Congo would surpass all existing power stations , including the Three Gorges Dam , if construction commences as planned . The design targets to top in installed capacity , nearly twice that of the Three Gorges . Another proposal , Penzhin Tidal Power Plant Project , presumes an installed capacity up to .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "List_of_largest_power_stations", "rank": 88, "score": 134558 }, { "content": "Title: Energy transition Content: Energy transition is generally defined as a long-term structural change in energy systems . These have occurred in the past , and still occur worldwide . Historic energy transitions are most broadly described by Vaclav Smil . Contemporary energy transitions differ in terms of motivation and objectives , drivers and governance . An example of transition toward sustainable energy , is the shift by Germany ( Energiewende ) , to decentralised renewable energy , and energy efficiency . Although so far these shifts have been replacing nuclear energy , their declared goal is the abolishment of coal , reducing non-renewable energy sources and the creation of an energy system based on 60 % renewable energy by 2050 . Renewable energy encompasses wind , hydropower , solar power , geothermal , and ocean power . These renewable sources are to serve as an alternative to fossil fuels ( oil , coal , natural gas ) and nuclear fuel ( uranium ) . Solving the energy/global warming problem is regarded as the most important challenge facing humankind in the 21st century . Piecemeal measures often have only limited potential , so a timely implementation for the energy transition requires multiple approaches in parallel . Energy conservation and improvements in energy efficiency thus play a major role . An example of an effective energy efficiency measure is improved insulation for buildings . Smart electric meters can schedule energy consumption for times when electricity is available inexpensively . After such a transitional period , with a continuing increase in renewable energy production these are expected to make up most , if not all , of the world 's energy production in 50 years according to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency , dramatically reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Energy_transition", "rank": 89, "score": 134166 }, { "content": "Title: History of sustainability Content: The history of sustainability traces human-dominated ecological systems from the earliest civilizations to the present . This history is characterized by the increased regional success of a particular society , followed by crises that were either resolved , producing sustainability , or not , leading to decline . In early human history , the use of fire and desire for specific foods may have altered the natural composition of plant and animal communities . Between 8,000 and 10,000 years ago , agrarian communities emerged which depended largely on their environment and the creation of a `` structure of permanence '' . The Western industrial revolution of the 18th to 19th centuries tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy in fossil fuels . Coal was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity . Modern sanitation systems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease . In the mid-20th century , a gathering environmental movement pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed . In the late 20th century , environmental problems became global in scale . The 1973 and 1979 energy crises demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on non-renewable energy resources . In the 21st century , there is increasing global awareness of the threat posed by the human-induced enhanced greenhouse effect , produced largely by forest clearing and the burning of fossil fuels .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "History_of_sustainability", "rank": 90, "score": 134063 }, { "content": "Title: Coal Content: Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams . The harder forms , such as anthracite coal , can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure . Coal is composed primarily of carbon , along with variable quantities of other elements , chiefly hydrogen , sulfur , oxygen , and nitrogen . A fossil fuel , coal forms when dead plant matter is converted into peat , which in turn is converted into lignite , then sub-bituminous coal , after that bituminous coal , and lastly anthracite . This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time . Throughout human history , coal has been used as an energy resource , primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat , and is also used for industrial purposes , such as refining metals . Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide , as well as one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide releases . The extraction of coal , its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change . Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining . Since 1983 , the world 's top coal producer has been China . In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal -- 47.7 % of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production . In 2015 other large producers were United States ( 813 million tonnes ) , India ( 678 ) , European Union ( 539 ) and Australia ( 503 ) . In 2010 the largest exporters were Australia with 328 million tonnes ( 27.1 % of world coal export ) and Indonesia with 316 million tonnes ( 26.1 % ) , while the largest importers were Japan with 207 million tonnes ( 17.5 % of world coal import ) , China with 195 million tonnes ( 16.6 % ) and South Korea with 126 million tonnes ( 10.7 % ) .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Coal", "rank": 91, "score": 133999 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 92, "score": 133919 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 93, "score": 133901 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 94, "score": 133813 }, { "content": "Title: Heating oil Content: Heating oil is a low viscosity , liquid petroleum product used as a fuel oil for furnaces or boilers in buildings . Home heating oil is often abbreviated as HHO . Heating oil consists of a mixture of petroleum-derived hydrocarbons in the 14 - to 20-carbon atom range that condense between 250 and during oil refining . Heating oil condenses at a lower temperature than petroleum jelly , bitumen , candle wax , and lubricating oil , but at a higher temperature than kerosene , which condenses between 160 - . The heavy ( C20 + ) hydrocarbons condense between 340 - . Heating oil produces 138500 BTU/USgal and weighs 8.2 pounds per US gallon ( 0.95 kg/l ) . Number 2 fuel oil has a flash point of 52 C. Most heating oil products are chemically very similar to diesel fuel used as motor fuel . ( Often the same distillation batch could be used for either purpose . ) This means that the two can often be successfully interchanged at the point of use . However , the taxation of the two differs in many places , with heating oil being taxed less than motor fuel . This creates an incentive to buy heating oil at a lower price and then use it as motor fuel , avoiding the fuel tax . To make enforcement possible , some visual difference or odor difference must be introduced to the oil . Therefore , red dyes are usually added , resulting in the `` red diesel '' name in countries like the United Kingdom . In the U.S. the fuel oil dyed red is not taxed for highway use ; the dye makes it easy to identify its use in on-road vehicles ( whereas diesel fuel sold for motor fuel use is usually green ) . Since 2002 , Solvent Yellow 124 has been added as a `` Euromarker '' in the European Union . Heating oil is commonly delivered by tank truck to residential , commercial and municipal buildings and stored in above-ground storage tanks ( `` ASTs '' ) located in the basements , garages , or outside adjacent to the building . It is sometimes stored in underground storage tanks ( or `` USTs '' ) but less often than ASTs . ASTs are used for smaller installations due to the lower cost factor . Heating oil is less commonly used as an industrial fuel or for power generation . Leaks from tanks and piping are an environmental concern . Various federal and state regulations are in place regarding the proper transportation , storage and burning of heating oil , which is classified as a hazardous material ( HazMat ) by federal regulators .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Heating_oil", "rank": 95, "score": 133669 }, { "content": "Title: World Coal Association Content: World Coal Association ( WCA ) is an international non-profit , non-governmental association based in London created to represent the coal industry . The association was formerly called the World Coal Institute ( WCI ) but changed its name in November 2010 . The WCA undertakes lobbying , organises workshops , and provides coal information to decision makers in international energy and environmental policy and research discussions , as well as supplying information to the general public and educational organisations on the benefits and issues surrounding the use of coal . It also promotes clean coal technologies . It has participated in a number of United Nations and International Energy Agency workshops , boards , and forums , including the UN Commission on Sustainable Development , the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change , the IEA Working Party on Fossil Fuels , and the IEA Coal Industry Advisory Board . It is also part of the Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum . It is co-author for a report on the future of coal in ASEAN nations .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "World_Coal_Association", "rank": 96, "score": 133437 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 97, "score": 133409 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 98, "score": 133345 }, { "content": "Title: Substitute natural gas Content: Substitute natural gas ( SNG ) , or synthetic natural gas , is a fuel gas that can be produced from fossil fuels such as lignite coal , oil shale , or from biofuels ( when it is named bio-SNG ) or from renewable electrical energy . The Great Plains Synfuels Plant injects approximately 4.1 million m3/day of SNG from lignite coal into the United States national gas grid . The production process of SNG at the Great Plains plant involves gasification , gas cleaning , shift , and methanation . China is constructing nearly 30 nos massive SNG production plants from coal / lignite with aggregate annual capacity of 120 billion standard cubic meters of SNG . SNG in the form of LNG or CNG can be used in road , rail , air and marine transport vehicles as a substitute for costly diesel , petrol , etc. . The carbon footprint of SNG derived from coal is comparable to petroleum products . Bio-SNG has a much smaller carbon footprint when compared to petroleum products . LPG can also be produced by synthesising SNG with partial reverse hydrogenation at high pressure and low temperature . LPG is more easily transportable than SNG , more suitable as fuel in two wheeler or smaller HP vehicles / engines and also fetches higher price in international market due to short supply . Renewable electrical energy can also be used to create SNG ( methane ) via for example electrolysis of water or via a PEM fuel cell in reverse to create hydrogen which is then reacted with from for example CSS/U Utilisation in the Sabatier reaction . + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Substitute_natural_gas", "rank": 99, "score": 133276 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "2970", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 100, "score": 133246 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Climate_change_feedback", "rank": 1, "score": 137758 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Cloud_feedback", "rank": 2, "score": 123159 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 3, "score": 121328 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback", "rank": 4, "score": 112763 }, { "content": "Title: Sudden stratospheric warming Content: A sudden stratospheric warming ( SSW ) is an event where the polar vortex of westerly winds in the winter hemisphere slows down or even reverses direction over the course of a few days . The change is accompanied by a rise of stratospheric temperature by several tens of kelvins .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Sudden_stratospheric_warming", "rank": 5, "score": 111543 }, { "content": "Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Climate_variability", "rank": 6, "score": 110389 }, { "content": "Title: Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Content: The ability of stratospheric sulfate aerosols to create a global dimming effect has made them a possible candidate for use in solar radiation management climate engineering projects to limit the effect and impact of climate change due to rising levels of greenhouse gases . Delivery of precursor sulfide gases such as sulfuric acid , hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide by artillery , aircraft and balloons has been proposed . It presently appears that this proposed method could counter most climatic changes , take effect rapidly , have very low direct implementation costs , and be reversible in its direct climatic effects . One study calculated the impact of injecting sulfate particles , or aerosols , every one to four years into the stratosphere in amounts equal to those lofted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , but did not address the many technical and political challenges involved in potential solar radiation management efforts . If found to be economically , environmentally and technologically viable , such injections could provide a `` grace period '' of up to 20 years before major cutbacks in greenhouse gas emissions would be required , the study concludes . It has been suggested that the direct delivery of precursors could be achieved using sulfide gases such as dimethyl sulfide , sulfur dioxide , carbonyl sulfide , or hydrogen sulfide . These compounds would be delivered using artillery , aircraft ( such as the high-flying F-15C ) or balloons , and result in the formation of compounds with the sulfate anion SO42 − . According to estimates , `` one kilogram of well placed sulfur in the stratosphere would roughly offset the warming effect of several hundred thousand kilograms of carbon dioxide . ''", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_(climate_engineering)", "rank": 7, "score": 109374 }, { "content": "Title: Stratospheric Processes And their Role in Climate Content: Stratosphere-troposphere Processes And their Role in Climate ( SPARC ) is a core project of the World Climate Research Programme . Founded in 1992 , SPARC has coordinated high-level research activities related to understanding Earth system processes for over two decades . More specifically , SPARC promotes and facilitates cutting-edge international research activities on how chemical and physical processes in the atmosphere interact with climate and climate change .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Stratospheric_Processes_And_their_Role_in_Climate", "rank": 8, "score": 109083 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Climate_change_(general_concept)", "rank": 9, "score": 105857 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Volcanic_winter", "rank": 10, "score": 104225 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 11, "score": 104090 }, { "content": "Title: Cryosphere Content: The cryosphere ( from the Greek κρύος kryos , `` cold '' , `` frost '' or `` ice '' and σφαῖρα sphaira , `` globe , ball '' ) is those portions of Earth 's surface where water is in solid form , including sea ice , lake ice , river ice , snow cover , glaciers , ice caps , ice sheets , and frozen ground ( which includes permafrost ) . Thus , there is a wide overlap with the hydrosphere . The cryosphere is an integral part of the global climate system with important linkages and feedbacks generated through its influence on surface energy and moisture fluxes , clouds , precipitation , hydrology , atmospheric and oceanic circulation . Through these feedback processes , the cryosphere plays a significant role in the global climate and in climate model response to global changes . The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features . Cryology is the study of cryospheres .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Cryosphere", "rank": 12, "score": 101310 }, { "content": "Title: Eruption column Content: An eruption column is a cloud of hot volcanic ash suspended in volcanic gas emitted during an explosive volcanic eruption . The ash forms a column that may rise many kilometres into the air above the vent of the volcano . In the most explosive eruptions , the eruption column may rise over 40 km , penetrating the stratosphere . Stratospheric injection of aerosols by volcanoes is a major cause of short-term climate change . A common occurrence in explosive eruptions is for column collapse to occur . In this case , the eruption column is too dense to be lifted high into the air by air convection , and instead falls down the flanks of the volcano to form a pyroclastic flow or surge . On some occasions , if ash is n't dense enough to fall , it may create pyrocumulonimbus .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Eruption_column", "rank": 13, "score": 101291 }, { "content": "Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "David_Karoly", "rank": 14, "score": 99853 }, { "content": "Title: Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment Content: The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment ( SAGE ) is a series of remote sensing satellite instruments used to study the chemical composition of earth 's atmosphere . Specifically , SAGE has been used to study the Earth 's ozone layer and aerosols at the troposphere through the stratosphere . The SAGE instruments use solar occultation measurement technique to determine chemical concentrations in the atmosphere . Solar occultation measurement technique measures sunlight through the atmosphere and ratios that measurement with a sunlight measurement without atmospheric attenuation . This is achieved by observing sunrises and sunsets during a satellite orbit . Physically , the SAGE instruments measure ultraviolet/visible energy and this is converted via algorithms to determine chemical concentrations . SAGE data has been used to study the atmospheres aerosols , ozone , water vapor , and other trace gases .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Stratospheric_Aerosol_and_Gas_Experiment", "rank": 15, "score": 98852 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic impacts on the oceans Content: Explosive volcanic eruptions affect the global climate mainly through injecting sulfur bearing gases into the stratosphere , which oxidize to form sulfate aerosols . Stratospheric sulfur aerosols spread around the globe by the atmospheric circulation , producing surface cooling by scattering solar radiation back to space . This cooling effect on the ocean surface usually lasts for several years as the lifetime of sulfate aerosols is about 2 -- 3 years . However , in the subsurface ocean the cooling signal may persist for a longer time and may have impacts on some decadal variabilities , such as the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation ( AMOC ) .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Volcanic_impacts_on_the_oceans", "rank": 16, "score": 98323 }, { "content": "Title: Marine stratocumulus Content: Marine stratocumulus is a type of stratocumulus cloud that form in the stable air off the west coast of major land masses . The Earth spins on its axis , which results in the Coriolis force pushing the ocean surface water away from the coast in the mid-latitudes . This results in upwelling of cold water from below that creates a pool of cool water at the surface , which in turn cools the air directly above it . The surface cooling results in a large temperature inversion at the top of the marine layer . As the temperature is cooled to the dewpoint , water vapor condenses upon available cloud condensation nuclei , and forms a cloud . The stability of the marine layer prevents deep convection , and thus stratiform clouds are formed . Climate scientists are currently investigating the detailed structure of marine stratocumulus clouds in an attempt to understand their effect on the climate .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Marine_stratocumulus", "rank": 17, "score": 98319 }, { "content": "Title: Stratosphere Content: The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Stratosphere", "rank": 18, "score": 96733 }, { "content": "Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Peter_A._Stott", "rank": 19, "score": 96459 }, { "content": "Title: Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering Content: Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering ( SPICE ) was a United Kingdom government-funded climate engineering ( geoengineering ) research project that aimed to assess the feasibility of injecting particles into the stratosphere from a tethered balloon for the purposes of solar radiation management .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Stratospheric_Particle_Injection_for_Climate_Engineering", "rank": 20, "score": 94482 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect", "rank": 21, "score": 92435 }, { "content": "Title: SAGE III on ISS Content: SAGE III on ISS is the fourth generation of a series of NASA Earth-observing instruments , known as the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment . The first SAGE III instrument was launched on the Russian Meteor ( satellite ) spacecraft . The recently revised SAGE III will be mounted to the International Space Station where it will use the unique vantage point of ISS to make long-term measurements of ozone , aerosols , water vapor , and other gases in Earth 's atmosphere .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "SAGE_III_on_ISS", "rank": 22, "score": 92264 }, { "content": "Title: Stratopause Content: The stratopause ( formerly Mesopeak ) is the level of the atmosphere which is the boundary between two layers : the stratosphere and the mesosphere . In the stratosphere the temperature increases with altitude , and the stratopause is the region where a maximum in the temperature occurs . This atmospheric feature is not only associated with Earth : it occurs on any other planet or moon that has an atmosphere as well . On Earth , the stratopause is 50 to high above the Earth 's surface . The atmospheric pressure is around 1/1000 of the pressure at sea level . The temperature in the stratopause is -15 degrees Celsius ( 5 degrees Fahrenheit ) .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Stratopause", "rank": 23, "score": 92249 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Runaway_climate_change", "rank": 24, "score": 91280 }, { "content": "Title: Precipitation Content: In meteorology , precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity . The main forms of precipitation include drizzle , rain , sleet , snow , graupel and hail . Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor , so that the water condenses and `` precipitates '' . Thus , fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions , because the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate . Two processes , possibly acting together , can lead to air becoming saturated : cooling the air or adding water vapor to the air . Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud . Short , intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called `` showers . '' Moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain . This process is typically active when freezing rain is occurring . A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain and serves as the foci for forcing and rising air . Provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content , the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds , namely stratus and cumulonimbus . Eventually , the cloud droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops and descend toward the Earth where they will freeze on contact with exposed objects . Where relatively warm water bodies are present , for example due to water evaporation from lakes , lake-effect snowfall becomes a concern downwind of the warm lakes within the cold cyclonic flow around the backside of extratropical cyclones . Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy . Thundersnow is possible within a cyclone 's comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands . In mountainous areas , heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation . On the leeward side of mountains , desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating . The movement of the monsoon trough , or intertropical convergence zone , brings rainy seasons to savannah climes . Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle , and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet . Approximately 505000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year ; 398000 km3 of it over the oceans and 107000 km3 over land . Given the Earth 's surface area , that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 mm , but over land it is only 715 mm . Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes . Precipitation may occur on other celestial bodies , e.g. when it gets cold , Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost , rather than rain or snow .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Precipitation", "rank": 25, "score": 89695 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "NOAA-6", "rank": 26, "score": 89497 }, { "content": "Title: Regime shift Content: In ecology , regime shifts are large , abrupt , persistent changes in the structure and function of a system . A regime is a characteristic behaviour of a system which is maintained by mutually reinforced processes or feedbacks . Regimes are considered persistent relative to the time period over which the shift occurs . The change of regimes , or the shift , usually occurs when a smooth change in an internal process ( feedback ) or a single disturbance ( external shocks ) triggers a completely different system behavior . Although such non-linear changes have been widely studied in different disciplines ranging from atoms to climate dynamics , regime shifts have gained importance in ecology because they can substantially affect the flow of ecosystem services that societies rely upon , such as provision of food , clean water or climate regulation . Moreover , regime shift occurrence is expected to increase as human influence on the planet increases -- the Anthropocene -- including current trends on human induced climate change and biodiversity loss .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Regime_shift", "rank": 27, "score": 89474 }, { "content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Abrupt_climate_change", "rank": 28, "score": 89289 }, { "content": "Title: Stratospheric sulfur aerosols Content: Stratospheric sulfur aerosols are sulfur-rich particles which exist in the stratosphere region of the Earth 's atmosphere . The layer of the atmosphere in which they exist is known as the Junge layer , or simply the stratospheric aerosol layer . These particles consist of a mixture of sulfuric acid and water . They are created naturally , such as by photochemical decomposition of sulfur-containing gases , e.g. carbonyl sulfide . When present in high levels , e.g. after a strong volcanic eruption such as Mount Pinatubo , they produce a cooling effect , by reflecting sunlight , and by modifying clouds as they fall out of the stratosphere . This cooling may persist for a few years before the particles fall out . An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas . The sulfate particles or sulfuric acid droplets in the atmosphere are about 0.1 to 1.0 micrometer ( a millionth of a meter ) in diameter . Sulfur aerosols are common in the troposphere as a result of pollution with sulfur dioxide from burning coal , and from natural processes . Volcanos are a major source of particles in the stratosphere as the force of the volcanic eruption propels sulfur-containing gases into the stratosphere . The relative influence of volcanoes on the Junge layer varies considerably according to the number and size of eruptions in any given time period , and also of quantities of sulfur compounds released . Only stratovolcanoes containing primarily granitic rocks are responsible for these fluxes , as basaltic rock erupted in shield volcanoes does n't result in plumes which reach the stratosphere . Creating stratospheric sulfur aerosols deliberately is a proposed geoengineering technique which offers a possible solution to some of the problems caused by global warming . However , this will not be without side effects and it has been suggested that the cure may be worse than the disease .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Stratospheric_sulfur_aerosols", "rank": 29, "score": 89091 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 30, "score": 88977 }, { "content": "Title: Upper-atmospheric models Content: Upper-atmospheric models are simulations of the Earth 's atmosphere between 20 and 100 km ( 65,000 and 328,000 feet ) that comprises the stratosphere , mesosphere , and the lower thermosphere . Whereas most climate models simulate a region of the Earth 's atmosphere from the surface to the stratopause , there also exist numerical models which simulate the wind , temperature and composition of the Earth 's tenuous upper atmosphere , from the mesosphere to the exosphere , including the ionosphere . This region is affected strongly by the 11 year Solar cycle through variations in solar UV/EUV/Xray radiation and solar wind leading to high latitude particle precipitation and aurora . It has been proposed that these phenomena may have an effect on the lower atmosphere , and should therefore be included in simulations of climate change . For this reason there has been a drive in recent years to create whole atmosphere models to investigate whether or not this is the case .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Upper-atmospheric_models", "rank": 31, "score": 88289 }, { "content": "Title: Polar stratospheric cloud Content: Polar stratospheric clouds or PSCs , also known as nacreous clouds ( -LSB- ˈneɪkriː.əs -RSB- , from nacre , or mother of pearl , due to its iridescence ) , are clouds in the winter polar stratosphere at altitudes of 15000 - . They are best observed during civil twilight when the sun is between 1 and 6 degrees below the horizon as well as in winter and in more northerly latitudes . They are implicated in the formation of ozone holes . The effects on ozone depletion arise because they support chemical reactions that produce active chlorine which catalyzes ozone destruction , and also because they remove gaseous nitric acid , perturbing nitrogen and chlorine cycles in a way which increases ozone destruction .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Polar_stratospheric_cloud", "rank": 32, "score": 87333 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic oscillation Content: The Antarctic oscillation ( AAO , to distinguish it from the Arctic oscillation or AO ) is a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the southern hemisphere . It is also known as the Southern Annular Mode ( SAM ) . It is defined as a belt of westerly winds or low pressure surrounding Antarctica which moves north or south as its mode of variability . In its positive phase , the westerly wind belt contracts towards Antarctica , while its negative phase involves this belt moving towards the Equator . In 2014 , Dr Nerilie Abram used a network of temperature-sensitive ice core and tree growth records to reconstruct a 1000-year history of the Southern Annular Mode . This work suggests that the Southern Annular Mode is currently in its most extreme positive phase over at least the last 1000 years , and that recent positive trends in the SAM are attributed to increasing greenhouse gas levels and later stratospheric ozone depletion .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Antarctic_oscillation", "rank": 33, "score": 85801 }, { "content": "Title: Stratification (water) Content: Water stratification occurs when water masses with different properties - salinity ( halocline ) , oxygenation ( chemocline ) , density ( pycnocline ) , temperature ( thermocline ) - form layers that act as barriers to water mixing which could lead to anoxia or euxinia . These layers are normally arranged according to density , with the least dense water masses sitting above the more dense layers . Water stratification also creates barriers to nutrient mixing between layers . This can affect the primary production in an area by limiting photosynthetic processes . When nutrients from the benthos can not travel up into the photic zone , phytoplankton may be limited by nutrient availability . Lower primary production also leads to lower net productivity in waters .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Stratification_(water)", "rank": 34, "score": 85730 }, { "content": "Title: CLAW hypothesis Content: The CLAW hypothesis proposes a negative feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth 's climate . The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing , and that these responses act to stabilise the temperature of the Earth 's atmosphere . The CLAW hypothesis was originally proposed by Robert Jay Charlson , James Lovelock , Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren , and takes its acronym from the first letter of their surnames .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "CLAW_hypothesis", "rank": 35, "score": 85351 }, { "content": "Title: Internal wave Content: Internal waves are gravity waves that oscillate within a fluid medium , rather than on its surface . To exist , the fluid must be stratified : the density must decrease continuously or discontinuously with depth/height due to changes , for example , in temperature and/or salinity . If the density changes over a small vertical distance ( as in the case of the thermocline in lakes and oceans or an atmospheric inversion ) , the waves propagate horizontally like surface waves , but do so at slower speeds as determined by the density difference of the fluid below and above the interface . If the density changes continuously , the waves can propagate vertically as well as horizontally through the fluid . Internal waves , also called internal gravity waves , go by many other names depending upon the fluid stratification , generation mechanism , amplitude , and influence of external forces . If propagating horizontally along an interface where the density rapidly decreases with height , they are specifically called interfacial ( internal ) waves . If the interfacial waves are large amplitude they are called internal solitary waves or internal solitons . If moving vertically through the atmosphere where substantial changes in air density influences their dynamics , they are called anelastic ( internal ) waves . If generated by flow over topography , they are called Lee waves or mountain waves . If the mountain waves break aloft , they can result in strong warm winds at the ground known as Chinook winds ( in North America ) or Foehn winds ( in Europe ) . If generated in the ocean by tidal flow over submarine ridges or the continental shelf , they are called internal tides . If they evolve slowly compared to the Earth 's rotational frequency so that their dynamics are influenced by the Coriolis effect , they are called inertia gravity waves or , simply , inertial waves . Internal waves are usually distinguished from Rossby waves , which are influenced by the change of Coriolis frequency with latitude .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Internal_wave", "rank": 36, "score": 85318 }, { "content": "Title: Lake stratification Content: Lake stratification is the separation of lakes into three layers : Epilimnion : the top of the lake . -LSB- thermocline ) : the middle layer , which may change depth throughout the day . Hypolimnion : the bottom layer . The thermal stratification of lakes refers to a change in the temperature at different depths in the lake , and is due to the change in water 's density with temperature . Cold water is denser than warm water and the epilimnion generally consists of water that is not as dense as the water in the hypolimnion . However , the temperature of maximum density for freshwater is 4 ° C . In temperate regions where lake water warms up and cools through the seasons , a cyclical pattern of overturn occurs that is repeated from year to year as the cold dense water at the top of the lake sinks . For example , in dimictic lakes the lake water turns over during the spring and the fall . This process occurs more slowly in deeper water and as a result , a thermal bar may form . If the stratification of water lasts for extended periods , the lake is meromictic . Conversely , for most of the time , the relatively shallower meres are unstratified ; that is , the mere is considered all epilimnion . The accumulation of dissolved carbon dioxide in three meromictic lakes in Africa ( Lake Nyos and Lake Monoun in Cameroon and Lake Kivu in Rwanda ) is potentially dangerous because if one of these lakes is triggered into limnic eruption , a very large quantity of carbon dioxide can quickly leave the lake and displace the oxygen needed for life by people and animals in the surrounding area . Natural resource and environmental managers are often challenged by problems caused by lake and pond thermal stratification . Fish die-offs have been directly associated with thermal gradients , stagnation , and ice cover . Excessive growth of plankton may limit the recreational use of lakes and the commercial use of lake water . With severe thermal stratification in a lake , the quality of drinking water also can be adversely affected . For fisheries managers , the spatial distribution of fish within a lake is often adversely affected by thermal stratification and in some cases may indirectly cause large die-offs of recreationally important fish . One commonly used tool to reduce the severity of these lake management problems is to eliminate or lessen thermal stratification through aeration . Many types of aeration equipment have been used to thermally destratify lakes . Aeration has met with some success , although it has rarely proved to be a panacea .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Lake_stratification", "rank": 37, "score": 84722 }, { "content": "Title: Vapor lock Content: Vapor lock is a problem that mostly affects gasoline-fueled internal combustion engines . It occurs when the liquid fuel changes state from liquid to gas while still in the fuel delivery system . This disrupts the operation of the fuel pump , causing loss of feed pressure to the carburetor or fuel injection system , resulting in transient loss of power or complete stalling . Restarting the engine from this state may be difficult . The fuel can vaporize due to being heated by the engine , by the local climate or due to a lower boiling point at high altitude . In regions where higher volatility fuels are used during the winter to improve the starting of the engine , the use of `` winter '' fuels during the summer can cause vapor lock to occur more readily .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Vapor_lock", "rank": 38, "score": 83535 }, { "content": "Title: Twilight phenomena Content: Twilight phenomenon is produced when unburned particles of missile or rocket propellant and water left in the vapor trail of a launch vehicle condenses , freezes and then expands in the less dense upper atmosphere . The exhaust plume , which is suspended against a dark sky is then illuminated by reflective high altitude sunlight through dispersion , which produces a spectacular , colorful effect when seen at ground level . The phenomenon typically occurs with launches that take place either 30 to 60 minutes before sunrise or after sunset when a booster rocket or missile rises out of the darkness and into a sunlit area , relative to an observer 's perspective on the ground . Because rocket trails extend high into the stratosphere and mesosphere , they catch high altitude sunlight long after the sun has set on the ground . The small particles in the expanding exhaust plume or `` cloud '' diffract sunlight and produce the rose , blue , green and orange colors -- much like a dispersive prism can be used to break light up into its constituent spectral colors ( the colors of the rainbow ) -- thereby making the twilight phenomenon all the more spectacular . The exhaust plume may also take on a corkscrew appearance as it is whipped around by upper level wind currents . It is typically seen within two to three minutes after a launch has occurred . Depending on weather conditions , it could remain in the sky for up to half an hour before dispersing . Pre-dawn launches are probably less spectacular than their dusk counterparts . During dusk launches , the sunlight shines through the exhaust plume . Pre-dawn launches , on the other hand , produce a more subtle display because the sunlight directly reflects off the plume . At Vandenberg AFB in California , more than 1,800 missiles and space boosters have been launched from the central California coastline in northern Santa Barbara County since December 1958 . However , only a small percentage of these launches have created the twilight phenomenon . The same is true with the U.S. Navy 's Strategic Systems Programs , which conducts Trident II ( D5 ) missile test flights at sea from Ohio Class SSBN submarines in the Pacific Test Range off the coast of Southern California , or Kokola Point at Barking Sands on the Hawaiian island of Kauai . Some observers have wrongly assumed the missile or rocket creating the aerial spectacle must have malfunctioned or been destroyed while in flight . That belief stems from the appearance of the launch vehicle 's contrail as it becomes twisted into knots by upper altitude air currents or wind shear . To date , no malfunctioning missile or rocket has been known to create the phenomenon . On the rare occasions when a missile or rocket does malfunction , it is destroyed by a Range Safety Officer before reaching the altitudes where twilight phenomenon occur . The phenomenon 's appearance and intensity varies with viewer location and weather conditions -- typically , clear skies with no moonlight , since cloud cover would block one 's view . The phenomenon can usually be seen throughout the state of California , and as far away as Arizona , Nevada and Utah . On the East Coast , similar sightings have been observed and reported during twilight launches of the space shuttle from NASA 's Kennedy Space Center and other expendable launch vehicles from the U.S. Air Force 's launch complexes at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida . Numerous nations with a space program -- such as the European Space Agency , the Russian Space Agency , the China National Space Agency , Japan 's JAXA , India 's IRSO and other countries have experienced the same event .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Twilight_phenomena", "rank": 39, "score": 83027 }, { "content": "Title: Vapor cone Content: A vapor cone , also known as shock collar or shock egg , is a visible cloud of condensed water which can sometimes form around an object moving at high speed through moist air , for example an aircraft flying at transonic speeds . When the localized air pressure around the object drops , so does the air temperature . If the temperature drops below the saturation temperature a cloud forms . In the case of aircraft , the cloud is caused by expansion fans decreasing the air pressure , density and temperature below the dew point . Then pressure , density and temperature suddenly increase across the stern shock wave associated with a return to subsonic flow behind the aircraft . Since the local Mach number is not uniform over the aircraft , parts of the aircraft may be supersonic while others remain subsonic -- a flight regime called transonic flight . In addition to making the shock waves themselves visible , water condensation can also occur in the trough between two crests of the shock waves produced by the passing of the object . However , this effect does not necessarily coincide with the acceleration of an aircraft through the speed of sound or Mach 1 .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Vapor_cone", "rank": 40, "score": 82384 }, { "content": "Title: Internal tide Content: Internal tides are generated as the surface tides move stratified water up and down sloping topography , which produces a wave in the ocean interior . So internal tides are internal waves at a tidal frequency . The other major source of internal waves is the wind which produces internal waves near the inertial frequency . When a small water parcel is displaced from its equilibrium position , it will return either downwards due to gravity or upwards due to buoyancy . The water parcel will overshoot its original equilibrium position and this disturbance will set off an internal gravity wave . Munk ( 1981 ) notes , `` Gravity waves in the ocean 's interior are as common as waves at the sea surface-perhaps even more so , for no one has ever reported an interior calm . ''", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Internal_tide", "rank": 41, "score": 82227 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Mercury Content: Mercury has a very tenuous and highly variable atmosphere ( surface-bound exosphere ) containing hydrogen , helium , oxygen , sodium , calcium , potassium and water vapor , with a combined pressure level of about 10 − 14 bar ( 1 nPa ) . The exospheric species originate either from the Solar wind or from the planetary crust . Solar light pushes the atmospheric gases away from the Sun , creating a comet-like tail behind the planet . The existence of a Mercurian atmosphere had been contentious before 1974 , although by that time a consensus had formed that Mercury , like the Moon , lacked any substantial atmosphere . This conclusion was confirmed in 1974 when the unmanned Mariner 10 spaceprobe discovered only a tenuous exosphere . Later , in 2008 , improved measurements were obtained by the MESSENGER spacecraft , which discovered magnesium in the Mercurian exosphere .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Mercury", "rank": 42, "score": 81905 }, { "content": "Title: Mesosphere Content: The mesosphere ( -LSB- ˈmɛsoʊsfɪər -RSB- from Greek mesos `` middle '' and sphaira `` sphere '' ) is the layer of the Earth 's atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the mesopause . In the mesosphere , temperature decreases as the altitude increases . The upper boundary of the mesosphere is the mesopause , which can be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth with temperatures below -143 C . The exact upper and lower boundaries of the mesosphere vary with latitude and with season , but the lower boundary of the mesosphere is usually located at heights of about 50 km above the Earth 's surface and the mesopause is usually at heights near 100 km , except at middle and high latitudes in summer where it descends to heights of about 85 km . The stratosphere , mesosphere and lowest part of the thermosphere are collectively referred to as the `` middle atmosphere '' , which spans heights from approximately 10 km to 100 km . The mesopause , at an altitude of 80 - , separates the mesosphere from the thermosphere -- the second-outermost layer of the Earth 's atmosphere . This is also around the same altitude as the turbopause , below which different chemical species are well mixed due to turbulent eddies . Above this level the atmosphere becomes non-uniform ; the scale heights of different chemical species differ by their molecular masses .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Mesosphere", "rank": 43, "score": 81862 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 44, "score": 81818 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 45, "score": 81795 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Mesosphere Explorer Content: The Solar Mesosphere Explorer ( also known as Explorer 64 ) was a United States unmanned spacecraft to investigate the processes that create and destroy ozone in Earth 's upper atmosphere . The mesosphere is a layer of the atmosphere extending from the top of the stratosphere to an altitude of about 80 km . The spacecraft carried five instruments to measure ozone , water vapor and incoming solar radiation . Launched on October 6 , 1981 , on a Delta rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base , in California , the satellite returned data until April 4 , 1989 . The spacecraft reentered Earth 's atmosphere on March 5 , 1991 . Managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , the Solar Mesosphere Explorer was built by Ball Space Systems and operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics of the University of Colorado where one hundred undergraduate and graduate students were involved . Mass : 437 kilograms ( 963 pounds ) Power : Solar panels which charged NiCad batteries Configuration : Cylinder 1.25 meter ( 4.1 ft ) diameter by 1.7 meter ( 5.6 ft ) high Science instruments : Ultraviolet ozone spectrometer , 1.27 micrometre spectrometer , nitrogen dioxide spectrometer , four-channel infrared radiometer , solar ultraviolet monitor , solar proton alarm detector", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Solar_Mesosphere_Explorer", "rank": 46, "score": 81529 }, { "content": "Title: Atlantic Equatorial mode Content: The Atlantic Equatorial Mode or Atlantic Niño is a quasiperiodic interannual climate pattern of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean . It is the dominant mode of year-to-year variability that results in alternating warming and cooling episodes of sea surface temperatures accompanied by changes in atmospheric circulation . The term Atlantic Niño comes from its close similarity with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) that dominates the tropical Pacific basin . The Atlantic Niño is not the same as the Atlantic Meridional ( Interhemispheric ) Mode that consists of a north-south dipole and operates more on decadal timescales . The equatorial warming and cooling events associated with the Atlantic Niño are known to be strongly related to atmospheric climate anomalies , especially in African countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea . Therefore , understanding of the Atlantic Niño ( or lack thereof ) has important implications for climate prediction in those regions . Although the Atlantic Niño is an intrinsic mode to the equatorial Atlantic , there may be a tenuous causal relationship between ENSO and the Atlantic Niño in some circumstances .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Atlantic_Equatorial_mode", "rank": 47, "score": 81508 }, { "content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Climate_sensitivity", "rank": 48, "score": 80681 }, { "content": "Title: Electrothermal feedback Content: In electronics , electrothermal feedback is the interaction of the electric current and the temperature in a device with a temperature-dependent electrical resistance . This interaction arises from Joule heating . The temperature-dependence of the electrical resistance is described by the derivative of the resistance with respect to temperature dR/dT . Semiconductors typically exhibit a negative dR/dT . Superconductors exhibit a large positive dR/dT on the superconducting phase transition . Normal ( non-superconducting ) metals typically exhibit a positive dR/dT that decreases to zero at very low temperatures . If a device has a positive dR/dT , an increase in temperature ( for example , due to thermal fluctuations or the absorption of a photon ) will increase the electrical resistance R . If the device is biased with a constant voltage V , this increase in resistance will decrease the Joule power P = V2/R . The decrease in Joule heating will cause the device to return to its equilibrium temperature . This is known as negative electrothermal feedback , as the change in Joule heating opposes the change in temperature . If the device is instead biased with a constant current I , the Joule power P = I2R will increase if the temperature increases . Thus the Joule heating amplifies a change in temperature , an effect known as positive electrothermal feedback . The situation is reversed for the case of a negative dR/dT . Electrothermal feedback is important for describing the performance of several types of photodetectors such as the bolometer , the transition edge sensor , and the superconducting nanowire single-photon detector .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Electrothermal_feedback", "rank": 49, "score": 80552 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud physics Content: Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation , growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds . These aerosols are found in the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere , which collectively make up the greatest part of the homosphere . Clouds consist of microscopic droplets of liquid water ( warm clouds ) , tiny crystals of ice ( cold clouds ) , or both ( mixed phase clouds ) . Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water vapor onto condensation nuclei when the supersaturation of air exceeds a critical value according to Köhler theory . Cloud condensation nuclei are necessary for cloud droplets formation because of the Kelvin effect , which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface . At small radii , the amount of supersaturation needed for condensation to occur is so large , that it does not happen naturally . Raoult 's Law describes how the vapor pressure is dependent on the amount of solute in a solution . At high concentrations , when the cloud droplets are small , the supersaturation required is smaller than without the presence of a nucleus . In warm clouds , larger cloud droplets fall at a higher terminal velocity ; because at a given velocity , the drag force per unit of droplet weight on smaller droplets is larger than on large droplets . The large droplets can then collide with small droplets and combine to form even larger drops . When the drops become large enough that their downward velocity ( relative to the surrounding air ) is greater than the upward velocity ( relative to the earth ) of the surrounding air , the drops can fall to the earth as precipitation . The collision and coalescence is not as important in mixed phase clouds where the Bergeron process dominates . Other important processes that form precipitation are riming , when a supercooled liquid drop collides with a solid snowflake , and aggregation , when two solid snowflakes collide and combine . The precise mechanics of how a cloud forms and grows is not completely understood , but scientists have developed theories explaining the structure of clouds by studying the microphysics of individual droplets . Advances in weather radar and satellite technology have also allowed the precise study of clouds on a large scale .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Cloud_physics", "rank": 50, "score": 79658 }, { "content": "Title: Solar phenomena Content: Solar phenomena are the natural phenomena occurring within the magnetically heated outer atmospheres in the Sun . These phenomena take many forms , including solar wind , radio wave flux , energy bursts such as solar flares , coronal mass ejection or solar eruptions , coronal heating and sunspots . These phenomena are generated by a helical dynamo near the center of the Sun 's mass that generates strong magnetic fields and a chaotic dynamo near the surface that generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations . The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation . The collective effect of all solar variations within the Sun 's gravitational field is referred to as space weather . A major weather component is the solar wind , a stream of plasma released from the Sun 's upper atmosphere . It is responsible for the aurora , natural light displays in the sky in the Arctic and Antarctic . Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth , disrupting communications , as well as geomagnetic storms in Earth 's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere . Variations in solar intensity also affect Earth 's climate . These variations can explain events such as ice ages and the Great Oxygenation Event , while the Sun 's future expansion into a red giant will likely end life on Earth . Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the 8th century BCE . Babylonians inscribed and possibly predicted solar eclipses , while the earliest extant report of sunspots dates back to the Chinese Book of Changes , . The first extant description of the solar corona was in 968 , while the earliest sunspot drawing was in 1128 and a solar prominence was described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod . The invention of the telescope allowed major advances in understanding , allowing the first detailed observations in the 1600s . Solar spectroscopy began in the 1800s , from which properties of the solar atmosphere could be determined , while the creation of daguerreotypy led to the first solar photographs on 2 April 1845 . Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences , granulation and spectroscopy . Early in the 20th century , interest in astrophysics surged in America . A number of new observatories were built with solar telescopes around the world . The 1931 invention of the coronagraph allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Solar_phenomena", "rank": 51, "score": 79631 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 52, "score": 79203 }, { "content": "Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system", "rank": 53, "score": 79156 }, { "content": "Title: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Content: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Venkatachalam_Ramaswamy", "rank": 54, "score": 78484 }, { "content": "Title: Intermediate General Circulation Model Content: The Reading Intermediate General Circulation Model ( IGCM ) , is a simplified or `` intermediate '' Global climate model , which is developed by members of the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading , and by members of the Stratospheric Dynamics and Chemistry Group of the Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences at McGill University . The IGCM is based on the primitive-equations baroclinic model of Hoskins and Simmons , which has been converted to run on workstations . Several variations have been developed by adjusting representations of the physics . IGCM1 : Portable version of the original spectral , dry baroclinic model formulated in sigma-levels , with an option for Newtonian relaxation and Rayleigh friction , with no surface . IGCM2 : Includes simplified moist parameterisations , a cheap `` radiation scheme '' ( i.e. constant tropospheric cooling ) , a bulk formulation scheme for the boundary layer , fixed surface temperatures and humidity , uniform vertical diffusion , and can advect tracers . IGCM3x : Intermediate climate model that includes more sophisticated moisture/clouds parameterisations , a radiation scheme with various gas absorbers and a more realistic surface with an orography and land and sea surface schemes . The adiabatic version , IGCM1 , is freely available . Access to IGCM2 and IGCM3 is restricted to members of the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading and collaborating researchers .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Intermediate_General_Circulation_Model", "rank": 55, "score": 77814 }, { "content": "Title: Mist Content: Mist is a phenomenon caused by small droplets of water suspended in air . Physically , it is an example of a dispersion . It is most commonly seen where warm , moist air meets sudden cooling , such as in exhaled air in the winter , or when throwing water onto the hot stove of a sauna . It can be created artificially with aerosol canisters if the humidity and temperature conditions are right . It can also occur as part of natural weather , when humid air cools rapidly , for example when the air comes into contact with surfaces that are much cooler than the air . The formation of mist , as of other suspensions , is greatly aided by the presence of nucleation sites on which the suspended water phase can congeal . Thus even such unusual sources as small particulates from volcanic eruptions , releases of strongly polar gases , and even the magnetospheric ions associated with polar lights can in right conditions trigger the formation of mist .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Mist", "rank": 56, "score": 77694 }, { "content": "Title: Moisture advection Content: Moisture advection is the horizontal transport of water vapor by the wind . Measurement and knowledge of atmospheric water vapor , or `` moisture '' , is crucial in the prediction of all weather elements , especially clouds , fog , temperature , humidity thermal comfort indices and precipitation .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Moisture_advection", "rank": 57, "score": 77651 }, { "content": "Title: Troposphere Content: The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth 's atmosphere , and is also where nearly all weather takes place . It contains approximately 75 % of the atmosphere 's mass and 99 % of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols . The average depths of the troposphere are 20 km in the tropics , 17 km in the mid latitudes , and 7 km in the polar regions in winter . The lowest part of the troposphere , where friction with the Earth 's surface influences air flow , is the planetary boundary layer . This layer is typically a few hundred meters to 2 km deep depending on the landform and time of day . Atop the troposphere is the tropopause , which is the border between the troposphere and stratosphere . The tropopause is an inversion layer , where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness . The word troposphere derives from the for `` turn , turn toward , trope '' and '' - sphere '' ( as in , the Earth ) , reflecting the fact that rotational turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere 's structure and behaviour . Most of the phenomena associated with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Troposphere", "rank": 58, "score": 77508 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 59, "score": 76911 }, { "content": "Title: Water vapor Content: Water vapor , water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water . It is one state of water within the hydrosphere . Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice . Unlike other forms of water , water vapor is invisible . Under typical atmospheric conditions , water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation . It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds . Being a component of Earth 's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle , it is particularly abundant in Earth 's atmosphere where it is also a potent greenhouse gas along with other gases such as carbon dioxide and methane . Use of water vapor , as steam , has been important to humans for cooking and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution . Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent , present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet in the Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural satellites , comets and even large asteroids . Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems . Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Water_vapor", "rank": 60, "score": 76584 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 61, "score": 76506 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Content: Climate is the statistics of weather , usually over a 30-year interval . It is measured by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature , humidity , atmospheric pressure , wind , precipitation , atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time . Climate differs from weather , in that weather only describes the short-term conditions of these variables in a given region . A region 's climate is generated by the climate system , which has five components : atmosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , lithosphere , and biosphere . The climate of a location is affected by its latitude , terrain , and altitude , as well as nearby water bodies and their currents . Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables , most commonly temperature and precipitation . The most commonly used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification . The Thornthwaite system , in use since 1948 , incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it . The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region . Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates . Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century , paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores , and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral . Climate models are mathematical models of past , present and future climates . Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors ; recent warming is discussed in global warming . Global warming results in redistributions . For example , `` a 3 ° C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 -- 400 km in latitude ( in the temperate zone ) or 500 m in elevation . Therefore , species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones '' .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Climate", "rank": 62, "score": 76449 }, { "content": "Title: Solar radiation management Content: Solar radiation management ( SRM ) projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming . Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active , their potential low financial cost , and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects . Solar radiation management projects could , for example , be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by mitigation and greenhouse gas removal techniques . They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere , and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Solar_radiation_management", "rank": 63, "score": 76075 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud Content: In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Cloud", "rank": 64, "score": 76009 }, { "content": "Title: Deposition (phase transition) Content: Deposition is a thermodynamic process , a phase transition in which gas transforms into solid without passing through the liquid phase . The reverse of deposition is sublimation and hence sometimes deposition is called desublimation . One example of deposition is the process by which , in sub-freezing air , water vapor changes directly to ice without first becoming a liquid . This is how snow forms in clouds , as well as how frost and hoar frost form on the ground or other surfaces . Another example is when frost forms on a leaf . For deposition to occur , thermal energy must be removed from a gas . When the leaf becomes cold enough , water vapor in the air surrounding the leaf loses enough thermal energy to change into a solid . Even though the air temperature may be below the dew point , the water vapor may not be able to condense spontaneously if there is no way to remove the latent heat . When the leaf is introduced , the supercooled water vapor immediately begins to condense , but by this point is already past the freezing point . This causes the water vapor to change directly into a solid . Another example is the soot that is deposited on the walls of chimneys . Soot molecules rise from the fire in a hot and gaseous state . When they come into contact with the walls they cool , and change to the solid state , without formation of the liquid state . The process is made use of industrially in combustion chemical vapor deposition . There is an industrial coatings process , known as evaporative deposition , whereby a solid material is heated to the gaseous state in a low-pressure chamber , the gas molecules travel across the chamber space and then condense to the solid state on a target surface , forming a smooth and thin layer on the target surface . Again , the molecules do not go through an intermediate liquid state when going from the gas to the solid . See also physical vapor deposition , which is a class of processes used to deposit thin films of various materials onto various surfaces . Deposition releases energy and is an exothermic phase change .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Deposition_(phase_transition)", "rank": 65, "score": 75948 }, { "content": "Title: Convective available potential energy Content: In meteorology , convective available potential energy ( CAPE ) , sometimes , simply , available potential energy ( APE ) , is the amount of energy a parcel of air would have if lifted a certain distance vertically through the atmosphere . CAPE is effectively the positive buoyancy of an air parcel and is an indicator of atmospheric instability , which makes it very valuable in predicting severe weather . It is a form of fluid instability found in thermally stratified atmospheres in which a colder fluid overlies a warmer one . As explained below , when an air mass is unstable , the element of the air mass that is displaced upwards is accelerated by the pressure differential between the displaced air and the ambient air at the ( higher ) altitude to which it was displaced . This usually creates vertically developed clouds from convection , due to the rising motion , which can eventually lead to thunderstorms . It could also be created by other phenomena , such as a cold front . Even if the air is cooler on the surface , there is still warmer air in the mid-levels , that can rise into the upper-levels . However , if there is not enough water vapor present , there is no ability for condensation , thus storms , clouds , and rain will not form .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Convective_available_potential_energy", "rank": 66, "score": 75801 }, { "content": "Title: Climarice Content: Climarice is a research project , carried out by The Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research ( Bioforsk , Norway ) , Tamil Nadu Agricultural University ( TNAU , India ) , International Water Management Institute ( IWMI , India ) and International Pacific Research Center ( IPRC , United States ) ; which is trying to assess the impact of climate variability on water availability and rice production in the Cauvery river basin of Tamil Nadu , India . In particular , the impacts of climate change on extreme events such as droughts , floods , heat waves and on the spatial and temporal distribution of the monsoon rains will certainly impact rice production and food security in India . However , there is a significant level of uncertainty in the climate models ' projections that cascade into impact models and thereby influence policy decisions related to adaptation . For both scientific community and policy makers , reducing the uncertainties is a big challenge . On a positive note , examination of historical observed rice production data in India shows an overall increasing trend in many regions with annual fluctuations . Will this trend continue given the projected change in climate and population increase in India ? Climarice is funded by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs , is currently assessing the impacts of climate change on rice production areas and rice productivity . Specifically , the project is assessing the behavior of the Indian monsoon in different climate scenarios , and examining its impact on the water availability , rice crop production and the resultant socio economic vulnerability and adaptation of farming communities in the Cauvery river basin , India . Since the project was started in January 2008 , relevant coping and adaptation mechanisms have been identified and techniques developed to address the issues of climate vulnerabilities in rice production .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Climarice", "rank": 67, "score": 75738 }, { "content": "Title: Ionospheric dynamo region Content: In the height region between about 85 and 200 km altitude on Earth , the ionospheric plasma is electrically conducting . Atmospheric tidal winds due to differential solar heating or due to gravitational lunar forcing move the ionospheric plasma against the geomagnetic field lines thus generating electric fields and currents just like a dynamo coil moving against magnetic field lines . That region is therefore called ionospheric dynamo region . The magnetic manifestation of these electric currents on the ground can be observed during magnetospheric quiet conditions . They are called Sq-variations ( S = solar ; q = quiet ) and L-variations ( L = lunar ) of the geomagnetic field . Additional electric currents are generated by the varying magnetospheric electric convection field . These are the DP1-currents ( the auroral electrojets ) and the polar DP2-currents . Finally , a polar-ring current has been derived from the observations which depends on the polarity of the interplanetary magnetic field . These geomagnetic variations belong to the so-called external part of the geomagnetic field . Their amplitudes reach at most about 1 % of the main internal geomagnetic field Bo .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Ionospheric_dynamo_region", "rank": 68, "score": 75699 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 69, "score": 75150 }, { "content": "Title: Negative feedback Content: Negative feedback occurs when some function of the output of a system , process , or mechanism is fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the output , whether caused by changes in the input or by other disturbances . Whereas positive feedback tends to lead to instability via exponential growth , oscillation or chaotic behavior , negative feedback generally promotes stability . Negative feedback tends to promote a settling to equilibrium , and reduces the effects of perturbations . Negative feedback loops in which just the right amount of correction is applied with optimum timing can be very stable , accurate , and responsive . Negative feedback is widely used in mechanical and electronic engineering , but it also occurs naturally within living organisms , and can be seen in many other fields from chemistry and economics to physical systems such as the climate . General negative feedback systems are studied in control systems engineering .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Negative_feedback", "rank": 70, "score": 75055 }, { "content": "Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation", "rank": 71, "score": 74897 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Uranus Content: The climate of Uranus is heavily influenced by both its lack of internal heat , which limits atmospheric activity , and by its extreme axial tilt , which induces intense seasonal variation . Uranus 's atmosphere is remarkably bland in comparison to the other gas giants which it otherwise closely resembles . When Voyager 2 flew by Uranus in 1986 , it observed a total of ten cloud features across the entire planet . Later observations from the ground or by the Hubble Space Telescope made in the 1990s and the 2000s revealed bright clouds in the northern ( winter ) hemisphere . In 2006 a dark spot similar to the Great Dark Spot on Neptune was detected .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Climate_of_Uranus", "rank": 72, "score": 74849 }, { "content": "Title: The Revenge of Gaia Content: The Revenge of Gaia : Why the Earth is Fighting Back -- and How we Can Still Save Humanity ( 2006 ) is a book by James Lovelock . Some editions of the book have a different , less optimistic subtitle : `` Earth 's Climate Crisis and the Fate of Humanity . '' The book introduces the concept of the anti-CLAW hypothesis . Lovelock proposed that instead of providing negative feedback in the climate system , the components of the CLAW hypothesis may act to create a positive feedback loop . Under future global warming , increasing temperature may stratify the world ocean , decreasing the supply of nutrients from the deep ocean to its productive euphotic zone . Consequently , phytoplankton activity will decline with a concomitant fall in the production of DMS . In a reverse of the CLAW hypothesis , this decline in DMS production will lead to a decrease in cloud condensation nuclei and a fall in cloud albedo . The consequence of this will be further climate warming which may lead to even less DMS production ( and further climate warming ) . The figure to the right shows a summarising schematic diagram . Evidence for the anti-CLAW hypothesis is constrained by similar uncertainties as those of the sulfur cycle feedback loop of the CLAW hypothesis . However , researchers simulating future oceanic primary production have found evidence of declining production with increasing ocean stratification , leaving open the possibility that such a mechanism may exist .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "The_Revenge_of_Gaia", "rank": 73, "score": 74846 }, { "content": "Title: Condensation cloud Content: A transient condensation cloud , also called Wilson cloud , is observable at large explosions in humid air . When a nuclear weapon or a large amount of a conventional explosive is detonated in sufficiently humid air , the `` negative phase '' of the shock wave causes a rarefaction ( reduction in density ) of the air surrounding the explosion , but not contained within it . This rarefaction results in a temporary cooling of that air , which causes a condensation of some of the water vapor contained in it . When the pressure and the temperature return to normal , the Wilson cloud dissipates . Since heat does not leave the affected air mass , this change of pressure is adiabatic , with an associated change of temperature . In humid air , the drop in temperature in the most rarefied portion of the shock wave can bring the air temperature below its dew point , at which moisture condenses to form a visible cloud of microscopic water droplets . Since the pressure effect of the wave is reduced by its expansion ( the same pressure effect is spread over a larger radius ) , the vapor effect also has a limited radius . Such vapor can also be seen in low pressure regions during high -- g subsonic maneuvers of aircraft in humid conditions . Scientists observing the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 at Bikini Atoll named that transitory cloud a `` Wilson cloud '' because of its similarity to the appearance of the inside of a Wilson cloud chamber , an instrument they would have been familiar with . ( The cloud chamber effect is caused by a temporary reduction in pressure in a closed system and marks the tracks of electrically-charged sub-atomic particles . ) Analysts of later nuclear bomb tests used the more general term condensation cloud . The shape of the shock wave , influenced by different speed in different altitudes , and the temperature and humidity of different atmospheric layers determines the appearance of the Wilson clouds . During nuclear tests , condensation rings around or above the fireball are commonly observed . Rings around the fireball may become stable and form rings around the rising stem of the mushroom cloud . The lifetime of the Wilson cloud during nuclear air bursts can be shortened by the thermal radiation from the fireball , which heats the cloud above the dew point and evaporates the droplets . The same kind of condensation cloud is sometimes seen above the wings of aircraft in a moist atmosphere . The top of a wing has a reduction of air pressure as part of the process of generating lift . This reduction in air pressure causes a cooling , just as above , and the condensation of water vapor . Hence , the small , transient clouds that appear . The vapor cone of a transonic aircraft is another example of a condensation cloud .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Condensation_cloud", "rank": 74, "score": 74843 }, { "content": "Title: C change Content: C change is a waterproof and windproof temperature adaptive material developed and produced by Schoeller Textiles . The material contains a membrane layer which is set to a predetermined temperature range . Once the climate inside the garment warms ( due to physical exertion or higher ambient temperatures ) , the polymer membrane structure opens up to allow water vapour to escape through the membrane . As the temperature falls , the membrane closes to its original structure , preserving body heat . This can be regarded as an example of biomimicry . The fabric won the 2006 Frost & Sullivan Award for Product Innovation of the Year .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "C_change", "rank": 75, "score": 74719 }, { "content": "Title: Robert D. Cess Content: Robert D. Cess is professor emeritus of atmospheric sciences at Stony Brook University . He earned his bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from Oregon State University and his master 's degree from Purdue University in Indiana in 1956 . Cess received a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in 1959 . He is a recognized leader in the fields of climate change and atmospheric radiation transfer . His research interest involve modeling of climate feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish global climate change , and interpreting surface and satellite remote sensing data . He has been a part of studies which have found problems with the ability of model the transmission of shortwave radiation through a cloud-free atmosphere , and designed an experiment to test the accuracy of the models . They reported that they found agreement between the models and the observations of clear-sky shortwave radiation at the surface for the period studied , 1985 to 1988 . Cess was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and worked with the National Science Foundation on understanding greenhouse warming and its associated policy implications .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Robert_D._Cess", "rank": 76, "score": 74667 }, { "content": "Title: Vapor Content: In physics a vapor ( American ) or vapour ( British ) is a substance in the gas phase at a temperature lower than its critical temperature , which means that the vapor can be condensed to a liquid by increasing the pressure on it without reducing the temperature . A vapor is different from an aerosol . An aerosol is a suspension of tiny particles of liquid , solid , or both within a gas . For example , water has a critical temperature of 647 K , which is the highest temperature at which liquid water can exist . In the atmosphere at ordinary temperatures , therefore , gaseous water ( known as water vapor ) will condense into a liquid if its partial pressure is increased sufficiently . A vapor may co-exist with a liquid ( or a solid ) . When this is true , the two phases will be in equilibrium , and the gas-partial pressure will be equal to the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid ( or solid ) .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Vapor", "rank": 77, "score": 74620 }, { "content": "Title: Cirrocumulus cloud Content: Cirrocumulus is one of the three main genus-types of high-altitude tropospheric clouds , the other two being cirrus and cirrostratus . They usually occur at an altitude of 5 km to 12 km . Like lower altitude cumuliform and stratocumuliform clouds , cirrocumulus signifies convection . Unlike other high cirrus and cirrostratus , cirrocumulus includes a small amount of liquid water droplets , although these are in a supercooled state . Ice crystals are the predominant component , and typically , the ice crystals cause the supercooled water drops in the cloud to rapidly freeze , transforming the cirrocumulus into cirrostratus . This process can also produce precipitation in the form of a virga consisting of ice or snow . Thus cirrocumulus clouds are usually short-lived . They usually only form as part of a short-lived transitional phase within an area of cirrus clouds and can also form briefly as a result of the breaking up of part of a cumulonimbus anvil . Properly , the term cirrocumulus refers to each cloud , but is typically also used to refer to an entire patch of cirrocumulus . When used in this way , each cirrocumulus element is referred to as a `` cloudlet '' .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Cirrocumulus_cloud", "rank": 78, "score": 74560 }, { "content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Iris_hypothesis", "rank": 79, "score": 74511 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud condensation nuclei Content: Cloud condensation nuclei or CCNs ( also known as cloud seeds ) are small particles typically 0.2 µm , or 1/100th the size of a cloud droplet on which water vapor condenses . Water requires a non-gaseous surface to make the transition from a vapour to a liquid ; this process is called condensation . In the atmosphere , this surface presents itself as tiny solid or liquid particles called CCNs . When no CCNs are present , water vapour can be supercooled at about -13 ° C ( 8 ° F ) for 5-6 hours before droplets spontaneously form ( this is the basis of the cloud chamber for detecting subatomic particles ) . In above freezing temperatures the air would have to be supersaturated to around 400 % before the droplets could form . The concept of cloud condensation nuclei is used in cloud seeding , that tries to encourage rainfall by seeding the air with condensation nuclei . It has further been suggested that creating such nuclei could be used for marine cloud brightening , a climate engineering technique .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Cloud_condensation_nuclei", "rank": 80, "score": 74445 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 81, "score": 74356 }, { "content": "Title: Polar mesospheric summer echoes Content: Polar mesospheric summer echoes ( PMSE ) is the phenomenon of anomalous radar echoes found between 80-90 km in altitude from May through early August in the Arctic , and from November through to February in the Antarctic . These strong radar echoes are associated with the extremely cold temperatures that occur above continental Antarctica during the summer . Rocket and radar measurements indicate that a partial reflection from a multitude of ion layers and constructive interference causes at least some of the PMSE . Generally PMSE exhibits dramatic variations in height and intensity as well as large variations in Doppler shift . PMSE exhibit strong signal power enhancements of scattering cross section at VHF radar frequencies in the range 50 MHz to 250 MHz , at times even to over 1 GHz , that occur in summer at high latitudes . The peak PMSE height is slightly below the summer mesopause temperature minimum at 88 km , and above the noctilucent cloud ( NLC ) and/or polar mesospheric cloud ( PMC ) layer at 83 -- 84 km . The usual instrument for observing PMSE is the a VHF Mesosphere-Stratosphere-Troposphere ( MST ) radar , although LIDARs and sounding rockets have also been used . PMSE is believed to be caused by structural irregularities in the ionospheric electron density at lower altitudes . The exact cause of PMSE is not yet known , although theorists have proposed steep electron density gradients , heavy positive ions , dressed aerosols , gravity waves and turbulence as possible explanations . PMSE occurs in both the Arctic and Antarctic regions , and is sometimes accompanied by noctilucent clouds .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Polar_mesospheric_summer_echoes", "rank": 82, "score": 74318 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)", "rank": 83, "score": 74216 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone depletion Content: Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s : a steady decline of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth 's stratosphere ( the ozone layer ) , and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth 's polar regions . The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole . In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena , there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events . The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning but the most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens . The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photodissociation of man-made halocarbon refrigerants , solvents , propellants , and foam-blowing agents ( chlorofluorocarbon ( CFCs ) , HCFCs , freons , halons ) . These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by winds after being emitted at the surface . Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons increased . CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances ( ODS ) . Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths ( 280 -- 315 nm ) of ultraviolet light ( UV light ) from passing through the Earth 's atmosphere , observed and projected decreases in ozone generated worldwide concern , leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs , halons , and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane . It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in sunburn , skin cancer , cataracts , damage to plants , and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean 's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Ozone_depletion", "rank": 84, "score": 74178 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan", "rank": 85, "score": 74119 }, { "content": "Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Solar_activity_and_climate", "rank": 86, "score": 73921 }, { "content": "Title: Altostratus cloud Content: Altostratus is a middle altitude cloud genus belonging to the stratiform physical category characterized by a generally uniform gray to bluish-green and sheet or layer . It is lighter in color than nimbostratus and darker than high cirrostratus . The sun can be seen through thin altostratus , but thicker layers can be quite opaque . Altostratus is formed by the lifting of a large mostly stable air mass that causes invisible water vapor to condense into cloud . It can produce light precipitation , often in the form of virga . If the precipitation increases in persistence and intensity , the altostratus cloud may thicken into nimbostratus . Altostratus most often takes the form of a featureless sheet of cloud but can be wavy ( undulatus ) as a result of wind shear through the cloud . It can also be fragmented ( fibratus ) with clear sky visible , which often signals the approach of a weakened or upper level warm front .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Altostratus_cloud", "rank": 87, "score": 73735 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical upper tropospheric trough Content: A tropical upper tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) , also known as the mid-oceanic trough , is a trough situated in upper-level ( at about 200 hPa ) tropics . Its formation is usually caused by the intrusion of energy and wind from the mid-latitudes into the tropics . It can also develop from the inverted trough adjacent to an upper level anticyclone . TUTTs are different from mid-latitude troughs in the sense that they are maintained by subsidence warming near the tropopause which balances radiational cooling . When strong , they can present a significant vertical wind shear to the tropics and subdue tropical cyclogenesis . When upper cold lows break off from their base , they tend to retrograde and force the development , or enhance , surface troughs and tropical waves to their east . Under special circumstances , they can induce thunderstorm activity and lead to the formation of tropical cyclones .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Tropical_upper_tropospheric_trough", "rank": 88, "score": 73562 }, { "content": "Title: Water cycle Content: The water cycle , also known as the hydrological cycle or the hydrologic cycle , describes the continuous movement of water on , above and below the surface of the Earth . The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice , fresh water , saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables . The water moves from one reservoir to another , such as from river to ocean , or from the ocean to the atmosphere , by the physical processes of evaporation , condensation , precipitation , infiltration , surface runoff , and subsurface flow . In doing so , the water goes through different forms : liquid , solid ( ice ) and vapor . The water cycle involves the exchange of energy , which leads to temperature changes . For instance , when water evaporates , it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment . When it condenses , it releases energy and warms the environment . These heat exchanges influence climate . The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater . The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe . It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth , through processes including erosion and sedimentation . The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Water_cycle", "rank": 89, "score": 73540 }, { "content": "Title: Lee wave Content: In meteorology , lee waves are atmospheric stationary waves . The most common form is mountain waves , which are atmospheric internal gravity waves . These were discovered in 1933 by two German glider pilots , Hans Deutschmann and Wolf Hirth , above the Krkonoše . They are periodic changes of atmospheric pressure , temperature and orthometric height in a current of air caused by vertical displacement , for example orographic lift when the wind blows over a mountain or mountain range . They can also be caused by the surface wind blowing over an escarpment or plateau , or even by upper winds deflected over a thermal updraft or cloud street . The vertical motion forces periodic changes in speed and direction of the air within this air current . They always occur in groups on the lee side of the terrain that triggers them . Usually a turbulent vortex , with its axis of rotation parallel to the mountain range , is generated around the first trough ; this is called a rotor . The strongest lee waves are produced when the lapse rate shows a stable layer above the obstruction , with an unstable layer above and below .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Lee_wave", "rank": 90, "score": 73374 }, { "content": "Title: Subtropical Countercurrent Content: The subtropical countercurrent ( STCC ) is a narrow eastward ocean current in the central North Pacific Ocean ( 20 -- 30 ° N ) where the Sverdrup theory predicts a broad westward flow . It originates in the western North Pacific around 20 ° N , and flows eastward against the northeast trade winds and stretches northeastward to the north of Hawaii . It is accompanied by a subsurface temperature and density front called the subtropical front , in thermal wind relation with the STCC . Furthermore , the STCC maintains a sea surface temperature front during winter and spring . During April and May when the SST front is still strong , the seasonal warming makes the region conductive to atmospheric convection , and surface wind stress curls turn weakly positive along the front on the background of negative curls that drive the subtropical gyre . On the weather timescale , positive wind curls are related to low-pressure systems of a subsynoptic scale in space , energized by surface baroclinicity and latent heat release along the STF front . The SST front also anchors a meridional maximum in column-integrated water vapor , indicating a deep structure of the atmosphere response .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Subtropical_Countercurrent", "rank": 91, "score": 73228 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 92, "score": 73224 }, { "content": "Title: Equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine Content: Equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine ( EESC ) provides an estimate of the total effective amount of halogens ( chlorine and bromine ) in the stratosphere . It is calculated from emission of chlorofluorocarbon and related halogenated compounds into the troposphere ( lower atmosphere ) and their efficiency in contributing to stratospheric ozone depletion ( ozone depletion potential , ODP ) , and by making assumptions on transport times into the upper atmosphere ( stratosphere ) . This parameter is used to quantify man-made ozone depletion and its changes with time . As a consequence of the Montreal Protocol and its amendments phasing out ozone-depleting substances ( ODS ) , the EESC reached maximum in the late 1990s and is now slowly decreasing .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Equivalent_effective_stratospheric_chlorine", "rank": 93, "score": 73151 }, { "content": "Title: Pacific decadal oscillation Content: The Pacific Decadal Oscillation ( PDO ) is a robust , recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin . The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean , north of 20 ° N. Over the past century , the amplitude of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales ( meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades ) . There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity ( meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters within the region ) of the oscillation occurring around 1925 , 1947 , and 1977 ; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in salmon production regimes in the North Pacific Ocean . This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from Alaska to California . During a `` warm '' , or `` positive '' , phase , the west Pacific becomes cooler and part of the eastern ocean warms ; during a `` cool '' or `` negative '' phase , the opposite pattern occurs . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation was named by Steven R. Hare , who noticed it while studying salmon production pattern results in 1997 . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation index is the leading empirical orthogonal function ( EOF ) of monthly sea surface temperature anomalies ( SST-A ) over the North Pacific ( poleward of 20 ° N ) after the global average sea surface temperature has been removed . This PDO index is the standardized principal component time series . A PDO ` signal ' has been reconstructed to 1661 through tree-ring chronologies in the Baja California area .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Pacific_decadal_oscillation", "rank": 94, "score": 73124 }, { "content": "Title: Bacillus stratosphericus Content: Bacillus stratosphericus is a microbe commonly found in high concentrations in the stratosphere . It is commonly found in the atmosphere but brought down to Earth as a result of atmospheric cycling processes . Scientists have successfully engineered it to create a biofilm which produce electricity .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Bacillus_stratosphericus", "rank": 95, "score": 73106 }, { "content": "Title: Vacuum evaporation Content: Vacuum evaporation is the process of causing the pressure in a liquid-filled container to be reduced below the vapor pressure of the liquid , causing the liquid to evaporate at a lower temperature than normal . Although the process can be applied to any type of liquid at any vapor pressure , it is generally used to describe the boiling of water by lowering the container 's internal pressure below standard atmospheric pressure and causing the water to boil at room temperature . The vacuum evaporation treatment process consists of reducing the interior pressure of the evaporation chamber below atmospheric pressure . This reduces the boiling point of the liquid to be evaporated , thereby reducing or eliminating the need for heat in both the boiling and condensation processes . In addition , there are other technical advantages such as the ability to distill other liquids with high boiling points and avoiding the decomposition of substances that are sensitive to temperature , etc. .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Vacuum_evaporation", "rank": 96, "score": 72952 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 97, "score": 72796 }, { "content": "Title: Thermosphere Content: The thermosphere is the layer of the Earth 's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere . The exosphere is above that but is a minor layer of the atmosphere . Within this layer of the atmosphere , ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules , creating ions in the ionosphere . Taking its name from the Greek θερμός ( pronounced thermos ) meaning heat , the thermosphere begins about 85 km above the Earth . At these high altitudes , the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass ( see turbosphere ) . Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation . Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity , and can rise to 2000 C. Radiation causes the atmosphere particles in this layer to become electrically charged ( see ionosphere ) , enabling radio waves to be refracted and thus be received beyond the horizon . In the exosphere , beginning at 500 to above the Earth 's surface , the atmosphere turns into space , although by the criteria set for the definition of the Karman line , the thermosphere itself is part of space . The highly diluted gas in this layer can reach 2500 C during the day . Even though the temperature is so high , one would not feel warm in the thermosphere , because it is so near vacuum that there is not enough contact with the few atoms of gas to transfer much heat . A normal thermometer might be significantly below 0 C , at least at night , because the energy lost by thermal radiation would exceed the energy acquired from the atmospheric gas by direct contact . In the anacoustic zone above 160 km , the density is so low that molecular interactions are too infrequent to permit the transmission of sound . The dynamics of the thermosphere are dominated by atmospheric tides , which are driven by the very significant diurnal heating . Atmospheric waves dissipate above this level because of collisions between the neutral gas and the ionospheric plasma . The International Space Station orbits the Earth within the middle of the thermosphere , between 330 and .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Thermosphere", "rank": 98, "score": 72679 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 99, "score": 72305 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .", "qid": "2973", "docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City", "rank": 100, "score": 72273 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Mesopause", "rank": 1, "score": 162440 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical rain belt Content: Rainfall and the tropical climate dominate the tropical rain belt , which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year , roughly following the solar equator . The tropical rain belt is an area of active rain that is positioned mostly around the tropics . According to the website Journey North , the reason the rain belt is situated near the tropics can be attributed to the fact that most of the sun 's radiation is directed toward the equator , which is located in the middle of the tropics . This solar radiation generates large amounts of heat near the equator providing tropical regions with higher temperatures than most other regions on Earth . With all this solar radiation , the air around the tropics begins to warm up . Because hot air is less dense than cold air , the hot air rises into the upper levels of the atmosphere and as a result , cold air filters down into the lower levels of the atmosphere . The dynamics that provide the tropics with the rain belt are founded on the principal that warmer air is able to retain more moisture than colder air . When the colder air replaces the warmer air in the lower atmosphere , the abundant moisture from the tropics loses the ability to be stored in the atmosphere . As a result , the excess moisture that can not be held by the colder air is then turned into thunderstorms and rain showers . These thunderstorms and rain showers are usually located along the equator , but they will extend out to the Tropic of Cancer , which is the 23.5 north latitude , as well as the Tropic of Capricorn , which is the 23.5 south latitude . It is largely a manifestation of the ITCH ( incorrect citation ) . The tropical rain belt lies in the southern hemisphere of the Indian ocean and western Pacific ocean roughly from October to March , and during this time the northern tropics experience a dry season in which precipitation is very rare , and days are typically hot and sunny throughout . From April to September , the rain belt lies in the northern hemisphere , and a wet season occurs there , while the southern tropics experience their dry season . The rain belt reaches roughly as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn in the western Pacific ocean . Its variation in the Western Hemisphere is minimal , roughly between the equator and the 15th parallel north latitude . Near these latitudes , there is one wet season and one dry season annually . On the equator , there are two wet and two dry seasons as the rain belt passes over twice a year , one moving north and one moving south . Between the tropics and the equator , locations may experience both a short wet and a long wet season . Local geography may substantially modify these climate patterns .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Tropical_rain_belt", "rank": 2, "score": 159529 }, { "content": "Title: Cool tropics paradox Content: The cool tropics paradox refers to an apparent difference between modeled estimates of tropical temperatures during warm , ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and Eocene , and the colder temperatures which proxies suggested were present . The long-standing paradox was resolved when novel proxy derived temperatures showed significantly warmer tropics during past greenhouse climates . The low-gradient problem , i.e. the very warm polar regions with respect to present day , is still an issue for state-of-the-art climate models .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Cool_tropics_paradox", "rank": 3, "score": 156277 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 4, "score": 152436 }, { "content": "Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology", "qid": "2977", "docid": "LOWERN", "rank": 5, "score": 151113 }, { "content": "Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Polar_High", "rank": 6, "score": 140908 }, { "content": "Title: Clear-air turbulence Content: Clear-air turbulence ( CAT ) is the turbulent movement of air masses in the absence of any visual clues such as clouds , and is caused when bodies of air moving at widely different speeds meet . The atmospheric region most susceptible to CAT is the high troposphere at altitudes of around 7000 - as it meets the tropopause . Here CAT is most frequently encountered in the regions of jet streams . At lower altitudes it may also occur near mountain ranges . Thin cirrus clouds can also indicate high probability of CAT . CAT can be hazardous to the comfort , but rarely the safety , of air travelers . CAT in the jet stream is expected to become stronger and more frequent because of climate change , with transatlantic wintertime CAT increasing by 59 % ( light ) , 94 % ( moderate ) , and 149 % ( severe ) by the time of CO2 doubling .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Clear-air_turbulence", "rank": 7, "score": 137616 }, { "content": "Title: Cold-core low Content: A cold-core low , also known as an upper level low or cold-core cyclone , is a cyclone aloft which has an associated cold pool of air residing at high altitude within the Earth 's troposphere . It is a low pressure system which strengthens with height in accordance with the thermal wind relationship . These systems can be referred to as upper level lows . If a weak surface circulation forms in response to such a feature at subtropical latitudes of the eastern north Pacific or north Indian oceans , it is called a subtropical cyclone . Cloud cover and rainfall mainly occurs with these systems during the day . Severe weather , such as tornadoes , can occur near the center of cold-core lows . Cold lows can help spawn cyclones with significant weather impacts , such as polar lows , and Von Karman Vortices . In regard to tropical cyclones , cold lows can lead directly to their development due to their associated cold pool of air aloft or by acting as additional outflow channels to aid in further development .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Cold-core_low", "rank": 8, "score": 136714 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 9, "score": 135647 }, { "content": "Title: Weather front Content: A weather ( state of atmosphere ) front is a boundary separating two masses of air of different densities , and is the principal cause of meteorological phenomena outside the tropics . In surface weather analyses , fronts are depicted using various colored triangles and half-circles , depending on the type of front . The air masses separated by a front usually differ in temperature and humidity . Cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather , and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines . Warm fronts are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog . The weather usually clears quickly after a front 's passage . Some fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness , although there is invariably a wind shift . Cold fronts and occluded fronts generally move from west to east , while warm fronts move poleward . Because of the greater density of air in their wake , cold fronts and cold occlusions move faster than warm fronts and warm occlusions . Mountains and warm bodies of water can slow the movement of fronts . When a front becomes stationary , and the density contrast across the frontal boundary vanishes , the front can degenerate into a line which separates regions of differing wind velocity , known as a shearline . This is most common over the open ocean .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Weather_front", "rank": 10, "score": 131618 }, { "content": "Title: Stratosphere Content: The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Stratosphere", "rank": 11, "score": 131068 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 12, "score": 130389 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 13, "score": 129175 }, { "content": "Title: Lake-effect snow Content: Lake-effect snow is produced during cooler atmospheric conditions when a cold air mass moves across long expanses of warmer lake water , warming the lower layer of air which picks up water vapor from the lake , rises up through the colder air above , freezes and is deposited on the leeward ( downwind ) shores . The same effect also occurs over bodies of salt water , when it is termed ocean-effect or bay-effect snow . The effect is enhanced when the moving air mass is uplifted by the orographic influence of higher elevations on the downwind shores . This uplifting can produce narrow but very intense bands of precipitation , which deposit at a rate of many inches of snow each hour , often resulting in a large amount of total snowfall . The areas affected by lake-effect snow are called snowbelts . These include areas east of the Great Lakes , the west coasts of northern Japan , the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia , and areas near the Great Salt Lake , Black Sea , Caspian Sea , Baltic Sea , and parts of the northern Atlantic Ocean . A lake-effect blizzard is the blizzard-like conditions resulting from lake-effect snow . Under certain conditions , strong winds can accompany lake-effect snows creating blizzard-like conditions ; however the duration of the event is often slightly less than that required for a blizzard warning in both the US and Canada . If the air temperature is low enough to keep the precipitation frozen , it falls as lake-effect snow . For lake-effect rain or snow to form , the air moving across the lake must be significantly cooler than the surface air ( which is likely to be near the temperature of the water surface ) . Specifically , the air temperature at an altitude where the air pressure is 850 mbar ( roughly 1.5 km vertically ) should be 13 ° C-change lower than the temperature of the air at the surface . Lake-effect occurring when the air at 850 mbar is much colder than the water surface can produce thundersnow , snow showers accompanied by lightning and thunder ( caused by larger amounts of energy available from the increased instability ) .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Lake-effect_snow", "rank": 14, "score": 128615 }, { "content": "Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation", "rank": 15, "score": 127666 }, { "content": "Title: Maximum parcel level Content: The maximum parcel level ( MPL ) is the highest level in the atmosphere that a moist convectively rising air parcel will reach after ascending from the level of free convection ( LFC ) through the free convective layer ( FCL ) and reaching the equilibrium level ( EL ) , near the tropopause . As the parcel rises through the FCL it expands adiabatically causing its temperature to drop , often below the temperature of its surroundings , and eventually lose buoyancy . Because of this , the EL is approximately the region where the distinct flat tops ( called anvils ) often observed on cumulonimbus clouds form . If the air parcel ascended quickly enough then it retains momentum after it has cooled and continues rising past the EL , ceasing at the MPL ( visually represented by the overshooting top , above the anvil ) .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Maximum_parcel_level", "rank": 16, "score": 124177 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 17, "score": 123484 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 18, "score": 122035 }, { "content": "Title: Cold trap (astronomy) Content: In astronomy , a cold trap is a close to the surface layer of the atmosphere that is substantially colder than both the deeper and higher layers . The temperature of the air drops with increasing height above the surface of the earth reaching a low point ( which for the earth resides at about 20 kilometers height ) . It is called a trap because it keeps ascending gases with high melting points in by freezing them to a solid which then drops back to the planet surface . The most important gas to be kept in that way , on the Earth , is water vapor , which without the presence of a cold trap in the atmosphere would gradually escape or dissociate into space , making life impossible . However , because of the cold trap water vapor condenses into droplets of liquid water or tiny ice crystals , forming clouds . The cold trap retains one-tenth of one percentof the water in the atmosphere in the form of a vapor at high altitudes . The cold trap is also a layer which above ultraviolet intensity is strong , since higher up the amount of water vapor is negligible . Oxygen screens out ultraviolet intensity . Some astronomers believe that the lack of a cold trap is why the planets Venus and Mars both lost most of their liquid water early in their histories .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Cold_trap_(astronomy)", "rank": 19, "score": 121697 }, { "content": "Title: Isentropic analysis Content: Isentropic analysis in meteorology is a technique to find the vertical and horizontal motion of airmasses during an adiabatic process above the planetary boundary layer . The change of state of air parcels following isentropic surfaces does not involve exchange of heat with the environment . Such an analysis can also evaluate the airmass stability in the vertical dimension and whether an air parcel crossing such a surface will result in convective or stratiform clouds . It is based on the study of weather maps or vertical cross-sections of the potential temperature values in the troposphere . On a synoptic scale , isentropic analysis is associated with weather fronts : warm fronts are found where the wind crosses lines of a chosen potential temperature from lower heights to higher ones , while cold fronts are where the wind crosses descending heights . Synoptic clouds and precipitations can thus be better found with these areas of advection than with conventional isobaric maps . From a mesoscale point of view , an air parcel moving vertically will cross isolines of potential temperature and it will be unstable if the value of those lines decrease with altitude , or stable if they increase .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Isentropic_analysis", "rank": 20, "score": 121694 }, { "content": "Title: Troposphere Content: The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth 's atmosphere , and is also where nearly all weather takes place . It contains approximately 75 % of the atmosphere 's mass and 99 % of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols . The average depths of the troposphere are 20 km in the tropics , 17 km in the mid latitudes , and 7 km in the polar regions in winter . The lowest part of the troposphere , where friction with the Earth 's surface influences air flow , is the planetary boundary layer . This layer is typically a few hundred meters to 2 km deep depending on the landform and time of day . Atop the troposphere is the tropopause , which is the border between the troposphere and stratosphere . The tropopause is an inversion layer , where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness . The word troposphere derives from the for `` turn , turn toward , trope '' and '' - sphere '' ( as in , the Earth ) , reflecting the fact that rotational turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere 's structure and behaviour . Most of the phenomena associated with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Troposphere", "rank": 21, "score": 121216 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 22, "score": 120504 }, { "content": "Title: Freezing level Content: The freezing level , or 0 ° C ( zero-degree ) isotherm , represents the altitude in which the temperature is at 0 ° C ( the freezing point of water ) in a free atmosphere ( i.e. allowing reflection of the sun by snow , etc. ) . Any given measure is valid for only a short period of time , often less than a day . Above the freezing altitude , the temperature of the air is below freezing . Below it , the temperature is above freezing . The profile of this frontier , and its variations , are studied in meteorology , and are used for a variety of forecasts and predictions . Whilst not given on general weather forecasts , it is used on bulletins giving forecasts for mountainous areas .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Freezing_level", "rank": 23, "score": 120473 }, { "content": "Title: Massenerhebung effect Content: The Massenerhebung effect ( German for `` mountain mass elevation '' ) describes variation in the tree line based on mountain size and location . In general , mountains surrounded by large ranges will tend to have higher tree lines than more isolated mountains due to heat retention and wind shadowing . This effect is important for determining weather patterns in mountainous regions , as regions of similar altitude and latitude may nonetheless have much warmer or colder climates based on surrounding mountain ranges . For example , in Borneo , Gunung Palung , located on the coast , has moss forest at 900 m , while the montane forest on Gunung Mulu starts at 1200 m and at 1800 m on Mount Kinabalu .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Massenerhebung_effect", "rank": 24, "score": 119623 }, { "content": "Title: Cold front Content: A cold front is defined as the leading edge of a cooler mass of air , replacing at ground level a warmer mass of air , which lies within a fairly sharp surface trough of low pressure . It forms in the wake of an extratropical cyclone , at the leading edge of its cold air advection pattern , which is also known as the cyclone 's dry conveyor belt circulation . Temperature changes across the boundary can exceed 30 C-change . When enough moisture is present , rain can occur along the boundary . If there is significant instability along the boundary , a narrow line of thunderstorms can form along the frontal zone . If instability is less , a broad shield of rain can move in behind the front , which increases the temperature difference across the boundary . Cold fronts are stronger in the fall and spring transition seasons and weakest during the summer . When a cold front catches up with the preceding warm front , the portion of the boundary that does so is then known as an occluded front .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Cold_front", "rank": 25, "score": 119595 }, { "content": "Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Equilibrium_level", "rank": 26, "score": 119080 }, { "content": "Title: Capping inversion Content: A capping inversion is an elevated inversion layer that caps a convective boundary layer . The boundary layer is the part of the atmosphere which is closest to the ground . Normally , the sun heats the ground , which in turn heats the air just above it . Thermals form when this warm air rises into the cold air ( warm air is less dense than cold air ) , a process described by convection . A convective layer such as this has the potential for cloud formation , since condensation occurs as the warm air rises and cools . An inversion occurs when the normal temperature ( warm air below , cold air above ) profile is reversed , creating a stable configuration of dense , cold air sitting below lighter , warm air . An elevated inversion layer is thus a region of warm air above a region of cold air , but higher in the atmosphere ( generally not touching the surface ) . A capping inversion occurs when there is a boundary layer with a normal temperature profile ( warm air rising into cooler air ) and the layer above that is an inversion layer ( cooler air below warm air ) . Cloud formation from the lower layer is `` capped '' by the inversion layer . If the capping inversion layer or `` cap '' is too strong ( too close to the surface ) , it will prevent thunderstorms from developing . A strong cap can result in foggy conditions . However , if the air at the surface is unstable enough , strong updrafts can be forced through the capping inversion . This selective process of only allowing the strongest updrafts to form thunderstorms often results in outbreaks of severe weather .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Capping_inversion", "rank": 27, "score": 118290 }, { "content": "Title: Cold-air damming Content: Cold air damming , or CAD , is a meteorological phenomenon that involves a high-pressure system ( anticyclone ) accelerating equatorward east of a north-south oriented mountain range due to the formation of a barrier jet behind a cold front associated with the poleward portion of a split upper level trough . Initially , a high-pressure system moves poleward of a north-south mountain range . Once it sloshes over poleward and eastward of the range , the flow around the high banks up against the mountains , forming a barrier jet which funnels cool air down a stretch of land east of the mountains . The higher the mountain chain , the deeper the cold air mass becomes lodged to its east , and the greater impediment it is within the flow pattern and the more resistant it becomes to intrusions of milder air . As the equatorward portion of the system approaches the cold air wedge , persistent low cloudiness , such as stratus , and precipitation such as drizzle develop , which can linger for long periods of time ; as long as ten days . The precipitation itself can create or enhance a damming signature , if the poleward high is relatively weak . If such events accelerate through mountain passes , dangerously accelerated mountain-gap winds can result , such as the Tehuantepecer and Santa Ana winds . These events are seen commonly in the northern Hemisphere across central and eastern North America , south of the Alps in Italy , and near Taiwan and Korea in Asia . Events in the southern Hemisphere have been noted in South America east of the Andes .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Cold-air_damming", "rank": 28, "score": 118228 }, { "content": "Title: Decoupling (meteorology) Content: In weather forecasting , decoupling is boundary-layer decoupling of atmospheric layers over land at night . During the day when the sun shines and warms the land , air at the surface of the earth is heated and rises . This rising air mixes the atmosphere near the earth . At night this process stops and air near the surface cools as the land loses heat by radiating in the infrared . If winds are light , air near the surface of the earth can become much colder , compared to the air above it , than if more mixing of air layers occurred . Category : Weather forecasting", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Decoupling_(meteorology)", "rank": 29, "score": 118131 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 30, "score": 117904 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal low Content: Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Thermal_low", "rank": 31, "score": 117768 }, { "content": "Title: Hot tower Content: A hot tower is a tropical cumulonimbus cloud that penetrates the tropopause , i.e. it reaches out of the lowest layer of the atmosphere , the troposphere , into the stratosphere . In the tropics , the tropopause typically lies at least 15 km above sea level . These towers are called `` hot '' because they rise high due to the large amount of latent heat released as water vapor condenses into liquid and freezes into ice . The presence of hot towers with a tropical cyclone 's eyewall can indicate strengthening is more likely during the next six hours .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Hot_tower", "rank": 32, "score": 117123 }, { "content": "Title: Upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex Content: An upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex is a vortex , or a circulation with a definable center , that usually moves slowly from east-northeast to west-southwest and is prevalent across Northern Hemisphere 's warm season . Its circulations generally do not extend below 6080 m in altitude , as it is an example of a cold-core low . A weak inverted wave in the easterlies is generally found beneath it , and it may also be associated with broad areas of high-level clouds . Downward development results in an increase of cumulus clouds and the appearance of circulation at ground level . In rare cases , a warm-core cyclone can develop in its associated convective activity , resulting in a tropical cyclone and a weakening and southwest movement of the nearby upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex . Symbiotic relationships can exist between tropical cyclones and the upper level lows in their wake , with the two systems occasionally leading to their mutual strengthening . When they move over land during the warm season , an increase in monsoon rains occurs .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Upper_tropospheric_cyclonic_vortex", "rank": 33, "score": 116885 }, { "content": "Title: Subsidence (atmosphere) Content: Subsidence in the Earth 's atmosphere is most commonly caused by low temperatures : as air cools , it becomes denser and moves towards the ground , just as warm air becomes less dense and moves upwards . Cool subsiding air is subject to adiabatic warming which tends to cause the evaporation of any clouds that might be present . Subsidence generally causes high barometric pressure as more air moves into the same space : the polar highs are areas of almost constant subsidence , as are the horse latitudes , and these areas of subsidence are the sources of much of the world 's prevailing wind . Subsidence also causes many smaller-scale weather phenomena , such as morning fog . An extreme form of subsidence is a downburst , which can result in damage similar to that produced by a tornado . A milder form of subsidence is referred to as downdraft . Category : Atmosphere Category : Basic meteorological concepts and phenomena", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Subsidence_(atmosphere)", "rank": 34, "score": 116823 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal Content: A thermal column ( or thermal ) is a column of rising air in the lower altitudes of Earth 's atmosphere , a form of atmospheric updraft . Thermals are created by the uneven heating of Earth 's surface from solar radiation , and are an example of convection , specifically atmospheric convection . The Sun warms the ground , which in turn warms the air directly above it .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Thermal", "rank": 35, "score": 116464 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 36, "score": 116291 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 37, "score": 115719 }, { "content": "Title: Tierra fría Content: In Latin America , tierra fría ( Spanish for cold land ) are mountain locations where high elevation results in a markedly cooler climate than that encountered in the lowlands at a comparable latitude . The combination of low latitude and high altitude -- typically between approximately 6,000 ft ( about 1,850 m ) and 10,000 ft ( about 3,600 m ) in locations within 10 ° of the equator -- produces a climate that falls into the same category as many oceanic climates found along the west coasts of the continents within the temperate zones -- mild temperatures all year round , with monthly averages ranging from about 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) in the coldest months to about 18 ° C ( 64.4 ° F ) in the warmest months ( at places further poleward the range of altitudes where this climate exists becomes progressively lower ) . Common crops grown in the tierra fría are potatoes , wheat , barley , oats , corn , and rye . Beyond the tierra fría is a region known as the suni , puna , or páramos ; near the Equator this encompasses places with altitudes of between roughly 12,000 ft ( 3,600 m ) and 15,000 ft ( 4,500 m ) , representing the treeline and the snow line respectively . Vegetation here resembles that found in the tundra of the polar regions . Still higher is the tierra nevada , where permanent snow and ice prevail . The Peruvian geographer Javier Pulgar Vidal ( Altitudinal zonation ) used following altitudes : 2,300 m ( end of the Cloud forest or Yunga fluvial ) , 3,500 m ( Treeline ) and 4,800 m ( Puna end ) . Some of Latin America 's largest cities are found in the tierra fria , most notably Bogotá , Colombia , altitude 2,640 m , Mexico City , Mexico , altitude 2,240 m and Quito , Ecuador , altitude 2,850 m ; all three cities are also the capitals of those respective countries . Agriculture in the region resembles that which is conducted in valley areas in the temperate zones , featuring such crops as barley and potatoes .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Tierra_fría", "rank": 38, "score": 115631 }, { "content": "Title: Convective available potential energy Content: In meteorology , convective available potential energy ( CAPE ) , sometimes , simply , available potential energy ( APE ) , is the amount of energy a parcel of air would have if lifted a certain distance vertically through the atmosphere . CAPE is effectively the positive buoyancy of an air parcel and is an indicator of atmospheric instability , which makes it very valuable in predicting severe weather . It is a form of fluid instability found in thermally stratified atmospheres in which a colder fluid overlies a warmer one . As explained below , when an air mass is unstable , the element of the air mass that is displaced upwards is accelerated by the pressure differential between the displaced air and the ambient air at the ( higher ) altitude to which it was displaced . This usually creates vertically developed clouds from convection , due to the rising motion , which can eventually lead to thunderstorms . It could also be created by other phenomena , such as a cold front . Even if the air is cooler on the surface , there is still warmer air in the mid-levels , that can rise into the upper-levels . However , if there is not enough water vapor present , there is no ability for condensation , thus storms , clouds , and rain will not form .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Convective_available_potential_energy", "rank": 39, "score": 114640 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 40, "score": 113422 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 41, "score": 113390 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 42, "score": 112918 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 43, "score": 112744 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Volcanic_winter", "rank": 44, "score": 112584 }, { "content": "Title: Urban thermal plume Content: An urban thermal plume describes rising air in the lower altitudes of the Earth 's atmosphere caused by urban areas being warmer than surrounding areas . Over the past thirty years there has been increasing interest in what have been called urban heat island ( UHI ) , but it is only since 2007 that thought has been given to the rising columns of warm air , or ` thermal plumes ' that they produce . We are all familiar with on-shore breezes at the seaside on a warm day , and off-shore breezes at night . These are caused by the land heating up faster on a sunny day and cooling faster after sunset , respectively . Our personal experience of on-shore breezes shows us that the thermals , or warm airs , that rise from the land and sea respectively have a sensible effect on the local microscale meteorology ; and perhaps at times on the mesometeorology . Urban thermal plumes have as powerful although less localized an effect . London is generally 3 to 9 Celsius hotter than the Home Counties . London 's meteorological aberrations were first studied by Luke Howard , FRS in the 1810s , but the notion that this large warm area would produce a significant urban thermal plume was not seriously proposed until very recently . Microscale thermal plumes , whose diameters may be measured in tens of metres , such as those produced by industrial chimney stacks , have been extensively investigated , but largely from the point of view of the plumes dispersal by local micrometeorology . Though their velocity is generally less , their very much greater magnitude ( diameter ) means that urban thermal plumes will have a more significant effect upon the mesometeorology and even continental macrometeorology .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Urban_thermal_plume", "rank": 45, "score": 112473 }, { "content": "Title: Convective instability Content: In meteorology , convective instability or stability of an air mass refers to its ability to resist vertical motion . A stable atmosphere makes vertical movement difficult , and small vertical disturbances dampen out and disappear . In an unstable atmosphere , vertical air movements ( such as in orographic lifting , where an air mass is displaced upwards as it is blown by wind up the rising slope of a mountain range ) tend to become larger , resulting in turbulent airflow and convective activity . Instability can lead to significant turbulence , extensive vertical clouds , and severe weather such as thunderstorms . Adiabatic cooling and heating are phenomena of rising or descending air . Rising air expands and cools due to the decrease in air pressure as altitude increases . The opposite is true of descending air ; as atmospheric pressure increases , the temperature of descending air increases as it is compressed . Adiabatic heating and adiabatic cooling are terms used to describe this temperature change . The adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which a rising or falling air mass lowers or increases per distance of vertical displacement . The ambient lapse rate is the temperature change in the ( non-displaced ) air per vertical distance . Instability results from difference between the adiabatic lapse rate of an air mass and the ambient lapse rate in the atmosphere . If the adiabatic lapse rate is lower than the ambient lapse rate , an air mass displaced upward cools less rapidly than the air in which it is moving . Hence , such an air mass becomes warmer relative to the atmosphere . As warmer air is less dense , such an air mass would tend to continue to rise . Conversely , if the adiabatic lapse rate is higher than the ambient lapse rate , an air mass displaced upward cools more rapidly than the air in which it is moving . Hence , such an airmass becomes cooler relative to the atmosphere . As cooler air is more dense , the rise of such an airmass would tend to be resisted . When air rises , moist air cools at a lower rate than dry air . That is , for the same vertical movement , a parcel of moist air will be warmer than a parcel of dry air . This is because of the condensation of water vapor in the air parcel due to expansion cooling . As water vapor condenses , latent heat is released into the air parcel . Moist air has more water vapor than dry air , so more latent heat is released into the parcel of moist air as it rises . Dry air does not have as much water vapor , therefore dry air cools at a higher rate with vertical movement than moist air . As a result of the latent heat that is released during water vapor condensation , moist air has a relatively lower adiabatic lapse rate than dry air . This makes moist air generally less stable than dry air ( see convective available potential energy -LSB- CAPE -RSB- ) . The dry adiabatic lapse rate ( for unsaturated air ) is 3 C-change per 1,000 vertical feet ( 300 m ) . The moist adiabatic lapse rate varies from 1.1 to per 1,000 vertical feet ( 300 m ) . The combination of moisture and temperature determine the stability of the air and the resulting weather . Cool , dry air is very stable and resists vertical movement , which leads to good and generally clear weather . The greatest instability occurs when the air is moist and warm , as it is in the tropical regions in the summer . Typically , thunderstorms appear on a daily basis in these regions due to the instability of the surrounding air . The ambient lapse rate differs in different meteorological conditions , but , on average , is 2 C-change per 1,000 vertical feet ( 300 m ) .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Convective_instability", "rank": 46, "score": 112414 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 47, "score": 110916 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 48, "score": 110787 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-curtain effect Content: The zero-curtain effect occurs in cold ( particularly periglacial ) environments where the phase transition of water to ice is slowed down due to latent heat release . The effect is notably found in arctic and alpine permafrost sediments , and occurs where the air temperature falls below 0 ° C ( the freezing point of water ) followed by a rapid drop in soil temperature . Because of this effect , the lowering of temperature in moist , cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate . The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes , and latent heat is released . This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen , at which point temperatures can continue to fall . Therefore , for as long as water is available to the system ( for example , through cryosuction/capillary action ) the temperature of the sediment will remain at a constant temperature .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Zero-curtain_effect", "rank": 49, "score": 110315 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 50, "score": 109838 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 51, "score": 109657 }, { "content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Iris_hypothesis", "rank": 52, "score": 109487 }, { "content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change", "rank": 53, "score": 109223 }, { "content": "Title: Level of free convection Content: The level of free convection ( LFC ) is the altitude in the atmosphere where the temperature of the environment decreases faster than the moist adiabatic lapse rate of a saturated air parcel at the same level . The usual way of finding the LFC is to lift a parcel from a lower level along the dry adiabatic lapse rate until it crosses the mixing ratio line of the parcel : this is the lifted condensation level ( LCL ) . From there on , follow the moist adiabatic lapse rate until the temperature of the parcel reaches the air mass temperature , at the equilibrium level ( EL ) . If the temperature of the parcel along the moist adiabat is warmer than the environment on further lift , one has found the LFC . Since the volume of the parcel is larger than the surrounding air after LFC by the ideal gas law ( PV = nRT ) , it is less dense and becomes buoyant rising until its temperature ( at E ) equals the surrounding airmass . If the airmass has one or many LFC , it is potentially unstable and may lead to convective clouds like cumulus and thunderstorms .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Level_of_free_convection", "rank": 54, "score": 109130 }, { "content": "Title: Weather Content: Weather is the state of the atmosphere , to the degree that it is hot or cold , wet or dry , calm or stormy , clear or cloudy . Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere , the troposphere , just below the stratosphere . Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity , whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time . When used without qualification , `` weather '' is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth . Weather is driven by air pressure , temperature and moisture differences between one place and another . These differences can occur due to the sun 's angle at any particular spot , which varies with latitude . The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the largest scale atmospheric circulations : the Hadley Cell , the Ferrel Cell , the Polar Cell , and the jet stream . Weather systems in the mid-latitudes , such as extratropical cyclones , are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow . Because the Earth 's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane , sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year . On Earth 's surface , temperatures usually range ± 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F to 100 ° F ) annually . Over thousands of years , changes in Earth 's orbit can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth , thus influencing long-term climate and global climate change . Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences . Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earth 's surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant . Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location . The Earth 's weather system is a chaotic system ; as a result , small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole . Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history , and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns . Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth . A famous landmark in the Solar System , Jupiter 's Great Red Spot , is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years . However , weather is not limited to planetary bodies . A star 's corona is constantly being lost to space , creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System . The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Weather", "rank": 55, "score": 108004 }, { "content": "Title: Low-pressure area Content: A low-pressure area , low , or depression is a region where the topographic map is atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations . Low-pressure systems form under areas of wind divergence that occur in the upper levels of the troposphere . The formation process of a low-pressure area is known as cyclogenesis . Within the field of meteorology , atmospheric divergence aloft occurs in two areas . The first area is on the east side of upper troughs , which form half of a Rossby wave within the Westerlies ( a trough with large wavelength that extends through the troposphere ) . A second area of wind divergence aloft occurs ahead of embedded shortwave troughs , which are of smaller wavelength . Diverging winds aloft ahead of these troughs cause atmospheric lift within the troposphere below , which lowers surface pressures as upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity . Thermal lows form due to localized heating caused by greater sunshine over deserts and other land masses . Since localized areas of warm air are less dense than their surroundings , this warmer air rises , which lowers atmospheric pressure near that portion of the Earth 's surface . Large-scale thermal lows over continents help drive monsoon circulations . Low-pressure areas can also form due to organized thunderstorm activity over warm water . When this occurs over the tropics in concert with the Intertropical Convergence Zone , it is known as a monsoon trough . Monsoon troughs reach their northerly extent in August and their southerly extent in February . When a convective low acquires a well-hot circulation in the tropics it is termed a tropical cyclone . Tropical cyclones can form during any month of the year globally , but can occur in either the northern or southern hemisphere during November . Atmospheric lift will also generally produce cloud cover through adiabatic cooling once the air becomes saturated as it rises , although the low-pressure area typically brings cloudy skies , which act to minimize diurnal temperature extremes . Since clouds reflect sunlight , incoming shortwave solar radiation decreases , which causes lower temperatures during the day . At night the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation , such as heat energy from the surface , allows for warmer diurnal low temperatures in all seasons . The stronger the area of low pressure , the stronger the winds experienced in its vicinity . Globally , low-pressure systems are most frequently located over the Tibetan Plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains . In Europe ( particularly in the United Kingdom ) , recurring low-pressure weather systems are typically known as `` depressions '' .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Low-pressure_area", "rank": 56, "score": 107763 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 57, "score": 107472 }, { "content": "Title: North American High Content: The North American High ( also Canadian High/Anticyclone , sometimes in Europe Greenland High/Anticyclone ) is an impermanent high-pressure area or anticyclone created by anticyclogenesis ( anticyclone + the Greek word genesis , meaning `` birth , origin '' ) , a formative process that occurs when cool or cold dry air settles over North America . In summer it is replaced with an Arctic Low , or if it moves to continental land , a North American Low . North American Highs move eastwards across the continent , often in the company of one or more low-pressure cells or cyclones . Its cold , dense air does not extend usually above 3 km , lower than the Canadian Rockies . Sometimes , in winter it breaks free and passes over the Rockies and brings a cold front into Southwestern United States and Mexico , freezing crops and bringing snow into Mexico 's mountains as far south as Jalisco . The high 's usual location east of the Rockies shelters it from the relatively warm Pacific Ocean and helps it maintain its strength . The average January sea level pressure at its centre is about 1,020 millibars ( 30.12 inches of mercury ) . The Canadian high often moves southeastward until it eventually reaches the Atlantic Ocean , where it merges with the Azores high . In the summer the Canadian high circulates cool , dry air to the United States east of the Rockies and parts of southern Canada . The North American High is akin to the Siberian High of Eurasia , but it is much smaller , and it has much less influence , merely affecting the weather of the Northern Hemisphere . The sea-level pressure ( atmospheric pressure ) rarely , if ever , exceeds 1055.0 millibars ( 1055.0 hectopascals ) ( hPa ) ( SI ) . Often , in the winter months , cool or cold dry air settles over the land in the vicinity of the Great Basin where it builds into a high-pressure cell or anticyclone that moves across the United States with a cold front on its leading edge . After reaching the Atlantic Ocean , the moist environment brings on changes of the qualities of the air and the dissipation of the high-pressure cell or anticyclone as the cold air warms and becomes humid . In Europe , a portion of the North American/Canadian high usually over Greenland called the Greenland high which settles over Greenland affects northern European weather and may merge with the Scandinavian High .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "North_American_High", "rank": 58, "score": 106386 }, { "content": "Title: Colder Weather Content: `` Colder Weather '' is a song performed by the Zac Brown Band , an American country music group . Lead singer Zac Brown co-wrote the song with Coy Bowles ( the band 's keyboardist and guitarist ) , Wyatt Durrette and Levi Lowrey . It is the band 's seventh single release overall , and the second single from their 2010 album You Get What You Give .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Colder_Weather", "rank": 59, "score": 106339 }, { "content": "Title: Dry ice Content: Dry ice , sometimes referred to as `` cardice '' ( chiefly by British chemists ) , is the solid form of carbon dioxide . It is used primarily as a cooling agent . Its advantages include lower temperature than that of water ice and not leaving any residue ( other than incidental frost from moisture in the atmosphere ) . It is useful for preserving frozen foods where mechanical cooling is unavailable . Dry ice sublimates at − 78.5 ° C ( − 109.3 ° F ) at Earth atmospheric pressures . This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing ( frostbite ) . While generally not very toxic , the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia ( abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood ) due to buildup in confined locations .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Dry_ice", "rank": 60, "score": 105673 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 61, "score": 105555 }, { "content": "Title: Virga Content: __ NOTOC __ In meteorology , virga is an observable fall streaks or shaft of precipitation falling from a cloud but evaporates or sublimates before reaching the ground . A shaft of precipitation which does n't evaporate before reaching the ground is a precipitation shaft . At high altitudes the precipitation falls mainly as ice crystals before melting and finally evaporating ; this is often due to compressional heating , because the air pressure increases closer to the ground . It is very common in the desert and in temperate climates . In North America , it is commonly seen in the Western United States and the Canadian Prairies . It is also very common in the Middle East , Australia and North Africa . Virga can cause varying weather effects , because as rain is changed from liquid to vapor form , it removes heat from the air due to the high heat of vaporization of water . Precipitation falling into these cooling down drafts may eventually reach the ground . In some instances , these pockets of colder air can descend rapidly , creating a wet or dry microburst which can be extremely hazardous to aviation . Conversely , precipitation evaporating at high altitude can compressionally heat as it falls , and result in a gusty downburst which may substantially and rapidly warm the surface temperature . This fairly rare phenomenon , a heat burst , also tends to be of exceedingly dry air . Virga also has a role in seeding storm cells whereby small particles from one cloud are blown into neighboring supersaturated air and act as nucleation particles for the next thunderhead cloud to begin forming . The word is derived from Latin virga meaning `` twig '' or `` branch '' .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Virga", "rank": 62, "score": 105438 }, { "content": "Title: Anabatic wind Content: An anabatic wind , from the Greek anabasis , verbal of anabainein meaning moving upward , is a warm wind which blows up a steep slope or mountain side , driven by heating of the slope through insolation . It is also known as an upslope flow . These winds typically occur during the daytime in calm sunny weather . A hill or mountain top will be radiatively warmed by the Sun which in turn heats the air just above it . Air at a similar altitude over an adjacent valley or plain does not get warmed so much because of the greater distance to the ground below it . The effect may be enhanced if the lower lying ground is shaded by the mountain and so receives less heat . The air over the hill top is now warmer than the air at a similar altitude around it and will rise through convection . This creates a lower pressure region into which the air at the bottom of the slope flows , causing the wind . It is common for the air rising from the tops of large mountains to reach a height where it cools adiabatically to below its dew point and forms cumulus clouds . These can then produce rain or even thunderstorms . Anabatic winds are particularly useful to soaring glider pilots who can use them to increase the aircraft 's altitude . Anabatic winds can be detrimental to the maximum downhill speed of cyclists . Conversely , catabatic winds are down-slope winds , frequently produced at night by the opposite effect , the air near to the ground losing heat to it faster than air at a similar altitude over adjacent low-lying land . Monsoon winds are similarly generated , but on a continental scale and seasonal cycle .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Anabatic_wind", "rank": 63, "score": 105349 }, { "content": "Title: Siberian High Content: The Siberian High ( also Siberian Anticyclone ) is a massive collection of cold dry air that accumulates in the northeastern part of Eurasia from September until April . It is usually centered on Lake Baikal . It reaches its greatest size and strength in the winter when the air temperature near the center of the high-pressure cell is often lower than -40 ° C . The atmospheric pressure is often above 1040 mbar . The Siberian High is the strongest semi-permanent high in the northern hemisphere and is responsible for both the lowest temperature in the Northern Hemisphere , of -67.8 ° C on 15 January 1885 at Verkhoyansk , and the highest pressure , 1083.8 mbar ( 108.38 kPa , 32.01 inHg ) at Agata , Krasnoyarsk Krai on 31 December 1968 , ever recorded . The Siberian High is responsible both for severe winter cold and attendant dry conditions with little snow and few or no glaciers across Siberia , Mongolia , and China . During the summer , the Siberian High is largely replaced by the Asiatic low .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Siberian_High", "rank": 64, "score": 104976 }, { "content": "Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics", "rank": 65, "score": 104520 }, { "content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Black_carbon", "rank": 66, "score": 104005 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical upper tropospheric trough Content: A tropical upper tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) , also known as the mid-oceanic trough , is a trough situated in upper-level ( at about 200 hPa ) tropics . Its formation is usually caused by the intrusion of energy and wind from the mid-latitudes into the tropics . It can also develop from the inverted trough adjacent to an upper level anticyclone . TUTTs are different from mid-latitude troughs in the sense that they are maintained by subsidence warming near the tropopause which balances radiational cooling . When strong , they can present a significant vertical wind shear to the tropics and subdue tropical cyclogenesis . When upper cold lows break off from their base , they tend to retrograde and force the development , or enhance , surface troughs and tropical waves to their east . Under special circumstances , they can induce thunderstorm activity and lead to the formation of tropical cyclones .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Tropical_upper_tropospheric_trough", "rank": 67, "score": 103823 }, { "content": "Title: Foehn wind Content: A föhn or foehn is a type of dry , warm , down-slope wind that occurs in the lee ( downwind side ) of a mountain range . It is a rain shadow wind that results from the subsequent adiabatic warming of air that has dropped most of its moisture on windward slopes ( see orographic lift ) . As a consequence of the different adiabatic lapse rates of moist and dry air , the air on the leeward slopes becomes warmer than equivalent elevations on the windward slopes . Föhn winds can raise temperatures by as much as 14 ° C ( 25 ° F ) in just a matter of minutes . Central Europe enjoys a warmer climate due to the Föhn , as moist winds off the Mediterranean Sea blow over the Alps . In some regions , föhn winds are associated with causing `` circulatory problems '' , headaches , or similar ailments . Researchers have found , however , the foehn wind 's warm temperature to be beneficial to humans in most situations , and have theorised that the reported negative effects may be a result of secondary factors , such as changes in the electrical field or in the ion state of the atmosphere , the wind 's relatively low humidity , or the generally unpleasant sensation of being in an environment with strong and gusty winds .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Foehn_wind", "rank": 68, "score": 103722 }, { "content": "Title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis Content: The Younger Dryas impact hypothesis or Clovis comet hypothesis originally proposed that a large air burst or earth impact of one or more comets initiated the Younger Dryas cold period about 12,900 BP calibrated ( 10,900 14C uncalibrated ) years ago . The hypothesis has been contested by research showing that most of the conclusions can not be repeated by other scientists , and criticized because of misinterpretation of data and the lack of confirmatory evidence . The current impact hypothesis states that the air burst ( s ) or impact ( s ) of a swarm of carbonaceous chondrites or comet fragments set areas of the North American continent on fire , causing the extinction of most of the megafauna in North America and the demise of the North American Clovis culture after the last glacial period . The Younger Dryas ice age lasted for about 1,200 years before the climate warmed again . This swarm is hypothesized to have exploded above or possibly on the Laurentide Ice Sheet in the region of the Great Lakes , though no impact crater has yet been identified and no physical model by which such a swarm could form or explode in the air has been proposed . Nevertheless , the proponents suggest that it would be physically possible for such an air burst to have been similar to , but orders of magnitude larger than , the Tunguska event of 1908 . The hypothesis proposed that animal and human life in North America not directly killed by the blast or the resulting coast-to-coast wildfires would have likely starved on the burned surface of the continent .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Younger_Dryas_impact_hypothesis", "rank": 69, "score": 103647 }, { "content": "Title: Cold Sunday Content: `` Cold Sunday '' was a meteorological event which took place on January 17 , 1982 , when unprecedentedly cold air swept down from Canada and plunged temperatures across much of the United States far below existing all-time record lows . The phenomenon was caused by an unusually strong high pressure system over Saskatchewan with a core pressure of 1055mb ( 31.15 inHg ) , a level rarely seen outside of permanent polar areas such as Siberia and Antarctica . A recent snowfall had left the ground without any way to hold on to its heat and temperatures dropped precipitously . This mass of cold air was so strong that the temperature at Mequon , Wisconsin , dropped to − 40 ° F ( − 40 ° C ) . The previous record was − 28 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) and temperatures below − 20 ° F ( − 29 ° C ) had been felt there only six times in the previous 100 years . The lowest temperature recorded that day in the United States was − 52 ° F ( − 47 ° C ) , measured near Tower , Minnesota . Below is a partial list of cities which set all-time record low temperatures in the United States . This is only a small fraction of all locales setting record low temperatures : Hundreds of towns and cities from North Dakota to New Jersey to Mississippi broke records , and the vast majority of the records set on `` Cold Sunday '' still stand . The cold was not confined to the night , either . In Princeton , New Jersey , and Cincinnati , Ohio , the daytime high temperatures were 2 ° F ( − 17 ° C ) and − 9 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) . The average high temperature in January is 39 ° F ( 4 ° C ) in both cities . While much of South Florida escaped the deep freeze , enough damage was done to citrus crops in Central Florida during the month of January to write off the 1982 harvest as a disaster . International Falls , Minnesota : − 45 ° F ( − 43 ° C ) Saint Cloud , Minnesota : − 35 ° F ( − 37 ° C ) Madison , Wisconsin : − 31 ° F ( − 35 ° C ) Green Bay , Wisconsin : − 28 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) Chicago , Illinois : − 27 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) Milwaukee , Wisconsin : − 26 ° F ( − 32 ° C ) Moline , Illinois : − 23 ° F ( − 31 ° C ) Peoria , Illinois : − 23 ° F ( − 31 ° C ) Akron , Ohio : − 22 ° F ( − 30 ° C ) Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania : − 18 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) Cleveland , Ohio : − 17 ° F ( − 27 ° C ) Jackson , Mississippi : − 5 ° F ( − 21 ° C ) Washington , D.C. : − 5 ° F ( − 21 ° C ) Birmingham , Alabama : − 2 ° F ( − 19 ° C )", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Cold_Sunday", "rank": 70, "score": 103617 }, { "content": "Title: Cold Content: Cold is the presence of low temperature , especially in the atmosphere . In common usage , cold is often a subjective perception . A lower bound to temperature is absolute zero , defined as 0.00 K on the Kelvin scale , an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale . This corresponds to 0 K on the Celsius scale , 0 K on the Fahrenheit scale , and 0 K on the Rankine scale . Since temperature relates to the thermal energy held by an object or a sample of matter , which is the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particle constituents of matter , an object will have less thermal energy when it is colder and more when it is hotter . If it were possible to cool a system to absolute zero , all motion of the particles in a sample of matter would cease and they would be at complete rest in this classical sense . The object would be described as having zero thermal energy . Microscopically in the description of quantum mechanics , however , matter still has zero-point energy even at absolute zero , because of the uncertainty principle .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Cold", "rank": 71, "score": 103614 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 72, "score": 103533 }, { "content": "Title: Cold-weather warfare Content: Cold-weather warfare , also known as Arctic warfare or winter warfare , encompasses military operations affected by snow , ice , thawing conditions or cold , both on land and at sea . Cold-weather conditions occur year-round at high elevation or at high latitudes , and elsewhere materialise seasonally during the winter period . Mountain warfare often takes place in cold weather or on terrain that is affected by ice and snow , such as the Alps and the Himalayas . Historically , most such operations have been during winter in the Northern Hemisphere . Some have occurred above the Arctic Circle where snow , ice and cold may occur throughout the year . At times , cold or its aftermath -- thaw -- has been a decisive factor in the failure of a campaign , as with Napoleon 's invasion of Russia in 1812 and the Nazi invasion of Russia .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Cold-weather_warfare", "rank": 73, "score": 102714 }, { "content": "Title: Coral in non-tropical regions Content: The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \"canaries in the coal mine,\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Coral_in_non-tropical_regions", "rank": 74, "score": 102625 }, { "content": "Title: Orographic lift Content: Orographic lift occurs when an air mass is forced from a low elevation to a higher elevation as it moves over rising terrain . As the air mass gains altitude it quickly cools down adiabatically , which can raise the relative humidity to 100 % and create clouds and , under the right conditions , precipitation .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Orographic_lift", "rank": 75, "score": 102550 }, { "content": "Title: High-pressure area Content: A high-pressure area , high or anticyclone is a region where the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the planet is greater than its surrounding environment . Winds within high-pressure areas flow outward from the higher pressure areas near their centers towards the lower pressure areas further from their centers . Gravity adds to the forces causing this general movement , because the higher pressure compresses the column of air near the center of the area into greater density -- and so greater weight compared to lower pressure , lower density , and lower weight of the air outside the center . However , because the planet is rotating underneath the atmosphere , and frictional forces arise as the planetary surface drags some atmosphere with it , the air flow from center to periphery is not direct , but is twisted due to the Coriolis effect , or the merely apparent force that arise when the observer is in a rotating frame of reference . Viewed from above this twist in wind direction is in the same direction as the rotation of the planet . The strongest high-pressure areas are associated with cold air masses which push away out of polar regions during the winter when there is less sun to warm neighboring regions . These Highs change character and weaken once they move further over relatively warmer water bodies . Somewhat weaker but more common are high-pressure areas caused by atmospheric subsidence , that is , areas where large masses of cooler drier air descend from an elevation of 8 to 15 km after the lower temperatures have precipitated out the water vapor . Many of the features of Highs may be understood in context of middle - or meso-scale and relatively enduring dynamics of a planet 's atmospheric circulation . For example , massive atmospheric subsidences occur as part of the descending branches of Ferrel cells and Hadley cells . Hadley cells help form the subtropical ridge , steer tropical waves and tropical cyclones across the ocean and is strongest during the summer . The subtropical ridge also helps form most of the world 's deserts . On English-language weather maps , high-pressure centers are identified by the letter H. Weather maps in other languages may use different letters or symbols .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "High-pressure_area", "rank": 76, "score": 102043 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 77, "score": 101487 }, { "content": "Title: Cold drop Content: The cold drop ( gota fría ) is a weather phenomenon often occurring in the Spanish autumn . It is experienced particularly along the western Mediterranean and as such , most frequently affects the east coast of Spain . It is a closed upper-level low which has become completely displaced ( cut off ) from basic westerly current , and moves independently of that current . Cutoff lows may remain nearly stationary for days , or on occasion may move westward opposite to the prevailing flow aloft ( i.e. , retrogression ) . The term is also used to describe the meteorological phenomenon associated . In Spain , it appears when a front of very cold polar air , a jet stream , advances slowly over Western Europe , at high altitude ( normally 5 -- 9 km or 3 -- 5.5 mi ) .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Cold_drop", "rank": 78, "score": 101430 }, { "content": "Title: Mesosphere Content: The mesosphere ( -LSB- ˈmɛsoʊsfɪər -RSB- from Greek mesos `` middle '' and sphaira `` sphere '' ) is the layer of the Earth 's atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the mesopause . In the mesosphere , temperature decreases as the altitude increases . The upper boundary of the mesosphere is the mesopause , which can be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth with temperatures below -143 C . The exact upper and lower boundaries of the mesosphere vary with latitude and with season , but the lower boundary of the mesosphere is usually located at heights of about 50 km above the Earth 's surface and the mesopause is usually at heights near 100 km , except at middle and high latitudes in summer where it descends to heights of about 85 km . The stratosphere , mesosphere and lowest part of the thermosphere are collectively referred to as the `` middle atmosphere '' , which spans heights from approximately 10 km to 100 km . The mesopause , at an altitude of 80 - , separates the mesosphere from the thermosphere -- the second-outermost layer of the Earth 's atmosphere . This is also around the same altitude as the turbopause , below which different chemical species are well mixed due to turbulent eddies . Above this level the atmosphere becomes non-uniform ; the scale heights of different chemical species differ by their molecular masses .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Mesosphere", "rank": 79, "score": 101305 }, { "content": "Title: Hot and high Content: In aviation , hot and high is a condition of low air density due to high ambient temperature and high airport elevation . Air density decreases with increasing temperature and altitude . At any given true airspeed , lower air density reduces the amount of lift generated by the wings or the rotors of an aircraft , which may hamper an aircraft 's performance and hence its ability to operate safely . The reduced density also reduces the performance of the aircraft 's engine , compounding the effect . Aviators gauge air density by calculating the density altitude . `` Hot '' and `` high '' do not have to be mutually inclusive of one another , though this tends to be the exception . If an airport is especially hot or high , the other condition need not be present . Temperatures can change from one hour to the next , while the elevation of an airport always remains constant . The fact that temperatures decrease at higher elevations mitigates the `` hot and high '' effect to a certain extent .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Hot_and_high", "rank": 80, "score": 101237 }, { "content": "Title: Stratopause Content: The stratopause ( formerly Mesopeak ) is the level of the atmosphere which is the boundary between two layers : the stratosphere and the mesosphere . In the stratosphere the temperature increases with altitude , and the stratopause is the region where a maximum in the temperature occurs . This atmospheric feature is not only associated with Earth : it occurs on any other planet or moon that has an atmosphere as well . On Earth , the stratopause is 50 to high above the Earth 's surface . The atmospheric pressure is around 1/1000 of the pressure at sea level . The temperature in the stratopause is -15 degrees Celsius ( 5 degrees Fahrenheit ) .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Stratopause", "rank": 81, "score": 100974 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 82, "score": 100819 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric instability Content: Atmospheric instability is a condition where the Earth 's atmosphere is generally considered to be unstable and as a result the weather is subjected to a high degree of variability through distance and time . Atmospheric stability is a measure of the atmosphere 's tendency to encourage or deter vertical motion , and vertical motion is directly correlated to different types of weather systems and their severity . In unstable conditions , a lifted thing , such as a parcel of air will be warmer than the surrounding air at altitude . Because it is warmer , it is less dense and is prone to further ascent . In meteorology , instability can be described by various indices such as the Bulk Richardson Number , lifted index , K-index , convective available potential energy ( CAPE ) , the Showalter , and the Vertical totals . These indices , as well as atmospheric instability itself , involve temperature changes through the troposphere with height , or lapse rate . Effects of atmospheric instability in moist atmospheres include thunderstorm development , which over warm oceans can lead to tropical cyclogenesis , and turbulence . In dry atmospheres , inferior mirages , dust devils , steam devils , and fire whirls can form . Stable atmospheres can be associated with drizzle , fog , increased air pollution , a lack of turbulence , and undular bore formation .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Atmospheric_instability", "rank": 83, "score": 100636 }, { "content": "Title: Heat (Colder album) Content: Heat is the second album from French musician Colder , released on Output Recordings on July 4 , 2005 . The album was produced in Paris , France and was released on CD , limited edition CD ( housed in a digipak ) , and limited edition red-colored 12 '' vinyl . The album was also released on CD in Mexico with two bonus tracks . All versions of the album are out of print .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Heat_(Colder_album)", "rank": 84, "score": 100603 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Venus Content: The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts . Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia . Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell . Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases . Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization . On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Venus", "rank": 85, "score": 100552 }, { "content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Deglaciation", "rank": 86, "score": 100464 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 87, "score": 100412 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 88, "score": 100334 }, { "content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson", "rank": 89, "score": 100327 }, { "content": "Title: Inversion (meteorology) Content: In meteorology , an inversion is a deviation from the normal change of an atmospheric property with altitude . It almost always refers to a `` temperature inversion '' , i.e. an increase in temperature with height , or to the layer ( `` inversion layer '' ) within which such an increase occurs . An inversion can lead to pollution such as smog being trapped close to the ground , with possible adverse effects on health . An inversion can also suppress convection by acting as a `` cap '' . If this cap is broken for any of several reasons , convection of any moisture present can then erupt into violent thunderstorms . Temperature inversion can notoriously result in freezing rain in cold climates .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Inversion_(meteorology)", "rank": 90, "score": 100167 }, { "content": "Title: List of locations with a subtropical climate Content: This list of locations with a subtropical climate specifically lists locations considered within the subtropics . The subtropics are geographic and climate zones located roughly between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn and the 40th parallel in both hemispheres . Subtropical climate regimes can exist at high elevations within the tropics , such as across the Mexican Plateau and in Vietnam and Taiwan . Six climate classifications utilize the term to help define the various temperature and precipitation regimes for the planet Earth . Using the Trewartha climate classification eight or more months of the year within the subtropics have an average temperature at or above 10 ° C , with their coldest month averaging between 6 and . The Köppen climate classification instead classifies the warmest month above 22 C and the coldest above 0 C or -3 C depending on preference . A great portion of the world 's deserts are located within the subtropics , due to the development of the subtropical ridge . Within the humid monsoon regimes in the subtropics , a wet season is seen annually during the summer , which is when most of the yearly rainfall falls . Within the Mediterranean climate regime , the wet season occurs during the winter . Areas bordering warm oceans are prone to locally heavy rainfall from tropical cyclones , which can contribute a significant percentage of the annual rainfall . Plants such as date palms , citrus , mango , litchi , and avocado are grown within the subtropical zones . This is not a complete list . Many of the higher mountains at tropical latitudes have sparsely ( if at all ) inhabited areas with a subtropical climate . Roads with reflectors also exist in most areas with subtropical climates .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "List_of_locations_with_a_subtropical_climate", "rank": 91, "score": 100121 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Uranus Content: The atmosphere of Uranus is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium . At depth it is significantly enriched in volatiles ( dubbed `` ices '' ) such as water , ammonia and methane . The opposite is true for the upper atmosphere , which contains very few gases heavier than hydrogen and helium due to its low temperature . Uranus 's atmosphere is the coldest of all the planets , with its temperature reaching as low as 49 K. The Uranian atmosphere can be divided into three main layers : the troposphere , between altitudes of − 300 and 50 km and pressures from 100 to 0.1 bar ; the stratosphere , spanning altitudes between 50 and 4000 km and pressures of between and the hot thermosphere ( and exosphere ) extending from an altitude of 4,000 km to several Uranian radii from the nominal surface at 1 bar pressure . Unlike Earth 's , Uranus 's atmosphere has no mesosphere . The troposphere hosts four cloud layers : methane clouds at about 1.2 bar , hydrogen sulfide and ammonia clouds at 3 -- 10 bar , ammonium hydrosulfide clouds at 20 -- 40 bar , and finally water clouds below 50 bar . Only the upper two cloud layers have been observed directly -- the deeper clouds remain speculative . Above the clouds lie several tenuous layers of photochemical haze . Discrete bright tropospheric clouds are rare on Uranus , probably due to sluggish convection in the planet 's interior . Nevertheless , observations of such clouds were used to measure the planet 's zonal winds , which are remarkably fast with speeds up to 240 m/s . Little is known about the Uranian atmosphere as to date only one spacecraft , Voyager 2 , which passed by the planet in 1986 , has studied it in detail . No other missions to Uranus are currently scheduled .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Uranus", "rank": 92, "score": 99864 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 93, "score": 99838 }, { "content": "Title: Polar mesospheric summer echoes Content: Polar mesospheric summer echoes ( PMSE ) is the phenomenon of anomalous radar echoes found between 80-90 km in altitude from May through early August in the Arctic , and from November through to February in the Antarctic . These strong radar echoes are associated with the extremely cold temperatures that occur above continental Antarctica during the summer . Rocket and radar measurements indicate that a partial reflection from a multitude of ion layers and constructive interference causes at least some of the PMSE . Generally PMSE exhibits dramatic variations in height and intensity as well as large variations in Doppler shift . PMSE exhibit strong signal power enhancements of scattering cross section at VHF radar frequencies in the range 50 MHz to 250 MHz , at times even to over 1 GHz , that occur in summer at high latitudes . The peak PMSE height is slightly below the summer mesopause temperature minimum at 88 km , and above the noctilucent cloud ( NLC ) and/or polar mesospheric cloud ( PMC ) layer at 83 -- 84 km . The usual instrument for observing PMSE is the a VHF Mesosphere-Stratosphere-Troposphere ( MST ) radar , although LIDARs and sounding rockets have also been used . PMSE is believed to be caused by structural irregularities in the ionospheric electron density at lower altitudes . The exact cause of PMSE is not yet known , although theorists have proposed steep electron density gradients , heavy positive ions , dressed aerosols , gravity waves and turbulence as possible explanations . PMSE occurs in both the Arctic and Antarctic regions , and is sometimes accompanied by noctilucent clouds .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Polar_mesospheric_summer_echoes", "rank": 94, "score": 99771 }, { "content": "Title: Glacial buzzsaw Content: The glacial buzzsaw is a hypothesis claiming glacier erosion is key to limit the height of mountains above certain threshold altitude . To this the hypothesis adds that great mountain massifs are leveled towards the equilibrium line altitude ( ELA ) , which would act as a `` climatic base level '' . Starting from the hypothesis it has been predicted that local climate is restricts the maximum height that mountain massifs can attain by effect of uplifting tectonic forces . It follows that as local climate is cooler at higher latitudes the highest mountains are lower there compared to the tropics where glaciation is and has been more limited . The mechanism behind the glacial buzzsaw effect would be the erosion of small glaciers that are mostly unable to erode much below the equilibrium line altitude since they do not reach these altitudes because of increased ablation . Instead , large valley glaciers may easily surpass the equilibrium line altitude and do therefore not contribute to a glacial buzzsaw effect . The concept has been criticized as measured erosion rates in the Pyrenees does not indicate a general drive towards certain level . In the case of Norway the elevated paleic surface has been proposed to have been shaped by a glacial buzzsaw effect . However this proposal is difficult to reconcile with the fact that the paleic surface consist of a series of steps at different levels . Further glacial cirques that in the buzzsaw hypothesis contribute to belevel the landscape are not associated to any paleosurface levels of the composite paleic surface , nor does the modern ELA or the Last Glacial Maximum ELA match any given level of the paleic surface . The elevated plains of West Greenland are also unrelated to any glacial buzzsaw effect .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Glacial_buzzsaw", "rank": 95, "score": 99688 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Satellite_temperature_measurements", "rank": 96, "score": 99589 }, { "content": "Title: Su'ao Cold Spring Content: Su'ao Cold Spring is a cold spring located in Su'ao , Yilan County , Taiwan . Su'ao Cold Spring has a spring water temperature of 22 ° C . It is both bathable and drinkable , and it has a pH of 5.5 . According to Japanese researchers , the cold spring contains carbonic ion concentrations of 68ppm , the highest of all springs in Taiwan . Its sodium ion concentrations were 14.3 ppm and calcium ion 10.7 ppm . Su'ao Cold Spring is the only calcium hydroxy carbonic spring in Taiwan . Su'ao Cold Spring contains a generous volume of carbon dioxide , which was in the past used to produce Ramune ( Natural soda water ) .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Su'ao_Cold_Spring", "rank": 97, "score": 99117 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of the Alps Content: The climate of the Alps is the climate , or average weather conditions over a long period of time , of the exact middle Alpine region of Europe . As air rises from sea level to the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature decreases . The effect of mountain topography on prevailing winds is to force warm air from the lower region into an upper zone where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of heat , often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture in the form of snow , rain or hail . The position of the Alps in the central European continent profoundly affects the climate of all the surrounding regions . The accumulation of vast masses of snow , which have gradually been converted into permanent glaciers , maintains a gradation of very different climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of the mountains and their upper ridges ; it cools breezes that waft to the plains on either side , but its most important function is to regulate the water supply of the large region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps . Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during fall , winter , and spring is stored in the form of snow and gradually diffused in the course of the succeeding summer ; even in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves accumulated during a long preceding period of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the regular flow of the greater streams . Nor is this all ; the lakes that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy and Venetia , and afford an inexhaustible supply of water , which , from a remote period , has been used for that system of irrigation to which they owe their proverbial fertility . Six regions or zones , which are best distinguished by their characteristic vegetation , are found in the Alps . It is an error to suppose that these are indicated by absolute height above sea level . Local conditions of exposure to the Sun , protection from cold winds , or the reverse , are of primary importance in determining the climate and the corresponding vegetation .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Climate_of_the_Alps", "rank": 98, "score": 99032 }, { "content": "Title: Air mass Content: In meteorology , an air mass is a volume of air defined by its temperature and water vapor content . Air masses cover many hundreds or thousands of square miles , and adapt to the characteristics of the surface below them . They are classified according to latitude and their continental or maritime source regions . Colder air masses are termed polar or arctic , while warmer air masses are deemed tropical . Continental and superior air masses are dry while maritime and monsoon air masses are moist . Weather fronts separate air masses with different density ( temperature and/or moisture ) characteristics . Once an air mass moves away from its source region , underlying vegetation and water bodies can quickly modify its character . Classification schemes tackle an air mass ' characteristics , as well as modification .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Air_mass", "rank": 99, "score": 98885 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "2977", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 100, "score": 98859 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 1, "score": 148715 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 2, "score": 145429 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 3, "score": 140930 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 4, "score": 134483 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 5, "score": 132594 }, { "content": "Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology", "qid": "2978", "docid": "LOWERN", "rank": 6, "score": 131855 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 7, "score": 131060 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 8, "score": 130825 }, { "content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Mesopause", "rank": 9, "score": 130437 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-curtain effect Content: The zero-curtain effect occurs in cold ( particularly periglacial ) environments where the phase transition of water to ice is slowed down due to latent heat release . The effect is notably found in arctic and alpine permafrost sediments , and occurs where the air temperature falls below 0 ° C ( the freezing point of water ) followed by a rapid drop in soil temperature . Because of this effect , the lowering of temperature in moist , cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate . The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes , and latent heat is released . This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen , at which point temperatures can continue to fall . Therefore , for as long as water is available to the system ( for example , through cryosuction/capillary action ) the temperature of the sediment will remain at a constant temperature .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Zero-curtain_effect", "rank": 10, "score": 129927 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 11, "score": 121701 }, { "content": "Title: Cold trap (astronomy) Content: In astronomy , a cold trap is a close to the surface layer of the atmosphere that is substantially colder than both the deeper and higher layers . The temperature of the air drops with increasing height above the surface of the earth reaching a low point ( which for the earth resides at about 20 kilometers height ) . It is called a trap because it keeps ascending gases with high melting points in by freezing them to a solid which then drops back to the planet surface . The most important gas to be kept in that way , on the Earth , is water vapor , which without the presence of a cold trap in the atmosphere would gradually escape or dissociate into space , making life impossible . However , because of the cold trap water vapor condenses into droplets of liquid water or tiny ice crystals , forming clouds . The cold trap retains one-tenth of one percentof the water in the atmosphere in the form of a vapor at high altitudes . The cold trap is also a layer which above ultraviolet intensity is strong , since higher up the amount of water vapor is negligible . Oxygen screens out ultraviolet intensity . Some astronomers believe that the lack of a cold trap is why the planets Venus and Mars both lost most of their liquid water early in their histories .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Cold_trap_(astronomy)", "rank": 12, "score": 120890 }, { "content": "Title: Vapor cone Content: A vapor cone , also known as shock collar or shock egg , is a visible cloud of condensed water which can sometimes form around an object moving at high speed through moist air , for example an aircraft flying at transonic speeds . When the localized air pressure around the object drops , so does the air temperature . If the temperature drops below the saturation temperature a cloud forms . In the case of aircraft , the cloud is caused by expansion fans decreasing the air pressure , density and temperature below the dew point . Then pressure , density and temperature suddenly increase across the stern shock wave associated with a return to subsonic flow behind the aircraft . Since the local Mach number is not uniform over the aircraft , parts of the aircraft may be supersonic while others remain subsonic -- a flight regime called transonic flight . In addition to making the shock waves themselves visible , water condensation can also occur in the trough between two crests of the shock waves produced by the passing of the object . However , this effect does not necessarily coincide with the acceleration of an aircraft through the speed of sound or Mach 1 .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Vapor_cone", "rank": 13, "score": 120217 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 14, "score": 119584 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 15, "score": 118184 }, { "content": "Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Impact_winter", "rank": 16, "score": 116952 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 17, "score": 116907 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 18, "score": 115372 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Hypercane", "rank": 19, "score": 115060 }, { "content": "Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system", "rank": 20, "score": 114560 }, { "content": "Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Polar_High", "rank": 21, "score": 114501 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 22, "score": 114353 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 23, "score": 113077 }, { "content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm", "rank": 24, "score": 112800 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 25, "score": 112329 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 26, "score": 111944 }, { "content": "Title: Cold drop Content: The cold drop ( gota fría ) is a weather phenomenon often occurring in the Spanish autumn . It is experienced particularly along the western Mediterranean and as such , most frequently affects the east coast of Spain . It is a closed upper-level low which has become completely displaced ( cut off ) from basic westerly current , and moves independently of that current . Cutoff lows may remain nearly stationary for days , or on occasion may move westward opposite to the prevailing flow aloft ( i.e. , retrogression ) . The term is also used to describe the meteorological phenomenon associated . In Spain , it appears when a front of very cold polar air , a jet stream , advances slowly over Western Europe , at high altitude ( normally 5 -- 9 km or 3 -- 5.5 mi ) .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Cold_drop", "rank": 27, "score": 111914 }, { "content": "Title: Carburetor icing Content: Carburetor Icing , or carb icing , is an icing condition which can affect any carburetor under certain atmospheric conditions . The problem is most notable in certain realms of aviation . Carburetor icing occurs when there is humid air , and the temperature drop in the venturi causes the water vapor to freeze . The venturi effect can drop the ambient air temperature by 30-40 degrees F , therefore carburetor icing often occurs when the outside air temperature is in the 60-70 degree F range . Unfortunately , the warm air temperature often causes pilots to overlook the possibility of carb icing . The ice will form on the surfaces of the carburetor throat , further restricting it . This may increase the Venturi effect initially , but eventually restricts airflow , perhaps even causing a complete blockage of air to the carburetor . The engine begins to run more rich as ice formation increases . Without intervention ( carb heat or leaning ) this can only continue until the mixture is outside of the `` chemically correct '' range for combustion . Icing may also cause jamming of the mechanical parts of the carburetor , such as the throttle , typically a butterfly valve . While it applies to all carburetors , carburetor icing is of particular concern in association with piston-powered aircraft , especially small , single-engine , light aircraft . Aircraft powered by carbureted engines are equipped with carburetor heat systems to overcome the icing problem . In cars , carburetor icing can occasionally be a nuisance . The inlet manifold and parts of the carburetor often have warm water from the cooling system or exhaust gas circulating through them to combat this problem . Motorcycles can also suffer from carburetor icing , although some engine designs are more susceptible to it than others . Air-cooled engines may be more prone to icing , due to the absence of warm coolant circulating through the engine .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Carburetor_icing", "rank": 28, "score": 111659 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 29, "score": 111653 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 30, "score": 111356 }, { "content": "Title: Water on Mars Content: Almost all water on Mars today exists as ice , though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere and occasionally as low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil . The only place where water ice is visible at the surface is at the north polar ice cap . Abundant water ice is also present beneath the permanent carbon dioxide ice cap at the Martian south pole and in the shallow subsurface at more temperate latitudes . More than five million cubic kilometers of ice have been identified at or near the surface of modern Mars , enough to cover the whole planet to a depth of 35 meters . Even more ice is likely to be locked away in the deep subsurface . Some liquid water may occur transiently on the Martian surface today , but only under certain conditions . No large standing bodies of liquid water exist , because the atmospheric pressure at the surface averages just 600 Pa -- about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure -- and because the global average temperature is far too low ( 210 K ) , leading to either rapid evaporation ( sublimation ) or rapid freezing . Before about 3.8 billion years ago , Mars may have had a denser atmosphere and higher surface temperatures , allowing vast amounts of liquid water on the surface , possibly including a large ocean that may have covered one-third of the planet . Water has also apparently flowed across the surface for short periods at various intervals more recently in Mars ' history . On December 9 , 2013 , NASA reported that , based on evidence from the Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus , Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake that could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life . Many lines of evidence indicate that water is abundant on Mars and has played a significant role in the planet 's geologic history . The present-day inventory of water on Mars can be estimated from spacecraft imagery , remote sensing techniques ( spectroscopic measurements , radar , etc. ) , and surface investigations from landers and rovers . Geologic evidence of past water includes enormous outflow channels carved by floods , ancient river valley networks , deltas , and lakebeds ; and the detection of rocks and minerals on the surface that could only have formed in liquid water . Numerous geomorphic features suggest the presence of ground ice ( permafrost ) and the movement of ice in glaciers , both in the recent past and present . Gullies and slope lineae along cliffs and crater walls suggest that flowing water continues to shape the surface of Mars , although to a far lesser degree than in the ancient past . Although the surface of Mars was periodically wet and could have been hospitable to microbial life billions of years ago , the current environment at the surface is dry and subfreezing , probably presenting an insurmountable obstacle for living organisms . In addition , Mars lacks a thick atmosphere , ozone layer , and magnetic field , allowing solar and cosmic radiation to strike the surface unimpeded . The damaging effects of ionizing radiation on cellular structure is another one of the prime limiting factors on the survival of life on the surface . Therefore , the best potential locations for discovering life on Mars may be in subsurface environments . On November 22 , 2016 , NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice on the planet Mars -- the volume of water detected is equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior . Understanding water on Mars is vital to assess the planet 's potential for harboring life and for providing usable resources for future human exploration . For this reason , ` Follow the Water ' was the science theme of NASA 's Mars Exploration Program ( MEP ) in the first decade of the 21st century . Discoveries by the 2001 Mars Odyssey , Mars Exploration Rovers ( MERs ) , Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter ( MRO ) , and Mars Phoenix lander have been instrumental in answering key questions about water 's abundance and distribution on Mars . The ESA 's Mars Express orbiter has also provided essential data in this quest . The Mars Odyssey , Mars Express , MER Opportunity rover , MRO , and Mars Science Lander Curiosity rover are still sending back data from Mars , and discoveries continue to be made .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Water_on_Mars", "rank": 31, "score": 111027 }, { "content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Past_sea_level", "rank": 32, "score": 110974 }, { "content": "Title: Dew point Content: Dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated with water vapor . When further cooled , the airborne water vapor will condense to form liquid dew . When air with a high dew point contacts surfaces at colder temperatures , then liquid dew will form on the surfaces as condensation . Dew point is sometimes called frost point when the temperature is below freezing . The measurement of dew point is related to humidity . A higher dew point means there will be more moisture in the air .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Dew_point", "rank": 33, "score": 110734 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 34, "score": 110425 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 35, "score": 109814 }, { "content": "Title: Lake-effect snow Content: Lake-effect snow is produced during cooler atmospheric conditions when a cold air mass moves across long expanses of warmer lake water , warming the lower layer of air which picks up water vapor from the lake , rises up through the colder air above , freezes and is deposited on the leeward ( downwind ) shores . The same effect also occurs over bodies of salt water , when it is termed ocean-effect or bay-effect snow . The effect is enhanced when the moving air mass is uplifted by the orographic influence of higher elevations on the downwind shores . This uplifting can produce narrow but very intense bands of precipitation , which deposit at a rate of many inches of snow each hour , often resulting in a large amount of total snowfall . The areas affected by lake-effect snow are called snowbelts . These include areas east of the Great Lakes , the west coasts of northern Japan , the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia , and areas near the Great Salt Lake , Black Sea , Caspian Sea , Baltic Sea , and parts of the northern Atlantic Ocean . A lake-effect blizzard is the blizzard-like conditions resulting from lake-effect snow . Under certain conditions , strong winds can accompany lake-effect snows creating blizzard-like conditions ; however the duration of the event is often slightly less than that required for a blizzard warning in both the US and Canada . If the air temperature is low enough to keep the precipitation frozen , it falls as lake-effect snow . For lake-effect rain or snow to form , the air moving across the lake must be significantly cooler than the surface air ( which is likely to be near the temperature of the water surface ) . Specifically , the air temperature at an altitude where the air pressure is 850 mbar ( roughly 1.5 km vertically ) should be 13 ° C-change lower than the temperature of the air at the surface . Lake-effect occurring when the air at 850 mbar is much colder than the water surface can produce thundersnow , snow showers accompanied by lightning and thunder ( caused by larger amounts of energy available from the increased instability ) .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Lake-effect_snow", "rank": 36, "score": 109805 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 37, "score": 108649 }, { "content": "Title: Pressure-balanced valve Content: A pressure-balanced valve provides water at nearly constant temperature to a shower or bathtub , despite pressure fluctuations in either the hot or cold supply lines . If , for example , someone flushes a toilet while the shower is in use , the fixture suddenly draws a significant amount of cold water from the common supply line , causing a pressure drop . In the absence of a compensating mechanism , the relatively higher pressure in the hot water supply line will cause the shower temperature to rise just as suddenly , possibly reaching an uncomfortable or even dangerous level . Conversely , if someone opens a hot water faucet elsewhere , the relatively higher pressure in the cold water supply line will cause the shower temperature to drop suddenly . The pressure-balanced shower valve compensates for changes in water pressure . It has a diaphragm or piston inside that reacts to relative changes in either hot or cold water pressure to maintain balanced pressure . As water pressure drops on one supply line , the valve reduces the pressure in the other supply line to match . A side effect of this is that the pressure and flow at the shower head or tub spigot will drop twice as much as if only one supply line had been affected , but without a large temperature change . There are ball bearings in the valves to regulate forces . The use of pressure-balanced valves can prevent scalding injuries , in particular to the elderly , the infirm , to children and infants . Based on that , some municipalities require by building codes to have it installed .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Pressure-balanced_valve", "rank": 38, "score": 108475 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 39, "score": 107748 }, { "content": "Title: Sea surface temperature Content: Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Sea_surface_temperature", "rank": 40, "score": 107613 }, { "content": "Title: Cold Sunday Content: `` Cold Sunday '' was a meteorological event which took place on January 17 , 1982 , when unprecedentedly cold air swept down from Canada and plunged temperatures across much of the United States far below existing all-time record lows . The phenomenon was caused by an unusually strong high pressure system over Saskatchewan with a core pressure of 1055mb ( 31.15 inHg ) , a level rarely seen outside of permanent polar areas such as Siberia and Antarctica . A recent snowfall had left the ground without any way to hold on to its heat and temperatures dropped precipitously . This mass of cold air was so strong that the temperature at Mequon , Wisconsin , dropped to − 40 ° F ( − 40 ° C ) . The previous record was − 28 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) and temperatures below − 20 ° F ( − 29 ° C ) had been felt there only six times in the previous 100 years . The lowest temperature recorded that day in the United States was − 52 ° F ( − 47 ° C ) , measured near Tower , Minnesota . Below is a partial list of cities which set all-time record low temperatures in the United States . This is only a small fraction of all locales setting record low temperatures : Hundreds of towns and cities from North Dakota to New Jersey to Mississippi broke records , and the vast majority of the records set on `` Cold Sunday '' still stand . The cold was not confined to the night , either . In Princeton , New Jersey , and Cincinnati , Ohio , the daytime high temperatures were 2 ° F ( − 17 ° C ) and − 9 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) . The average high temperature in January is 39 ° F ( 4 ° C ) in both cities . While much of South Florida escaped the deep freeze , enough damage was done to citrus crops in Central Florida during the month of January to write off the 1982 harvest as a disaster . International Falls , Minnesota : − 45 ° F ( − 43 ° C ) Saint Cloud , Minnesota : − 35 ° F ( − 37 ° C ) Madison , Wisconsin : − 31 ° F ( − 35 ° C ) Green Bay , Wisconsin : − 28 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) Chicago , Illinois : − 27 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) Milwaukee , Wisconsin : − 26 ° F ( − 32 ° C ) Moline , Illinois : − 23 ° F ( − 31 ° C ) Peoria , Illinois : − 23 ° F ( − 31 ° C ) Akron , Ohio : − 22 ° F ( − 30 ° C ) Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania : − 18 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) Cleveland , Ohio : − 17 ° F ( − 27 ° C ) Jackson , Mississippi : − 5 ° F ( − 21 ° C ) Washington , D.C. : − 5 ° F ( − 21 ° C ) Birmingham , Alabama : − 2 ° F ( − 19 ° C )", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Cold_Sunday", "rank": 41, "score": 107542 }, { "content": "Title: Leidenfrost effect Content: thumb | Leidenfrost droplet thumb | Demonstration of the Leidenfrost effect The Leidenfrost effect is a physical phenomenon in which a liquid , in near contact with a mass significantly hotter than the liquid 's boiling point , produces an insulating vapor layer keeping that liquid from boiling rapidly . Due to this ` repulsive force ' , a droplet hovers over the surface rather than making physical contact with it . This is most commonly seen when cooking : one sprinkles drops of water in a pan to gauge its temperature : if the pan 's temperature is at or above the Leidenfrost point , the water skitters across the pan and takes longer to evaporate than in a pan below the temperature of the Leidenfrost point ( but still above boiling temperature ) . The effect is also responsible for the ability of liquid nitrogen to skitter across floors . It has also been used in some potentially dangerous demonstrations , such as dipping a wet finger in molten lead or blowing out a mouthful of liquid nitrogen , both enacted without injury to the demonstrator . The latter is potentially lethal , particularly should one accidentally swallow the liquid nitrogen . It is named after Johann Gottlob Leidenfrost , who discussed it in A Tract About Some Qualities of Common Water in 1756 .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Leidenfrost_effect", "rank": 42, "score": 107392 }, { "content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change", "rank": 43, "score": 107220 }, { "content": "Title: Humidity Content: Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the air . Water vapor is the gaseous state of water and is invisible to the human eye . Humidity indicates the likelihood of precipitation , dew , or fog . Higher humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by reducing the rate of evaporation of moisture from the skin . This effect is calculated in a heat index table or humidex . The amount of water vapor that is needed to achieve saturation increases as the temperature increases . As the temperature of a parcel of water becomes lower it will eventually reach the point of saturation without adding or losing water mass . The differences in the amount of water vapor in a parcel of air can be quite large . For example , a parcel of air that is near saturation may contain 28 grams of water per cubic meter of air at 30 ° C , but only 8 grams of water per cubic meter of air at 8 ° C. There are three main measurements of humidity : absolute , relative and specific . Absolute humidity is the water content of air expressed in gram per cubic meter . Relative humidity , expressed as a percent , measures the current absolute humidity relative to the maximum ( highest point ) for that temperature . Specific humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the moist air parcel .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Humidity", "rank": 44, "score": 107179 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 45, "score": 106647 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 46, "score": 106506 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 47, "score": 106102 }, { "content": "Title: Condensation cloud Content: A transient condensation cloud , also called Wilson cloud , is observable at large explosions in humid air . When a nuclear weapon or a large amount of a conventional explosive is detonated in sufficiently humid air , the `` negative phase '' of the shock wave causes a rarefaction ( reduction in density ) of the air surrounding the explosion , but not contained within it . This rarefaction results in a temporary cooling of that air , which causes a condensation of some of the water vapor contained in it . When the pressure and the temperature return to normal , the Wilson cloud dissipates . Since heat does not leave the affected air mass , this change of pressure is adiabatic , with an associated change of temperature . In humid air , the drop in temperature in the most rarefied portion of the shock wave can bring the air temperature below its dew point , at which moisture condenses to form a visible cloud of microscopic water droplets . Since the pressure effect of the wave is reduced by its expansion ( the same pressure effect is spread over a larger radius ) , the vapor effect also has a limited radius . Such vapor can also be seen in low pressure regions during high -- g subsonic maneuvers of aircraft in humid conditions . Scientists observing the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 at Bikini Atoll named that transitory cloud a `` Wilson cloud '' because of its similarity to the appearance of the inside of a Wilson cloud chamber , an instrument they would have been familiar with . ( The cloud chamber effect is caused by a temporary reduction in pressure in a closed system and marks the tracks of electrically-charged sub-atomic particles . ) Analysts of later nuclear bomb tests used the more general term condensation cloud . The shape of the shock wave , influenced by different speed in different altitudes , and the temperature and humidity of different atmospheric layers determines the appearance of the Wilson clouds . During nuclear tests , condensation rings around or above the fireball are commonly observed . Rings around the fireball may become stable and form rings around the rising stem of the mushroom cloud . The lifetime of the Wilson cloud during nuclear air bursts can be shortened by the thermal radiation from the fireball , which heats the cloud above the dew point and evaporates the droplets . The same kind of condensation cloud is sometimes seen above the wings of aircraft in a moist atmosphere . The top of a wing has a reduction of air pressure as part of the process of generating lift . This reduction in air pressure causes a cooling , just as above , and the condensation of water vapor . Hence , the small , transient clouds that appear . The vapor cone of a transonic aircraft is another example of a condensation cloud .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Condensation_cloud", "rank": 48, "score": 105966 }, { "content": "Title: Shivering Content: Shivering ( also called shuddering ) is a bodily function in response to early hypothermia or just feeling cold in warm-blooded animals . When the core body temperature drops , the shivering reflex is triggered to maintain homeostasis . Skeletal muscles begin to shake in small movements , creating warmth by expending energy . Shivering can also be a response to a fever , as a person may feel cold . During fever the hypothalamic set point for temperature is raised . The increased set point causes the body temperature to rise ( pyrexia ) , but also makes the patient feel cold until the new set point is reached . Severe chills with violent shivering are called rigors . Rigors occur because the patient 's body is shivering in a physiological attempt to increase body temperature to the new set point . Located in the posterior hypothalamus near the wall of the third ventricle is an area called the primary motor center for shivering . This area is normally inhibited by signals from the heat center in the anterior hypothalamic-preoptic area but is excited by cold signals from the skin and spinal cord . Therefore , this center becomes activated when the body temperature falls even a fraction of a degree below a critical temperature level . Cold-defensive and febrile shivering responses require activation of rostral medullary raphe neurons , especially those located near the midline in the region of the raphe pallidus nucleus between 2.3 and 3.5 mm caudal to the interaural line , corresponding to an antero-posterior level between 400 μm caudal to 800 μm rostral to the caudal border of the facial nucleus , and are modulated by activation of local 5-HT1A receptors ; the central command pathway for shivering parallels that for sympathetically regulated non-shivering thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue ( discussed below ) : Cutaneous cold afferent-triggered activation of neurons in the dorsomedial hypothalamus and GABAergic transmission from the median preoptic nucleus to the medial preoptic area mediates the shivering response as well as the brown adipose tissue non-shivering thermogenic and the tachycardic responses to environmental cooling . Increased muscular activity results in the generation of heat as a byproduct . Most often , when the purpose of the muscle activity is to produce motion , the heat is wasted energy . In shivering , the heat is the main intended product and is utilized for warmth . Shivering can also appear after surgery . This is known as postanesthetic shivering . Newborn babies , infants , and young children experience a greater ( net ) heat loss than adults because they can not shiver to maintain body heat . They rely on non-shivering thermogenesis . Children have an increased amount of brown adipose tissue ( increased vascular supply , and high mitochondrial density ) , and , when cold-stressed , will have greater oxygen consumption and will release norepinephrine . Norepinephrine will react with lipases in brown fat to break down fat into triglycerides . Triglycerides are then metabolized to glycerol and non-esterified fatty acids . These are then further degraded in the needed heat-generating process to form CO2 and water . Chemically , in mitochondria the proton gradient producing the proton electromotive force that is ordinarily used to synthesize ATP is instead bypassed to produce heat directly .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Shivering", "rank": 49, "score": 105469 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Volcanic_winter", "rank": 50, "score": 105266 }, { "content": "Title: Cold blob (North Atlantic) Content: The cold blob in the North Atlantic describes a cold temperature anomaly of ocean surface waters , affecting the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation ( AMOC ) which is part of the thermohaline circulation , possibly related to global warming-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Cold_blob_(North_Atlantic)", "rank": 51, "score": 105094 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans", "rank": 52, "score": 104908 }, { "content": "Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Drawdown_(climate)", "rank": 53, "score": 104804 }, { "content": "Title: Lowest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The lowest natural temperature ever directly recorded at ground level on Earth is − 89.2 C , which was at the Soviet Vostok Station in Antarctica by ground measurements . A 2009 study estimated that under exceptional climate conditions similar to those recorded at Vostin 1983 , temperatures higher on the plateau around Dome Argus could potentially drop lower than − 95 C. On August 10 , 2010 , satellite observations measured a surface temperature of − 93.2 C at 81.8 ° S 59.3 ° E , along a ridge between Dome Argus and Dome Fuji , at 3,900 m elevation . The result was reported at the 46th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco , in December 2013 ; it is a provisional figure , and may be subject to revision . The value may not be listed as the record coldest temperature as it was measured by remote sensing satellites and not by ground-based thermometers , unlike the 1983 record . The temperature announced reflects that of the ice surface , while the Vostok readings measured the air above the ice , and so the two are not directly comparable . However , it is most likely that the real temperature on the site was lower than that recorded at Vostok .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Lowest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth", "rank": 54, "score": 104785 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 55, "score": 104754 }, { "content": "Title: Precipitation Content: In meteorology , precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity . The main forms of precipitation include drizzle , rain , sleet , snow , graupel and hail . Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor , so that the water condenses and `` precipitates '' . Thus , fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions , because the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate . Two processes , possibly acting together , can lead to air becoming saturated : cooling the air or adding water vapor to the air . Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud . Short , intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called `` showers . '' Moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain . This process is typically active when freezing rain is occurring . A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain and serves as the foci for forcing and rising air . Provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content , the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds , namely stratus and cumulonimbus . Eventually , the cloud droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops and descend toward the Earth where they will freeze on contact with exposed objects . Where relatively warm water bodies are present , for example due to water evaporation from lakes , lake-effect snowfall becomes a concern downwind of the warm lakes within the cold cyclonic flow around the backside of extratropical cyclones . Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy . Thundersnow is possible within a cyclone 's comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands . In mountainous areas , heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation . On the leeward side of mountains , desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating . The movement of the monsoon trough , or intertropical convergence zone , brings rainy seasons to savannah climes . Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle , and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet . Approximately 505000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year ; 398000 km3 of it over the oceans and 107000 km3 over land . Given the Earth 's surface area , that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 mm , but over land it is only 715 mm . Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes . Precipitation may occur on other celestial bodies , e.g. when it gets cold , Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost , rather than rain or snow .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Precipitation", "rank": 56, "score": 104562 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 57, "score": 104472 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan", "rank": 58, "score": 104325 }, { "content": "Title: Virga Content: __ NOTOC __ In meteorology , virga is an observable fall streaks or shaft of precipitation falling from a cloud but evaporates or sublimates before reaching the ground . A shaft of precipitation which does n't evaporate before reaching the ground is a precipitation shaft . At high altitudes the precipitation falls mainly as ice crystals before melting and finally evaporating ; this is often due to compressional heating , because the air pressure increases closer to the ground . It is very common in the desert and in temperate climates . In North America , it is commonly seen in the Western United States and the Canadian Prairies . It is also very common in the Middle East , Australia and North Africa . Virga can cause varying weather effects , because as rain is changed from liquid to vapor form , it removes heat from the air due to the high heat of vaporization of water . Precipitation falling into these cooling down drafts may eventually reach the ground . In some instances , these pockets of colder air can descend rapidly , creating a wet or dry microburst which can be extremely hazardous to aviation . Conversely , precipitation evaporating at high altitude can compressionally heat as it falls , and result in a gusty downburst which may substantially and rapidly warm the surface temperature . This fairly rare phenomenon , a heat burst , also tends to be of exceedingly dry air . Virga also has a role in seeding storm cells whereby small particles from one cloud are blown into neighboring supersaturated air and act as nucleation particles for the next thunderhead cloud to begin forming . The word is derived from Latin virga meaning `` twig '' or `` branch '' .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Virga", "rank": 59, "score": 104315 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes", "rank": 60, "score": 104204 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 61, "score": 104176 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 62, "score": 103785 }, { "content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Deglaciation", "rank": 63, "score": 103497 }, { "content": "Title: Vapor Content: In physics a vapor ( American ) or vapour ( British ) is a substance in the gas phase at a temperature lower than its critical temperature , which means that the vapor can be condensed to a liquid by increasing the pressure on it without reducing the temperature . A vapor is different from an aerosol . An aerosol is a suspension of tiny particles of liquid , solid , or both within a gas . For example , water has a critical temperature of 647 K , which is the highest temperature at which liquid water can exist . In the atmosphere at ordinary temperatures , therefore , gaseous water ( known as water vapor ) will condense into a liquid if its partial pressure is increased sufficiently . A vapor may co-exist with a liquid ( or a solid ) . When this is true , the two phases will be in equilibrium , and the gas-partial pressure will be equal to the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid ( or solid ) .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Vapor", "rank": 64, "score": 103359 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Carbon_leakage", "rank": 65, "score": 103090 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 66, "score": 102768 }, { "content": "Title: Ground frost Content: Ground frost refers to the various coverings of ice produced by the direct deposition of water vapor on objects and trees , whose surfaces have a temperature below the freezing point of water ( 0 ° C , 32 ° F ) .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Ground_frost", "rank": 67, "score": 102561 }, { "content": "Title: Su'ao Cold Spring Content: Su'ao Cold Spring is a cold spring located in Su'ao , Yilan County , Taiwan . Su'ao Cold Spring has a spring water temperature of 22 ° C . It is both bathable and drinkable , and it has a pH of 5.5 . According to Japanese researchers , the cold spring contains carbonic ion concentrations of 68ppm , the highest of all springs in Taiwan . Its sodium ion concentrations were 14.3 ppm and calcium ion 10.7 ppm . Su'ao Cold Spring is the only calcium hydroxy carbonic spring in Taiwan . Su'ao Cold Spring contains a generous volume of carbon dioxide , which was in the past used to produce Ramune ( Natural soda water ) .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Su'ao_Cold_Spring", "rank": 68, "score": 102558 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 69, "score": 102539 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Climate_change_feedback", "rank": 70, "score": 102421 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric icing Content: Atmospheric icing occurs when water droplets in the atmosphere freeze on objects they contact . This can be extremely dangerous to aircraft , as the built-up ice changes the aerodynamics of the flight surfaces , which can increase the risk of a subsequent stalling of the airfoil . For this reason , ice protection systems are often considered critical components of flight , and aircraft are often deiced prior to take-off in icy environments . Not all water freezes at 0 ° C. Liquid water below this temperature is called supercooled , and such supercooled droplets cause the icing problems on aircraft . Below − 20 ° C , icing is rare because clouds at these temperatures usually consist of ice particles rather than supercooled water droplets . Below − 48 ° C , supercooled water can not exist , therefore icing is impossible . Icing also occurs on towers , wind turbines , boats , oil rigs , trees and other objects exposed to low temperatures and water droplets . Ice loads are a major cause of catastrophic failures of overhead electric power lines . Their estimation is , therefore , crucial in the structural design of power line systems . and can be done by numerical icing models that include meteorological data .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Atmospheric_icing", "rank": 71, "score": 102223 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud condensation nuclei Content: Cloud condensation nuclei or CCNs ( also known as cloud seeds ) are small particles typically 0.2 µm , or 1/100th the size of a cloud droplet on which water vapor condenses . Water requires a non-gaseous surface to make the transition from a vapour to a liquid ; this process is called condensation . In the atmosphere , this surface presents itself as tiny solid or liquid particles called CCNs . When no CCNs are present , water vapour can be supercooled at about -13 ° C ( 8 ° F ) for 5-6 hours before droplets spontaneously form ( this is the basis of the cloud chamber for detecting subatomic particles ) . In above freezing temperatures the air would have to be supersaturated to around 400 % before the droplets could form . The concept of cloud condensation nuclei is used in cloud seeding , that tries to encourage rainfall by seeding the air with condensation nuclei . It has further been suggested that creating such nuclei could be used for marine cloud brightening , a climate engineering technique .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Cloud_condensation_nuclei", "rank": 72, "score": 102052 }, { "content": "Title: Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process Content: The Wegener -- Bergeron -- Findeisen process ( after Alfred Wegener , Tor Bergeron and Walter Findeisen ) , ( or `` cold-rain process '' ) is a process of ice crystal growth that occurs in mixed phase clouds ( containing a mixture of supercooled water and ice ) in regions where the ambient vapor pressure falls between the saturation vapor pressure over water and the lower saturation vapor pressure over ice . This is a subsaturated environment for liquid water but a supersaturated environment for ice resulting in rapid evaporation of liquid water and rapid ice crystal growth through vapor deposition . If the number density of ice is small compared to liquid water , the ice crystals can grow large enough to fall out of the cloud , melting into rain drops if lower level temperatures are warm enough . The Bergeron process , if occurring at all , is much more efficient in producing large particles than is the growth of larger droplets at the expense of smaller ones , since the difference in saturation pressure between liquid water and ice is larger than the enhancement of saturation pressure over small droplets ( for droplets large enough to considerably contribute to the total mass ) . For other processes affecting particle size , see rain and cloud physics .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen_process", "rank": 73, "score": 101835 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal", "rank": 74, "score": 101382 }, { "content": "Title: Convective condensation level Content: The convective condensation level ( CCL ) represents the height ( or pressure ) where an air parcel becomes saturated when heated from below and lifted adiabatically due to buoyancy . In the atmosphere , assuming a constant water vapor mixing ratio , the dew point temperature ( the temperature where the relative humidity is 100 % ) decreases with increasing height because the pressure of the atmosphere decreases with height . The CCL is determined by plotting the dew point ( 100 % RH ) verses altitude and locating the intersection with the actual measured temperature sounding . It marks where the cloud base begins when air is heated from below to the convective temperature , without mechanical lift . Once the CCL is determined , the surface temperature necessary to raise a mass of air to that height can be found by using the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate ( DALR ) to determine the potential temperature . In the early morning , this temperature is typically larger than the surface temperature , in the mid-afternoon , it may be the same . Compare this to the Lifting Condensation Level ( LCL ) where the air is lifted and cooled without first increasing the surface temperature . The LCL is less than or equal to the CCL depending on the temperature profile . Both condensation levels indicate the altitude ( or pressure ) where relative humidity reaches 100 % . However , since the actual condensation level depends on the availability of condensation nuclei , clouds typically do not form until the relative humidity is somewhat above 100 % .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Convective_condensation_level", "rank": 75, "score": 101377 }, { "content": "Title: Heat burst Content: In meteorology , a heat burst is a rare atmospheric phenomenon characterized by gusty winds and a rapid increase in temperature and decrease in dew point ( moisture ) . Heat bursts typically occur during night-time and are associated with decaying thunderstorms . Although this phenomenon is not fully understood , it is theorized that the event is caused when rain evaporates ( virga ) into a parcel of cold dry air high in the atmosphere making the air denser than its surroundings . The parcel descends rapidly , warming due to compression , overshoots its equilibrium level and reaches the surface , similar to a downburst . Recorded temperatures during heat bursts have reached well above 38 ° C , sometimes rising by 20 F-change or more within only a few minutes . More extreme events have also been documented , where temperatures have been reported to exceed 120 ° F. However , such extreme events have never been officially verified . Heat bursts are also characterized by extremely dry air and are sometimes associated with very strong , even damaging , winds .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Heat_burst", "rank": 76, "score": 101075 }, { "content": "Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "1997–98_El_Niño_event", "rank": 77, "score": 101053 }, { "content": "Title: Cold front Content: A cold front is defined as the leading edge of a cooler mass of air , replacing at ground level a warmer mass of air , which lies within a fairly sharp surface trough of low pressure . It forms in the wake of an extratropical cyclone , at the leading edge of its cold air advection pattern , which is also known as the cyclone 's dry conveyor belt circulation . Temperature changes across the boundary can exceed 30 C-change . When enough moisture is present , rain can occur along the boundary . If there is significant instability along the boundary , a narrow line of thunderstorms can form along the frontal zone . If instability is less , a broad shield of rain can move in behind the front , which increases the temperature difference across the boundary . Cold fronts are stronger in the fall and spring transition seasons and weakest during the summer . When a cold front catches up with the preceding warm front , the portion of the boundary that does so is then known as an occluded front .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Cold_front", "rank": 78, "score": 101015 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 79, "score": 101002 }, { "content": "Title: January 2016 East Asia cold wave Content: In late January 2016 , a cold wave struck much of East Asia , parts of mainland Southeast Asia and parts of northern South Asia , bringing record cold temperatures and snowfall to many regions . Sleet was reported in Okinawa for the first time on record , and many other regions saw their coldest temperatures in decades . Snowfall and frigid weather stranded thousands of people across four countries . At least 85 people in Taiwan died from hypothermia and cardiac arrest following a sudden drop in temperature during the weekend of January 22 -- 24 . The cold claimed a further fourteen lives in Thailand , and snowstorms resulted in six deaths across Japan . This event was driven by a fast Arctic warming that occurred within the troposphere , forcing the Arctic Oscillation to change phase rapidly from positive ( in late December ) to negative ( in late January ) , facilitating the atmospheric blocking and associated Siberian high buildup .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "January_2016_East_Asia_cold_wave", "rank": 80, "score": 100815 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 81, "score": 100779 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 82, "score": 100609 }, { "content": "Title: Boiling point Content: The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor . The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding environmental pressure . A liquid in a partial vacuum has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure . A liquid at high pressure has a higher boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure . For a given pressure , different liquids boil at different temperatures . For example , water boils at 100 C at sea level , but at 93.4 C at 2000 m altitude . The normal boiling point ( also called the atmospheric boiling point or the atmospheric pressure boiling point ) of a liquid is the special case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level , 1 atmosphere . At that temperature , the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and allow bubbles of vapor to form inside the bulk of the liquid . The standard boiling point has been defined by IUPAC since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of 1 bar . The heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity ( a mol , kg , pound , etc. ) of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure ( often atmospheric pressure ) . Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation . Evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquid 's edge , not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side , escape into the surroundings as vapor . On the other hand , boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape , resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Boiling_point", "rank": 83, "score": 100432 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 84, "score": 100134 }, { "content": "Title: Deposition (phase transition) Content: Deposition is a thermodynamic process , a phase transition in which gas transforms into solid without passing through the liquid phase . The reverse of deposition is sublimation and hence sometimes deposition is called desublimation . One example of deposition is the process by which , in sub-freezing air , water vapor changes directly to ice without first becoming a liquid . This is how snow forms in clouds , as well as how frost and hoar frost form on the ground or other surfaces . Another example is when frost forms on a leaf . For deposition to occur , thermal energy must be removed from a gas . When the leaf becomes cold enough , water vapor in the air surrounding the leaf loses enough thermal energy to change into a solid . Even though the air temperature may be below the dew point , the water vapor may not be able to condense spontaneously if there is no way to remove the latent heat . When the leaf is introduced , the supercooled water vapor immediately begins to condense , but by this point is already past the freezing point . This causes the water vapor to change directly into a solid . Another example is the soot that is deposited on the walls of chimneys . Soot molecules rise from the fire in a hot and gaseous state . When they come into contact with the walls they cool , and change to the solid state , without formation of the liquid state . The process is made use of industrially in combustion chemical vapor deposition . There is an industrial coatings process , known as evaporative deposition , whereby a solid material is heated to the gaseous state in a low-pressure chamber , the gas molecules travel across the chamber space and then condense to the solid state on a target surface , forming a smooth and thin layer on the target surface . Again , the molecules do not go through an intermediate liquid state when going from the gas to the solid . See also physical vapor deposition , which is a class of processes used to deposit thin films of various materials onto various surfaces . Deposition releases energy and is an exothermic phase change .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Deposition_(phase_transition)", "rank": 85, "score": 99940 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Antarctica", "rank": 86, "score": 99939 }, { "content": "Title: Cold-core low Content: A cold-core low , also known as an upper level low or cold-core cyclone , is a cyclone aloft which has an associated cold pool of air residing at high altitude within the Earth 's troposphere . It is a low pressure system which strengthens with height in accordance with the thermal wind relationship . These systems can be referred to as upper level lows . If a weak surface circulation forms in response to such a feature at subtropical latitudes of the eastern north Pacific or north Indian oceans , it is called a subtropical cyclone . Cloud cover and rainfall mainly occurs with these systems during the day . Severe weather , such as tornadoes , can occur near the center of cold-core lows . Cold lows can help spawn cyclones with significant weather impacts , such as polar lows , and Von Karman Vortices . In regard to tropical cyclones , cold lows can lead directly to their development due to their associated cold pool of air aloft or by acting as additional outflow channels to aid in further development .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Cold-core_low", "rank": 87, "score": 99847 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 88, "score": 99844 }, { "content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event", "rank": 89, "score": 99820 }, { "content": "Title: Rapid phase transition Content: Rapid phase transition or RPT is a phenomenon realized in liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) incidents in which LNG vaporizes violently upon coming in contact with water causing what is known as a physical explosion or cold explosion . During such explosions there is no combustion but rather a huge amount of energy is transferred in the form of heat from the room-temperature water to the LNG at a temperature difference of about 175 kelvins .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Rapid_phase_transition", "rank": 90, "score": 99601 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 91, "score": 99453 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 92, "score": 99409 }, { "content": "Title: Rewarming shock Content: Rewarming Shock ( also known as rewarming collapse ) has been described as a drop in blood pressure following the warming of a person who is very cold . The real cause of this rewarming shock is unknown . There was a theoretical concern that external rewarming rather than internal rewarming may increase the risk . These concerns were partly believed to be due to afterdrop , a situation detected during laboratory experiments where there is a continued decrease in core temperature after rewarming has been started . Recent studies have not supported these concerns , and problems are not found with active external rewarming .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Rewarming_shock", "rank": 93, "score": 99304 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 94, "score": 99218 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska", "rank": 95, "score": 99207 }, { "content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis", "rank": 96, "score": 98976 }, { "content": "Title: Dry ice Content: Dry ice , sometimes referred to as `` cardice '' ( chiefly by British chemists ) , is the solid form of carbon dioxide . It is used primarily as a cooling agent . Its advantages include lower temperature than that of water ice and not leaving any residue ( other than incidental frost from moisture in the atmosphere ) . It is useful for preserving frozen foods where mechanical cooling is unavailable . Dry ice sublimates at − 78.5 ° C ( − 109.3 ° F ) at Earth atmospheric pressures . This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing ( frostbite ) . While generally not very toxic , the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia ( abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood ) due to buildup in confined locations .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Dry_ice", "rank": 97, "score": 98939 }, { "content": "Title: Frost line (astrophysics) Content: In astronomy or planetary science , the frost line , also known as the snow line or ice line , is the particular distance in the solar nebula from the central protostar where it is cold enough for volatile compounds such as water , ammonia , methane , carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide to condense into solid ice grains . This condensation temperature depends on the volatile substance and the partial pressure of vapor in the protostar nebula . The actual temperature and distance for the snow line of water ice depend on the physical model used to calculate it and on the theoretical solar nebula model : 170 K at 2.7 AU ( Hayashi , 1981 ) 143 K at 3.2 AU to 150 K at 3 AU ( Podolak and Zucker , 2010 ) 3.1 AU ( Martin and Livio , 2012 ) ≈ 150 K for μm-size grains and ≈ 200 K for km-size bodies ( D'Angelo and Podolak , 2015 ) The radial position of the condensation/evaporation front varies over time , as the nebula evolves . Occasionally , the term snow line is also used to represent the present distance at which water ice can be stable ( even under direct sunlight ) . This current snow line distance is different from the formation snow line distance during the formation of Solar System , and approximately equals 5 AU . The reason for the difference is that during the formation of Solar System , the solar nebula was an opaque cloud where temperature were lower close to the Sun , and the Sun itself was less energetic . After formation , the ice got buried by infalling dust and it has remained stable a few meters below the surface . If ice within 5 AU is exposed , e.g. by a crater , then it sublimates on short timescales . However , out of direct sunlight ice can remain stable on the surface of asteroids ( and the Moon ) if it is located in permanently shadowed craters , where temperature may remain very low over the age of the Solar System ( e.g. 30 -- 40 K on the Moon ) . Observations of the asteroid belt , located between Mars and Jupiter , suggest that the water snow line during formation of Solar System was located within this region . The outer asteroids are icy C-class objects ( e.g. Abe et al. 2000 ; Morbidelli et al. 2000 ) whereas the inner asteroid belt is largely devoid of water . This implies that when planetesimal formation occurred the snow line was located at around 2.7 AU from the Sun . For example , the dwarf planet Ceres with semi-major axis of 2.77 AU lies almost exactly on the lower estimation for water snow line during the formation of the Solar System . Ceres appears to have an icy mantle and may even have a water ocean below the surface . Each volatile substance has its own snow line , e.g. carbon monoxide and nitrogen , so it is important to always specify which material 's snow line is meant . The lower temperature in the nebula beyond the frost line makes many more solid grains available for accretion into planetesimals and eventually planets . The frost line therefore separates terrestrial planets from giant planets in the Solar System . However , giant planets have been found inside the frost line around several other stars ( so-called hot Jupiters ) . They are thought to have formed outside the frost line , and later migrated inwards to their current positions . Earth , which lies less than a quarter of the distance to the frost line but is not a giant planet , has adequate gravitation for keeping methane , ammonia , and water vapor from escaping it . Methane and ammonia are rare in the Earth 's atmosphere only because of their instability in an oxygen-rich atmosphere that results from life forms ( largely green plants ) whose biochemistry suggests plentiful methane and ammonia at one time , but of course liquid water and ice , which are chemically stable in such an atmosphere , form much of the surface of Earth . Researchers Rebecca Martin and Mario Livio have proposed that asteroid belts may tend to form in the vicinity of the frost line , due to nearby giant planets disrupting planet formation inside their orbit . By analysing the temperature of warm dust found around some 90 stars , they concluded that the dust ( and therefore possible asteroid belts ) was typically found close to the frost line . The term is borrowed from the notion of `` frost line '' in soil science .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Frost_line_(astrophysics)", "rank": 98, "score": 98935 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 99, "score": 98578 }, { "content": "Title: Frost (temperature) Content: Frost or freezing occurs when the temperature of air falls below the freezing point of water ( 0 ° C , 32 ° F , 273.15 K ) . This is usually measured at the height of 1.2 m above the ground surface . There is a rather subjective scale to show several degrees of frost severity : slight frost : 0 to moderate frost : − 3.6 to − 6.5 ° C ( 25.6 to 20.3 ° F ) severe frost : − 6.6 to − 11.5 ° C ( 20.2 to 11.3 ° F ) very severe frost : below -11.5 C Frost is not necessary to get ground frost or hoar frost ; they can form even if air temperature is above freezing point if the surfaces have been chilled by heat emission during a cold night .", "qid": "2978", "docid": "Frost_(temperature)", "rank": 100, "score": 98554 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 1, "score": 183606 }, { "content": "Title: Water vapor Content: Water vapor , water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water . It is one state of water within the hydrosphere . Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice . Unlike other forms of water , water vapor is invisible . Under typical atmospheric conditions , water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation . It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds . Being a component of Earth 's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle , it is particularly abundant in Earth 's atmosphere where it is also a potent greenhouse gas along with other gases such as carbon dioxide and methane . Use of water vapor , as steam , has been important to humans for cooking and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution . Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent , present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet in the Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural satellites , comets and even large asteroids . Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems . Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Water_vapor", "rank": 2, "score": 167502 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 3, "score": 161486 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 4, "score": 159483 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 5, "score": 158504 }, { "content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Fugitive_emissions", "rank": 6, "score": 158312 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 7, "score": 152712 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 8, "score": 151326 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 9, "score": 150292 }, { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 10, "score": 145988 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 11, "score": 144354 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Grenada", "rank": 12, "score": 140184 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 13, "score": 140028 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 14, "score": 139480 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 15, "score": 135682 }, { "content": "Title: Solar still Content: A solar still distills water , using the heat of the Sun to evaporate , cool then collect the water . There are many types of solar still , including large scale concentrated solar stills , and condensation traps ( better known as moisture traps amongst survivalists ) . In a solar still , impure water is contained outside the collector , where it is evaporated by sunlight shining through clear plastic or glass . The pure water vapor condenses on the cool inside surface and drips down , where it is collected and removed . Distillation replicates the way nature makes rain . The sun 's energy heats water to the point of evaporation . As the water evaporates , water vapor rises , condensing into water again as it cools and can then be collected . This process leaves behind impurities , such as salts and heavy metals , and eliminates microbiological organisms . The end result is pure distilled water .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Solar_still", "rank": 16, "score": 135041 }, { "content": "Title: Fluorinated gases Content: Fluorinated gases ( F-gases ) are man-made gases that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries and contribute to a global greenhouse effect . There are four types : hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) and nitrogen trifluoride ( NF3 ) .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Fluorinated_gases", "rank": 17, "score": 134345 }, { "content": "Title: Vapor Content: In physics a vapor ( American ) or vapour ( British ) is a substance in the gas phase at a temperature lower than its critical temperature , which means that the vapor can be condensed to a liquid by increasing the pressure on it without reducing the temperature . A vapor is different from an aerosol . An aerosol is a suspension of tiny particles of liquid , solid , or both within a gas . For example , water has a critical temperature of 647 K , which is the highest temperature at which liquid water can exist . In the atmosphere at ordinary temperatures , therefore , gaseous water ( known as water vapor ) will condense into a liquid if its partial pressure is increased sufficiently . A vapor may co-exist with a liquid ( or a solid ) . When this is true , the two phases will be in equilibrium , and the gas-partial pressure will be equal to the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid ( or solid ) .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Vapor", "rank": 18, "score": 134244 }, { "content": "Title: Humidity Content: Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the air . Water vapor is the gaseous state of water and is invisible to the human eye . Humidity indicates the likelihood of precipitation , dew , or fog . Higher humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by reducing the rate of evaporation of moisture from the skin . This effect is calculated in a heat index table or humidex . The amount of water vapor that is needed to achieve saturation increases as the temperature increases . As the temperature of a parcel of water becomes lower it will eventually reach the point of saturation without adding or losing water mass . The differences in the amount of water vapor in a parcel of air can be quite large . For example , a parcel of air that is near saturation may contain 28 grams of water per cubic meter of air at 30 ° C , but only 8 grams of water per cubic meter of air at 8 ° C. There are three main measurements of humidity : absolute , relative and specific . Absolute humidity is the water content of air expressed in gram per cubic meter . Relative humidity , expressed as a percent , measures the current absolute humidity relative to the maximum ( highest point ) for that temperature . Specific humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the moist air parcel .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Humidity", "rank": 19, "score": 132707 }, { "content": "Title: Water vapor windows Content: In the Earth 's atmosphere , water vapor absorbs many wavelengths of IR energy , while others are not absorbed . Those sections of the Electromagnetic spectrum that it does not absorb , are like windows in the atmosphere , allowing electromagnetic energy to flow freely in and out of the system . Like a window , that allows light to enter and leave . Originally discovered by John Tyndall , most of the infrared coming from the Universe is blocked , absorbed by water vapor ( and other greenhouse gases ) in the Earth 's atmosphere . Those wavelength ranges that can partially reach the surface , are coming through what is called ` water vapor windows ' . These windows are how Astronomers can view the Universe with IR telescopes , called Infrared astronomy . These windows also allow orbiting satellites to measure the IR energy leaving the planet , the SSTs and other important matters . See Electromagnetic_absorption_by_water #Atmospheric _ effects .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Water_vapor_windows", "rank": 20, "score": 132224 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 21, "score": 131972 }, { "content": "Title: Solar humidification Content: The solar humidification -- dehumidification method ( HDH ) is a thermal water desalination method . It is based on evaporation of sea water or brackish water and consecutive condensation of the generated humid air , mostly at ambient pressure . This process mimics the natural water cycle , but over a much shorter time frame . The simplest configuration is implemented in the solar still , evaporating the sea water inside a glass covered box and condensing the water vapor on the lower side of the glass cover . More sophisticated designs separate the solar heat gain section from the evaporation-condensation chamber . An optimized design comprises separated evaporation and condensation sections . A significant part of the heat consumed for evaporation can be regained during condensation . An example for such an optimized thermal desalination cycle is the multiple-effect humidification ( MEH ) method of desalination . Solar humidification takes place in every greenhouse . Water evaporates from the surfaces of soil , water and plants because of thermal input . In this way the humidification process is naturally integrated within the architecture of the greenhouse . Several companies like Seawater greenhouse utilize this inherent feature of a greenhouse in order to conduct desalination inside the atmosphere of the facility . The integrated biotectural system , or IBTS Greenhouse mimics the natural process of cloud formation respectively desalination exactly .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Solar_humidification", "rank": 22, "score": 131171 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 23, "score": 130599 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 24, "score": 130415 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )", "qid": "2979", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita", "rank": 25, "score": 130172 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 26, "score": 129161 }, { "content": "Title: Vapour-pressure deficit Content: Vapour-pressure deficit , or VPD , is the difference ( deficit ) between the amount of moisture in the air and how much moisture the air can hold when it is saturated . Once air becomes saturated , water will condense out to form clouds , dew or films of water over leaves . It is this last instance that makes VPD important for greenhouse regulation . If a film of water forms on a plant leaf , it becomes far more susceptible to rot . On the other hand , as the VPD increases , the plant needs to draw more water from its roots . In the case of cuttings , the plant may dry out and die . For this reason the ideal range for VPD in a greenhouse is from 0.45 kPa to 1.25 kPa , ideally sitting at around 0.85 kPa . As a general rule , most plants grow well at VPDs of between 0.8 and 0.95 kPa . A series of membership functions for defining optimality degree of VPD at different light condition and growth stages of greenhouse tomato can be found in the work of Shamshiri . In ecology , it is the difference between the actual water vapour pressure and the saturation water vapour pressure at a particular temperature . Unlike relative humidity , vapour-pressure deficit has a simple nearly straight-line relationship to the rate of evapotranspiration and other measures of evaporation .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Vapour-pressure_deficit", "rank": 27, "score": 127500 }, { "content": "Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Landfill_gas", "rank": 28, "score": 125496 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 29, "score": 125255 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 30, "score": 124435 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 31, "score": 123675 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 32, "score": 122882 }, { "content": "Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "ECOCITIES_(software)", "rank": 33, "score": 122709 }, { "content": "Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Anti-greenhouse_effect", "rank": 34, "score": 122455 }, { "content": "Title: Seawater greenhouse Content: A seawater greenhouse is a greenhouse structure that enables the growth of crops in arid regions , using seawater and solar energy . The technique involves pumping seawater ( or allowing it to gravitate if below sea level ) to an arid location and then subjecting it to two processes : first , it is used to humidify and cool the air , and second , it is evaporated by solar heating and distilled to produce fresh water . Finally , the remaining humidified air is expelled from the greenhouse and used to improve growing conditions for outdoor plants . The technology was introduced by British inventor Charlie Paton in the early 1990s and is being developed by his UK company Seawater Greenhouse Ltd. . The more concentrated salt water may either be further evaporated for the production of salt and other elements , or discharged back to the sea . The seawater greenhouse is a response to the global water crisis and peak water .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Seawater_greenhouse", "rank": 35, "score": 121340 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 36, "score": 121039 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 37, "score": 120593 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Greenhouse_debt", "rank": 38, "score": 120352 }, { "content": "Title: Solar hot water in Australia Content: Solar hot water is water heated using natural energy from the sun . Solar energy heats up large panels called thermal collectors . The energy is transferred through a fluid ( often water ) to a reservoir tank for storage and subsequent use . It is then used to heat water for commercial or domestic use and also as an energy input for heating and cooling devices and for industrial ` process heat ' applications . Solar hot water systems are motivated by the desire to reduce energy consumption more specifically , to reduce a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions . In the case of Victoria , for example , converting from electric to solar hot water could save 20 % of the state 's total greenhouse gas emissions . Despite an excellent solar resource , the penetration of solar water heaters in the Australian domestic market is only about 4 % or 5 % , with new dwellings accounting for most sales . During the 1950s , Australia 's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) carried out world leading research into flat plate solar water heaters . A solar water heater manufacturing industry was subsequently established in Australia and a large proportion of the manufactured product was exported . Four of the original companies are still in business and the manufacturing base has now expanded to 24 companies . Water heating is the largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions from the average Australian home , accounting for around 28 per cent of home energy use ( excluding the family car ) . The Australian government estimates that installing a climate friendly hot water system can save a family $ 300 to $ 700 off electricity bills each year .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Solar_hot_water_in_Australia", "rank": 39, "score": 119895 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrofluorocarbon Content: Hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , organic compounds that contain fluorine and hydrogen atoms , are the most common type of organofluorine compounds . They are commonly used in air conditioning and as refrigerants in place of the older chlorofluorocarbons such as R-12 and hydrochlorofluorocarbons such as R-21 . They do not harm the ozone layer as much as the compounds they replace ; however , they do contribute to global warming . Their atmospheric concentrations and contribution to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are rapidly increasing , causing international concern about their radiative forcing . Fluorocarbons with few C -- F bonds behave similarly to the parent hydrocarbons , but their reactivity can be altered significantly . For example , both uracil and 5-fluorouracil are colourless , high-melting crystalline solids , but the latter is a potent anti-cancer drug . The use of the C-F bond in pharmaceuticals is predicated on this altered reactivity . Several drugs and agrochemicals contain only one fluorine center or one trifluoromethyl group . Unlike other greenhouse gases in the Paris Agreement , hydrofluorocarbons have other international negotiations . In September 2016 , the so-called New York Declaration urged a global reduction in the use of HFCs . On 15 October 2016 , due to these chemicals ' contribution to climate change , negotiators from 197 nations meeting at the summit of the United Nations Environment Programme in Kigali , Rwanda reached a legally-binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) in an amendment to the Montreal Protocol .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Hydrofluorocarbon", "rank": 40, "score": 119821 }, { "content": "Title: GWP Content: GWP can stand for : Global-warming potential , a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere Global Water Partnership , an international network offering practical advice for sustainably managing water resources Gross world product , the combined GNP of all countries in the world Gross Written Premiums , a measure of revenues for insurance businesses Guild Wars Prophecies , an MMORPG Guinea-Bissau peso , the currency code for Guinea-Bissau 's peso from 1975 to 1997 Gigawatt-peak , a measure in gigawatts of the nominal power of a photovoltaic solar energy device under laboratory illumination conditions", "qid": "2979", "docid": "GWP", "rank": 41, "score": 119696 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 42, "score": 119276 }, { "content": "Title: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Content: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions", "rank": 43, "score": 119104 }, { "content": "Title: SathyabamaSat Content: SathyabamaSat is a micro experimental satellite developed by students and faculty of Sathyabama University , Chennai to collect data on greenhouse gases ( Water vapor , Carbon monoxide , Carbon dioxide , Methane and Hydrogen fluoride ) . It was launched along with the Cartosat-2C satellite atop PSLV-C34 . It was launched on June 22nd , 2016 .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "SathyabamaSat", "rank": 44, "score": 118420 }, { "content": "Title: Cold trap (astronomy) Content: In astronomy , a cold trap is a close to the surface layer of the atmosphere that is substantially colder than both the deeper and higher layers . The temperature of the air drops with increasing height above the surface of the earth reaching a low point ( which for the earth resides at about 20 kilometers height ) . It is called a trap because it keeps ascending gases with high melting points in by freezing them to a solid which then drops back to the planet surface . The most important gas to be kept in that way , on the Earth , is water vapor , which without the presence of a cold trap in the atmosphere would gradually escape or dissociate into space , making life impossible . However , because of the cold trap water vapor condenses into droplets of liquid water or tiny ice crystals , forming clouds . The cold trap retains one-tenth of one percentof the water in the atmosphere in the form of a vapor at high altitudes . The cold trap is also a layer which above ultraviolet intensity is strong , since higher up the amount of water vapor is negligible . Oxygen screens out ultraviolet intensity . Some astronomers believe that the lack of a cold trap is why the planets Venus and Mars both lost most of their liquid water early in their histories .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Cold_trap_(astronomy)", "rank": 45, "score": 117631 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrofluoroether Content: A Hydrofluoroether ( HFE ) is a complex organic solvent . As a non-ozone-depleting chemical , it was developed originally as a replacement for CFCs , HFCs , HCFCs , and PFCs HFE does not occur naturally . It is colorless , odorless , tasteless , low toxicity , low viscosity , and liquid at room temperature . It is visually indistinguishable from water at room temperature . The vapor-point of HFE varies by chemistry from 50C to nearly 100C . Due to its high molecular weight , it remains in the atmosphere for less than two weeks , being absorbed into the ground rather than remaining dissolved in the atmosphere . Although it is a greenhouse gas , the EPA does not regulate its use due to its short atmospheric lifetime and zero ozone depletion potential compared to alternative chemicals . Industrial uses are many and varied : Vapor de-greasing solvent Refrigerant and heat-transfer fluid Anhydrous fluid cleaner Although 3M first developed HFEs , other manufacturers have begun producing them .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Hydrofluoroether", "rank": 46, "score": 117276 }, { "content": "Title: Trace gas Content: A trace gas is a gas which makes up less than 1 % by volume of the Earth 's atmosphere , and it includes all gases except nitrogen ( 78.1 % ) and oxygen ( 20.9 % ) . The most abundant trace gas at 0.934 % is argon . Water vapor also occurs in the atmosphere with highly variable abundance .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Trace_gas", "rank": 47, "score": 116966 }, { "content": "Title: Shale gas Content: Shale gas is natural gas that is found trapped within shale formations . Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States since the start of this century , and interest has spread to potential gas shales in the rest of the world . In 2000 shale gas provided only 1 % of U.S. natural gas production ; by 2010 it was over 20 % and the U.S. government 's Energy Information Administration predicts that by 2035 , 46 % of the United States ' natural gas supply will come from shale gas . Some analysts expect that shale gas will greatly expand worldwide energy supply . China is estimated to have the world 's largest shale gas reserves . The Obama administration believed that increased shale gas development would help reduce greenhouse gas emissions . In 2012 , US carbon dioxide emissions dropped to a 20-year low . A 2013 review by the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Climate Change noted that most studies of the subject have estimated that life-cycle greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from shale gas are similar to those of conventional natural gas , and are much less than those from coal , usually about half the greenhouse gas emissions of coal ; the noted exception was a 2011 study by Howarth and others of Cornell University , which concluded that shale GHG emissions were as high as those of coal . More recent studies have also concluded that life-cycle shale gas GHG emissions are much less than those of coal , among them , studies by Natural Resources Canada ( 2012 ) , and a consortium formed by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory with a number of universities ( 2012 ) . Some 2011 studies pointed to high rates of decline of some shale gas wells as an indication that shale gas production may ultimately be much lower than is currently projected . But shale-gas discoveries are also opening up substantial new resources of tight oil / `` shale oil '' .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Shale_gas", "rank": 48, "score": 116672 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Climate_change_feedback", "rank": 49, "score": 116278 }, { "content": "Title: Steam Content: Steam is water in the gas phase , which is formed when water boils . Steam is invisible ; however , `` steam '' often refers to wet steam , the visible mist or aerosol of water droplets formed as this water vapour condenses . At lower pressures , such as in the upper atmosphere or at the top of high mountains , water boils at a lower temperature than the nominal 100 ° C at standard pressure . If heated further it becomes superheated steam . The enthalpy of vaporization is the energy required to turn water into the gaseous form when it increases in volume by 1,700 times at standard temperature and pressure ; this change in volume can be converted into mechanical work by steam engines such as reciprocating piston type engines and steam turbines , which are a sub-group of steam engines . Piston type steam engines played a central role to the Industrial Revolution and modern steam turbines are used to generate more than 80 % of the world 's electricity . If liquid water comes in contact with a very hot surface or depressurizes quickly below its vapor pressure , it can create a steam explosion . Steam explosions have been responsible for many foundry accidents , and may also have been responsible for much of the damage to the plant in the Chernobyl disaster .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Steam", "rank": 50, "score": 115195 }, { "content": "Title: Total equivalent warming impact Content: Total equivalent warming impact or TEWI is besides global warming potential measure used to express contributions to global warming . It is defined as sum of the direct emissions ( chemical ) and indirect emissions ( energy use ) of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Total_equivalent_warming_impact", "rank": 51, "score": 114826 }, { "content": "Title: Methane emissions Content: Global methane emissions are major part of the global greenhouse gas emissions . Methane in the atmosphere has a 100-year global warming potential of 34 .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Methane_emissions", "rank": 52, "score": 114614 }, { "content": "Title: Vapor-compression desalination Content: Vapor compression desalination refers to a distillation process where the evaporation of sea or saline water is obtained by the application of heat delivered by compressed vapor . Since compression of the vapor increases both the pressure and temperature of the vapor , it is possible to use the latent heat rejected during condensation to generate additional vapor . The effect of compressing water vapor can be done by two methods . The first method utilizes an ejector system motivated by steam at manometric pressure from an external source in order to recycle vapor from the desalination process . The form is designated Ejecto or Thermo Compression . Using the second method , water vapor is compressed by means of a mechanical device , electrically driven in most cases . This form is designated mechanical vapor compression ( MVC ) . The MVC process comprises two different versions : Vapor Compression ( VC ) and Vacuum Vapor Compression ( VVC ) . VC designates those systems in which the evaporation effect takes place at manometric pressure , and VVC the systems in which evaporation takes place at sub-atmospheric pressures ( under vacuum ) . The compression is mechanically powered by something such as a compression turbine . As vapor is generated , it is passed over to a heat exchanging condenser which returns the vapor to water . The resulting fresh water is moved to storage while the heat removed during condensation is transmitted to the remaining feedstock . The VVC process is the more efficient distillation process available in the market today in terms of energy consumption and water recovery ratio . As the system is electrically driven , it is considered a `` clean '' process , it is highly reliable and simple to operate and maintain .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Vapor-compression_desalination", "rank": 53, "score": 113499 }, { "content": "Title: Wildland fire emission Content: Wildland fire and wildland fire atmospheric emissions have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia . The major wildland fire emissions include greenhouse gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human health and welfare. : Compared to the preindustrial era , wildland land fire in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland fire emissions . Land use changes ( agriculture and urbanization ) are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease , and land management decisions ( land fragmentation , suppression actions , etc. ) are responsible for the remainder . Anthropogenic activities ( e.g. , industrial production , transportation , agriculture , etc. ) today have more than replaced the lost preindustrial wildland fire atmospheric emissions . The following charts compare preindustrial wildland fire emissions with contemporary emissions .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Wildland_fire_emission", "rank": 54, "score": 112926 }, { "content": "Title: Condensing boiler Content: Condensing boilers are water heaters fueled by gas or oil . They achieve high efficiency ( typically greater than 90 % on the higher heating value ) by condensing water vapour in the exhaust gases and so recovering its latent heat of vaporisation , which would otherwise have been wasted . This condensed vapour leaves the system in liquid form , via a drain . In many countries , the use of condensing boilers is compulsory or encouraged with financial incentives .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Condensing_boiler", "rank": 55, "score": 112794 }, { "content": "Title: Enthalpy of vaporization Content: The enthalpy of vaporization , ( symbol ∆ Hvap ) also known as the ( latent ) heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation , is the amount of energy ( enthalpy ) that must be added to the liquid substance , to transform a quantity of that substance into a gas . The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place . The enthalpy of vaporization is often quoted for the normal boiling temperature of the substance ; although tabulated values are usually corrected to 298 K , that correction is often smaller than the uncertainty in the measured value . The heat of vaporization is temperature-dependent , though a constant heat of vaporization can be assumed for small temperature ranges and for reduced temperature . The heat of vaporization diminishes with increasing temperature and it vanishes completely at a certain point called the critical temperature . Above the critical temperature , the liquid and vapor phases are indistinguishable , and the substance is called a supercritical fluid .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Enthalpy_of_vaporization", "rank": 56, "score": 112688 }, { "content": "Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Hell_and_High_Water_(book)", "rank": 57, "score": 112313 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Low-carbon_diet", "rank": 58, "score": 112208 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 59, "score": 112012 }, { "content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Biosequestration", "rank": 60, "score": 111944 }, { "content": "Title: Water Content: Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth 's streams , lakes , and oceans , and the fluids of most living organisms . Its chemical formula is H2O , meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms , that are connected by covalent bonds . Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance , that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure ; but it often refers also to its solid state ( ice ) or its gaseous state ( steam or water vapor ) . It also occurs in nature as snow , glaciers , ice packs and icebergs , clouds , fog , dew , aquifers , and atmospheric humidity . Water covers 71 % of the Earth 's surface . It is vital for all known forms of life . On Earth , 96.5 % of the planet 's crust water is found in seas and oceans , 1.7 % in groundwater , 1.7 % in glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland , a small fraction in other large water bodies , and 0.001 % in the air as vapor , clouds ( formed of ice and liquid water suspended in air ) , and precipitation . Only 2.5 % of this water is freshwater , and 98.8 % of that water is in ice ( excepting ice in clouds ) and groundwater . Less than 0.3 % of all freshwater is in rivers , lakes , and the atmosphere , and an even smaller amount of the Earth 's freshwater ( 0.003 % ) is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products . A greater quantity of water is found in the earth 's interior . Water on Earth moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation and transpiration ( evapotranspiration ) , condensation , precipitation , and runoff , usually reaching the sea . Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land . Large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals . Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other lifeforms even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients . Access to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades in almost every part of the world , but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation . There is a clear correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita . However , some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability . A report , issued in November 2009 , suggests that by 2030 , in some developing regions of the world , water demand will exceed supply by 50 % . Water plays an important role in the world economy . Approximately 70 % of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture . Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many parts of the world . Much of long-distance trade of commodities ( such as oil and natural gas ) and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas , rivers , lakes , and canals . Large quantities of water , ice , and steam are used for cooling and heating , in industry and homes . Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances ; as such it is widely used in industrial processes , and in cooking and washing . Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment , such as swimming , pleasure boating , boat racing , surfing , sport fishing , and diving .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Water", "rank": 61, "score": 111631 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 62, "score": 111207 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 63, "score": 110255 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-emissions vehicle Content: A zero-emissions vehicle , or ZEV , is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power . Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates ( soot ) , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) definitions , the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds , several air toxics ( most notably 1,3-Butadiene ) , and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles ; gravity racers ; battery electric vehicles , which typically shift emissions to the location where the electricity is generated e.g. coal or natural gas power plant ; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen , which typically shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated . Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions , as they do emit water or water vapor , although they are still usually included in this category . Emissions from the manufacturing process are ignored in this definition , although the emissions that are created during manufacture are of an order of magnitude that is comparable to the one of the emissions that are created during a vehicle 's operating lifetime .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Zero-emissions_vehicle", "rank": 64, "score": 109012 }, { "content": "Title: Methane Content: Methane ( -LSB- ˈmɛθeɪn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈmiːθeɪn -RSB- ) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula ( one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen ) . It is a group 14 hydride and the simplest alkane , and is the main constituent of natural gas . The relative abundance of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel , though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state under normal conditions for temperature and pressure . Natural methane is found both below ground and under the sea floor . When it reaches the surface and the atmosphere , it is known as atmospheric methane . The Earth 's atmospheric methane concentration has increased by about 150 % since 1750 , and it accounts for 20 % of the total radiative forcing from all of the long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases ( these gases do n't include water vapor which is by far the largest component of the greenhouse effect ) .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Methane", "rank": 65, "score": 108788 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 66, "score": 108563 }, { "content": "Title: Aquifer thermal energy storage Content: Aquifer thermal energy storage ( ATES ) is the storage and recovery of thermal energy in the subsurface . ATES is applied to provide heating and cooling to buildings . Storage and recovery of thermal energy is achieved by extraction and injection of groundwater from aquifers using groundwater wells . Systems commonly operate in a seasonal mode . The groundwater that is extracted in summer , is used for cooling by transferring heat from the building to the groundwater by means of a heat exchanger . Subsequently , the heated groundwater is injected back into the aquifer , which creates a storage of heated groundwater . In wintertime , the flow direction is reversed such that the heated groundwater is extracted and can be used for heating ( often in combination with a heat pump ) . Therefore , operating an ATES system uses the subsurface as a temporal storage to buffer seasonal variations in heating and cooling demand . When replacing traditional fossil fuel dependent heating and cooling systems , ATES can serve as a cost-effective technology to reduce the primary energy consumption of a building and the associated CO2 emissions . In 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , many countries and regions have made targets for global climate protection . The European Union also set a target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , increase use of sustainable energy and improve energy efficiency . For this target , ATES can actually contribute significantly , as about 40 % of global energy consumption is done by buildings , and is mainly for heating and cooling . Therefore , the development of ATES has been paid a lot of attention and the number of ATES has increased dramatically , especially in Europe . For example , in the Netherlands , it was estimated that about 20,000 ATES systems could be achieved by 2020 . This can yield a CO2 emission reduction of about 11 % , for the target of the Netherlands . Besides the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Turkey , and Sweden are also increasing the application of ATES . ATES can be applied worldwide , as long as the climatic conditions and geohydrological conditions are right . As ATES systems cumulate in urban areas optimisation of subsurface space requires attention in areas with suitable conditions .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Aquifer_thermal_energy_storage", "rank": 67, "score": 108533 }, { "content": "Title: The Hype about Hydrogen Content: The Hype about Hydrogen : Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate is a book by Joseph J. Romm , published in 2004 by Island Press and updated in 2005 . The book has been translated into German as Der Wasserstoff-Boom . Romm is an expert on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . Over 200 publications , including Scientific American , Forbes magazine and The New York Times , have cited this book . The book was named one of the best science and technology books of 2004 by Library Journal . The thrust of the book is that hydrogen is not economically feasible to use for transportation , nor will its use reduce global warming , because of the cost and greenhouse gases generated during production , the low energy content per volume and weight of the container , the cost of the fuel cells , and the cost of the infrastructure . The author argues that a major effort to introduce hydrogen cars before 2030 would actually undermine efforts to reduce emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "The_Hype_about_Hydrogen", "rank": 68, "score": 108395 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect", "rank": 69, "score": 107930 }, { "content": "Title: Evaporation Content: Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid that occurs from the surface of a liquid into a gaseous phase that is not saturated with the evaporating substance . The other type of vaporization is boiling , which is characterized by bubbles of saturated vapor forming in the liquid phase . Steam produced in a boiler is another example of evaporation occurring in a saturated vapor phase . Evaporation that occurs directly from the solid phase below the melting point , as commonly observed with ice at or below freezing or moth crystals ( napthalene or paradichlorobenzene ) , is called sublimation . On average , a fraction of the molecules in a glass of water have enough heat energy to escape from the liquid . The reverse also happens -- water molecules from the air enter the water in the glass -- but as long as the relative humidity of the air in contact is less than 100 % ( i.e. , saturation ) , the net transfer of water molecules will be to the air . The water in the glass will be cooled by the evaporation until an equilibrium is reached where the air supplies the amount of heat removed by the evaporating water . In an enclosed environment the water would evaporate until the air is saturated . With sufficient temperature , the liquid would turn into vapor quickly ( see boiling point ) . When the molecules collide , they transfer energy to each other in varying degrees , based on how they collide . Sometimes the transfer is so one-sided for a molecule near the surface that it ends up with enough energy to `` escape '' and enter the surrounding air . Evaporation is an essential part of the water cycle . The sun ( solar energy ) drives evaporation of water from oceans , lakes , moisture in the soil , and other sources of water . In hydrology , evaporation and transpiration ( which involves evaporation within plant stomata ) are collectively termed evapotranspiration . Evaporation of water occurs when the surface of the liquid is exposed , allowing molecules to escape and form water vapor ; this vapor can then rise up and form clouds .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Evaporation", "rank": 70, "score": 107925 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 71, "score": 107874 }, { "content": "Title: EcoCute Content: The EcoCute is an energy efficient electric heat pump , water heating and supply system that uses heat extracted from the air to heat water for domestic , industrial and commercial use . Instead of the more conventional ammonia or haloalkane gases , EcoCute uses supercritical carbon dioxide as a refrigerant . The technology offers a means of energy conservation and reduces the emission of greenhouse gas .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "EcoCute", "rank": 72, "score": 107584 }, { "content": "Title: Sulfuryl fluoride Content: Sulfuryl fluoride ( also spelled sulphuryl fluoride ) is the inorganic compound with the formula SO2F2 . This acute neurotoxin is an easily condensed gas and has properties more similar to sulfur hexafluoride than sulfuryl chloride , being resistant to hydrolysis even up to 150 ° C. Scientific studies , including 2009 MIT studies , proved that sulfuryl fluoride is a greenhouse gas `` about 4,800 times more potent a heat trapping gas than carbon dioxide '' , and repeated scientific animal studies ( dogs , rabbits , rats and mice ) have proven that sulfuryl fluoride primarily targets the brain , leaving laboratory animals exposed to sulfuryl fluoride with vacuolations ( holes ) in the brain and damage to the white matter , amongst other debilitating symptoms including death . Despite these facts , sulfuryl fluoride is still not only widely used as a structural insecticide fumigant to kill termites and other pests , in the State of Florida the Department of Agriculture reports that fumigations have increased from 10,535 in 2010 to 63,491 in 2014 , a stunning 600 % increase in only four years . Inhalation is hazardous and potentially fatal to humans and animals . And while the EPA has approved this neuro toxin for use in residential homes , the EPA does not require individual States to report to them on the numbers of poisonings . Exposure to sulfuryl fluoride is much farther reaching than just pest control applications as the EPA also approved the use of sulfuryl fluoride on much of the nation 's supply of non-organic foods , U.S. citizens consume the fluoride residues left behind from the sulfuryl fluoride gas .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Sulfuryl_fluoride", "rank": 73, "score": 107539 }, { "content": "Title: Superheated steam Content: Superheated steam is a steam at a temperature higher than its vaporization ( boiling ) point at the absolute pressure where the temperature is measured . The steam can therefore cool ( lose internal energy ) by some amount , resulting in a lowering of its temperature without changing state ( i.e. , condensing ) from a gas , to a mixture of saturated vapor and liquid . If saturated steam ( a mixture of both gas and saturated vapor ) is heated at constant pressure , its temperature will also remain constant as the vapor quality ( think dryness , or percent saturated vapor ) increases towards 100 % , and becomes dry ( i.e. , no saturated liquid ) saturated steam . Continued heat input will then `` super '' heat the dry saturated steam . This will occur if saturated steam contacts a surface with a higher temperature . Superheated steam and liquid water can not coexist under thermodynamic equilibrium , as any additional heat simply evaporates more water and the steam will become saturated steam . However this restriction may be violated temporarily in dynamic ( non-equilibrium ) situations . To produce superheated steam in a power plant or for processes ( such as drying paper ) the saturated steam drawn from a boiler is passed through a separate heating device ( a superheater ) which transfers additional heat to the steam by contact or by radiation . Superheated steam is not suitable for sterilization . This is because the superheated steam is dry . Dry steam must reach much higher temperatures and the materials exposed for a longer time period to have the same effectiveness ; or equal F0 kill value . Superheated steam is also not useful for heating . Saturated steam has a much higher wall heat transfer coefficient . Slightly superheated steam may be used for antimicrobial disinfection of biofilms on hard surfaces . Superheated steam 's greatest value lies in its tremendous internal energy that can be used for kinetic reaction through mechanical expansion against turbine blades and reciprocating pistons , that produces rotary motion of a shaft . The value of superheated steam in these applications is its ability to release tremendous quantities of internal energy yet remain above the condensation temperature of water vapor ; at the pressures at which reaction turbines and reciprocating piston engines operate . Of prime importance in these applications is the fact that water vapor containing entrained liquid droplets is generally incompressible at those pressures . If steam doing work in a reciprocating engine or turbine , cools to a temperature at which liquid droplets form ; the water droplets entrained in the fluid flow will strike the mechanical parts of engines or turbines , with enough force to bend , crack or fracture them . Superheating and pressure reduction through expansion ensures that the steam flow remains as a compressible gas throughout its passage through a turbine or an engine , preventing damage of the internal moving parts .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Superheated_steam", "rank": 74, "score": 107122 }, { "content": "Title: Vapor steam cleaner Content: Vapor steam cleaners or steam vapor systems are cleaning appliances or devices that use steam to quickly dry , clean , and sanitize inanimate surfaces . Often the process is effective enough to disinfect or even sterilize the surfaces . The steam is produced in a boiler that heats tap water to high temperatures ( 240-310F / 115-155C ) to produce low-pressure ( several atmospheres ) , low moisture ( 4 to 6 % water ) water vapor ( steam ) . The steam 's ability to clean is based primarily on its heat . The steam is applied to cleanable surfaces via a variety of insulated tools and accessories , thereby safely providing the energy needed to break soil bonds and release contaminants into water suspension , after which they can be removed by wiping or vacuuming . This process uses very little water ( usage is measured in liters or quarters per hour ) compared to carpet cleaners or other cleaning devices ( whose usage is measured in liters or gallons per minute ) , which use hot water instead of steam and are incorrectly called `` steam cleaners '' . The inherent low-moisture characteristics of vapor steam cleaners make them suitable for use inside buildings and residences . There are several manufacturers of vapor steam cleaners , with products ranging from higher-end industrial products to inexpensive consumer models . Vapor steam cleaners are cited as examples of green cleaning since they do not require the use of chemical cleaning solutions . They are growing in popularity because of steam vapor 's ability to kill germs and in some cases disinfect without the use of chemical disinfectants . Steam vapor has also been cited as effective in killing dust mites in carpet , bedding , and upholstery . Additionally , dry steam vapor has shown to be effective for killing bed bugs and their eggs when reaching temperatures of 150-170 degrees . In 2005 , the University of Washington tested a steam vapor system in restrooms and reported labor savings and hygienic improvements over previous methods . Vapor steam cleaners are frequently used in hypoallergenic environments because they do not require the use of additional cleaning chemicals , which results in better indoor air quality and eliminates the need to handle or store cleaning agents . Steam has been shown effective in combating mold , bacteria , viruses , and other forms of bio-contamination .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Vapor_steam_cleaner", "rank": 75, "score": 106979 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Content: A greenhouse ( also called a glasshouse , or , if with sufficient heating , a hothouse ) is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material , such as glass , in which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown . These structures range in size from small sheds to industrial-sized buildings . A miniature greenhouse is known as a cold frame . The interior of a greenhouse exposed to sunlight becomes significantly warmer than the external ambient temperature , protecting its contents in cold weather . Many commercial glass greenhouses or hothouses are high tech production facilities for vegetables or flowers . The glass greenhouses are filled with equipment including screening installations , heating , cooling , lighting , and may be controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for plant growth . Different techniques are then used to evaluate optimality-degrees and comfort ratio of greenhouse micro-climate ( i.e. , air temperature , relative humidity and vapor pressure deficit ) in order to reduce production risk prior to cultivation of a specific crop .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Greenhouse", "rank": 76, "score": 106804 }, { "content": "Title: John Lawrence Daly Content: John L. Daly ( 31 March 1943 -- 29 January 2004 ) was an Australian teacher and self-declared `` Greenhouse skeptic . '' He was known for speaking out publicly against what he called the `` Global Warming scare , '' and authored the book The greenhouse trap : Why the greenhouse effect will not end life on earth , published in 1989 by Bantam Books . Since his death his website , Still Waiting for Greenhouse is maintained by Jerry Brennan , though updates slowed considerably after Daly 's death and stopped completely in 2008 . Daly investigated various studies by scientists which appear to support global warming scenarios and raised objections to them . For example , he denied that the average sea level is rising , on the basis the ` Isle of the Dead ' mean ocean level benchmark .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "John_Lawrence_Daly", "rank": 77, "score": 106655 }, { "content": "Title: Moisture advection Content: Moisture advection is the horizontal transport of water vapor by the wind . Measurement and knowledge of atmospheric water vapor , or `` moisture '' , is crucial in the prediction of all weather elements , especially clouds , fog , temperature , humidity thermal comfort indices and precipitation .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Moisture_advection", "rank": 78, "score": 106534 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in Victoria Content: Energy in Victoria , Australia is generated using a number of fuels or technologies , including coal , natural gas and renewable energy sources - hydro , wind and solar . Brown coal is the primary energy source in the generation of electricity in the State of Victoria , Australia . Brown coal is also one of the largest contributors to Australia 's total domestic greenhouse gas emissions and a source of huge controversy for the country . Australia is one the highest polluters of greenhouse gas per capita in the world . Brown coal is used for the generation of approximately 85 % of Victoria 's household , commercial and industrial electricity consumption .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Energy_in_Victoria", "rank": 79, "score": 105424 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas removal Content: Greenhouse gas removal projects are a type of climate engineering that seek to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere , and thus they tackle the root cause of global warming . These techniques either directly remove greenhouse gases , or alternatively seek to influence natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly . The discipline overlaps with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration , and some projects listed may not be considered to be geoengineering by all commentators , instead being described as mitigation .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_removal", "rank": 80, "score": 105353 }, { "content": "Title: Rain Content: Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then precipitated -- that is , become heavy enough to fall under gravity . Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth . It provides suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems , as well as water for hydroelectric power plants and crop irrigation . The major cause of rain production is moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of temperature and moisture contrasts known as weather fronts . If enough moisture and upward motion is present , precipitation falls from convective clouds ( those with strong upward vertical motion ) such as cumulonimbus ( thunder clouds ) which can organize into narrow rainbands . In mountainous areas , heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation which forces moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall along the sides of mountains . On the leeward side of mountains , desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by downslope flow which causes heating and drying of the air mass . The movement of the monsoon trough , or intertropical convergence zone , brings rainy seasons to savannah climes . The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall , both in amounts and intensity , downwind of cities . Global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally , including wetter conditions across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics . Antarctica is the driest continent . The globally averaged annual precipitation over land is 715 mm , but over the whole Earth it is much higher at 990 mm . Climate classification systems such as the Köppen classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes . Rainfall is measured using rain gauges . Rainfall amounts can be estimated by weather radar . Rain is also known or suspected on other planets , where it may be composed of methane , neon , sulfuric acid , or even iron rather than water .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Rain", "rank": 81, "score": 105232 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Carbon_sequestration", "rank": 82, "score": 105195 }, { "content": "Title: Superheated water Content: Superheated water is liquid water under pressure at temperatures between the usual boiling point , 100 C and the critical temperature , 374 C . It is also known as `` subcritical water '' or `` pressurized hot water . '' Superheated water is stable because of overpressure that raises the boiling point , or by heating it in a sealed vessel with a headspace , where the liquid water is in equilibrium with vapour at the saturated vapor pressure . This is distinct from the use of the term superheating to refer to water at atmospheric pressure above its normal boiling point , which has not boiled due to a lack of nucleation sites ( sometimes experienced by heating liquids in a microwave ) . Many of water 's anomalous properties are due to very strong hydrogen bonding . Over the superheated temperature range the hydrogen bonds break , changing the properties more than usually expected by increasing temperature alone . Water becomes less polar and behaves more like an organic solvent such as methanol or ethanol . Solubility of organic materials and gases increases by several orders of magnitude and the water itself can act as a solvent , reagent and catalyst in industrial and analytical applications , including extraction , chemical reactions and cleaning .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Superheated_water", "rank": 83, "score": 104965 }, { "content": "Title: Robert O. Mendelsohn Content: Robert O. Mendelsohn ( born 1952 in New York City ) is an American environmental economist . He is currently the Edwin Weyerhaeuser Davis Professor of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University , Professor of Economics in Economics Department at Yale University and Professor in the School of Management at Yale University.Professor Mendelsohn is a major figure in the economics of global warming , being for example a contributor to the first Copenhagen Consensus report . Mendelsohn received a BA in economics from Harvard University in 1973 and obtained his Ph.D. in economics from Yale University in 1978 . Professor Mendelsohn has written over one hundred peer-reviewed articles and edited six books . The focus of his research has been the valuation of the environment . He has developed methods to value natural ecosystems including coral reefs , old-growth forests , non-timber forest products , ecotourism , and outdoor recreation . He has also developed methods to value pollution including emissions of criteria pollutants ( such as particulates and sulfur dioxide ) and hazardous waste sites . His most recent work values the impacts of greenhouse gases , including the effects of climate change on agriculture , forests , water resources , energy , and coasts . This research carefully integrates adaptation into impact assessment and has recently been extended to developing countries around the world . He has also been involved in studies of nonrenewable resources , forest management , and specifically carbon sequestration in forests .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Robert_O._Mendelsohn", "rank": 84, "score": 104529 }, { "content": "Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme", "rank": 85, "score": 104456 }, { "content": "Title: Infrared window Content: The infrared atmospheric window is the overall dynamic property of the earth 's atmosphere , taken as a whole at each place and occasion of interest , that lets some infrared radiation from the cloud tops and land-sea surface pass directly to space without intermediate absorption and re-emission , and thus without heating the atmosphere . It can not be defined simply as a part or set of parts of the electromagnetic spectrum , because the spectral composition of window radiation varies greatly with varying local environmental conditions , such as water vapour content and land-sea surface temperature , and because few or no parts of the spectrum are simply not absorbed at all , and because some of the diffuse radiation is passing nearly vertically upwards and some is passing nearly horizontally . A large gap in the absorption spectrum of water vapor , the main greenhouse gas , is most important in the dynamics of the window . Other gases , especially carbon dioxide and ozone , partly block transmission . An atmospheric window is a dynamic property of the atmosphere , while the spectral window is a static characteristic of the electromagnetic radiative absorption spectra of many greenhouse gases , including water vapour . The atmospheric window tells what actually happens in the atmosphere , while the spectral window tells of one of the several abstract factors that potentially contribute to the actual concrete happenings in the atmosphere . Window radiation is radiation that actually passes through the atmospheric window . Non-window radiation is radiation that actually does not pass through the atmospheric window . Window wavelength radiation is radiation that , judging only from its wavelength , potentially might or might not , but is likely to pass through the atmospheric window . Non-window wavelength radiation is radiation that , judging only from its wavelength , is unlikely to pass through the atmospheric window . The difference between window radiation and window wavelength radiation is that window radiation is an actual component of the radiation , determined by the full dynamics of the atmosphere , taking in all determining factors , while window wavelength radiation is merely theoretically potential , defined only by one factor , the wavelength . The importance of the infrared atmospheric window in the atmospheric energy balance was discovered by George Simpson in 1928 , based on G. Hettner 's 1918 laboratory studies of the gap in the absorption spectrum of water vapor . In those days , computers were not available , and Simpson notes that he used approximations ; he writes : `` There is no hope of getting an exact solution ; but by making suitable simplifying assumptions ... '' Nowadays , accurate line-by-line computations are possible , and careful studies of the infrared atmospheric window have been published .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Infrared_window", "rank": 86, "score": 104007 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal transpiration Content: Thermal transpiration or thermal diffusion refers to the thermal force on a gas due to a temperature difference . Thermal transpiration causes a flow of gas in the absence of any pressure difference , and is able to maintain a certain pressure difference ( called thermomolecular pressure difference ) in a steady state . The effect is strongest when the mean free path of the gas molecules is comparable to the dimensions of the gas container . Thermal transpiration appears as an important correction in the readings of vapor pressure thermometers , and the effect is historically famous as being an explanation for the rotation of the Crookes radiometer .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Thermal_transpiration", "rank": 87, "score": 103974 }, { "content": "Title: Vapor (disambiguation) Content: A vapor is a substance in the gas phase below its boiling point . Vapor or vapour may also refer to :", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Vapor_(disambiguation)", "rank": 88, "score": 103675 }, { "content": "Title: 100% renewable energy Content: The endeavor to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , heating and cooling , and transport is motivated by global warming , pollution and other environmental issues , as well as economic and energy security concerns . Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system . In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . In 2014 , renewable sources such as wind , geothermal , solar , biomass , and burnt waste provided 19 % of the total energy consumed worldwide , with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass . The most important sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8 % , most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6 % , followed by wind with 3.1 % . There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy . At the national level , at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of the energy supply . Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of `` Climate stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and `` renewable energy sources , '' in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their `` wedges . '' Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program , says that producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible , and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be `` primarily social and political , not technological or economic '' . Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind , solar , and water system should be similar to today 's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies . The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will . Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that `` sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . '' The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "100%_renewable_energy", "rank": 89, "score": 103543 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric water generator Content: An atmospheric water generator ( AWG ) is a device that extracts water from humid ambient air . Water vapor in the air is condensed by cooling the air below its dew point , exposing the air to desiccants , or pressurizing the air . Unlike a dehumidifier , an AWG is designed to render the water potable . AWGs are useful where pure drinking water is difficult or impossible to obtain , because there is almost always a small amount of water in the air that can be extracted . The two primary techniques in use are cooling and desiccants . The extraction of atmospheric water may not be free of cost , because significant input of energy is required to drive some AWG processes . Certain traditional AWG methods are completely passive , relying on natural temperature differences , and requiring no external energy source . Research has also developed AWG technologies to produce useful yields of water at a reduced ( but non-zero ) energy cost .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Atmospheric_water_generator", "rank": 90, "score": 103345 }, { "content": "Title: Optical properties of water and ice Content: The refractive index of water at 20 ° C is 1.332986 . The refractive index of normal ice is 1.31 . ( From List of refractive indices . ) In general , an index of refraction is a complex number with both a real and imaginary part , where the latter indicates the strength of absorption loss at a particular wavelength . In the visible part of electromagnetic spectrum the imaginary part of the refractive index is very small . However , water and ice absorb in infrared and close the atmospheric window thereby contributing to the greenhouse effect The absorption spectrum of pure water is used in numerous applications , including light scattering and absorption by ice crystals and cloud water droplets , theories of the rainbow , determination of the single scattering albedo , ocean color , and many others .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Optical_properties_of_water_and_ice", "rank": 91, "score": 102544 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Massachusetts Content: Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Massachusetts", "rank": 92, "score": 102012 }, { "content": "Title: Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Content: The ability of stratospheric sulfate aerosols to create a global dimming effect has made them a possible candidate for use in solar radiation management climate engineering projects to limit the effect and impact of climate change due to rising levels of greenhouse gases . Delivery of precursor sulfide gases such as sulfuric acid , hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide by artillery , aircraft and balloons has been proposed . It presently appears that this proposed method could counter most climatic changes , take effect rapidly , have very low direct implementation costs , and be reversible in its direct climatic effects . One study calculated the impact of injecting sulfate particles , or aerosols , every one to four years into the stratosphere in amounts equal to those lofted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , but did not address the many technical and political challenges involved in potential solar radiation management efforts . If found to be economically , environmentally and technologically viable , such injections could provide a `` grace period '' of up to 20 years before major cutbacks in greenhouse gas emissions would be required , the study concludes . It has been suggested that the direct delivery of precursors could be achieved using sulfide gases such as dimethyl sulfide , sulfur dioxide , carbonyl sulfide , or hydrogen sulfide . These compounds would be delivered using artillery , aircraft ( such as the high-flying F-15C ) or balloons , and result in the formation of compounds with the sulfate anion SO42 − . According to estimates , `` one kilogram of well placed sulfur in the stratosphere would roughly offset the warming effect of several hundred thousand kilograms of carbon dioxide . ''", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_(climate_engineering)", "rank": 93, "score": 101663 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning", "rank": 94, "score": 101504 }, { "content": "Title: Water cycle Content: The water cycle , also known as the hydrological cycle or the hydrologic cycle , describes the continuous movement of water on , above and below the surface of the Earth . The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice , fresh water , saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables . The water moves from one reservoir to another , such as from river to ocean , or from the ocean to the atmosphere , by the physical processes of evaporation , condensation , precipitation , infiltration , surface runoff , and subsurface flow . In doing so , the water goes through different forms : liquid , solid ( ice ) and vapor . The water cycle involves the exchange of energy , which leads to temperature changes . For instance , when water evaporates , it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment . When it condenses , it releases energy and warms the environment . These heat exchanges influence climate . The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater . The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe . It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth , through processes including erosion and sedimentation . The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Water_cycle", "rank": 95, "score": 101381 }, { "content": "Title: Cold trap Content: In vacuum applications , a cold trap is a device that condenses all vapors except the permanent gases into a liquid or solid . The most common objective is to prevent vapors being evacuated from an experiment from entering a vacuum pump where they would condense and contaminate it . Particularly large cold traps are necessary when removing large amounts of liquid as in freeze drying . Cold traps also refer to the application of cooled surfaces or baffles to prevent oil vapours from flowing from a pump and into a chamber . In such a case , a baffle or a section of pipe containing a number of cooled vanes , will be attached to the inlet of an existing pumping system . By cooling the baffle , either with a cryogen such as liquid nitrogen , or by use of an electrically driven Peltier element , oil vapour molecules that strike the baffle vanes will condense and thus be removed from the pumped cavity .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Cold_trap", "rank": 96, "score": 101367 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Climate_change_in_China", "rank": 97, "score": 101310 }, { "content": "Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Solar_gain", "rank": 98, "score": 101109 }, { "content": "Title: Faint young Sun paradox Content: The faint young Sun paradox describes the apparent contradiction between observations of liquid water early in Earth 's history and the astrophysical expectation that the Sun 's output would be only 70 percent as intense during that epoch as it is during the modern epoch . The issue was raised by astronomers Carl Sagan and George Mullen in 1972 . Explanations of this paradox have taken into account greenhouse effects , astrophysical influences , or a combination of the two . The unresolved question is how a climate suitable for life was maintained on Earth over the long timescale despite the variable solar output and wide range of terrestrial conditions .", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Faint_young_Sun_paradox", "rank": 99, "score": 100955 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Content: The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.", "qid": "2979", "docid": "Atmospheric_Infrared_Sounder", "rank": 100, "score": 100832 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 1, "score": 190842 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 2, "score": 167534 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 3, "score": 167518 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 4, "score": 165841 }, { "content": "Title: Geodynamics of terrestrial exoplanets Content: The discovery of extrasolar Earth-sized planets has spurred inquiry regarding their potential for habitability . One of the generally agreed-upon ( Noack and Breuer and references within ) requirements for a life-sustaining planet is a mobile , fractured lithosphere cyclically recycled into a vigorously convecting mantle , commonly known as plate tectonics . Plate tectonics provide a means of geochemical regulation of atmospheric particulates , as well as sequestration of carbon . This prevents `` runaway greenhouse '' scenarios that can result in inhospitable surface temperatures and vaporization of liquid surface water . There is not a clear academic consensus on whether Earth-like exoplanets have plate tectonics , but it is widely thought that the likelihood of plate tectonics on an Earth-like exoplanet is a function of planetary radius , initial temperature upon coalescence , insolation , and presence or absence of liquid-phase surface water .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Geodynamics_of_terrestrial_exoplanets", "rank": 5, "score": 164307 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect", "rank": 6, "score": 163500 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 7, "score": 158961 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 8, "score": 151482 }, { "content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Fugitive_emissions", "rank": 9, "score": 147997 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 10, "score": 142992 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 11, "score": 141849 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 12, "score": 139050 }, { "content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis", "rank": 13, "score": 135913 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 14, "score": 135220 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 15, "score": 134756 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite", "rank": 16, "score": 134633 }, { "content": "Title: Virgin Earth Challenge Content: The Virgin Earth Challenge is a competition offering a $ 25 million prize for whoever can demonstrate a commercially viable design which results in the permanent removal of greenhouse gases out of the Earth 's atmosphere to contribute materially in global warming avoidance . The prize was conceived and financed by Sir Richard Branson , a successful British entrepreneur , and was announced in London on 9 February 2007 by Branson and former US Vice President and 2007 Nobel Prize winner Al Gore , creator of the 2006 film An Inconvenient Truth on climate change . Among more than 2600 applications , 11 finalists were announced on 2 November 2011 . These are Biochar Solutions , from the US ; Biorecro , Sweden ; Black Carbon , Denmark ; Carbon Engineering , Canada ; Climeworks , Switzerland ; COAWAY , US ; Full Circle Biochar , US ; Global Thermostat , US ; Kilimanjaro Energy , US ; Smartstones -- Olivine Foundation , Netherlands , and The Savory Institute , US .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Virgin_Earth_Challenge", "rank": 17, "score": 134372 }, { "content": "Title: Kombayashi–Ingersoll limit Content: In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in . For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter . The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Kombayashi–Ingersoll_limit", "rank": 18, "score": 134037 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 19, "score": 133816 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Runaway_climate_change", "rank": 20, "score": 132229 }, { "content": "Title: Water vapor Content: Water vapor , water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water . It is one state of water within the hydrosphere . Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice . Unlike other forms of water , water vapor is invisible . Under typical atmospheric conditions , water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation . It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds . Being a component of Earth 's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle , it is particularly abundant in Earth 's atmosphere where it is also a potent greenhouse gas along with other gases such as carbon dioxide and methane . Use of water vapor , as steam , has been important to humans for cooking and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution . Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent , present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet in the Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural satellites , comets and even large asteroids . Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems . Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Water_vapor", "rank": 21, "score": 131004 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 22, "score": 130940 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 23, "score": 130553 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Greenhouse_debt", "rank": 24, "score": 128137 }, { "content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide", "rank": 25, "score": 128065 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 26, "score": 125802 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 27, "score": 125794 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 28, "score": 124334 }, { "content": "Title: Doomsday Machine (film) Content: Doomsday Machine , also known as Escape from Planet Earth ( video title ) , is an American science fiction film filmed in 1967 but completed without the original cast or sets in 1972 .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Doomsday_Machine_(film)", "rank": 29, "score": 123948 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_cycle_re-balancing", "rank": 30, "score": 123534 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Content: The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Atmospheric_Infrared_Sounder", "rank": 31, "score": 123171 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 32, "score": 123163 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth", "rank": 33, "score": 123103 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 34, "score": 121013 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 35, "score": 120710 }, { "content": "Title: Ian G. Enting Content: Ian Enting ( born 25 September 1948 ) is a mathematical physicist and the AMSI/MASCOS Professorial Fellow at the ARC Centre of Excellence for Mathematics and Statistics of Complex Systems ( MASCOS ) based at The University of Melbourne . Enting is the author of Twisted , The Distorted Mathematics of Greenhouse Denial in which he analyses the presentation and use of data by climate change deniers . More recently he has been addressing the claims made in Ian Plimer 's book `` Heaven + Earth '' . He has published a critique , `` Ian Plimer 's ` Heaven + Earth ' -- Checking the Claims '' , listing what Enting claims are numerous misrepresentations of the sources cited in the book . From 1980 to 2004 he worked in CSIRO Atmospheric Research , primarily on modelling the global carbon cycle . He was one of the lead authors of the chapter and the Carbon Cycle in the 1994 IPCC report on Radiative Forcing of Climate . Enting has published scientific papers , on mathematical physics and carbon cycle modelling , and a monograph on mathematical techniques for interpreting observations of carbon dioxide and other trace gases .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Ian_G._Enting", "rank": 36, "score": 120029 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 37, "score": 119875 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting", "rank": 38, "score": 119862 }, { "content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources", "rank": 39, "score": 119515 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 40, "score": 119409 }, { "content": "Title: SathyabamaSat Content: SathyabamaSat is a micro experimental satellite developed by students and faculty of Sathyabama University , Chennai to collect data on greenhouse gases ( Water vapor , Carbon monoxide , Carbon dioxide , Methane and Hydrogen fluoride ) . It was launched along with the Cartosat-2C satellite atop PSLV-C34 . It was launched on June 22nd , 2016 .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "SathyabamaSat", "rank": 41, "score": 119214 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 42, "score": 119211 }, { "content": "Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance", "rank": 43, "score": 119141 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 44, "score": 118573 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_sequestration", "rank": 45, "score": 118188 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 46, "score": 117213 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 47, "score": 116712 }, { "content": "Title: Integrated Carbon Observation System Content: Integrated Carbon Observation System ( ICOS ) is a new strategic research infrastructure to quantify the greenhouse gas balance in Europe and adjacent regions . It consists of a harmonized network of ecosystem long-term observation sites , a network of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration sites and a network of ocean observations . The network will be coordinated through a set of central facilities , including an atmospheric and an ecosystem thematic center , a central data center , an analytical laboratory and an oceanic thematic center . ICOS will provide the essential long-term observations required to understand the present state and predict future behavior of the global carbon cycle and greenhouse gas emissions . It will monitor and assess the effectiveness of carbon sequestration and/or greenhouse gases emission reduction activities on global atmospheric composition levels , including attribution of sources and sinks by region and sector . Standardized network will improved access to data and enable the development of flux products for research and political application . ICOS will be a state-of-the-art facility for the European research community . It will contribute the European share to global greenhouse gas observations under GEO , WMO-GAW and GTOS programs .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Integrated_Carbon_Observation_System", "rank": 48, "score": 115957 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 49, "score": 115346 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 50, "score": 115109 }, { "content": "Title: World People's Conference on Climate Change Content: The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth was a global gathering of civil society and governments hosted by the government of Bolivia in Tiquipaya , just outside the city of Cochabamba from April 19 -- 22 , 2010 . The event was attended by around 30,000 people from over 100 countries , and the proceedings were transmitted live online by OneClimate and the Global Campaign for Climate Action ( GCCA ) . The conference was viewed as a response to what some termed failed climate talks in Copenhagen during the 15th United Nations Conference of Parties ( COP15 ) climate meetings in December 2009 . There have been claims after the Conference ended that there were flaws in its organization and that the Venezuelan government funded it partially . One of the important objectives of the conference was to produce proposals for new commitments to the Kyoto Protocol and projects in the lead-up to the next UN climate negotiations scheduled during the COP16 meeting in Cancun , Mexico in December 2010 . Conference topics included a Universal Declaration on the Rights of Mother Earth ( see external links below ) , a World People 's Referendum on Climate Change , and the establishment of a Climate Justice Tribunal . The World People 's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of the Mother Earth resulted in a People 's Accord .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "World_People's_Conference_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 51, "score": 114947 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 52, "score": 113298 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas removal Content: Greenhouse gas removal projects are a type of climate engineering that seek to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere , and thus they tackle the root cause of global warming . These techniques either directly remove greenhouse gases , or alternatively seek to influence natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly . The discipline overlaps with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration , and some projects listed may not be considered to be geoengineering by all commentators , instead being described as mitigation .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_removal", "rank": 53, "score": 112861 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainability and environmental management Content: At the global scale sustainability and environmental management involves managing the oceans , freshwater systems , land and atmosphere , according to sustainability principles . Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation , agriculture , forest , woodland , grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water , carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles . Management of the Earth 's atmosphere involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities . Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and , in turn , the food supply of both humans and other organisms .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Sustainability_and_environmental_management", "rank": 54, "score": 112742 }, { "content": "Title: Water vapor windows Content: In the Earth 's atmosphere , water vapor absorbs many wavelengths of IR energy , while others are not absorbed . Those sections of the Electromagnetic spectrum that it does not absorb , are like windows in the atmosphere , allowing electromagnetic energy to flow freely in and out of the system . Like a window , that allows light to enter and leave . Originally discovered by John Tyndall , most of the infrared coming from the Universe is blocked , absorbed by water vapor ( and other greenhouse gases ) in the Earth 's atmosphere . Those wavelength ranges that can partially reach the surface , are coming through what is called ` water vapor windows ' . These windows are how Astronomers can view the Universe with IR telescopes , called Infrared astronomy . These windows also allow orbiting satellites to measure the IR energy leaving the planet , the SSTs and other important matters . See Electromagnetic_absorption_by_water #Atmospheric _ effects .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Water_vapor_windows", "rank": 55, "score": 112548 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_rift", "rank": 56, "score": 112534 }, { "content": "Title: CarboNZero programme Content: The carboNZero programme and CEMARS programme are the world 's first internationally accredited greenhouse gas ( GHG ) certification schemes under ISO 14065 . They provide tools for organisations , products , services and events to measure and reduce their greenhouse gas emissions ( otherwise known as carbon footprint ) , and optionally offset it . The programmes are owned and operated by Enviro-Mark Solutions Limited , a wholly owned subsidiary of Landcare Research ( 100 % NZ government-owned ) .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "CarboNZero_programme", "rank": 57, "score": 112487 }, { "content": "Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases", "rank": 58, "score": 112387 }, { "content": "Title: Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) Carbon Neutral Resolution Content: The Presbyterian Church ( USA ) Carbon Neutral Resolution was a resolution passed at the June , 2006 , 217th General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) strongly urging all Presbyterians to ` immediately aspire to live carbon neutral lives ' . It is believed that resolution was the first in the world by a major religious denomination for its followers to become carbon neutral . The resolution also directed the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy to make available detail of how Presbyterians could take to reduce their energy consumption and recognised that ` the Christian mandate to care for creation and the biblical promise of the restoration of right relationships between God , human beings , and the rest of creation impels and inspires Presbyterians to act to reduce -LSB- their -RSB- energy usage ' . The resolution was based on a report by a task force prepared for the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy . After the Advisory Committee voted to postpone consideration of the report until the 2008 General Assembly , two General Assembly Commissioners bypassed the committee and were successful in getting the resolution adopted . The Church first noted its ` serious concern ' over global warming at the 1990 General Assembly , when it warned that ` the global atmospheric warming trend ( the greenhouse effect ) represents one of the most serious global environmental challenges to the health , security , and stability of human life and natural ecosystems ' . Despite this , a survey carried out in 2004 revealed that over half of all Presbyterians had not taken even the ` simplest steps to decrease their energy usage ' , and that most congregations had not implemented energy conservation programs .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Presbyterian_Church_(U.S.A.)_Carbon_Neutral_Resolution", "rank": 59, "score": 112275 }, { "content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence", "rank": 60, "score": 111721 }, { "content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry", "rank": 61, "score": 110885 }, { "content": "Title: List of carbon ranches Content: This is a working list of Carbon Ranches a term referring to regenerative agriculture practices that specifically accomplish carbon sequestration in the soil . `` The world 's cultivated soils have lost between 50 and 70 percent of their original carbon stock . '' ( Lal ) `` A mere two percent increase in the carbon content of the planet 's soils could offset 100 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions going into the atmosphere . '' ( Lal ) Grasslands cover 350 billion hectares , comprising 70 % of global agricultural land making carbon ranching an especially climate beneficial alternative to meat produced as part of a Concentrated animal feeding operation . Carbon ranching may include , but is not limited to Managed intensive rotational grazing , Compost application , Holistic management ( agriculture ) and Tree planting . There are many research groups and NGO 's studying and advancing this field including Arizona State University , The Carbon Cycle Institute , Holistic Management International , The Ohio State University , The Quivira Coalition , The Savory Institute , The Soil Carbon Coalition , Texas A&M University . This list does not necessarily reflect scientific or academic endorsements insofar as best practices and results vary across ranches , climates , time periods , and sources of funding and are therefore challenging to quantify and/or compare . Currently , confirmation of the carbon ranching designation is confirmed through either third party citation or Soil Organic Matter test result .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "List_of_carbon_ranches", "rank": 62, "score": 110674 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England", "rank": 63, "score": 110190 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth's atmosphere Content: The following articles relate to Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth 's atmosphere : Carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere Global warming Greenhouse effect", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_accumulation_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 64, "score": 109952 }, { "content": "Title: Infrared window Content: The infrared atmospheric window is the overall dynamic property of the earth 's atmosphere , taken as a whole at each place and occasion of interest , that lets some infrared radiation from the cloud tops and land-sea surface pass directly to space without intermediate absorption and re-emission , and thus without heating the atmosphere . It can not be defined simply as a part or set of parts of the electromagnetic spectrum , because the spectral composition of window radiation varies greatly with varying local environmental conditions , such as water vapour content and land-sea surface temperature , and because few or no parts of the spectrum are simply not absorbed at all , and because some of the diffuse radiation is passing nearly vertically upwards and some is passing nearly horizontally . A large gap in the absorption spectrum of water vapor , the main greenhouse gas , is most important in the dynamics of the window . Other gases , especially carbon dioxide and ozone , partly block transmission . An atmospheric window is a dynamic property of the atmosphere , while the spectral window is a static characteristic of the electromagnetic radiative absorption spectra of many greenhouse gases , including water vapour . The atmospheric window tells what actually happens in the atmosphere , while the spectral window tells of one of the several abstract factors that potentially contribute to the actual concrete happenings in the atmosphere . Window radiation is radiation that actually passes through the atmospheric window . Non-window radiation is radiation that actually does not pass through the atmospheric window . Window wavelength radiation is radiation that , judging only from its wavelength , potentially might or might not , but is likely to pass through the atmospheric window . Non-window wavelength radiation is radiation that , judging only from its wavelength , is unlikely to pass through the atmospheric window . The difference between window radiation and window wavelength radiation is that window radiation is an actual component of the radiation , determined by the full dynamics of the atmosphere , taking in all determining factors , while window wavelength radiation is merely theoretically potential , defined only by one factor , the wavelength . The importance of the infrared atmospheric window in the atmospheric energy balance was discovered by George Simpson in 1928 , based on G. Hettner 's 1918 laboratory studies of the gap in the absorption spectrum of water vapor . In those days , computers were not available , and Simpson notes that he used approximations ; he writes : `` There is no hope of getting an exact solution ; but by making suitable simplifying assumptions ... '' Nowadays , accurate line-by-line computations are possible , and careful studies of the infrared atmospheric window have been published .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Infrared_window", "rank": 65, "score": 109895 }, { "content": "Title: The Runaway Bride (Doctor Who) Content: `` The Runaway Bride '' is a special episode of the long-running British science fiction television programme Doctor Who , starring David Tennant as the Tenth Doctor . It was produced as the Doctor Who Christmas special for 2006 , broadcast on 25 December , the second Christmas special after the previous `` The Christmas Invasion '' which introduced the third series while not actually being part of it . It features Catherine Tate as Donna , who appeared in the TARDIS at the end of the previous episode , `` Doomsday '' .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "The_Runaway_Bride_(Doctor_Who)", "rank": 66, "score": 109861 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon cycle Content: The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere , pedosphere , geosphere , hydrosphere , and atmosphere of the Earth . Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many minerals such as limestone . Along with the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle , the carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to make Earth capable of sustaining life . It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere , as well as long-term processes of carbon sequestration to and release from carbon sinks . The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges ( incomes and losses ) of carbon between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop ( e.g. , atmosphere and biosphere ) of the carbon cycle . An examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide . The carbon cycle was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier , and popularized by Humphry Davy .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_cycle", "rank": 67, "score": 109207 }, { "content": "Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Anti-greenhouse_effect", "rank": 68, "score": 109043 }, { "content": "Title: Travis Barman Content: Travis Barman is an astronomer at the Lowell Observatory in Arizona , in the United States . While studying a combination of the previously published Hubble Space Telescope measurements and new theoretical models , Barman found strong evidence for water absorption in the atmosphere of HD 209458 b. A planet about 150 light years away from earth , HD 209458 b was known previously to contain an evaporating hydrogen atmosphere , along with oxygen and carbon . Though the planet is only 7 million kilometers away from its star , the planet is not hot enough to break the water molecules . HD 209458 b , a transiting planet , passes in front of its star , where it can be viewed from earth every three and a half days . When this happens , water vapor in the planet 's atmosphere causes the planet to appear slightly larger in the infrared part of the starlight than in the visible portion . Barman found the water signature after applying new theoretical models he developed to visible and infrared Hubble data collected by then-Harvard graduate student Heather Knutson in 2007 , which measured the perceived size of the planet over a broad range of wavelengths .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Travis_Barman", "rank": 69, "score": 108858 }, { "content": "Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "California_Senate_Bill_32", "rank": 70, "score": 108366 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon process management Content: Carbon Process Management ( CPM ) is a management process which promotes environmental effectiveness in organizations . It is designed to maximize efficiencies in the consumption of resources that contribute to climate change . When implemented effectively , CPM techniques can reduce operating costs , realizing gains in brand equity , competitive advantage and stakeholder value . Initially introduced by First Carbon Solutions , CPM uses Japanese kaizen philosophy which continuously improves workplace practices to reduce wastage , this is combined business process management ( BPM ) which increases efficiency . Governments who resorts to legal mechanisms and regulation to deal with the risks of climate change , techniques such as CPM are directed towards a corporate approach in helping reduce greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_process_management", "rank": 71, "score": 108031 }, { "content": "Title: Methane Content: Methane ( -LSB- ˈmɛθeɪn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈmiːθeɪn -RSB- ) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula ( one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen ) . It is a group 14 hydride and the simplest alkane , and is the main constituent of natural gas . The relative abundance of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel , though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state under normal conditions for temperature and pressure . Natural methane is found both below ground and under the sea floor . When it reaches the surface and the atmosphere , it is known as atmospheric methane . The Earth 's atmospheric methane concentration has increased by about 150 % since 1750 , and it accounts for 20 % of the total radiative forcing from all of the long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases ( these gases do n't include water vapor which is by far the largest component of the greenhouse effect ) .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Methane", "rank": 72, "score": 107834 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 73, "score": 107815 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_offset", "rank": 74, "score": 107730 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Atmosphere", "rank": 75, "score": 107655 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Pluto Content: The atmosphere of Pluto is the tenuous layer of gases surrounding Pluto . It consists mainly of nitrogen ( N2 ) , with minor amounts of methane ( CH4 ) and carbon monoxide ( CO ) , all of which are vaporized from their ices on Pluto 's surface . It contains layered haze , probably consisting of heavier compounds which form from these gases due to high-energy radiation . The atmosphere of Pluto is notable for its strong and not completely clear seasonal changes caused by peculiarities of the orbital and axial rotation of Pluto . Surface pressure of the atmosphere of Pluto , measured by New Horizons in 2015 , is about , roughly 100,000 times less than Earth 's atmospheric pressure . Temperature on the surface is 40 to , but it quickly grows with altitude due to methane-generated greenhouse effect . Near the altitude it reaches 110 K , and then slowly decreases . Pluto is the only trans-Neptunian object with a known atmosphere . Its closest analog is the atmosphere of Triton , although in some aspects it resembles even the atmosphere of Mars . The atmosphere of Pluto has been studied since the 1980s by way of earth-based observation of occultations of stars by Pluto and spectroscopy . In 2015 , it was studied from a close distance by the spacecraft New Horizons .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Pluto", "rank": 76, "score": 107535 }, { "content": "Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 77, "score": 107369 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 78, "score": 107182 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Environmental_issue", "rank": 79, "score": 106798 }, { "content": "Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Drawdown_(climate)", "rank": 80, "score": 106683 }, { "content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Global_dimming", "rank": 81, "score": 106617 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 82, "score": 106539 }, { "content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Kaya_identity", "rank": 83, "score": 106185 }, { "content": "Title: Mootral Content: Mootral is the name given to a programme to reduce methane emissions from ruminant animals , chiefly cows and sheep , but also goats . Methane is a major target greenhouse gas and in the 4th protocol report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is recommended to increase from a x23 to x72 multiplier because of the magnitude of its effect relative to carbon dioxide and short longevity in Earth 's atmosphere .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Mootral", "rank": 84, "score": 106159 }, { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 85, "score": 105856 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance", "rank": 86, "score": 105661 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide", "rank": 87, "score": 105653 }, { "content": "Title: Methanotroph Content: Methanotrophs ( sometimes called methanophiles ) are prokaryotes that metabolize methane as their only source of carbon and energy . They can grow aerobically or anaerobically and require single-carbon compounds to survive . These Methanotrophs are currently being modified to absorb methane from the atmosphere , because methane released into the atmosphere contributes to greenhouse gasses , which heat up the earth and cause global warming .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Methanotroph", "rank": 88, "score": 105502 }, { "content": "Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "The_Green_Initiative", "rank": 89, "score": 105447 }, { "content": "Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth", "rank": 90, "score": 105264 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia", "rank": 91, "score": 105249 }, { "content": "Title: Mother (video game) Content: , later released outside Japan as EarthBound Beginnings , is a role-playing video game developed by Ape and published by Nintendo for the Famicom . The game is modeled on the gameplay of the Dragon Quest series , but is set in the late 20th century United States , unlike its fantasy genre contemporaries . Mother follows the young Ninten as he uses his great-grandfather 's studies on psychic powers to fight hostile , formerly inanimate objects and other enemies . The game uses random encounters to enter a menu-based , first-person perspective battle system . It is the first game in the Mother series and was followed by two sequels , EarthBound in 1994 and Mother 3 in 2006 . The game 's writer and director , Shigesato Itoi , pitched the game concept to Shigeru Miyamoto while visiting Nintendo 's headquarters for other business . Though Miyamoto denied the proposal at first , he eventually gave Itoi a development team . The game was released in Japan on July 27 , 1989 . A North American version was localized into English , but was abandoned as commercially nonviable . A copy of this prototype was later found and circulated on the Internet under the unofficial , fan-created title EarthBound Zero . The game was eventually released worldwide under the name EarthBound Beginnings for the Wii U Virtual Console on June 14 , 2015 . Reviewers noted the game 's similarities with the Dragon Quest series and its simultaneous parody of the genre 's tropes . They considered the game 's sequel , EarthBound , very similar and a better overall implementation of Mother gameplay ideas . Critics also noted the game 's high level of difficulty and issues of balance . Mother sold 150,000 copies and received a `` Silver Hall of Fame '' score from Japanese reviewer Weekly Famitsu . Jeremy Parish of 1UP . com wrote that Mother importantly generated interest in video game emulation and the historical preservation of unreleased games . The game was later rereleased in Japan on the single-cartridge compilation Mother 1 +2 for the Game Boy Advance in 2003 .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Mother_(video_game)", "rank": 92, "score": 105207 }, { "content": "Title: Vasundhara (film) Content: Vasundhara is a 2014 Kannada thriller/drama film directed by T.S. Nagabharana . The name refers to Mother Earth and its role as life giver , protector , preserver and absolver of all sins of all forms of life , and the embodiment of patience and tolerance .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Vasundhara_(film)", "rank": 93, "score": 105005 }, { "content": "Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network", "rank": 94, "score": 104982 }, { "content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 95, "score": 104954 }, { "content": "Title: Nibiru cataclysm Content: The Nibiru cataclysm is a supposed disastrous encounter between the Earth and a large planetary object ( either a collision or a near-miss ) which certain groups believe will take place in the early 21st century . Believers in this doomsday event usually refer to this object as Planet X or Nibiru . The idea that a planet-sized object will collide with or closely pass by Earth in the near future is not supported by any scientific evidence and has been rejected by astronomers and planetary scientists as pseudoscience and an Internet hoax . The idea was first put forward in 1995 by Nancy Lieder , founder of the website ZetaTalk . Lieder describes herself as a contactee with the ability to receive messages from extraterrestrials from the Zeta Reticuli star system through an implant in her brain . She states that she was chosen to warn mankind that the object would sweep through the inner Solar System in May 2003 ( though that date was later postponed ) causing Earth to undergo a physical pole shift that would destroy most of humanity . The prediction has subsequently spread beyond Lieder 's website and has been embraced by numerous Internet doomsday groups , most of which linked the event to the 2012 phenomenon . Since 2012 , the Nibiru cataclysm has frequently reappeared in the popular media ; usually linked to newsmaking astronomical objects such as Comet ISON or Planet Nine . Although the name `` Nibiru '' is derived from the works of the ancient astronaut writer Zecharia Sitchin and his interpretations of Babylonian and Sumerian mythology , he denied any connection between his work and various claims of a coming apocalypse .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Nibiru_cataclysm", "rank": 96, "score": 104915 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Low-carbon_diet", "rank": 97, "score": 104845 }, { "content": "Title: Fluorinated gases Content: Fluorinated gases ( F-gases ) are man-made gases that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries and contribute to a global greenhouse effect . There are four types : hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) and nitrogen trifluoride ( NF3 ) .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Fluorinated_gases", "rank": 98, "score": 104834 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Carbon_finance", "rank": 99, "score": 104725 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2981", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 100, "score": 104382 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: ERA-40 Content: ERA-40 is an ECMWF re-analysis of the global atmosphere and surface conditions for 45-years , over the period from September 1957 through August 2002 by ECMWF . Many sources of the meteorological observations were used , including radiosondes , balloons , aircraft , buoyes , satellites , scatterometers . This data was run through the ECMWF computer model at a 125 km resolution . As the ECMWF 's computer model is one of the more highly regarded in the field of forecasting , many scientists take its reanalysis to have similar merit . The data is stored in GRIB format . The reanalysis was done in an effort to improve the accuracy of historical weather maps and aid in a more detailed analysis of various weather systems through a period that was severely lacking in computerized data . With the data from reanalyses such as this , many of the more modern computerized tools for analyzing storm systems can be utilized , at least in part , because of this access to a computerized simulation of the atmospheric state .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "ERA-40", "rank": 1, "score": 133558 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 2, "score": 122059 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 3, "score": 121459 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 4, "score": 120083 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 5, "score": 119878 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 6, "score": 118715 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 7, "score": 117317 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Global_temperature_record", "rank": 8, "score": 113412 }, { "content": "Title: ECMWF re-analysis Content: The ECMWF re-analysis project is a meteorological reanalysis project . The first reanalysis product , ERA-15 , generated re-analyses for approximately 15 years , from December 1978 to February 1994 . The second product , ERA-40 ( originally intended as a 40-year reanalysis ) begins in 1957 ( the International Geophysical Year ) and covers 45 years to 2002 . As a precursor to a revised extended reanalysis product to replace ERA-40 , ECMWF has recently released ERA-Interim , which covers the period from 1979 to present . In addition to re-analysing all the old data using a consistent system , the reanalyses also make use of much archived data that was not available to the original analyses . This allows for the correction of many historical hand-drawn maps where the estimation of features was common in areas of data sparsity . The ability is also present to create new maps of atmosphere levels that were not commonly used until more recent times .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "ECMWF_re-analysis", "rank": 9, "score": 112692 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 10, "score": 109490 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 11, "score": 108390 }, { "content": "Title: Winter of 1894–95 in the United Kingdom Content: The winter of 1894 -- 95 was severe for the British Isles with a CET of 1.27 C . Many climatologists have come to view this winter as the end of the Little Ice Age and the culmination of a decade of harsh winters in Britain . Whereas the average CET for the ten winters from 1885 -- 86 to 1894 -- 95 was 2.87 C , no winter with a CET under 3.0 C followed for twenty-two years and no month as cold as February or January 1895 until 1940 . In contrast , between 1659 and 1894 no spell with every winter CET above 3.0 C had lasted longer than twelve winters . Although this winter -- which featured the lowest North Atlantic Oscillation index between 1882 and 1962 with lower values recorded only in 1880/1881 , 1962/1963 and 1968/1969 -- affected most of Europe and North America very severely , the difficulties Britain had coping with it vis-à-vis the United States and Germany is seen as marking a beginning in the decline of British hegemony in global affairs . The severe winter led to mass unemployment and severe disruptions to shipping on the River Thames , which froze for the last time on record . Because mass political activism had not yet created the welfare state , most workers were left without sustenance and in industrial centres large soup kitchens were widespread to feed these people . There were also numerous skating festivals organised to take advantage of the unusually cold and sunny weather , with up to fifty thousand people skating on The Serpentine in London 's Hyde Park and speed skating races being widely popular and generating money to be used for relief of the poor , and in some cases to provide them with temporary work as vendors for spectators . Coal supplies dwindled as transporting coal by river was impossible , whilst many recently introduced exotic plants were killed by the cold .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Winter_of_1894–95_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 12, "score": 106622 }, { "content": "Title: 1970 world oil market chronology Content: January 1 : U.S. Federal oil depletion allowance reduced from 27.5 to 22.0 percent . May 3 : TAP line from Saudi Arabia to the Mediterranean interrupted in Syria , creating all-time tanker rate highs from June to December . September 4 : Libya raises posted prices and increases tax rate from 50 percent to 55 percent . Iran and Kuwait follow in November . November 12 : The Libyan government establishes the National Oil Corporation . December 9 : OPEC meeting in Caracas establishes 55 percent as minimum tax rate and demands that posted prices be changed to reflect changes in foreign exchange rates . | - | width = `` 30 % '' align = `` center '' | | width = `` 40 % '' align = `` center '' | This article is part of theChronology of world oil market events ( 1970-2005 ) | width = `` 30 % '' align = `` center '' | following year :1971 world oil market chronology | - Category : Oil market timelines World oil market chronology World Oil Market Chronology , 1970", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1970_world_oil_market_chronology", "rank": 13, "score": 106388 }, { "content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period", "rank": 14, "score": 104545 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 15, "score": 104077 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 16, "score": 103620 }, { "content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2", "rank": 17, "score": 103312 }, { "content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Little_Ice_Age", "rank": 18, "score": 103057 }, { "content": "Title: Recession of 1969–70 Content: The Recession of 1969 -- 1970 was a relatively mild recession in the United States . According to the National Bureau of Economic Research the recession lasted for 11 months , beginning in December 1969 and ending in November 1970 , following an economic slump which began in 1968 and by the end of 1969 had become serious , thus ending the second longest economic expansion in U.S. history which had begun in February 1961 ( only the 1990s saw a longer period of growth ) . At the end of the expansion inflation was rising , possibly a result of increased deficit spending during a period of full employment . This relatively mild recession coincided with an attempt to start closing the budget deficits of the Vietnam War ( fiscal tightening ) and the Federal Reserve raising interest rates ( monetary tightening ) . During this relatively mild recession , the Gross Domestic Product of the United States fell 0.6 percent . Though the recession ended in November 1970 , the unemployment rate did not peak until the next month . In December 1970 , the rate reached its height for the cycle of 6.1 percent .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Recession_of_1969–70", "rank": 19, "score": 102697 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 20, "score": 102373 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 21, "score": 101087 }, { "content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years", "rank": 22, "score": 100808 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 23, "score": 99822 }, { "content": "Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "David_Parker_(climatologist)", "rank": 24, "score": 99222 }, { "content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event", "rank": 25, "score": 98396 }, { "content": "Title: 1940 Atlantic hurricane season Content: The 1940 Atlantic hurricane season was a generally average period of tropical cyclogenesis in 1940 . Though the season had no official bounds , most tropical cyclone activity occurred during August and September . Throughout the year , fourteen tropical cyclones formed , of which nine reached tropical storm intensity ; six were hurricanes . None of the hurricanes reached major hurricane intensity . Tropical cyclones that did not approach populated areas or shipping lanes , especially if they were relatively weak and of short duration , may have remained undetected . Because technologies such as satellite monitoring were not available until the 1960s , historical data on tropical cyclones from this period are often not reliable . As a result of a reanalysis project which analyzed the season in 2012 , an additional hurricane was added to HURDAT . The year 's first tropical storm formed on May 19 off the northern coast of Hispaniola . At the time , this was a rare occurrence , as only four other tropical disturbances were known to have formed prior during this period ; since then , reanalysis of previous seasons has concluded that there were more than four tropical cyclones in May before 1940 . The season 's final system was a tropical disturbance situated in the Greater Antilles , which dissipated on November 8 . All three hurricanes in August brought flooding rainfall to areas of the United States . The first became the wettest tropical cyclone recorded in Louisiana history . The second hurricane impacted regions of the Southeastern United States , producing record precipitation and killing at least 52 people . Despite not making landfall , the third hurricane in August interacted with a stationary front over the Mid-Atlantic states , resulting in localized flooding and thus making the tropical cyclone the wettest in New Jersey history . This hurricane would also be the strongest in the hurricane season , with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km/h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 961 mbar ( hPa ; 28.39 inHg ) , making it a high-end Category 2 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir -- Simpson hurricane wind scale . Activity decreased in September , though a damaging hurricane swept through areas of the Canadian Maritimes , resulting in large crop and infrastructural losses . Two tropical cyclones of at least tropical storm strength were recorded in October , though neither resulted in fatalities . Collectively , storms in the hurricane season caused 71 fatalities and $ 29.329 million in damages . The 1940 South Carolina hurricane , which swept through areas of the Southeastern United States in August , was the most damaging and deadly of the tropical cyclones . __ TOC __", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1940_Atlantic_hurricane_season", "rank": 26, "score": 98179 }, { "content": "Title: 1971 Content: The world population increased by 2.1 % this year ; the highest in history .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1971", "rank": 27, "score": 97390 }, { "content": "Title: Tornadoes of 1970 Content: This page documents the tornadoes and tornado outbreaks of 1970 , primarily in the United States . Most tornadoes form in the U.S. , although some events may take place internationally . Tornado statistics for older years like this often appear significantly lower than modern years due to fewer reports or confirmed tornadoes .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Tornadoes_of_1970", "rank": 28, "score": 97300 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program", "rank": 29, "score": 97144 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 30, "score": 96652 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 31, "score": 96174 }, { "content": "Title: 1911 Eastern North America heat wave Content: The 1911 Eastern North America heat wave was an 11-day heat wave in New York City and other Eastern cities that killed 380 people starting on July 4 , 1911 . In Nashua , New Hampshire , the temperature peaked at 106 degrees Fahrenheit ( 41 C ) . In New York City , 146 people and 600 horses died . In Boston , the temperature rose to 104 ° ( 40 ° C ) on July 4 , an all-time record high that still stands today .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1911_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave", "rank": 32, "score": 96141 }, { "content": "Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1997–98_El_Niño_event", "rank": 33, "score": 95496 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report", "rank": 34, "score": 94588 }, { "content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming", "rank": 35, "score": 94412 }, { "content": "Title: 2001 Eastern North America heat wave Content: A rather cool and uneventful summer along the East Coast of the United States ( with a more average heat pattern occurring in the Midwest/Great Lakes regions ) changed abruptly when a ridge of high pressure centered off the coast of South Carolina strengthened in late July . It began in early August for areas of the Midwest and western Great Lakes before spreading eastward and intensifying . It waned in most areas by the middle of the month , and although fairly short in duration compared with some other continental heat waves , it was very intense at its peak . The high humidity and high temperatures led to major heat wave that overtook the major Northeast Megalopolis . Temperatures in Central Park , New York City reached a peak of 103 F . The temperature reached 105 F in Newark , New Jersey . Meanwhile , in Ontario and Quebec , extreme temperatures were also reported daily during the first week of August . Ottawa recorded its second-hottest day ever when the mercury approached 37 C on August 9 and at the Toronto Airport it hit 38 C on the same day , the hottest day there since 1955 with four straight days topping 35 C. Numerous records were shattered during the heatwave . Even in Nova Scotia , surrounded by the relatively cool waters of the Atlantic Ocean , temperatures still broke 35 C in some locations . Glace Bay , which has a sub-Arctic climate reached a record-breaking 35.5 C on August 10 . At least four New Yorkers died of hyperthermia . Chicago had at least 21 deaths .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "2001_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave", "rank": 36, "score": 94219 }, { "content": "Title: New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers Climate Change Action Plan 2001 Content: The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers ( NEG-ECP ) Climate Change Action Plan 2001 is a resolution adopted on August 28 , 2001 , by the New England Governors and the Eastern Canadian Premiers . The resolution calls for a reduction in greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions to 1990 levels by 2010 , at least 10 % below 1990 levels by 2020 , and a 75-85 % reduction of 2001 levels as a long-term goal . Participating are the six states belonging to New England : Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Vermont ; as well as the Eastern Canadian provinces : New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec . In addition , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management ( NESCAUM ) is building a Regional Greenhouse Gas Registry ( RGGR ) to help track emissions in the region . This effort is similar to that of the California Climate Action Registry .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "New_England_Governors_and_Eastern_Canadian_Premiers_Climate_Change_Action_Plan_2001", "rank": 37, "score": 94000 }, { "content": "Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Interglacial", "rank": 38, "score": 93988 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 39, "score": 93735 }, { "content": "Title: 1908 Content: According to NASA reports , 1908 was the coldest recorded year since 1880 .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1908", "rank": 40, "score": 93718 }, { "content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years", "rank": 41, "score": 93196 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 42, "score": 92970 }, { "content": "Title: 1911 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The United Kingdom heatwave of 1911 was a particularly severe heat wave and associated drought . Records were set around the country for temperature in England , including the highest accepted temperature , at the time , of 36.7 C ( 98.6 F ) , only broken 79 years later in the 1990 heatwave , which reached 37.1 C ( 98.78 F ) . The highest ever accepted temperature is currently 38.5 C ( 101.3 F ) recorded on 10 August 2003 in Faversham , Kent . North America was also affected around about this time .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1911_United_Kingdom_heat_wave", "rank": 43, "score": 92930 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 44, "score": 92552 }, { "content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "North_Report", "rank": 45, "score": 92204 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record Content: For extreme records instead of records as a set of data , see List of weather records The temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time . The most detailed information exists since 1850 , when methodical thermometer-based records began . There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation , particularly during the current Holocene epoch . Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Temperature_record", "rank": 46, "score": 92187 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 47, "score": 92072 }, { "content": "Title: Global Climate Coalition Content: The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 -- 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Global_Climate_Coalition", "rank": 48, "score": 91895 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 49, "score": 91729 }, { "content": "Title: Spring 2011 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The Spring of 2011 in the United Kingdom was exceptional for the warm weather which occurred during April and the dry weather which was persistent during March and April in certain parts of the UK . April was statistically the warmest and driest in the country since records began in 1910 . There was a contrast between north-western parts of the UK which received substantial amounts of rainfall and south-eastern parts which received very little . As lack of rainfall continued in many parts during May , concerns arose that the country could submit to drought . High pressure was the cause for the warm , dry weather experienced during April . A high temperature of 27.8 ° C was recorded on 23 April at Wisley , Surrey , the highest temperature recorded in April in the UK since 1949 . Thus , the Central England Temperature for the month was 3.7 ° C above the 1971-2000 average , and daily maximum temperatures were up to 6 ° C higher than average .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Spring_2011_United_Kingdom_heat_wave", "rank": 50, "score": 91454 }, { "content": "Title: Younger Dryas Content: The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Younger_Dryas", "rank": 51, "score": 91416 }, { "content": "Title: 1870 Atlantic hurricane season Content: The 1870 Atlantic hurricane season lasted from mid-summer to late-fall and comprised one tropical storm and ten hurricanes , two of which became major hurricanes , ( Category 3 + ) . However , in the absence of modern satellite and other remote-sensing technologies , only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea were recorded , so the actual total could be higher . An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 has been estimated . __ TOC __", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1870_Atlantic_hurricane_season", "rank": 52, "score": 91369 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 53, "score": 91088 }, { "content": "Title: Greatest Hits 1970–2002 Content: Greatest Hits 1970 -- 2002 is a career-spanning collection of Elton John 's biggest hits up to 2002 . It was released in an alternate 3-CD version ( as opposed to the usual 2-CD ) and slightly different versions in the United States and the United Kingdom . The album debuted on the Billboard 200 chart at number 12 on 30 November 2002 . It spent 67 weeks on the chart . It was certified gold and platinum in December 2002 , 2 × platinum in March 2003 , 3 × platinum in August 2004 and 4x and 5x platinum in February 2011 and 6 × platinum in April 2016 by the RIAA . It was the first Elton John compilation released since the time that PolyGram , which had controlled the pre-1976 Elton John catalogue , was sold to Universal Music Group , which controlled the post-1976 recordings . Prior to 1992 , rights to John 's music had been complicated as they shifted between various companies . UMG now owns worldwide distribution rights to all of John 's music , while sharing overall ownership with John himself . The CD omits the # 1 Adult Contemporary hit `` Mama Ca n't Buy You Love '' from The Thom Bell Sessions ( top 10 in 1979 ) . In 2004 the album was re-released and featured the 2003 UK number 1 hit Are You Ready for Love as the final track on the second disc . Song for Guy was omitted from this version .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Greatest_Hits_1970–2002", "rank": 54, "score": 90896 }, { "content": "Title: 1970 in archaeology Content:", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1970_in_archaeology", "rank": 55, "score": 90756 }, { "content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850", "rank": 56, "score": 90627 }, { "content": "Title: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 23 to November 1 , 2002 , in New Delhi , India . The conference included the 8th Conference of the Parties ( COP8 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The conference adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that , amongst others , called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries . It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention . The COP8 was marked by Russia 's hesitation , stating that it needed more time to think it over . The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries , including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world 's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions . With the United States ( 36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide ) and Australia refusing ratification , Russia 's agreement ( 17 % of global emissions in 1990 ) was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "2002_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 57, "score": 90391 }, { "content": "Title: Steve McIntyre Content: Steven McIntyre ( born c. 1947 ) is a Canadian mining exploration company director , a former minerals prospector and semi-retired mining consultant whose work has included statistical analysis . He is best known as the founder and editor of Climate Audit , a blog devoted to the analysis and discussion of climate data . He is most prominent as a critic of the temperature record of the past 1000 years and the data quality of NASA 's Goddard Institute for Space Studies . He is known in particular for his statistical critique , with economist Ross McKitrick , of the hockey stick graph which appears to show that the increase in late 20th century global temperatures is unprecedented in the past 1,000 years .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Steve_McIntyre", "rank": 58, "score": 90276 }, { "content": "Title: 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place from October 29 to November 10 , 2001 in Marrakech , Morocco . The conference included the 7th Conference of the Parties ( COP7 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The negotiators wrapped up the work on the Buenos Aires Plan of Action , finalizing most of the operational details and setting the stage for nations to ratify the Kyoto Protocol . The completed package of decisions is known as the Marrakech Accords . The United States delegation maintained its observer role , declining to participate actively in the negotiations . Other parties continued to express hope that the United States would re-engage in the process at some point and worked to achieve ratification of the Kyoto Protocol by the requisite number of countries to bring it into force ( 55 countries needed to ratify it , including those accounting for 55 % of developed country emissions of carbon dioxide in 1990 ) . The date of the World Summit on Sustainable Development ( August -- September 2002 ) was put forward as a target to bring the Kyoto Protocol into force . The World Summit on Sustainable Development ( WSSD ) was to be held in Johannesburg , South Africa . The main decisions at COP 7 included : Operational rules for international emissions trading among parties to the Protocol and for the CDM and joint implementation ; A compliance regime that outlined consequences for failure to meet emissions targets but deferred to the parties to the Protocol , once it came into force , the decision on whether those consequences would be legally binding ; Accounting procedures for the flexibility mechanisms ; A decision to consider at COP 8 how to achieve a review of the adequacy of commitments that might lead to discussions on future commitments by developing countries . Category :21 st-century diplomatic conferences Category : Diplomatic conferences in Morocco Category : Climate change conferences 2001 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference , 2001 Category :2001 in the environment Category : History of Marrakesh Category : October 2001 events Category : November 2001 events Category :2001 in Morocco", "qid": "2982", "docid": "2001_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 59, "score": 90184 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States", "rank": 60, "score": 90163 }, { "content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Simon_Tett", "rank": 61, "score": 90105 }, { "content": "Title: 1901 eastern United States heat wave Content: The 1901 eastern United States heat wave was the most severe and deadly heat wave in the United States prior to the 1930s dust bowl . Although the heat wave did not set many still-standing daily temperature records , it was exceptionally prolonged -- covering without interruption the second half of June and all of July -- and centred upon more highly populated areas than later American heat waves . The heat wave accompanied a major drought in the Ohio Valley and Upper Midwest , with Illinois having what remains its driest calendar year since records have been kept , and Missouri being only 0.21 in above its driest calendar year of 1953 .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1901_eastern_United_States_heat_wave", "rank": 62, "score": 89891 }, { "content": "Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Instrumental_temperature_record", "rank": 63, "score": 89880 }, { "content": "Title: 1880 Atlantic hurricane season Content: The 1880 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and fall of 1880 . This is the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . In the 1880 Atlantic season there were two tropical storms , seven hurricanes , and two major hurricanes ( Category 3 + ) . However , in the absence of modern satellite and other remote-sensing technologies , only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea were recorded , so the actual total could be higher . An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 has been estimated . Of the known 1880 cyclones , Hurricane Six was first documented in 1995 by Jose Fernandez-Partagas and Henry Diaz . They also proposed large changes to the known tracks of several other storms for this year and 're - instated ' Hurricane Ten to the database .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1880_Atlantic_hurricane_season", "rank": 64, "score": 89685 }, { "content": "Title: Roman Warm Period Content: The Roman Warm Period or the Roman climatic optimum has been proposed as a period of unusually warm weather in Europe and the North Atlantic that ran from approximately 250 BC to AD 400 .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Roman_Warm_Period", "rank": 65, "score": 89392 }, { "content": "Title: 2000 Southern United States heat wave Content: Aided by drought , a heat wave persisted in late Summer 2000 along the southern tier of the United States from July to early September of that year . Near the end of the period , daily , monthly , and even all-time record high temperatures were broken , with highs commonly peaking well over 100 degrees Fahrenheit . On September 4 , Houston hit 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) and Dallas peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) ; on September 5 , Corpus Christi peaked at 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) , San Antonio peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) while College Station and Austin reached 112 ° F ( 44.4 ° C ) . Damage totaled $ 4 billion , mainly due to wildfires and crop losses , and there were 140 deaths .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "2000_Southern_United_States_heat_wave", "rank": 66, "score": 88447 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 67, "score": 88376 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 68, "score": 88330 }, { "content": "Title: The Great Warming Content: The Great Warming is a 2006 documentary film directed by Michael Taylor . The film was hosted by Alanis Morissette and Keanu Reeves and even before its November 3 , 2006 première helped establish an alliance between Democrats and Evangelicals trying to shake the administration out of its inertia on Climate change mitigation . It is also the anchor for a broad , pro-active coalition ranging from Friends of the Earth to Union of Concerned Scientists to Churches of Christ . Theatre giant Regal Cinemas released the film in its top 50 markets on the weekend of November 4 to November 5 , 2006 , which makes the launch three times larger than for any other film of its kind , and highlights the growing currency of the global warming issues in the mainstream.A special program was developed for faith communities , and the film was distributed to over 500 churches , synagogues and mosques across the US . Featuring elements of the 2005 Public Broadcasting Service special Global Warming : the Signs and the Science , The Great Warming ( produced by the same team ) , it talks to key researchers and reports on social justice and day-to-day impacts as well as emission statistics . It 's also populated with everyday people from all over the United States and the planet who are feeling the brunt of global warming , and/or finding innovative ways to tackle it . While making the movie , producer Karen Coshof was determined not to lose sight of her most important advocate , the person on the street , to make the issue of global warming resonate in every household around the globe . Every person should `` feel empowered to act . '' In media interviews , Coshof explained that the film attracted an unprecedented coalition of leaders in science , religion , business , environmental activism and education . They have built bridges over historic gaps to support the message of this film to believe in the individual and collective moral responsibility to reverse the growing threats to the environment , and to the health and quality of life . The effort goes beyond the documentary : with a release timed just before the United States House elections , 2006 , the website featured a Questions for Candidates link where voters could send a questionnaire on energy , environment , and taxation to their federal and state candidates . The campaign also includes a Call to Action signed by leaders from every arena of public life , and which can be signed online by anyone who chooses . Advance DVD screenings at schools , churches , and town halls across the country have already mobilized thousands of people to change personal habits and demand action , and coalition members are working to track the effort .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "The_Great_Warming", "rank": 69, "score": 88320 }, { "content": "Title: Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Content: The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports", "rank": 70, "score": 88212 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow", "rank": 71, "score": 88092 }, { "content": "Title: 1970 in paleontology Content:", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1970_in_paleontology", "rank": 72, "score": 87955 }, { "content": "Title: Timeline of United States history (1970–89) Content: This section of the Timeline of United States history concerns events from 1970 to 1989 .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Timeline_of_United_States_history_(1970–89)", "rank": 73, "score": 87629 }, { "content": "Title: 1970 in rail transport Content:", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1970_in_rail_transport", "rank": 74, "score": 87519 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical Depression Fifteen (1970) Content: Tropical Depression Fifteen in 1970 was the wettest known tropical cyclone to affect the United States territory of Puerto Rico . The long-lived depression formed on September 24 just off the west coast of Africa , and for several days maintained a general westward track . It passed through the Lesser Antilles on October 1 , and later stalled in the eastern Caribbean Sea . On October 8 , the depression crossed over the Dominican Republic , and subsequently it accelerated to the northeast . It was declassified as a tropical cyclone on October 12 , although its remnants persisted for another week before dissipating in the westerlies near the Azores . The depression produced heavy rainfall in the Lesser Antilles , reaching 12 in on Barbados ; it left three deaths and moderate damage on the island . Another death was reported in the United States Virgin Islands . Torrential rainfall on Puerto Rico inflicted heavy damage , totaling $ 65 million ( 1970 USD , $ USD ) . The highest precipitation total was 41.68 in in Jayuya , of which 17 in fell in a 24‑hour period . Most of the damage can be attributed to damaged sugar cane and coffee crops . At least 18 people were killed on the island , and the system was considered one of the worst disasters in Puerto Rican history .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Tropical_Depression_Fifteen_(1970)", "rank": 75, "score": 87483 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming (Pitbull album) Content: Global Warming is the seventh studio album recorded by American rapper Pitbull . It was released on November 16 , 2012 . A teaser to accompany the release of Global Warming was first released onto Pitbull 's official Facebook and YouTube channel on September 17 , 2012 .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Global_Warming_(Pitbull_album)", "rank": 76, "score": 87218 }, { "content": "Title: Mars Surveyor 2001 Content: The Mars Surveyor 2001 project was a multi-part Mars exploration mission intended as a follow-up to Mars Surveyor 1998 . After the two probes of the 1998 project , Mars Climate Orbiter and Mars Polar Lander , were both lost , NASA 's `` better , faster , cheaper '' exploration philosophy was re-evaluated , with a particular eye on the two 2001 project probes . As a result , the Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander was canceled in May 2000 , but the decision was made to go ahead with its orbiter counterpart . The Mars Surveyor 2001 Orbiter , renamed 2001 Mars Odyssey , was launched April 7 , 2001 reached Mars on October 24 , 2001 . After aerobraking from October 2001 until January 2002 , Mars Odyssey began mapping the planet on February 19 , 2002 . By December 15 , 2010 the orbiter broke the record for longest serving spacecraft at Mars , with 3,340 days of operation , claiming the title from NASA 's Mars Global Surveyor , which had arrived sooner than Odyssey but failed in 2006 . Some other active orbital missions during this period include Mars Express ( since 2003 ) and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter ( since 2006 ) , in addition there were a few landers and flybys . Later , the lander spacecraft was adapted to be used in the Mars Phoenix Lander which landed successfully on Mars in 2008 . The Phoenix lander lasted 157 Martian sols on the surface of Mars ' polar region and made several discoveries including observing snowfall and detecting the presence of perchlorate in the Martian soil .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Mars_Surveyor_2001", "rank": 77, "score": 87132 }, { "content": "Title: 1750 Content: Various sources , including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , use the year 1750 as a baseline year for the end of the pre-industrial era .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1750", "rank": 78, "score": 87122 }, { "content": "Title: 1980 United States heat wave Content: The 1980 United States Heat Wave was a period of intense heat and drought that wreaked havoc on much of the Midwestern United States and Southern Plains throughout the summer of 1980 . It is among the most devastating natural disasters in terms of deaths and destruction in U.S. history , claiming at least 1,700 lives and because of the massive drought , agricultural damage reached US$ 20.0 billion ( US$ 55.4 billion in 2007 dollars , adjusted for the GNP inflation index ) . It is among the billion-dollar weather disasters listed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1980_United_States_heat_wave", "rank": 79, "score": 87034 }, { "content": "Title: Late Glacial Content: The Late Glacial ( c. 13,000 -- 10,000 years ago ) , or Tardiglacial ( `` Late Glacial '' ) , is defined primarily by the beginning of the modern warm period , in which climates in the Northern Hemisphere warmed substantially , causing a process of accelerated deglaciation following the Last Glacial Maximum ( c. 25,000 -- 13,000 years ago ) . At this time , human populations , previously forced into refuge areas as a result of Last Glacial Maximum climatic conditions , gradually begin to repopulate the Northern Hemisphere 's Eurasian landmass and eventually populate North America via Beringia for the first time . Evidence for its occurrence stems from two main types of analysis . The first is the use of oxygen isotope stages ( OIS ) gathered from stratified deep-sea sediment cores . Samples are gathered and measured for change in isotope levels to determine temperature fluctuation for given periods of time . The second is a proxy measurement , the observation of certain reappearing fauna and flora fossils that can survive only in temperate climates , thus indicating warming trends for a given geographic area . Archaeological evidence of settlement and resettlement in certain areas by humans also serve as proxy measurements . Towards the end of OIS 2 in which the Late Glacial Maximum occurs , the deep-sea sediment cores indicate a gradually warming climate , and the reappearance of certain warm-weather flora and fauna remains throughout the Northern Hemisphere correlate with that trend . A period of relatively brief cold oscillation , referred to as the Younger Dryas , is detected during OIS 2 , as can be inferred from an increase in isotope weight .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Late_Glacial", "rank": 80, "score": 86957 }, { "content": "Title: 1970 Atlantic hurricane season Content: The 1970 Atlantic hurricane season was the first season in which reconnaissance aircraft flew into all four quadrants of a tropical cyclone . The season officially began on June 1 and lasted until November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The season was fairly average , with 10 total storms forming , of which five were hurricanes . Two of those five became major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir -- Simpson scale . The first system , Hurricane Alma , developed on May 17 . The storm killed eight people , seven from flooding in Cuba and one from a lightning strike in Florida . In July , Tropical Storm Becky brought minor flooding to Florida and other parts of the Southern United States , leaving one death and about $ 500,000 ( 1970 USD ) in damage . The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Celia , a Category 3 hurricane that slammed South Texas in early August . Celia resulted in about $ 930 million in damage and was the costliest hurricane in Texas until Alicia in 1983 . There were 28 fatalities , with four in Cuba , eight in Florida , and sixteen in Texas . Later that month , Tropical Storm Dorothy caused severe flooding in Martinique , which left up to 51 deaths and $ 34 million in damage . One death occurred in Mexico as a result of Hurricane Ella after a house collapsed . In October , Tropical Depression Fifteen brought a devastating flood to Puerto Rico . At least 22 fatalities and $ 65.5 million in damage occurred . Collectively , the storms of this season left at least $ 1.03 billion in damage and 115 deaths . __ TOC __", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1970_Atlantic_hurricane_season", "rank": 81, "score": 86512 }, { "content": "Title: Theodor Landscheidt Content: Theodor Landscheidt ( Bremen , 1927 -- May 20 , 2004 ) was a German author , astrologer and amateur climatologist . In 1989 , Landscheidt forecast a period of sunspot minima after 1990 , accompanied by increased cold , with a stronger minimum and more intense cold which should peak in 2030 His work on solar cycles has been cited by global warming skeptics to argue that observed warming is not anthropogenic and will soon be reversed , based on an assumption that fluctuations in climate are controlled by solar activity . In 1983 he founded and financed the `` Schroeter Institute for Research in Cycles of Solar Activity '' in Lilienthal , near Bremen . The Institute later moved with him to Nova Scotia , Canada .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Theodor_Landscheidt", "rank": 82, "score": 86422 }, { "content": "Title: 21st century in the United States Content: The 21st century in the United States refers to the period in the United States from 2001 through 2200 in the Gregorian calendar . For articles on this period , see : : Category :21 st century in the United States History of the United States series : History of the United States ( 1991 -- 2008 ) History of the United States ( 2008 -- present ) Timeline of the United States Category :21 st century in the United States", "qid": "2982", "docid": "21st_century_in_the_United_States", "rank": 83, "score": 86393 }, { "content": "Title: Older Dryas Content: The Older Dryas was a stadial ( cold ) period between the Bølling and Allerød interstadials ( warmer phases ) approximately 14,000 years ago ( BP ) , towards the end of the Pleistocene epoch . Its age is not well defined , with estimates varying by 400 years , but its duration is agreed to have been around two centuries . The gradual warming since the last glacial maximum 27-24 ,000 years BP has been interrupted by two cold spells , the Older Dryas having been followed by the Younger Dryas ( c. 12,900-11 ,650 BP ) . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and deeper during the Older than the succeeding Younger Dryas , and there is no evidence of human occupation of Britain . In north-west Europe an earlier Oldest Dryas is also recognised . They are named after an indicator genus , the arctic and alpine plant Dryas , the remains of which are found in higher concentrations in deposits from colder periods . The Older Dryas was a variable cold , dry Blytt-Sernander period , observed in climatological evidence in only some regions , depending on latitude . In regions where it is not observed , the Bølling-Allerød is considered a single interstadial ( warm ) period . Evidence of the Older Dryas is strongest in northern Eurasia , particularly part of North Europe roughly equivalent to Pollen zone Ic .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Older_Dryas", "rank": 84, "score": 86362 }, { "content": "Title: Epidemiology of obesity Content: Obesity has been observed throughout human history . Many early depictions of the human form in art and sculpture appear obese . However , it was not until the 20th century that obesity became common -- so much so that in 1997 the World Health Organization ( WHO ) formally recognized obesity as a global epidemic . In June 2013 the American Medical Association classified obesity as a disease with much controversy . In 2013 , an estimated 2.1 billion adults were overweight as compared with 857 million in 1980 . The rate of obesity also increases with age at least up to 50 or 60 years old . Once considered a problem only of high-income countries , obesity rates are rising worldwide . These increases have been seen most in urban settings . The only remaining region of the world where obesity is not common is sub-Saharan Africa . It should also be noted that statistics on the epidemiology of obesity vary between sources .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Epidemiology_of_obesity", "rank": 85, "score": 86153 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 86, "score": 85895 }, { "content": "Title: 1970 in architecture Content: The year 1970 in architecture involved some significant architectural events .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1970_in_architecture", "rank": 87, "score": 85880 }, { "content": "Title: United States temperature extremes Content: For the United States , the extremes are 134 F in Death Valley , California in 1913 and -79.8 F recorded in Prospect Creek , Alaska in 1971 . The largest recorded temperature change in one place over a 24-hour period occurred on January 15 , 1972 in Loma , Montana , when the temperature rose from -54 to . The most dramatic temperature changes occur in North American climates susceptible to Chinook winds . For example , the largest 2-minute temperature change of 49 F-change occurred in Spearfish , South Dakota , a rise from -4 to .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "United_States_temperature_extremes", "rank": 88, "score": 85855 }, { "content": "Title: Iron Age Cold Epoch Content: The Iron Age Cold Epoch ( also referred to as Iron Age climate pessimum or Iron Age neoglaciation ) was a period of unusually cold climate in the North Atlantic region , lasting from about 900 BC to about 300 BC , with an especially cold wave in 450 BC during the expansion of ancient Greece . It was followed by the Roman Warm Period ( 250 BC -- 400 AD ) .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Iron_Age_Cold_Epoch", "rank": 89, "score": 85845 }, { "content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Leipzig_Declaration", "rank": 90, "score": 85815 }, { "content": "Title: High school movement Content: The high school movement is a term used in educational history literature to describe the era from 1910 to 1940 during which secondary schools sprouted across the United States . During this early part of the 20th century , American youth entered high schools at a rapid rate , mainly due to the building of new schools , and acquired skills `` for life '' rather than `` for college . '' In 1910 19 % of 15 - to 18-year-olds were enrolled in a high school ; barely 9 % of all American 18-year-olds graduated . By 1940 , 73 % of American youths were enrolled in high school and the median American youth had a high school diploma . The movement began in New England but quickly spread to the western states . According to Claudia Goldin , the states that led in the U.S. high school movement ( e.g. Iowa and Nebraska ) had a cohesive , homogeneous population and were more affluent , with a broad middle-class group . The United States exceeded Europe in mass secondary education . The American system of education was characterized as open to many ( mostly white ) students , forgiving , lacking universal standards , and academic . On the other hand , the European system was closed , unforgiving , with uniform standards , and academic for some and industrial for others . Secondary schools in America were free and generally accessible , while in most of Europe they were costly and often inaccessible with difficult entrance exams . In the United States , schools were provided by small , local districts . Because decentralized decision making system rose competition among districts for residents in the United States , the U.S. moved quickly in building school initially . In contrast , schools were provided by the central government as a national decision in Europe . Further , high school was designed to be the terminal degree rather than a pre-college diploma of office or skilled blue-collar workers in the United States . By 1955 80 % of United States youth had graduated from an academic high school . In this setting general skills and social mobility were emphasized , not specific training or apprenticeships . Even by the 1930s , America was virtually alone in providing secondary schools that were free and accessible ; however , this accessibility was limited to white students . While in Europe the rate of those graduating from academic high schools was only 10 % -20 % . Most Europeans , 40 % -50 % , attended full-or part-time vocational training . From the viewpoint of economics , this movement led to the increase of women 's labor force from 1930 to 1950 in the United States . Knowledge and skills women gained in high school helped them attain better jobs outside the home . Both men and women shared in the increase in educational attained during the 20th century ; however , during the beginning and end of the century women gained more than the men did . Women began this period with more education in large part because they attended and graduated from high school to a greater degree than men . Even though women had an advantage in education for most of the century , the education advantage disappeared with cohorts born in the 1910s and 1920s . This is because many men were able to attend college on the G.I. Bill . By men having this advantage over the women , the number of men in college increased and the number of women in college decreased during the middle part of the century . The increase in educational attainment was not shared by the African-American population , whose high school enrollment rates were very low , especially in the South . This is because school integration had not been achieved and there were few African-American secondary schools until the 1930s . The few African-American secondary schools that did exist were located in the cities and not the rural areas where the majority of the African-American population lived . Within some of the larger American cities , especially in the industrial North , high school enrollment rates were initially lower than the rest of the country . These large cities had a large inflow of European immigrants , who were not as inclined to enroll , and also there were many job opportunities for the youth , which kept them from enrolling as well . The supply of educated Americans increased from 1900 to around 1980 . The increase in educational attainment in the early part of the 20th century came primarily from grass-roots movements to build and staff public schools . There was no top-down federal government mandate . After around 1980 , the supply of educated Americans slowed . The slower growth in the educated workforce in the last quarter century has been due to a slowing down in the educational attainment of those schooled in the United States , rather than to an increase in the foreign-born component of the workforce . This has been attributed by some to the widening of economic inequality since 1970 , and the slowdown in the growth of educational attainment has been most extreme for those at the bottom of the income distribution , particularly for ethnic and racial minorities . However , these trends persisted despite the fact that inflation-adjusted , per-student public K-12 education spending nearly tripled between 1970 and 2013 , suggesting that the United States public school system is becoming less productive per dollar spent over time . In response , school-choice programs have become enormously popular , as they allow parents to choose the school to which they must send both their children and their educational tax dollars .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "High_school_movement", "rank": 91, "score": 85670 }, { "content": "Title: 1940 Louisiana hurricane Content: The 1940 Louisiana hurricane caused record flooding across much of the Southern United States in August 1940 . The second tropical cyclone and hurricane of the annual hurricane season , it formed from a frontal low off the west coast of Florida on August 3 . Initially a weak disturbance , it moved generally westward , slowly gaining in intensity . Early on August 4 , the depression attained tropical storm intensity . Ships in the vicinity of the storm reported a much stronger tropical cyclone than initially suggested . After reaching hurricane strength on August 5 south of the Mississippi River Delta , the storm strengthened further into a Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph and a minimum barometric pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28.71 inHg ) at 0600 UTC on August 7 . The hurricane moved ashore near Sabine Pass , Texas later that day at peak strength . Once inland , the storm executed a sharp curve to the north and quickly weakened , degenerating into a tropical storm on August 8 before dissipating over Arkansas on August 10 . Reports of a potentially destructive hurricane near the United States Gulf Coast forced thousands of residents in low-lying areas to evacuate prior to the storm moving inland . Offshore , the hurricane generated rough seas and a strong storm surge , peaking at 6.4 ft ( 1.95 m ) on the western edge of Lake Pontchartrain . The anomalously high tides flooded many of Louisiana 's outlying islands , inundating resorts . Strong winds caused moderate infrastructural damage , primarily in Texas , though its impact was mainly to communication networks along the US Gulf Coast which were disrupted by the winds . However , much of the property and crop damage wrought by the hurricane was due to the torrential rainfall it produced in low-lying areas , setting off record floods . Rainfall peaked at 37.5 in ( 953 mm ) in Miller Island off Louisiana , making it the wettest tropical cyclone in state history . Nineteen official weather stations in both Texas and Louisiana recorded 24-hour rainfall totals for the month of August as a result of the slow-moving hurricane . Property , livestock , and crops -- especially cotton , corn , and pecan crops -- were heavily damaged . Entire ecosystems were also altered by the rainfall . Overall , the storm caused $ 10.75 million in damages and seven fatalities .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1940_Louisiana_hurricane", "rank": 92, "score": 85600 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.", "qid": "2982", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves", "rank": 93, "score": 85590 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of March 7, 1970 Content: The total solar eclipse of March 7 , 1970 was visible across all of North America and Central America . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . Totality was visible across southern Mexico and across the southeast coast of the United States and Canada . Greatest eclipse occurred over Mexico , with totality lasting 3 minutes and 28 seconds . Totality over the United States lasted up to 3 minutes and 10 seconds . There will not be an eclipse with a greater duration of totality over the contiguous United States until the solar eclipse of April 8 , 2024 , a period of 54 years .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_March_7,_1970", "rank": 94, "score": 85465 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know", "rank": 95, "score": 85207 }, { "content": "Title: Late Antique Little Ice Age Content: The Late Antique Little Ice Age was a long-lasting Northern Hemisphere cooling period in the 6th and 7th century AD , proposed as theory in 2015 , and subsequently confirmed as the interval from 536 to about 660 AD . This period followed three immense volcanic eruptions in 536 , 540 and 547 . One of the suspected volcanic sites for those events is the Rabaul caldera , in the western Pacific , which erupted around 540 . The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the early phenomena of the century-long global temperature decline . The evidence comes from a temperature reconstruction from the Euro-Med2k working group of the international PAGES ( Past Global Changes ) project , using new tree-ring measurements from the Altai Mountains , which closely matches the temperatures in the Alps in the last two centuries .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age", "rank": 96, "score": 85190 }, { "content": "Title: 1906 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1906 United Kingdom heat wave occurred all over the country from August to September . This was unusual as the highest temperatures were recorded in early September and the intense heat began in late August , whereas most heat waves in the UK begin in June and July . Even so , the heatwave had a comparable intensity to the 1990 heat wave , and it has been described as the most intense September heat wave in the 20th century . From 31 August to 3 September , the temperature in the UK exceeded 32 C consecutively over most of the UK on these four days . In September , CET Central England and Birmingham recorded a highest temperature of 31.5 C , and Oxford recorded a highest temperature of 33.1 C ; however , this record for September in Oxford was broken in 1911 with a temperature of 33.4 C. 2 September was the hottest day of the month as temperatures reached 35.6 C in Bawtry . This day was also the hottest over the most of the UK , again unusual because of its late occurrence . This remains the hottest September temperature of any day in the UK and the eighth-hottest day overall in the 20th century . Scotland also had temperatures reaching 32.2 C at Gordon Castle , Moray , and Northern Ireland had temperatures reaching 27.8 C in Armagh , County Armagh both recorded on 1 September 1906 .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1906_United_Kingdom_heat_wave", "rank": 97, "score": 85187 }, { "content": "Title: 1970 North Indian Ocean cyclone season Content: The 1970 North Indian Ocean cyclone season had no bounds , but tropical cyclones in the North Indian Ocean tend to form between April and December , with peaks in May and November . The 1970 season saw a total of seven cyclonic storms , of which three developed into severe cyclonic storms . The Bay of Bengal was more active than the Arabian Sea during 1970 , with all of the three severe cyclonic storms in the season forming there . Unusually , none of the storms in the Arabian Sea made landfall this year . The most significant storm of the season was the Bhola cyclone , which formed in the Bay of Bengal and hit Bangladesh on November 12 . The storm killed at least 300,000 and possibly even over half a million people , making it the deadliest tropical cyclone in recorded history . __ TOC __", "qid": "2982", "docid": "1970_North_Indian_Ocean_cyclone_season", "rank": 98, "score": 85029 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)", "rank": 99, "score": 84900 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2982", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves", "rank": 100, "score": 84784 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 1, "score": 197167 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 2, "score": 190183 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 3, "score": 185429 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 4, "score": 183077 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 5, "score": 168728 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 6, "score": 166531 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 7, "score": 164652 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 8, "score": 164261 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 9, "score": 164033 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 10, "score": 163895 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 11, "score": 162758 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 12, "score": 160274 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 13, "score": 159249 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 14, "score": 158393 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 15, "score": 155275 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 16, "score": 153029 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 17, "score": 152972 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 18, "score": 152013 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 19, "score": 149741 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 20, "score": 147743 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 21, "score": 146873 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 22, "score": 145491 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 23, "score": 144670 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 24, "score": 144352 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 25, "score": 144052 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 26, "score": 143166 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007", "rank": 27, "score": 142420 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 28, "score": 142282 }, { "content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 29, "score": 142219 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 30, "score": 141680 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 31, "score": 141570 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 32, "score": 139773 }, { "content": "Title: Forests for the 21st Century Content: Forests for the 21st Century is a short video promoting and explaining the benefits of forest landscape restoration . In the last few centuries people have removed more than half of the world 's forest cover . Deforestation is currently responsible for nearly 20 per cent of global carbon emissions . This tide of deforestation can be reversed , but we can make a much greater impact if we also put back some of our lost forests . Planting more trees can lock up more carbon , improve the environment and people 's lives . Many regions and countries have already restored much of their forest .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Forests_for_the_21st_Century", "rank": 33, "score": 138664 }, { "content": "Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "California_Senate_Bill_32", "rank": 34, "score": 137571 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 35, "score": 137534 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 36, "score": 137159 }, { "content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence", "rank": 37, "score": 137152 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 38, "score": 137049 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 39, "score": 136895 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 40, "score": 135414 }, { "content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Revelle_factor", "rank": 41, "score": 135211 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 42, "score": 134855 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 43, "score": 134809 }, { "content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson", "rank": 44, "score": 133444 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 45, "score": 133360 }, { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 46, "score": 133309 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 47, "score": 133055 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture", "rank": 48, "score": 132189 }, { "content": "Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 49, "score": 131831 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 50, "score": 131535 }, { "content": "Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth", "rank": 51, "score": 131293 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 52, "score": 130910 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 53, "score": 130431 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 54, "score": 130417 }, { "content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Kaya_identity", "rank": 55, "score": 130313 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals", "rank": 56, "score": 129563 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe", "rank": 57, "score": 129440 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming", "rank": 58, "score": 129267 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 59, "score": 128904 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes", "rank": 60, "score": 128402 }, { "content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Climate_sensitivity", "rank": 61, "score": 128384 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 62, "score": 125987 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Carbon_leakage", "rank": 63, "score": 125808 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia", "rank": 64, "score": 125190 }, { "content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years", "rank": 65, "score": 125042 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 66, "score": 124944 }, { "content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources", "rank": 67, "score": 124898 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Carbon_rift", "rank": 68, "score": 124792 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka", "rank": 69, "score": 124557 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)", "rank": 70, "score": 124366 }, { "content": "Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Wetland_methane_emissions", "rank": 71, "score": 124260 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England", "rank": 72, "score": 124250 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning", "rank": 73, "score": 123599 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Carbon_sequestration", "rank": 74, "score": 123338 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 75, "score": 122901 }, { "content": "Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Michael_Raupach", "rank": 76, "score": 122623 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 77, "score": 122546 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Carbon_cycle_re-balancing", "rank": 78, "score": 122438 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 Content: The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , or Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 , is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state . AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez ( D-Los Angeles ) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27 , 2006 . On June 1 , 2005 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05 which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state . The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010 , to 1990 levels by 2020 , and to a level 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . However , to implement this measure , the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) needed authority from the legislature . The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program . AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020 , representing approximately a 30 % reduction statewide , with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources . The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm . The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection , but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide . Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons . These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Global_Warming_Solutions_Act_of_2006", "rank": 79, "score": 122111 }, { "content": "Title: Log wind profile Content: The Log wind profile is a semi-empirical relationship commonly used to describe the vertical distribution of horizontal mean wind speeds within the lowest portion of the planetary boundary layer . The relationship is well described in the literature . The logarithmic profile of wind speeds is generally limited to the lowest 100 m of the atmosphere ( i.e. , the surface layer of the atmospheric boundary layer ) . The rest of the atmosphere is composed of the remaining part of the planetary boundary layer ( up to around 1000 m ) and the troposphere or free atmosphere . In the free atmosphere , geostrophic wind relationships should be used .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Log_wind_profile", "rank": 80, "score": 122029 }, { "content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change", "rank": 81, "score": 121912 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_shipping", "rank": 82, "score": 121391 }, { "content": "Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Emission_Reduction_Unit", "rank": 83, "score": 121386 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia", "rank": 84, "score": 121160 }, { "content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event", "rank": 85, "score": 121132 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Climate_change_in_China", "rank": 86, "score": 120948 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 87, "score": 120555 }, { "content": "Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Bjørn_Lomborg", "rank": 88, "score": 120551 }, { "content": "Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme", "rank": 89, "score": 120134 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 90, "score": 119889 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 91, "score": 119747 }, { "content": "Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Politics_of_global_warming", "rank": 92, "score": 119587 }, { "content": "Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Evangelical_Climate_Initiative", "rank": 93, "score": 119363 }, { "content": "Title: DayCent Content: Daycent is a daily time series biogeochemical model used in agroecosystems to simulates fluxes of carbon and nitrogen between the atmosphere , vegetation , and soil . It is a daily version of the CENTURY biogeochemical model . The United States Environmental Protection Agency , United States Department of Agriculture/ARS and the Colorado State University Natural Resource Ecology Lab are currently using the Daycent model to develop a national inventory of N2O emissions from U.S. agricultural soils . This inventory will be compared and contrasted with the existing Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) agricultural N2O emissions inventory for the United States . Having more accurate data to account for nutrient cycling could have significant implications for public policy associated with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and potential future mitigation efforts in the United States . Model inputs include daily maximum/minimum air temperature and precipitation , surface soil texture class , and land cover/use data . Model outputs include daily fluxes of various N-gas species ( e.g. , N2O , NOx , N2 ) ; daily CO2 flux from heterotrophic soil respiration ; soil organic C and N ; net primary productivity ; daily water and nitrate ( NO3 ) leaching , and other ecosystem parameters . Daycent has been tested with data from various native and managed systems . In similar studies , comparisons between Daycent simulated data and measured values for annual crop yields , N2O emissions , and NO3 leaching produced r2 values of 0.72 , 0.68 , and 0.61 respectively . Other models used for simulating carbon and nitrogen biogeochemistry in agricultural systems include DNDC EPIC", "qid": "2983", "docid": "DayCent", "rank": 94, "score": 119297 }, { "content": "Title: Airport Carbon Accreditation Content: Airport Carbon Accreditation is a global carbon management programme for airports that independently assesses and recognises airports ' efforts to manage and reduce their CO2 emissions . There are 4 different levels of accreditation : Mapping , Reduction , Optimisation and Neutrality . The programme was launched by European airports ' trade body ACI EUROPE at their Annual Congress in June 2009 . It is independently administered by WSP , an international consultancy firm . The programme provides airports with a common framework for active carbon management with measurable goal-posts . Individual airport carbon footprints are independently verified in accordance with ISO 14064 ( Greenhouse Gas Accounting ) on the basis of supporting evidence . Claims regarding airports ' carbon management processes are also independently verified by a group of 117 independent verifiers , based in 36 countries .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Airport_Carbon_Accreditation", "rank": 95, "score": 119207 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 96, "score": 118723 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )", "qid": "2983", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita", "rank": 97, "score": 118652 }, { "content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "qid": "2983", "docid": "James_Hansen", "rank": 98, "score": 118524 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 99, "score": 118460 }, { "content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .", "qid": "2983", "docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change", "rank": 100, "score": 118294 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 1, "score": 159326 }, { "content": "Title: Cirrus cloud thinning Content: Cirrus cloud thinning is a proposed form of climate engineering . Cirrus clouds are high cold ice that , like other clouds , both reflect sunlight and absorb warming infrared radiation . However , they differ from other types of clouds in that , on average , infrared absorption outweighs sunlight reflection , resulting in a net warming effect on the climate . Therefore , thinning or removing these clouds would reduce their heat trapping capacity , resulting in a cooling effect on Earth 's climate . This could be a potential tool to reduce anthropogenic global warming . Cirrus cloud thinning is an alternative category of climate engineering , in addition to solar radiation management and greenhouse gas removal .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Cirrus_cloud_thinning", "rank": 2, "score": 136850 }, { "content": "Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Solar_gain", "rank": 3, "score": 134945 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 4, "score": 133278 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 5, "score": 129698 }, { "content": "Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Marine_cloud_brightening", "rank": 6, "score": 125441 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 7, "score": 125147 }, { "content": "Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate", "rank": 8, "score": 123837 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 9, "score": 121236 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 10, "score": 118714 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 11, "score": 118596 }, { "content": "Title: Reflective surfaces (climate engineering) Content: Reflective surfaces are surfaces that can deliver high solar reflectance ( the ability to reflect the visible , infrared and ultraviolet wavelengths of the sun , reducing heat transfer to the surface ) and high thermal emittance ( the ability to radiate absorbed , or non-reflected solar energy ) . Reflective surfaces are a form of geoengineering . The most well-known type of reflective surface is the cool roof . While cool roofs are mostly associated with white roofs , they come in a variety of colors and materials and are available for both commercial and residential buildings . Today 's `` cool roof '' pigments allow metal roofing products to be EnergyStar rated in dark colors , even black . Solar reflective cars or cool cars reflect more sunlight than dark cars , reducing the amount of heat that is transmitted into the car 's interior . Therefore , it helps decreasing the need for air conditioning , fuel consumption , and emissions of greenhouse gases and urban air pollutants . Cool color parking lots are parking lots made with a reflective layer of paint . The project is being undertaken by Jordan Woods of the Berkeley Lab .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Reflective_surfaces_(climate_engineering)", "rank": 12, "score": 117781 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 13, "score": 117537 }, { "content": "Title: Solar radiation management Content: Solar radiation management ( SRM ) projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming . Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active , their potential low financial cost , and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects . Solar radiation management projects could , for example , be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by mitigation and greenhouse gas removal techniques . They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere , and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Solar_radiation_management", "rank": 14, "score": 114476 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Volcanic_winter", "rank": 15, "score": 114126 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "rank": 16, "score": 112456 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 17, "score": 112142 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Cloud_feedback", "rank": 18, "score": 111143 }, { "content": "Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Future_of_Earth", "rank": 19, "score": 109082 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 20, "score": 107906 }, { "content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Global_dimming", "rank": 21, "score": 107802 }, { "content": "Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Albrecht_effect", "rank": 22, "score": 107393 }, { "content": "Title: Sunlight Content: Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun , in particular infrared , visible , and ultraviolet light . On Earth , sunlight is filtered through Earth 's atmosphere , and is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon . When the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds , it is experienced as sunshine , a combination of bright light and radiant heat . When it is blocked by clouds or reflects off other objects , it is experienced as diffused light . The World Meteorological Organization uses the term `` sunshine duration '' to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter . Other sources indicate an `` Average over the entire earth '' of `` 164 Watts per square meter over a 24 hour day '' . The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative health effects , as it is both a principal source of vitamin D3 and a mutagen . Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach Earth from the surface of the Sun . A photon starting at the center of the Sun and changing direction every time it encounters a charged particle would take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to get to the surface . Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis , the process used by plants and other autotrophic organisms to convert light energy , normally from the Sun , into chemical energy that can be used to fuel the organisms ' activities .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Sunlight", "rank": 23, "score": 107305 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 24, "score": 106524 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans", "rank": 25, "score": 106443 }, { "content": "Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Radiative_forcing", "rank": 26, "score": 106421 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 27, "score": 105642 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 28, "score": 104682 }, { "content": "Title: Planetshine Content: Planetshine is the illumination , by reflected sunlight from a planet , of part of the otherwise dark side of one of its moons . The best known example of planetshine is earthshine , which can be seen from Earth when the Moon is new , or nearly so . Typically , this results in the side of the Moon opposite the Sun being bathed in a soft , faint light . Planetshine has been observed elsewhere in the solar system : in particular , it has recently been used by the Cassini space probe to image portions of the moons of Saturn even when they are not directly lit by the Sun .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Planetshine", "rank": 29, "score": 104225 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 30, "score": 103816 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 31, "score": 103019 }, { "content": "Title: Cumulative effects (environment) Content: Cumulative environmental effects can be defined as effects on the environment which are caused by the combined results of past , current and future activities . Over time , direct and indirect human activities combine to collectively impact the environment . These effects may differ from the original , individual activities . For example , ecosystems can be damaged by the combined effects of human activities , such as air , land , and/or water pollution , improper handling of industrial waste , and other human development activities . Global warming is the cumulative effect caused by too much greenhouse gas , and it may then cause a loss in biodiversity and acid rain . North America has contributed to creating various cumulative effects on the environment . Many states in the United States have inadequate or no formal environmental review requirements in order to assess the cumulative effects on the environment from harmful practices . The extent to which cumulative effects in each state are evaluated varies greatly . For example , some programs only require an assessment on specific natural resource issues and others require comprehensive examination of cumulative effects on the environment . Environmental assessments are a necessity to ensure the further advancement of healthy ecosystems , habitats , and wildlife .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Cumulative_effects_(environment)", "rank": 32, "score": 102831 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 33, "score": 102516 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 34, "score": 102494 }, { "content": "Title: Red edge Content: Red edge refers to the region of rapid change in reflectance of vegetation in the near infrared range of electromagnetic spectrum . Chlorophyll contained in vegetation absorbs most of the light in the visible part of the spectrum but becomes almost transparent at wavelengths greater than 700 nm . This way , vegetation cellular structure takes its major part in the reflectance because each cell acts like an elementary corner reflector . This effects in that rapid change that can be from 5 % to 50 % reflectance between 680 nm to 730 nm . For a more detailed explanation and a graph of the photosynthetically active radiation ( PAR ) spectral region , see the NDVI rationale . The phenomenon accounts for the brightness of foliage in infrared photography and is extensively utilized in the form of so-called vegetation indices ( e.g. NDVI ) . It is used in remote sensing to monitor plant activity , and it has been suggested that it could be useful to detect light-harvesting organisms on distant planets .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Red_edge", "rank": 35, "score": 102170 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on human health Content: The effects of global warming include effects on human health . The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health . This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_human_health", "rank": 36, "score": 101730 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Runaway_climate_change", "rank": 37, "score": 101636 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals", "rank": 38, "score": 101207 }, { "content": "Title: Global change Content: Global change refers to planetary-scale changes in the Earth system . The system consists of the land , oceans , atmosphere , polar regions , life , the planet 's natural cycles and deep Earth processes . These constituent parts influence one another . The Earth system now includes human society , so global change also refers to large-scale changes in society . More completely , the term `` global change '' encompasses : population , climate , the economy , resource use , energy development , transport , communication , land use and land cover , urbanization , globalization , atmospheric circulation , ocean circulation , the carbon cycle , the nitrogen cycle , the water cycle and other cycles , sea ice loss , sea-level rise , food webs , biological diversity , pollution , health , over fishing , and more .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Global_change", "rank": 39, "score": 99458 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on South Asia Content:", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_South_Asia", "rank": 40, "score": 99417 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 41, "score": 99098 }, { "content": "Title: Green paradox Content: The green paradox , identified by German economist Hans-Werner Sinn , is the observation that an environmental policy that becomes greener with the passage of time acts like an announced expropriation for the owners of fossil fuel resources , inducing them to accelerate resource extraction and hence to accelerate global warming .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Green_paradox", "rank": 42, "score": 98924 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 43, "score": 98728 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)", "rank": 44, "score": 98612 }, { "content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change", "rank": 45, "score": 98308 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia", "rank": 46, "score": 97664 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on marine mammals Content: The effect of global warming on marine mammals is a growing concern . Many of the effects of climate change are currently unknown due to its unpredictability , but many are becoming increasingly evident today . Some effects are very direct such as loss of habitat , temperature stress , and exposure to severe weather . Other effects are more indirect such as changes in host pathogen associations , changes in body condition because of predator -- prey interaction , changed in exposure to toxins , and increased human interactions . These are just a few examples of what marine mammals are dealing with as a result of rapid climate change . There are a number of marine mammals that have been affected by climate change including walruses , seals , penguins , and polar bears .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_marine_mammals", "rank": 47, "score": 97286 }, { "content": "Title: Sun glitter Content: Sun glitter is a bright , sparkling light formed when sunlight reflects from water waves . The waves may be caused by natural movement of the water , or by the movement of birds or animals in the water . Even a ripple from a thrown rock will create a momentary glitter . Light reflects from smooth surfaces by specular reflection . A rippled but locally smooth surface such as water with waves will reflect the sun at different angles at each point on the surface of the waves . As a result , a viewer in the right position will see many small images of the sun , formed by portions of waves that are oriented correctly to reflect the sun 's light to the viewer 's eyes . The exact pattern seen depends on the viewer 's precise location . The color and the length of the glitter depend on the altitude of the Sun . The lower the sun , the longer and more reddish the glitter is . When the sun is really low above the horizon , the glitter breaks because of the waves , which could sometimes obstruct the sun and cast a shadow on the glitter . Sun glitter can be bright enough to damage one 's eyes . Caution should be exercised while observing the glitter .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Sun_glitter", "rank": 48, "score": 97162 }, { "content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)", "rank": 49, "score": 97071 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 50, "score": 96813 }, { "content": "Title: Twomey effect Content: The Twomey effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase the amount of solar radiation reflected by clouds . This is an indirect effect . Aerosol particles can act as CCN 's creating more droplets which have a smaller size distribution . The reduction in size distribution increases the Optical depth of the cloud . This increases the cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger , leading to a cooling of between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm − 2 . For example , on satellite imagery we observe trails of white clouds from ships crossing the oceans due to this effect .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Twomey_effect", "rank": 51, "score": 96609 }, { "content": "Title: Planet Relief Content: Planet Relief was a proposed BBC television special dealing with the issue of global warming , originally scheduled for broadcast in January 2008 . The programme , which had been in development for 18 months , was meant to be similar to previous BBC programmes such as Comic Relief and Sport Relief . However , it was cancelled before it was broadcast , allegedly because the BBC was concerned that it would be `` biased '' towards promoting responses based on acceptance of mainstream climate change science .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Planet_Relief", "rank": 52, "score": 96457 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 53, "score": 96447 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 54, "score": 96383 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 55, "score": 95363 }, { "content": "Title: 88888 Lights Out Content: 88888 Lights Out was a campaign with the stated goal of increasing awareness of global warming and promoting actions to reduce energy consumption . By encouraging India 's residents to turn out the lights for eight minutes and to become more aware of environmental concerns , the organisers sought to limit greenhouse gas emissions and reduce pollution of the globe .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "88888_Lights_Out", "rank": 56, "score": 95216 }, { "content": "Title: SCIAMACHY Content: SCIAMACHY ( SCanning Imaging Absorption SpectroMeter for Atmospheric CHartographY ; Greek : σκιάμάχη : analogously : ` Fighting shadows ' ) was one of ten instruments aboard of ESA 's ENVIronmental SATellite , ENVISAT . It was a satellite spectrometer designed to measure sunlight , transmitted , reflected and scattered by the earth 's atmosphere or surface in the ultraviolet , visible and near infrared wavelength region ( 240 nm - 2380 nm ) at moderate spectral resolution ( 0.2 nm - 1.5 nm ) .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "SCIAMACHY", "rank": 57, "score": 95201 }, { "content": "Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Hell_and_High_Water_(book)", "rank": 58, "score": 95177 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes", "rank": 59, "score": 95122 }, { "content": "Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Politics_of_global_warming", "rank": 60, "score": 94639 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 61, "score": 94328 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Climate_change_feedback", "rank": 62, "score": 94319 }, { "content": "Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Anti-greenhouse_effect", "rank": 63, "score": 94152 }, { "content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson", "rank": 64, "score": 93545 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect", "rank": 65, "score": 93312 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Antarctica", "rank": 66, "score": 93276 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 67, "score": 93161 }, { "content": "Title: Space sunshade Content: A space sunshade or sunshield is a parasol that diverts or otherwise reduces some of a star 's radiation , preventing them from hitting a spacecraft or planet and thereby reducing its insolation , which results in reduced heating . Light can be diverted by different methods . First proposed in 1989 , the original space sunshade concept involves putting a large occulting disc , or technology of equivalent purpose at the L1 gravitation point between the Earth and Sun . A sunshade is of particular interest as a climate engineering method for mitigating global warming through solar radiation management . Such shades could also be used to produce space solar power , acting as solar power satellites . Proposed shade designs include a single-piece shade and a shade made by a great number of small objects . Most such proposals contemplate a blocking element at the Sun-Earth L1 Lagrangian point . In 1989 James Early proposed a space-based sun-shade to divert sunlight at the planetary level . His design involved making a large glass ( 2000 km ) occulter from lunar material and placing at the L1 point . Issues included the large amount of material needed to make the disc and also the energy to launch it to its orbit .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Space_sunshade", "rank": 68, "score": 93031 }, { "content": "Title: The Dying Sun Content: The Dying Sun is a science fiction novel by Gary Blackwood , published in 1989 . Set in the mid-21st century , the book depicts a world where the sun 's light is actually diminishing over time , cooling the Earth ( as opposed to global warming ) , which causes a mass migration from the U.S. to Mexico . The large influx from the north causes overpopulation and a wave of violence in the south , and James and Robert , two friends , decide to go north to escape the crime-ridden south . The novel is a 1990 Friends of American Writers Best Young Adult Novel .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "The_Dying_Sun", "rank": 69, "score": 92839 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainability and environmental management Content: At the global scale sustainability and environmental management involves managing the oceans , freshwater systems , land and atmosphere , according to sustainability principles . Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation , agriculture , forest , woodland , grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water , carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles . Management of the Earth 's atmosphere involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities . Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and , in turn , the food supply of both humans and other organisms .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Sustainability_and_environmental_management", "rank": 70, "score": 92753 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka", "rank": 71, "score": 92698 }, { "content": "Title: Virgin Earth Challenge Content: The Virgin Earth Challenge is a competition offering a $ 25 million prize for whoever can demonstrate a commercially viable design which results in the permanent removal of greenhouse gases out of the Earth 's atmosphere to contribute materially in global warming avoidance . The prize was conceived and financed by Sir Richard Branson , a successful British entrepreneur , and was announced in London on 9 February 2007 by Branson and former US Vice President and 2007 Nobel Prize winner Al Gore , creator of the 2006 film An Inconvenient Truth on climate change . Among more than 2600 applications , 11 finalists were announced on 2 November 2011 . These are Biochar Solutions , from the US ; Biorecro , Sweden ; Black Carbon , Denmark ; Carbon Engineering , Canada ; Climeworks , Switzerland ; COAWAY , US ; Full Circle Biochar , US ; Global Thermostat , US ; Kilimanjaro Energy , US ; Smartstones -- Olivine Foundation , Netherlands , and The Savory Institute , US .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Virgin_Earth_Challenge", "rank": 72, "score": 92680 }, { "content": "Title: Global and Planetary Change Content: Global and Planetary Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research into the earth sciences , particularly pertaining to changes in aspects thereof such as sea level and the chemical composition of the atmosphere . It has been published by Elsevier since it was established in 1989 . The editors-in-chief are S.A.P.L. Cloetingh ( Utrecht University ) , T.M. Cronin ( United States Geological Survey ) , K. McGuffie ( University of Technology Sydney ) , and H. Oberhänsli ( Museum für Naturkunde ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2012 impact factor of 3.155 , ranking it 9th out of 45 journals in the category `` Geography , Physical '' .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Global_and_Planetary_Change", "rank": 73, "score": 92415 }, { "content": "Title: Global stilling Content: Global stilling is the decrease of wind speed observed near the Earth ´ s surface ( ~ 10-meter height ) over the last three decades ( mainly since the 1980s ) , originally termed `` stilling '' . This slowdown of surface winds has mainly affected mid-latitude regions of both hemispheres , with a global average reduction of -0.140 m s-1 dec-1 ( meters per second per decade ) or between 5 and 15 % over the past 50-years . The weakening of winds has mainly occurred over continental surfaces , whereas winds has tended to strengthen over ocean regions . In the last few years , a break in this decrease of wind speed has been detected with a recovery at global scales since 2013 . The exact causes of the global stilling are uncertain and has been mainly attributed to two major drivers : ( i ) changes in large scale atmospheric circulation , and ( ii ) an increase of surface roughness due to e.g. forest growth , land use changes , and urbanization . Under a global warming scenario , changes in wind speed are currently a potential concern for the society , due to their impacts on a wide array of spheres , such as wind power generation , ecohydrological implications for agriculture and hydrology , wind-related hazards and catastrophes , or air quality and human health , among many others .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Global_stilling", "rank": 74, "score": 92259 }, { "content": "Title: Dark nebula Content: A dark nebula or absorption nebula is a type of interstellar cloud that is so dense that it obscures the light from objects behind it , such as background stars and emission or reflection nebulae . The extinction of the light is caused by interstellar dust grains located in the coldest , densest parts of larger molecular clouds . Clusters and large complexes of dark nebulae are associated with Giant Molecular Clouds . Isolated small dark nebulae are called Bok globules . Like other interstellar dust or material , things it obscures are only visible using radio waves in radio astronomy or infrared in infrared astronomy . Dark clouds appear so because of sub-micrometre-sized dust particles , coated with frozen carbon monoxide and nitrogen , which effectively block the passage of light at visible wavelengths . Also present are molecular hydrogen , atomic helium , C18O ( CO with oxygen as the 18O isotope ) , CS , NH3 ( ammonia ) , H2CO ( formaldehyde ) , c-C3H2 ( cyclopropenylidene ) and a molecular ion N2H + ( diazenylium ) , all of which are relatively transparent . These clouds are the spawning grounds of stars and planets , and understanding their development is essential to understanding star formation . The form of such dark clouds is very irregular : they have no clearly defined outer boundaries and sometimes take on convoluted serpentine shapes . The largest dark nebulae are visible to the naked eye , appearing as dark patches against the brighter background of the Milky Way like the Coalsack Nebula and the Great Rift . These naked-eye objects are sometimes known as dark cloud constellations and take on a variety of names . In the inner outer molecular regions of dark nebulae , important events take place , such as the formation of stars and masers .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Dark_nebula", "rank": 75, "score": 92066 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback", "rank": 76, "score": 92011 }, { "content": "Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Solar_activity_and_climate", "rank": 77, "score": 91932 }, { "content": "Title: A Friend of the Earth Content: T. Coraghessan Boyle 's novel A Friend of the Earth ( 2000 ) is a story of environmental destruction . The novel is set in 2025 ; as a result of global warming and the greenhouse effect , the climate has drastically changed , and , accordingly , biodiversity is a thing of the past .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "A_Friend_of_the_Earth", "rank": 78, "score": 91830 }, { "content": "Title: Orbital effects on climate Content: There are various solar/celestial effects that exist which have an effect on Earth 's climate . These effects usually occur in cycles , and primarily include how Earth 's obliquity , the eccentricity of Earth 's orbit , and the precession of the equinoxes and solstices affect Earth 's climate . In addition to these effects , there are also other factors that have an effect on Earth 's climate . These other factors include how sun activity affects climate and how celestial phenomena , such as meteors , affect Earth 's climate . Some of these factors are n't yet well understood , for instance the ice ages occur on 100,000 year cycles , and it 's not completely understood why the various effects with this periodicity have such a strong effect on glaciation ( see the 100,000-year problem ) .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Orbital_effects_on_climate", "rank": 79, "score": 91646 }, { "content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Reasons_for_concern", "rank": 80, "score": 91485 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Peter_Thejll", "rank": 81, "score": 91473 }, { "content": "Title: Are We Changing Planet Earth? Content: Are We Changing Planet Earth ? and Can We Save Planet Earth ? are two programmes that form a documentary about global warming , presented by David Attenborough . They were first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 24 May and 1 June 2006 respectively . Part of a themed season by the BBC entitled `` Climate Chaos '' , the programmes were produced in conjunction with the Discovery Channel and the Open University . They were directed by Nicolas Brown and produced by Jeremy Bristow . The music was composed by Samuel Sim . Attenborough undertook the assignment in between his ` Life ' series Life in the Undergrowth and Life in Cold Blood . Around the same time , the naturalist also narrated Planet Earth .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Are_We_Changing_Planet_Earth?", "rank": 82, "score": 91412 }, { "content": "Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World", "rank": 83, "score": 91366 }, { "content": "Title: Global Change Research Act of 1990 Content: The Global Change Research Act 1990 is a United States law requiring research into global warming and related issues . It requires a report to Congress every four years on the environmental , economic , health and safety consequences of climate change . According to a summary by the Congressional Research Service , the Act : `` Directs the President , through the Federal Coordinating Council on Science , Engineering , and Technology ( Council ) , to establish the Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences to carry out Council functions under specified provisions of the National Science and Technology Policy , Organization , and Priorities Act of 1976 relating to global change research , to increase the effectiveness and productivity of Federal global change research efforts . Directs the President to establish an interagency United States Global Change Research Program to improve understanding of global change . Requires the Chairman of the Council , through the Committee , to develop a National Global Change Research Plan for implementation of the Program . Sets forth required Plan contents and research elements , including that the Plan provide recommendations for collaboration within the Federal Government and among nations . Requires the Chairman to enter into an agreement with the National Research Council to : ( 1 ) evaluate the scientific content of the Plan ; and ( 2 ) provide information and advice and recommended priorities for future global change research . Requires the Committee to provide general guidance each year to each Federal agency or department participating in the Program with respect to preparation of requests for appropriations related to the Program . Requires the Council , at least every four years , through the Committee , to submit to the President and the Congress an assessment regarding the findings of the Program and associated uncertainties , the effects of global change , and current and major long-term trends in global change . Requires that the research findings of the Committee and of Federal agencies and departments be made available to the Environmental Protection Agency and all Federal agencies and departments . Title II : International Cooperation in Global Change Research - International Cooperation in Global Change Research Act of 1990 - Declares that the President should direct the Secretary of State to initiate discussions with other nations on : ( 1 ) international agreements to coordinate global change research ; and ( 2 ) an international research protocol for cooperation on the development of energy technologies which have minimally adverse effects on the environment . Directs the President to establish an Office of Global Change Research Information to disseminate to foreign governments and their citizens , businesses , and institutions scientific research useful in preventing , mitigating , or adapting to the effects of global change . Title III : Growth Decision Aid - Directs the Secretary of Commerce to : ( 1 ) conduct a study on the implications of growth and development on urban , suburban , and rural communities ; and ( 2 ) based on the study , produce a decision aid to assist State and local authorities in planning and managing growth and development while preserving community character . '' Following the publication of the first National Climate Assessment Report there were accusations that information was being suppressed , leading to complacency around public works , such as New Orleans flood defences . Greenpeace , the Center for Biological Diversity and Friends of the Earth challenged the delay in federal district court on August 21 , 2007 . A judge ruled that an updated national assessment must be produced by May 31 , 2008 .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Global_Change_Research_Act_of_1990", "rank": 84, "score": 91347 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Climate_change_and_gender", "rank": 85, "score": 91180 }, { "content": "Title: Space mirror (climate engineering) Content: The use of space mirrors as an anti-global warming measure is a proposed technology for climate change mitigation by deflection of sunlight . It was one of a series of proposals for controlling global warming made to the United States government in 2001 . At the `` Response Options to Rapid or Severe Climate Change '' round-table meeting organized by the President 's Climate Change Technology Program in September 2001 to gather ideas for averting climate change , one of the proposals was to station one or more wire-mesh `` mirrors '' in orbit to deflect sunlight back into space or to filter it . The idea was proposed by Lowell Wood , a senior staff scientist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , who calculated that deflecting 1 % of sunlight would restore climatic stability , and that that would require either a single mirror 600000 sqmi in area or several smaller ones . Wood had been researching the idea for more than ten years but considered it so infeasible that it should only be a back-up plan for solving the global warming problem . In January 2007 , The Guardian reported that the US government was recommending that research on sunlight deflection , including space mirrors , be continued as `` insurance '' and that the next United Nations Report on Climate Change advocate such a strategy . In addition to the space mirror , suggested sunlight-reducing techniques included launching thousands of highly reflective balloons and pumping sulphate droplets into the upper atmosphere to emulate volcanic emissions . Space mirrors were first considered in the 1980s as a way to cool the climate of Venus . James Early , also at Livermore , in 1989 proposed using a `` space shade '' 2,000 kilometers in diameter orbiting at Lagrangian Point L1 . He estimated the cost at between one and ten trillion US dollars and suggested manufacturing it on the moon using moon rock . Using space mirrors as a space sunshade to reduce the impact of sunlight falls into the category of geoengineering : deliberately modifying the earth 's climate . At a conference on the topic organized by Daniel Schrag of Harvard University and David Keith of the University of Calgary in November 2007 , the consensus was that it was worth studying such ideas further despite their high cost , the doubtful feasibility of some including the space mirror , and the risk of their distracting attention from reduction of greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Space_mirror_(climate_engineering)", "rank": 86, "score": 91152 }, { "content": "Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics", "rank": 87, "score": 91097 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 88, "score": 91082 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture", "rank": 89, "score": 90309 }, { "content": "Title: Sun Come Up (film) Content: Sun Come Up is a 2010 documentary film on the effect of global warming on the Carteret Islands . The film showed at the 2010 Full Frame Documentary Film Festival on April 8 . It was named as a nominee for the Academy Award for Best Documentary ( Short Subject ) at the 83rd Academy Awards on January 25 , 2011 but lost to Strangers No More .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Sun_Come_Up_(film)", "rank": 90, "score": 90282 }, { "content": "Title: Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Content: The Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) is a research program of the World Climate Research Programme intended to observe , comprehend and model the Earth 's water cycle . The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives , studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed . Sunlight 's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain , and dries out land masses after rain . Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes . GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere . If the Earth 's climates were identical from year to year , then people could predict when , where and what crops to plant . However , instability created by solar variation , weather trends , and chaotic events create weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales . Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities . GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data , and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future . GEWEX is organized into several structures . As GEWEX was conceived projects were organized by participating factions , this task is now done by the International GEWEX Project Office ( IGPO ) . IGPO oversees major initiatives and coordinates between national projects in an effort to bring about communication of researchers . IGPO claims to support communication exchange between 2000 scientist and is the instrument for publication of major reports . The Scientific Steering Group organizes the projects and assigns them to panels , which oversee progress and provide critique . The Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Observations Project ( CEOP ) the ` Hydrology Project ' is a major instrument in GEWEX . This panel includes geographic study areas such as the Climate Prediction Program for the Americas operated by NOAA , but also examines several types of climate zones ( e.g. high altitude and semi-arid ) . Another panel , the GEWEX Radiation Panel oversees the coordinated use of satellites and ground based observation to better estimate energy and water fluxes . One recent result GEWEX 's Radiation panel has assessed data on rainfall for the last 25 years and determined that global rainfall is 2.61 mm/day with a small statistical variation . While the study period is short , after 25 years of measurement regional trends are beginning to appear . The GEWEX Modeling and Prediction Panel takes current models and analyzes the models when climate forcing phenomena occur ( global warming as an example of a ` climate forcing ' event ) . GEWEX is now the core project of WCRP .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Global_Energy_and_Water_Cycle_Experiment", "rank": 91, "score": 90074 }, { "content": "Title: Orbital forcing Content: Orbital forcing is the effect on climate of slow changes in the tilt of the Earth 's axis and shape of the orbit ( see Milankovitch cycles ) . These orbital changes change the total amount of sunlight reaching the Earth by up to 25 % at mid-latitudes ( from 400 to 500 Wm − 2 at latitudes of 60 degrees ) . In this context , the term `` forcing '' signifies a physical process that affects the Earth 's climate . This mechanism is believed to be responsible for the timing of the ice age cycles . A strict application of the Milankovitch theory does not allow the prediction of a `` sudden '' ice age ( rapid being anything under a century or two ) , since the fastest orbital period is about 20,000 years . The timing of past glacial periods coincides very well with the predictions of the Milankovitch theory , and these effects can be calculated into the future .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Orbital_forcing", "rank": 92, "score": 89776 }, { "content": "Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Impact_winter", "rank": 93, "score": 89667 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 94, "score": 89525 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 95, "score": 89374 }, { "content": "Title: Global Energy and Water Exchanges Content: The Global Energy and Water cycle Exchanges project (abbreviated GEWEX, formerly named the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment from 1990 to 2012) is an international research project and a core project of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP). In the beginning, the project intended to observe, comprehend and model the Earth's water cycle. The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives, studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed. Sunlight's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain, and dries out land masses after rain. Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes. GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere. If the Earth's climates were identical from year to year, then people could predict when, where and what crops to plant. However, instability created by solar variation, weather trends, and chaotic events creates weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales. Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities. GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data, and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future.", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Global_Energy_and_Water_Exchanges", "rank": 96, "score": 89340 }, { "content": "Title: Total equivalent warming impact Content: Total equivalent warming impact or TEWI is besides global warming potential measure used to express contributions to global warming . It is defined as sum of the direct emissions ( chemical ) and indirect emissions ( energy use ) of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Total_equivalent_warming_impact", "rank": 97, "score": 89338 }, { "content": "Title: Land surface effects on climate Content: Land surface effects on climate are wide-ranging and vary by region . Deforestation and exploitation of natural landscapes play a significant role . Some of these environmental changes are similar to those caused by the effects of global warming .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Land_surface_effects_on_climate", "rank": 98, "score": 89294 }, { "content": "Title: Opposition (planets) Content: In positional astronomy , two celestial bodies are said to be in opposition when they are on opposite sides of the sky , viewed from a given place ( usually Earth ) . thumb | 400px | Diagram of positional astronomy A planet ( or asteroid or comet ) is said to be `` in opposition '' when it is in opposition to the Sun . Because most orbits in the Solar System are nearly coplanar , this occurs when the Sun , Earth , and the body are approximately in a straight line , that is , Earth and the body are in the same direction as seen from the Sun . Opposition occurs only in superior planets ( see the diagram ) . The instant of opposition is defined as that when the apparent geocentric celestial longitude of the body differs by 180 ° from the apparent geocentric longitude of the Sun . At that time , a body is : in apparent retrograde motion visible almost all night -- rising around sunset , culminating around midnight , and setting around sunrise at the point in its orbit where it is roughly closest to Earth , making it appear larger and brighter nearly completely illuminated ; we see a `` full planet '' , analogous to a full moon at the place where the opposition effect increases the reflected light from bodies with unobscured rough surfaces The Moon , which orbits Earth rather than the Sun , is in opposition to the Sun at full moon . When it is in exact opposition , a lunar eclipse occurs . The astronomical symbol for opposition is ☍ ( U +260 D ) . Handwritten : As seen from a planet that is superior , an inferior planet on the opposite side of the Sun is in superior conjunction with the Sun . An inferior conjunction occurs when the two planets lie in a line on the same side of the Sun . At inferior conjunction , the superior planet is `` in opposition '' to the Sun as seen from the inferior planet ( see the diagram ) .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Opposition_(planets)", "rank": 99, "score": 89270 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2986", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 100, "score": 89252 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 1, "score": 138538 }, { "content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change", "rank": 2, "score": 135389 }, { "content": "Title: The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity Content: The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity ( TEEB ) is a study led by Pavan Sukhdev . It is an international initiative to draw attention to the global economic benefits of biodiversity . Its objective is to highlight the growing cost of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation and to draw together expertise from the fields of science , economics and policy to enable practical actions . TEEB aims to assess , communicate and mainstream the urgency of actions through its five deliverables -- D0 : science and economic foundations , policy costs and costs of inaction , D1 : policy opportunities for national and international policy-makers , D2 : decision support for local administrators , D3 : business risks , opportunities and metrics and D4 : citizen and consumer ownership . One motive for the study was to establish an objective global standard basis for natural capital accounting . Estimates establish the cost of biodiversity and ecosystem damage expected to cost 18 % of global economic output by 2050 and currently at over US$ 2T ( for the largest 3000 companies according to Trucost ) , with some estimates as high as US$ 6T/year . The World Bank in particular has led recent efforts to include the cost of biodiversity and climate harm in national accounts . Its sponsors declare TEEB to be a `` major international initiative to draw attention to the global economic benefits of biodiversity , to highlight the growing costs of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation , and to draw together expertise from the fields of science , economics and policy to enable practical actions moving forward . '' In October 2010 it released its report `` Mainstreaming the Economics of Nature : a synthesis of the approach , conclusions and recommendations of TEEB '' and launched the Bank of Natural Capital to communicate its findings to the general public .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "The_Economics_of_Ecosystems_and_Biodiversity", "rank": 3, "score": 122887 }, { "content": "Title: Stern Review Content: The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change is a 700-page report released for the Government of the United Kingdom on 30 October 2006 by economist Nicholas Stern , chair of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London School of Economics ( LSE ) and also chair of the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) at Leeds University and LSE . The report discusses the effect of global warming on the world economy . Although not the first economic report on climate change , it is significant as the largest and most widely known and discussed report of its kind . The Review states that climate change is the greatest and widest-ranging market failure ever seen , presenting a unique challenge for economics . The Review provides prescriptions including environmental taxes to minimise the economic and social disruptions . The Stern Review 's main conclusion is that the benefits of strong , early action on climate change far outweigh the costs of not acting . The Review points to the potential impacts of climate change on water resources , food production , health , and the environment . According to the Review , without action , the overall costs of climate change will be equivalent to losing at least 5 % of global gross domestic product ( GDP ) each year , now and forever . Including a wider range of risks and impacts could increase this to 20 % of GDP or more , also indefinitely . Stern believes that 5 -- 6 degrees of temperature increase is `` a real possibility . '' The Review proposes that one percent of global GDP per annum is required to be invested to avoid the worst effects of climate change . In June 2008 , Stern increased the estimate for the annual cost of achieving stabilisation between 500 and 550 ppm CO2e to 2 % of GDP to account for faster than expected climate change . There has been a mixed reaction to the Stern Review from economists . Several economists have been critical of the Review , for example , a paper by Byatt et al. ( 2006 ) describes the Review as `` deeply flawed '' . Some economists ( such as Brad DeLong and John Quiggin ) have supported the Review . Others have criticised aspects of Review 's analysis , but argued that some of its conclusions might still be justified based on other grounds , e.g. , see papers by Martin Weitzman ( 2007 ) and Dieter Helm ( 2008 ) .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Stern_Review", "rank": 4, "score": 122019 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 5, "score": 118504 }, { "content": "Title: Alan Carlin Content: Alan Carlin ( born 1937 ) , is an American economist specializing in cost-benefit analysis and the economics of global climate change control .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Alan_Carlin", "rank": 6, "score": 117916 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 7, "score": 113220 }, { "content": "Title: Frank Ackerman Content: Frank Ackerman ( born 1946 in Madison , Wisconsin ) is an economist known for his work in environmental economics , particularly in the areas of climate change and development . A prominent critic of conventional economic approaches to climate and their use of cost -- benefit analysis , he has written extensively for academic and popular presses and directed numerous studies for government agencies and nongovernmental organizations . Ackerman 's most recent books include Can We Afford the Future ? Economics for a Warming World ( Zed Books , 2009 ) , Poisoned for Pennies : The Economics of Toxics and Precaution ( Island Press , 2008 ) , and Priceless : On Knowing the Price of Everything and the Value of Nothing ( The New Press , 2004 , with Lisa Heinzerling ) . Most of his articles and reports are available on his personal website . Ackerman is a senior economist at Synapse Energy Economics , a public interest-oriented consulting firm in Cambridge , MA . Before joining Synapse in 2012 , he held research positions at the Stockholm Environment Institute 's US Center , at Tufts University 's Global Development and Environment Institute , and at the Tellus Institute . He has taught at Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Tufts University and the University of Massachusetts . Ackerman received his BA in mathematics and economics from Swarthmore College and his PhD in economics from Harvard University . He is a co-founder and steering committee member of the Economics for Equity and the Environment Network , and a member scholar of the Center for Progressive Reform . He was a co-founder and editor of Dollars & Sense magazine .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Frank_Ackerman", "rank": 8, "score": 111819 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change adaptation Content: Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_change_adaptation", "rank": 9, "score": 110479 }, { "content": "Title: Avoided Deforestation Partners Content: Avoided Deforestation Partners , or AD Partners , is a non-profit organization under the auspices of the Center for International Policy in Washington , D.C. AD Partners is involved in the global effort to solve climate change by working to end deforestation in tropical rainforest countries . By avoiding the practice of deforestation , i.e. , clearing forests to provide inexpensive farmland ( also known as `` slash and burn agriculture '' ) , the world gains the significant climate benefits of not releasing carbon into the atmosphere . In addition , avoiding deforestation also allows forests to sequester carbon and scrub the air of pollutants . Beyond protecting our air quality , tropical forests create the conditions for rain , recharge our water sources , provide habitats for myriad plant and animal species , and support a way of life for 1.6 billion forest dependent people . Leading scientists and economists say that ending deforestation is the most cost effective and scalable method of reducing greenhouse gases . In fact , they believe that ending deforestation will cut the timeframe for solving the climate crisis in half . AD Partners ' focus has been and continues to be on advocating for U.S. and international forest protection policies . A large part of their efforts go towards convening global leaders from government , civil society and the business world at the international United National Climate summits , also known as the UNFCCC COP meetings . Most recently , AD Partners has joined television and movie climate change projects to help raise awareness about the critical link between climate change and the massive deforestation that continues to occur in rainforest countries such as Brazil and Indonesia . For most of the world , the concept that ending deforestation has a direct and profound link to solving the climate crisis is still very much unknown .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Avoided_Deforestation_Partners", "rank": 10, "score": 108579 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "rank": 11, "score": 108023 }, { "content": "Title: Green paradox Content: The green paradox , identified by German economist Hans-Werner Sinn , is the observation that an environmental policy that becomes greener with the passage of time acts like an announced expropriation for the owners of fossil fuel resources , inducing them to accelerate resource extraction and hence to accelerate global warming .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Green_paradox", "rank": 12, "score": 107294 }, { "content": "Title: Robert O. Mendelsohn Content: Robert O. Mendelsohn ( born 1952 in New York City ) is an American environmental economist . He is currently the Edwin Weyerhaeuser Davis Professor of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University , Professor of Economics in Economics Department at Yale University and Professor in the School of Management at Yale University.Professor Mendelsohn is a major figure in the economics of global warming , being for example a contributor to the first Copenhagen Consensus report . Mendelsohn received a BA in economics from Harvard University in 1973 and obtained his Ph.D. in economics from Yale University in 1978 . Professor Mendelsohn has written over one hundred peer-reviewed articles and edited six books . The focus of his research has been the valuation of the environment . He has developed methods to value natural ecosystems including coral reefs , old-growth forests , non-timber forest products , ecotourism , and outdoor recreation . He has also developed methods to value pollution including emissions of criteria pollutants ( such as particulates and sulfur dioxide ) and hazardous waste sites . His most recent work values the impacts of greenhouse gases , including the effects of climate change on agriculture , forests , water resources , energy , and coasts . This research carefully integrates adaptation into impact assessment and has recently been extended to developing countries around the world . He has also been involved in studies of nonrenewable resources , forest management , and specifically carbon sequestration in forests .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Robert_O._Mendelsohn", "rank": 13, "score": 105743 }, { "content": "Title: Eco-costs Content: Eco-costs are a measure to express the amount of environmental burden of a product on the basis of prevention of that burden . They are the costs which should be made to reduce the environmental pollution and materials depletion in our world to a level which is in line with the carrying capacity of our earth . For example : for each 1000 kg CO2 emission , one should invest $ 135 , - in offshore windmill parks ( and the other CO2 reduction systems at that price or less ) . When this is done consequently , the total CO2 emissions in the world will be reduced by 65 % compared to the emissions in 2008 . As a result , global warming will stabilise . In short : `` the eco-costs of 1000kg CO2 are $ 135 , - '' . Similar calculations can be made on the environmental burden of acidification , eutrification , summer smog , fine dust , eco-toxicity , and the use of metals , rare earth , fossil fuels , water and land ( nature ) . As such , the eco-costs are virtual costs , since they are not yet integrated in the real life costs of current production chains ( Life Cycle Costs ) . The eco-costs should be regarded as hidden obligations . The eco-costs of a product are the sum of all eco-costs of emissions and use of resources during the life cycle `` from cradle to cradle '' . The widely accepted method to make such a calculation is called Life Cycle Assessment ( LCA ) , which is basically a mass and energy balance , defined in the 14040 and ISO 14044 . The practical use of eco-costs is to compare the sustainability of several product types with the same functionality . The advantage of eco-costs is that they are expressed in a standardized monetary value which appears to be easily understood ` by instinct ' . Also the calculation is transparent and relatively easy , compared to damage based models which have the disadvantage of extremely complex calculations with subjective weighting of the various aspects contributing to the overall environmental burden . The system of eco-costs is part of the bigger model of the Ecocosts/Value Ratio , EVR", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Eco-costs", "rank": 14, "score": 105278 }, { "content": "Title: Loss and damage Content: The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes . Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events ( climate disasters , such as cyclones ) as well as slow-onset processes ( such as sea level rise ) . Loss and damage can occur in human systems ( such as livelihoods ) as well as natural systems ( such as biodiversity ) , though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts . Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems , a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses . The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets . At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha , Qatar , it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change . A new website was launched at the conference by the Loss and Damage Vulnerable Countries Initiative . It described its aim as being `` the first dedicated site for news , resources and opinion on the issue of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change '' . Examples of types of loss and damage include farmers who can no longer grow crops to eat , or grass to feed cattle , because their soil has become too salty , and fishermen who have lost their livelihoods because rivers have dried up . In popular press , and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations , the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation . This explains why the topic raises heated debates , and tends to widen the divide between developed countries , which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions , and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . For vulnerable countries , loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change , and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation . The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has developed a work programme on loss and damage which aims to find ways to address the issue in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change . On 12 -- 14 September 2013 , it held a meeting in Fiji to consider how best to address loss and damage from ` slow-onset events ' . These are impacts of climate change that occur over time , such as sea-level rise , rather than in a single , destructive event . Bangladesh is already suffering from loss and damage resulting from sea-level rise , due to its flat terrain in the coastal region . At the 19th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2013 in Warsaw , Poland , the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts was established . At the 20th Conference of the Parties in Lima , Peru ( 2014 ) , the work plan of the executive committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism was approved . The 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 2013-2014 had no separate chapter on loss and damage , but WG2 Chapter 16 about adaptation limits and constraints , is very relevant for people interested in loss and damage . A qualitative data analysis ( QDA ) of what the IPCC 5th Assessment Report has to say about loss and damage surprisingly showed that the term was used much more often in statements about Annex 1 countries ( e.g. US , Australia or European countries ) than in text about non-Annex 1 countries ( most countries in Africa , Asia Latin America and the Pacific ) , which tend to be more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . Whether or not the IPCC 6th Assessment Report will have a chapter on loss and damage has not yet been decided .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Loss_and_damage", "rank": 15, "score": 105205 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon bubble Content: The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Carbon_bubble", "rank": 16, "score": 104625 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 17, "score": 104260 }, { "content": "Title: Ross McKitrick Content: Ross McKitrick is a Canadian economist specializing in environmental economics and policy analysis . He is a professor of economics at the University of Guelph , and a senior fellow of the Fraser Institute . He is a member of the academic advisory boards of the John Deutsch Institute , the Global Warming Policy Foundation , and the Cornwall Alliance for the Stewardship of Creation . He has authored works about climate change issues , including co-authoring the book Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming in 2003 . McKitrick produced a series of videos and articles for the Friends of Science in which he argued that there is a `` pause '' in global warming that reveals flaws in current climate change models . The Friends of Science argue that the sun -- not human emissions of GHG -- is the main driver of climate change .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Ross_McKitrick", "rank": 18, "score": 101190 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 19, "score": 101127 }, { "content": "Title: Break Through (book) Content: Break Through : From the Death of Environmentalism to the Politics of Possibility , first published in October 2007 , is a book written by Ted Nordhaus and Michael Shellenberger , both long-time environmental strategists . Break Through is an argument for a positive , `` post-environmental '' politics that abandons the traditional environmentalist focus on nature protection for a focus on creating a new sustainable economy . The book is based on a controversial October 2004 essay by the same authors , `` The Death of Environmentalism : Global Warming Politics in a Post-Environmental World . '' The essay argues that environmentalism is conceptually and institutionally incapable of dealing with climate change and should `` die '' so that a new politics can be born . The essay was widely discussed among liberals and greens at Salon , Grist , and The New York Times . After the failure of climate legislation in the U.S. Senate for the third time in June 2008 , Time Magazine named Nordhaus and Shellenberger `` Heroes of the Environment , '' calling Break Through `` prescient '' for its prediction that climate policy should focus not on making fossil fuels expensive through regulation but rather on making clean energy cheap . The book 's authors reiterated this argument in a September 2008 op-ed for the Los Angeles Times , arguing for $ 30 -- $ 50bn in annual research subsidies for clean energy . In early 2008 Break Through won the Center for Science Writing 's Green Book Award , which comes with a $ 5000 prize for the author ( s ) .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Break_Through_(book)", "rank": 20, "score": 100134 }, { "content": "Title: Business action on climate change Content: Business action on climate change includes a range of activities relating to global warming , and to influencing political decisions on global-warming-related regulation , such as the Kyoto Protocol . Major multinationals have played and to some extent continue to play a significant role in the politics of global warming , especially in the United States , through lobbying of government and funding of global warming skeptics . Business also plays a key role in the mitigation of global warming , through decisions to invest in researching and implementing new energy technologies and energy efficiency measures . ( See also individual and political action on climate change . )", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Business_action_on_climate_change", "rank": 21, "score": 100061 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Development Rights Content: Greenhouse Development Rights ( GDRs ) is a justice-based effort-sharing framework designed to show how the costs of rapid climate stabilization can be shared fairly , among all countries . More precisely , GDRs seeks to transparently calculate national `` fair shares '' in the costs of an emergency global climate mobilization , in a manner that takes explicit account of the fact that , as things now stand , global political and economic life is divided along both North/South and rich/poor lines . Critically , GDRs approaches climate protection and economic development as two sides of one coin . Its goal is developmental justice , as it might exist even in a world that 's compelled to rapidly reduce greenhouse-gas emissions to near-zero levels . The GDRs analysis suggests that rapid climate stabilization will prove impossible without an extremely strong commitment -- a right -- to a dignified level of sustainable human development ( humanity ) . A right to life free from the privations of poverty . The GDRs approach builds , whenever possible , upon established scientific and political understandings . In particular , it explicitly codifies the foundational call of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , which seeks `` the widest possible cooperation by all countries and their participation in an effective and appropriate international response , in accordance with their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities . '' The GDRs strategy is to transparently calculate responsibility and capacity for all countries , with respect to explicit assumptions and benchmarks that can be clearly debated , negotiated , and , when necessary , changed . By so doing , it seeks to provide a coherent , transparent , and compelling way of calculating and comparing national `` fair shares '' -- broadly defined -- of the cost of the global climate transition . The goal of the GDRs effort is a sustainable mobilization that can be accepted as fair around the world . National obligations are calculated as shares of a global obligation that includes adaptation as well as mitigation . The approach here does not traditionally exhibit political realism , for that term is generally understood to imply an approach that starts with what is politically realistic today . The GDRs approach , in contrast , seeks to outline an approach that is consistent with the requirements of the climate science . In the GDRs framework , a country 's obligation to act is based upon its climate debt -- its responsibility for contributing to climate change -- and equally upon its capacity to act . Responsibility and capacity are both defined with respect to a `` development threshold '' that exempts the responsibilities and resources of the poor -- survival resources and survival income -- from being considered when calculating national obligation . Thus , GDRs can be seen as a reference framework intended to support clear , useful thinking about `` comparability of effort , '' even between widely disparate developed and developing nations . Finally , GDRs is not an academic exercise . Climate stabilization is a global commons problem , one that is fundamentally defined by the problem of fair use . GDRs , by transparently calculating principle-based obligations to protect the global climate system , sets out a framework by which fair-shares emissions rights can be defined , calculated , understood , debated , and negotiated . As such , it lays out a framework by which actually existing climate treaties and strategies -- even `` bottom up pledges '' like those welcomed by the Copenhagen Accord -- can be transparently evaluated and compared .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Greenhouse_Development_Rights", "rank": 22, "score": 99530 }, { "content": "Title: Pollution haven hypothesis Content: The pollution haven hypothesis posits that , when large industrialized nations seek to set up factories or offices abroad , they will often look for the cheapest option in terms of resources and labor that offers the land and material access they require . However , this often comes at the cost of environmentally sound practices . Developing nations with cheap resources and labor tend to have less stringent environmental regulations , and conversely , nations with stricter environmental regulations become more expensive for companies as a result of the costs associated with meeting these standards . Thus , companies that choose to physically invest in foreign countries tend to ( re ) locate to the countries with the lowest environmental standards or weakest enforcement .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Pollution_haven_hypothesis", "rank": 23, "score": 99523 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and poverty Content: In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_change_and_poverty", "rank": 24, "score": 99056 }, { "content": "Title: Externalities of automobiles Content: The externalities of automobiles , as similarly other economic externalities , are the measurable costs for other parties except the car proprietor , such costs not being taken into account when the proprietor opts to drive their car . According to the Harvard University , the main externalities of driving are local and global pollution , oil dependence , traffic congestion and traffic accidents ; while according to a meta-study conducted by the Delft University these externalities are congestion and scarcity costs , accident costs , air pollution costs , noise costs , climate change costs , costs for nature and landscape , costs for water pollution , costs for soil pollution and costs of energy dependency .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Externalities_of_automobiles", "rank": 25, "score": 98808 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe", "rank": 26, "score": 98232 }, { "content": "Title: Economists' Statement on Climate Change Content: The Economists ' Statement on Climate Change was published in 1997 , prior to the Kyoto Protocol negotiated that same year , to promote market-based solutions to climate change . It was signed by more than 2,600 economists , including 18 Nobel Prize laureates , and remains the largest public statement in the history of the economics profession . The statement was coordinated by Redefining Progress , an environmental economics think tank founded by Ted Halstead .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Economists'_Statement_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 27, "score": 97260 }, { "content": "Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007", "rank": 28, "score": 97009 }, { "content": "Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming", "rank": 29, "score": 96205 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 30, "score": 96079 }, { "content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Reasons_for_concern", "rank": 31, "score": 95771 }, { "content": "Title: Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy Content: The Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) is a climate change research centre in England . It is hosted jointly by the University of Leeds and the London School of Economics and Political Science ( LSE ) . CCCEP is part of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment , which is chaired by Lord Nicholas Stern of Brentford , former Chief Economist of the World Bank and author of the widely known Stern Review . CCCEP was established in 2008 , and is funded by the ESRC . Its mission is to advance public and private action on climate change through rigorous , innovative research . In pursuit of its mission , CCCEP has five research themes in its phase 2 programme : Understanding green growth and climate-compatible development Advancing climate finance and investment Evaluating the performance of climate policies Managing climate risks and uncertainties and strengthening climate services Enabling rapid transitions in mitigation and adaptation In October 2016 , The Daily mail reported allegations that CCCEP had fraudulently obtained millions of dollars from UK taxpayers by claiming credit for research they did not produce . The organization responded to the claims saying that the alleged fraud was an overreaction to a clerical error .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Centre_for_Climate_Change_Economics_and_Policy", "rank": 32, "score": 93617 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 33, "score": 93478 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)", "rank": 34, "score": 93430 }, { "content": "Title: Global Climate Coalition Content: The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 -- 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Global_Climate_Coalition", "rank": 35, "score": 93185 }, { "content": "Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Bjørn_Lomborg", "rank": 36, "score": 92595 }, { "content": "Title: Ottmar Edenhofer Content: Ottmar Georg Edenhofer ( born in 8 July 1961 in Gangkofen , Lower Bavaria , Germany ) is one of the world 's leading experts on climate change policy , environmental and energy policy , and energy economics . Edenhofer currently holds the professorship of the Economics of Climate Change at the Technical University of Berlin . He is deputy director and chief economist of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research ( PIK ) as well as director of the Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change ( MCC ) . From 2008 to 2015 he served as one of the co-chairs of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group III `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . Among other functions , he is a member of the OECD Advisory Council `` Growth , Investment and the Low-Carbon Transition '' , a member of the High-Level Commission on Carbon Prices , a member of the Advisory Committee of the Green Growth Knowledge Platform ( GGKP ) , and a member of the German Academy of Science and Engineering ( acatech ) .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Ottmar_Edenhofer", "rank": 37, "score": 92419 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Greenhouse_debt", "rank": 38, "score": 92216 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change", "rank": 39, "score": 92018 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 40, "score": 91576 }, { "content": "Title: The Climate Mobilization Content: The Climate Mobilization ( TCM ) is a grassroots environmental advocacy group working toward large-scale political action against global warming , with the belief that the crisis of climate change requires a national economic effort on the scale of the American mobilization of the home front during World War II . It was founded by psychologist Margaret Klein Salamon to confront climate change denial and build the political will necessary to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions and 100 % clean energy within a decade in order to avoid crossing potentially catastrophic climate tipping points and begin restoring a safe climate .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "The_Climate_Mobilization", "rank": 41, "score": 91154 }, { "content": "Title: Cheap meat Content: Cheap meat is a term used to describe relatively inexpensive meat ( e.g. fatty cuts of lamb or mutton ) or to indicate that the consumer price of meat does not include the overall costs of industrial meat production . The term cheap meat is then either related to subsidies , to hidden costs or to non-material costs ( `` moral cost '' ) of meat production . Non-material costs can be related to issues such as animal welfare ( e.g. treatment of animals , over-breeding ) . The term is used by critics of the meat industry . The meat industry is subsidized with billions of dollars by governments who support their meat industries . The OECD estimates the total `` producer support '' in OECD countries for 2012 as follows : 18bn USD for beef and veal , 7.3 bn USD for pigmeat , 6.5 bn USD for poultry and 1bn USD for sheepmeat ( provisional numbers ) . Hidden costs of meat production can be related to the environmental impact of meat production and to the effect on human health ( such as resistant antibiotics ) .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Cheap_meat", "rank": 42, "score": 90231 }, { "content": "Title: Dennis Tirpak Content: Dennis Tirpak is an expert on Climate Change . He is a Senior Fellow at the World Resources Institute . He was the director of Global Climate Change Policy at the United States Environmental Protection Agency for ten years . He was the Coordinator of Science and Technology at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for nine years . He was the head of the climate change unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) for three years . He has also worked on the Montreal Protocol and held positions in industry with Texaco and Alcoa . He is one of the coordinating lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice President Al Gore . He advises national governments and industry as an associate with the International Institute for Sustainable Development in Canada and a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute in Washington , D.C. He was the Chairman of The International Scientific Steering Committee for Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations which took place at the invitation of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2005 . In 1989 he co-authored the first report to Congress , The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change on the United States , and has written a scientific and policy history on climate change and contributed to many publications including the New York Times in an op-ed titled `` How Green is My Taxi '' .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Dennis_Tirpak", "rank": 43, "score": 90188 }, { "content": "Title: Cap and Share Content: Cap and Share was originally developed by Feasta ( the Foundation for the Economics of Sustainability ) and is a regulatory and economic framework for controlling the use of fossil fuels in relation to climate stabilisation . Accepting that climate change is a global problem and that there is a need to cap and reduce greenhouse gas emissions globally , the philosophy of Cap and Share maintains that the earth 's atmosphere is a fundamental common resource . Consequently , it is argued , each individual should get an equal share of the benefits from the limited amount of fossil fuels that will have to be burned and their emissions released into the atmosphere in the period until the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases has been stabilised at a safe level .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Cap_and_Share", "rank": 44, "score": 89875 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting", "rank": 45, "score": 89828 }, { "content": "Title: Global Climate Network Content: The Global Climate Network ( GCN ) is an alliance of influential think tanks and research institutes in different countries that collaborate on research into climate change policy and whose stated aim is to help address the political blockages to ambitious action to tackle global warming . The Network has members in nine countries worldwide , including the USA , China , India , UK , Australia , Brazil , Norway , South Africa and Nigeria . Its Secretariat is housed at the Institute for Public Policy Research in London , UK . GCN members are engaged jointly in a programme of research projects , the results of which each member feeds into policy making at the domestic and international levels . Collectively , members of the Global Climate Network are committed to a vision of a prosperous and secure world in which greenhouse gas emissions have been reduced to a level that is no longer harmful to the climate system . Working together , the Network construct a narrative for action on climate change that is concerned with human and economic progress as well as environmental wellbeing . The Network 's patrons are Dr Rajendra Pachauri , chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and director-general of the Energy and Resources Institute in India ; John Podesta , former Chief of Staff to President Bill Clinton and director of Center for American Progress , and Lord Christopher Patten of Barnes , former European Commissioner for External Affairs .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Global_Climate_Network", "rank": 46, "score": 89761 }, { "content": "Title: Nat Keohane Content: Nathaniel O. `` Nat '' Keohane is an American environmental economist who serves as vice president for international climate at the Environmental Defense Fund . He used to be in academia at Yale University and served in the White House as special assistant to President Barack Obama .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Nat_Keohane", "rank": 47, "score": 89760 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 48, "score": 89725 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 49, "score": 89360 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of climate change mitigation Content: This article is about the economics of climate change mitigation . Mitigation of climate change involves actions that are designed to limit the amount of long-term climate change ( Fisher et al. . , 2007:225 ) . Mitigation may be achieved through the reduction of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions or through the enhancement of sinks that absorb GHGs , for example forests .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation", "rank": 50, "score": 89320 }, { "content": "Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_ethics", "rank": 51, "score": 89247 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Code Red Content: Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_Code_Red", "rank": 52, "score": 88825 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Justice Action Content: Climate Justice Action ( CJA ) `` is a global network of groups and individuals committed to taking action to prevent catastrophic climate change '' . CJA formed as part of the alternative mobilisation around the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen , and organised mass Direct actions during the conference .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_Justice_Action", "rank": 53, "score": 88799 }, { "content": "Title: 4Change Content: 4Change , formerly known as the Climate Change Coalition ( CCC ) , was an Australian political party , which was formed in 2007 with a view to accelerate action by politicians from all parties on global warming and climate change . Its position on working towards addressing climate change , stresses cooperation with big business in order to achieve significant progress on the issue . The party therefore advocates a close working relationship between environmentalists and the business community . The CCC was registered as a political party with the Australian Electoral Commission ( AEC ) on 4 September 2007 and deregistered on 25 March 2010 .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "4Change", "rank": 54, "score": 88748 }, { "content": "Title: Energy Tax Prevention Act Content: Energy Tax Prevention Act , also known as H.R. 910 , was a 2011 bill in the United States House of Representatives to prohibit the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) from regulating greenhouse gases to address climate change . On April 7 , 2011 the bill passed the House by a vote of 255 to 172 . The bill died in January 2013 with the ending of the Congressional session . The House vote on the Energy Tax Prevention Act of 2011 was one of five key votes on climate in the House , and one of ten in Congress , from the period 2003 through 2011 , according to the Union of Concerned Scientists and the League of Conservation Voters .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Energy_Tax_Prevention_Act", "rank": 55, "score": 88744 }, { "content": "Title: David Kennedy (economist) Content: David Kennedy ( born 29 September 1969 ) is a British civil servant and economist , Chief Executive of the British government 's Committee on Climate Change from 2008 until 2014 , now director general for economic development at the Department for International Development .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "David_Kennedy_(economist)", "rank": 56, "score": 88488 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 Content: The Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 , also known as Senate Bill 375 or SB 375 , is a State of California law targeting greenhouse gas emissions from passenger vehicles . The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) sets goals for the reduction of statewide greenhouse gas emissions . Passenger vehicles are the single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions statewide , accounting for 30 % of total emissions . SB 375 therefore provides key support to achieve the goals of AB 32 . SB 375 instructs the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) to set regional emissions ' reduction targets from passenger vehicles . The Metropolitan Planning Organization for each region must then develop a `` Sustainable Communities Strategy '' ( SCS ) that integrates transportation , land-use and housing policies to plan for achievement of the emissions target for their region . In a press release the day he signed the bill into law , Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger stated , `` What this will mean is more environmentally-friendly communities , more sustainable developments , less time people spend in their cars , more alternative transportation options and neighborhoods we can safely and proudly pass on to future generations . ''", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Sustainable_Communities_and_Climate_Protection_Act_of_2008", "rank": 57, "score": 88186 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change scenario Content: This article is about climate change scenarios . Socioeconomic scenarios are used by analysts to make projections of future greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and to assess future vulnerability to climate change ( Carter et al. , 2001:151 ) . Producing scenarios requires estimates of future population levels , economic activity , the structure of governance , social values , and patterns of technological change . Economic and energy modelling ( such as via the World3 or the POLES models ) can be used to analyse and quantify the effects of such drivers .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_change_scenario", "rank": 58, "score": 88120 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Capitalism Content: Climate Capitalism : Capitalism in the Age of Climate Change is a 2011 book by L. Hunter Lovins and Boyd Cohen . It presents positive stories and examples of how profit-seeking companies are helping to save the planet , and says that `` the best way to rebuild America 's economy , cities and job markets is to invest in energy efficiency and renewable energy resources , whether climate change is happening or not '' . However , reviewer Gail Whiteman is unconvinced by the argument that naked greed and market forces will drive businesses to cut their greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_Capitalism", "rank": 59, "score": 88057 }, { "content": "Title: Stephen Hatfield Dodds Content: Steve Hatfield Dodds ( born Stephen Dodds ) is an Australian philosophical economist , with notable work in the social cost of economic decision-making and particularly sustainable development and the economic impact of climate change .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Stephen_Hatfield_Dodds", "rank": 60, "score": 87970 }, { "content": "Title: Gary Yohe Content: Gary Wynn Yohe is the Huffington Foundation Professor of Economics and Environmental Studies at Wesleyan University , Middletown , Connecticut . He holds a PhD from Yale University . Yohe specializes in Microeconomic theory , Natural Resources , and Environmental Economics . He is a researcher on the economics of climate change and integrated assessment modelling . Among other works , he is an editor of the book `` Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change '' and co-author ( with Edwin Mansfield ) of `` Microeconomics | Microeconomics : Theory and Applications '' . He is a senior member of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was awarded a share of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore . He has been involved with the IPCC since the mid-1990s , has served , among other capacities , as a Lead Author for four different chapters in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , and as Convening Lead Author for the last chapter of the contribution of Working Group II to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Yohe also worked with the Core Writing Team to prepare the overall Synthesis Report for the entire Assessment . Yohe is also a member of the New York City Panel on Climate Change and the standing Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change of the National Academy of Sciences . He is also a standing member of the National Academy of Sciences ' Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change . He was a vice-chair of the Third National Climate Assessment . He is one of the four co-signers of an open letter , dated March 12 , 2010 , regarding possible errors in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and regularly advises the US government .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Gary_Yohe", "rank": 61, "score": 87873 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of car use Content: Compared to other popular modes of passenger transportation , the car has a relatively high cost per person-distance traveled . The income elasticity for cars ranges from very elastic in poor countries , to inelastic in rich nations . The advantages of car usage include on demand and door-to-door travel , and are not easily substituted by cheaper alternative modes of transport , with the present level and type of auto specific infrastructure in the countries with high auto usage . Public costs related to the car are several including congestion and effects related to emissions .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Economics_of_car_use", "rank": 62, "score": 87624 }, { "content": "Title: G8 Climate Change Roundtable Content: The G8 Climate Change Roundtable was formed in January 2005 at the World Economic Forum in Davos , Switzerland . Its purpose was to address the global climate change issue facing governments , business and civil society . The first meeting was held in Gleneagles , Scotland , from 6 -- 8 July 2005 , to coincide with the 31st G8 summit . The roundtable was established by twenty-three leading international businesses with the assistance of G8 President and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair , to co-operatively engage in a global plan of action . The aim of the group was to ensure that a long-term policy framework was set up to enable consistent and transparent market-based solutions in mitigating climate change , while also addressing issues linked to climate change ; such as economic growth , poverty , and adequate energy supplies . Carbon trading is one of the most popular pricing mechanisms used to the reduce greenhouse emissions worldwide . The group devised a Framework for Action which called for technology incentive programs , the establishment of common metrics , for example in energy efficiency , and the expansion of emissions trading schemes . Some of the companies participating include Ford , British Airways , HSBC , EdF and BP . Now , the Climate Change Roundtable has a membership of 150 businesses spread across the globe . Environmentalists raised concerns that the body 's statement does not call for targets or include timetables . Friends of the Earth noted that the roundtable represented a major shift by the business community towards efforts to mitigate climate change .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "G8_Climate_Change_Roundtable", "rank": 63, "score": 87500 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Carbon_leakage", "rank": 64, "score": 87359 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Australia Content: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia", "rank": 65, "score": 87251 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation", "rank": 66, "score": 87141 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 67, "score": 86905 }, { "content": "Title: Welfare cost of business cycles Content: In macroeconomics , the cost of business cycles is the decrease in social welfare , if any , caused by business cycle fluctuations . Nobel economist Robert Lucas proposed measuring the cost of business cycles as the percentage increase in consumption that would be necessary to make a representative consumer indifferent between a smooth , non-fluctuating , consumption trend and one that is subject to business cycles . Under the assumptions that business cycles represent random shocks around a trend growth path , Robert Lucas argued that the cost of business cycles is extremely small , and as a result the focus of both academic economists and policy makers on economic stabilization policy rather than on long term growth has been misplaced . Lucas himself , after calculating this cost back in 1987 , reoriented his own macroeconomic research program away from the study of short run fluctuations . However , Lucas ' conclusion is controversial . In particular , Keynesian economists typically argue that business cycles should not be understood as fluctuations above and below a trend . Instead , they argue that booms are times when the economy is near its potential output trend , and that recessions are times when the economy is substantially below trend , so that there is a large output gap . Under this viewpoint , the welfare cost of business cycles is larger , because an economy with cycles not only suffers more variable consumption , but also lower consumption on average .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Welfare_cost_of_business_cycles", "rank": 68, "score": 86899 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on human health Content: The effects of global warming include effects on human health . The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health . This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_human_health", "rank": 69, "score": 86863 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming game Content: A global warming game , also known as a climate game or a climate change game , is a type of serious game . As a serious game , it attempts to simulate and explore real life issues to educate players through an interactive experience . The issues particular to a global warming video game are usually energy efficiency and the implementation of green technology as ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus counteract global warming . Global warming games also include more traditional board games , video games , as well as other varieties .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Global_warming_game", "rank": 70, "score": 86839 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States", "rank": 71, "score": 86595 }, { "content": "Title: Andrew Simms Content: Andrew Simms is an author , analyst and co-director of the New Weather Institute . He is a research associate with the Centre for Global Political Economy at the University of Sussex and Fellow at the New Economics Foundation . He also served as Policy Director for ten years , Communications Director , and established the Climate Change Programme for the foundation . He co-authored The Green New Deal and co-founded the Green New Deal Group , the climate campaign onehundredmonths.org and cooperative think tank the New Weather Institute . He was a Principal Speaker of the Green Party . A political economist and environmentalist , Simms studied at the London School of Economics for a master 's degree in development and international political economy , and has written a number of reports on climate change , globalisation and localisation , development issues , debt ( conventional and ecological debt ) , finance and banking , corporate accountability , genetic engineering and food security . He coined the term ` clone towns ' to describe the economic and homogenising effects of chain retailers on town centres . Simms advocates the notion of ` ecological debt ' as an illustration of the degree to which economies operate beyond environmental thresholds , and initiated the annual marking of the day when the world is estimated to enter ` overshoot ' .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Andrew_Simms", "rank": 72, "score": 86590 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Policy Foundation Content: The Global Warming Policy Foundation ( GWPF ) is a think tank in the United Kingdom , whose stated aims are to challenge `` extremely damaging and harmful policies '' envisaged by governments to mitigate anthropogenic global warming . It promotes climate change denial . In 2014 , when the Charity Commission ruled that the GWPF had breached rules on impartiality , a non-charitable organisation called the `` Global Warming Policy Forum '' or `` GWPF '' was created as a wholly owned subsidiary , to do lobbying that a charity could not . The GWPF website carries an array of articles `` sceptical '' of scientific findings of anthropogenic global warming and its impacts .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Global_Warming_Policy_Foundation", "rank": 73, "score": 86590 }, { "content": "Title: Climate governance Content: In political ecology and environmental policy , climate governance is the diplomacy , mechanisms and response measures `` aimed at steering social systems towards preventing , mitigating or adapting to the risks posed by climate change '' . A definitive interpretation is complicated by the wide range of political and social science traditions ( including comparative politics , political economy and multilevel governance ) that are engaged in conceiving and analysing climate governance at different levels and across different arenas . In academia , climate governance has become the concern of geographers , anthropologists , economists and business studies scholars . In the past two decades a paradox has arisen between rising awareness about the causes and consequences of climate change and an increasing concern that the issues that surround it represent an intractable problem . Initially , climate change was approached as a global issue , and climate governance sought to address it on the international stage . This took the form of Multilateral Environmental Agreements ( MEAs ) , beginning with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCC ) in 1992 . With the exception of the Kyoto Protocol , international agreements between nations have been largely ineffective in achieving legally binding emissions cuts and with the end of the Kyoto Protocol 's first commitment period in 2012 , starting from 2013 there is no legally binding Global climate regime . This inertia on the international political stage contributed to alternative political narratives that called for more flexible , cost effective and participatory approaches to addressing the multifarious problems of climate change . These narratives relate to the increasing diversity of methods that are being developed and deployed across the field of climate governance .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_governance", "rank": 74, "score": 86545 }, { "content": "Title: The Hartwell Paper Content: The Hartwell Paper calls for a reorientation of climate policy after the perceived failure in 2009 of the UNFCCC climate conference in Copenhagen . The paper was published in May 2010 by the London School of Economics in cooperation with the University of Oxford . The authors are 14 natural and social scientists from Asia , Europe and North America , including Mike Hulme , Roger A. Pielke ( Jr ) , Nico Stehr and Steve Rayner , who met under the Chatham House Rule . The paper argues that `` decarbonisation will only be achieved successfully as a benefit contingent upon other goals which are politically attractive and relentlessly pragmatic . '' It emphasizes human dignity as a necessary guiding principle for climate policy : `` To reframe the climate issue around matters of human dignity is not just noble or necessary . It is also likely to be more effective than the approach of framing around human sinfulness -- which has failed and will continue to fail . '' It has three main objectives : 1 . Energy access for all The paper advocates taking investments in the innovations of renewable energy to decrease energy costs and to make them more affordable to society . Only this diversification of energy could extend the access to energy , especially in undeveloped countries . 2 . Clean energy 3 . Dealing with climate change The ultimate goal is `` to develop non-carbon energy supplies at unsubsidised costs less than those using fossil fuels . '' The Hartwell Paper recommends achieving this goal by introducing low carbon taxes . Moreover this money should be used to develop a CO2 free energy supply .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "The_Hartwell_Paper", "rank": 75, "score": 86440 }, { "content": "Title: The Economical Environmentalist Content: The Economical Environmentalist is a book by Prashant Vaze about the effects of climate change and what practical measures can be taken to reduce the amount of energy one consumes . It covers how best to save energy and points out contradictions such as `` The one that particularly exasperates me is the `` food miles '' obsession , whereby we eschew tomatoes from Spain and roses flown in from Kenya , in favour of local products grown in a heated greenhouse with a far greater carbon footprint . '' In the book he compares the savings available for several real-world examples of people so one can see what changes are possible to make .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "The_Economical_Environmentalist", "rank": 76, "score": 86371 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 77, "score": 86353 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainability and systemic change resistance Content: The environmental sustainability problem has proven difficult to solve . The modern environmental movement has attempted to solve the problem in a large variety of ways . But little progress has been made , as shown by severe ecological footprint overshoot and lack of sufficient progress on the climate change problem . Something within the human system is preventing change to a sustainable mode of behavior . That system trait is systemic change resistance . Change resistance is also known as organizational resistance , barriers to change , or policy resistance .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Sustainability_and_systemic_change_resistance", "rank": 78, "score": 86076 }, { "content": "Title: Green company Content: A green company claims to act in a way which minimizes damage to the environment . As global warming continues apace and becomes an increasingly prevalent topic amongst world governments , many companies are doing their part to become environmentally more responsible or `` green '' .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Green_company", "rank": 79, "score": 85893 }, { "content": "Title: Externality Content: In economics , an externality is the cost or benefit that affects a party who did not choose to incur that cost or benefit . Economists often urge governments to adopt policies that `` internalize '' an externality , so that costs and benefits will affect mainly parties who choose to incur them . For example , manufacturing activities that cause air pollution impose health and clean-up costs on the whole society , whereas the neighbors of an individual who chooses to fire-proof his home may benefit from a reduced risk of a fire spreading to their own houses . If external costs exist , such as pollution , the producer may choose to produce more of the product than would be produced if the producer were required to pay all associated environmental costs . Because responsibility or consequence for self-directed action lies partly outside the self , an element of externalization is involved . If there are external benefits , such as in public safety , less of the good may be produced than would be the case if the producer were to receive payment for the external benefits to others . For the purpose of these statements , overall cost and benefit to society is defined as the sum of the imputed monetary value of benefits and costs to all parties involved . Thus , unregulated markets in goods or services with significant externalities generate prices that do not reflect the full social cost or benefit of their transactions ; such markets are therefore inefficient .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Externality", "rank": 80, "score": 85843 }, { "content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_risk", "rank": 81, "score": 85671 }, { "content": "Title: Average cost Content: In economics , average cost and/or unit cost is equal to total cost divided by the number of goods produced ( the output quantity , Q ) . It is also equal to the sum of average variable costs ( total variable costs divided by Q ) plus average fixed costs ( total fixed costs divided by Q ) . Average costs may be dependent on the time period considered ( increasing production may be expensive or impossible in the short term , for example ) . Average costs affect the supply curve and are a fundamental component of supply and demand .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Average_cost", "rank": 82, "score": 85487 }, { "content": "Title: Trucost Content: Trucost is a company which makes estimates about the hidden costs of unsustainable use of natural resources by companies . Trucost has been founded in 2000 and has its head office in London . For the United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiative ( UNEP FI ) Trucost estimated the cost of environmental damage by the 3000 largest public listed companies US$ 2.15 trillion . S&P Dow Jones Indices acquired 1 October 2016 a controlling stake in Trucost .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Trucost", "rank": 83, "score": 85177 }, { "content": "Title: Climate justice Content: Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue , rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature . This is done by relating the effects of climate change to concepts of justice , particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality , human rights , collective rights , and the historical responsibilities for climate change . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences . Occasionally , the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_justice", "rank": 84, "score": 85163 }, { "content": "Title: List of disasters by cost Content: Disasters can be particularly notable for the high costs associated with responding to and recovering from them . This page lists the economic costs of relatively recent disasters . 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , Japan : estimated more than $ 300 billion . 2008 Sichuan earthquake , China , $ 148 billion 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake $ 102.5 billion . Deepwater Horizon oil spill , Gulf of Mexico , 2010 : Between $ 60 and $ 100billion . Hurricane Katrina , United States , August 2005 : insurances compensated $ 45 billion . 2011 Thailand floods : $ 45.7 billion ( World Bank estimate of total economic damages and losses ) . 2011 Christchurch earthquake , New Zealand , $ 40 billion . Hurricane Ike , United States , September 2008 , $ 29.6 billion . 1998 Yangtze River floods , China : $ 26 billion . Hurricane Andrew , United States , August 1992 : $ 25 billion . September 11 terrorist attacks , 2001 : $ 20.7 billion . 1994 Northridge earthquake , CA , United States , January 1994 : $ 20 billion . Chernobyl disaster , 1986 : $ 15 billion estimated cost of direct loss . It is estimated that the damages could accumulate to $ 235 billion for Ukraine and $ 201 billion for Belarus in the thirty years following the accident . 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami , many nations , $ 15 billion . Armero tragedy , Colombia , 1985 , $ 7 billion . 2013 Alberta floods , Canada , 2013 , estimated $ 3 billion - $ 5 billion . Exxon Valdez oil spill , 1989 : The clean-up of the oil spill cost an estimated $ 2.5 billion ; recovery for settlements , $ 1.1 billion ; and the economic loss ( fisheries , tourism , etc. ) suffered due to the damage to the Alaskan ecosystem was estimated at $ 2.8 billion . Cedar Fire , United States , 2003 , $ 2 billion . AZF chemical plant explosion , Toulouse , France , 2001 : $ 1.8 billion . 2011 Slave Lake wildfire , Canada , $ 1.8 billion . The costs of disasters vary considerably depending on a range of factors , such as the geographical location where they occur . When a disaster occurs in a densely populated area in a wealthy country , the financial damage might be huge , but when a comparable disaster occurs in a densely populated area in a poorer country , the actual financial damage might be relatively small , in part due to a lack of insurance . For example , the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami , with a death toll of over 230,000 people , cost a ` mere ' $ 15 billion , whereas in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill , in which 11 people died , the damages were six-fold .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "List_of_disasters_by_cost", "rank": 85, "score": 85136 }, { "content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Leipzig_Declaration", "rank": 86, "score": 84906 }, { "content": "Title: Samuel Brittan Content: Sir Samuel Brittan ( born 29 December 1933 ) is an English journalist and author . He was the first economics correspondent for the Financial Times , and has since been a long-time columnist . He is member of the Academic Advisory Council of the Global Warming Policy Foundation ( `` restoring balance and trust to the climate debate '' ) .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Samuel_Brittan", "rank": 87, "score": 84867 }, { "content": "Title: Laurence Tubiana Content: Laurence Tubiana ( born 1951 ) is a French economist and diplomat . She was appointed French ambassador for international climate negotiations in connection with the 2015 COP21 Climate Change Conference in Paris . She founded and has headed the Paris-based Institute of Sustainable Development and International Relations ( IDDRI ) , is a professor at the Paris high-level education institute , Sciences Po , and has previously served as senior adviser on the environment to the former French Prime Minister Lionel Jospin . She has been responsible for conducting international environmental negotiations for the French government and has also been a member of the Economic Analysis Council ( Conseil d'analyse économique ) attached to the French Prime Minister 's office .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Laurence_Tubiana", "rank": 88, "score": 84726 }, { "content": "Title: Value of life Content: The value of life is an economic value used to quantify the benefit of avoiding a fatality . It is also referred to as the cost of life , value of preventing a fatality ( VPF ) and implied cost of averting a fatality ( ICAF ) . In social and political sciences , it is the marginal cost of death prevention in a certain class of circumstances . In many studies the value also includes the quality of life , the expected life time remaining , as well as the earning potential of a given person especially for an after the fact payment in lawsuits for wrongful death . As such , it is a statistical term , the cost of reducing the average number of deaths by one . It is an important issue in a wide range of disciplines including economics , health care , adoption , political economy , insurance , worker safety , environmental impact assessment , and globalization . In industrial nations , the justice system considers a human life `` priceless '' , thus illegalizing any form of slavery ; i.e. , humans can not be bought at any price . However , with a limited supply of resources or infrastructural capital ( e.g. ambulances ) , or skill at hand , it is impossible to save every life , so some trade-off must be made . Also , this argumentation neglects the statistical context of the term . It is not commonly attached to lives of individuals or used to compare the value of one person 's life relative to another person 's . It is mainly used in circumstances of saving lives as opposed to taking lives or `` producing '' lives .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Value_of_life", "rank": 89, "score": 84701 }, { "content": "Title: Tyndall Centre Content: The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research is an organisation based in the United Kingdom that brings together scientists , economists , engineers and social scientists to ` research , assess and communicate from a distinct trans-disciplinary perspective , the options to mitigate , and the necessities to adapt to current climate change and continuing global Warming , and to integrate these into the global , UK and local contexts of sustainable development ' . The centre , named after the 19th-century UK scientist John Tyndall ( born in Ireland ) and founded in 2000 , has eight core partners : the University of East Anglia , University of Cambridge , Cardiff University , University of Manchester , Newcastle University , University of Oxford , University of Southampton , and the University of Sussex . Fudan University joined the Tyndall Centre partnership in May 2011 . From 2000 until 2010 , core funding was provided by the UK 's Natural Environment Research Council , the Economic and Social Research Council , and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council . The Tyndall Centre in the UK is now primarily funded by the host universities and by research grants . Fudan Tyndall Centre is funded with a 15-year commitment by the Chinese central government and the Shanghai City government . The Tyndall Centre 's director is currently Professor Corinne Le Quéré . The deputy director is Professor Kevin Anderson , and the director of strategic development is Professor Robert Watson . The deputy director for international activities is Professor Trevor Davies . The founding director is Professor Mike Hulme .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Tyndall_Centre", "rank": 90, "score": 84663 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_Change_Act_2008", "rank": 91, "score": 84496 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)", "rank": 92, "score": 84369 }, { "content": "Title: Fate of the World Content: Fate of the World is a 2011 global warming game developed and published by Red Redemption . It features several scenarios , based on actual scientific research , in which the player is put in charge of a fictional international organization managing social , technological and environmental policies . The goals of the scenarios range from improving living conditions in Africa , to preventing catastrophic climate change , to exacerbating it . It is quickly followed by an expansion pack called Fate of the World : Tipping Point , released in late 2011 . The climate prediction models for the game are the work of Myles Allen , the head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Fate_of_the_World", "rank": 93, "score": 84360 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 94, "score": 84350 }, { "content": "Title: United Nations Ocean Conference Content: The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \"under threat as never before\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.", "qid": "2989", "docid": "United_Nations_Ocean_Conference", "rank": 95, "score": 84205 }, { "content": "Title: Graciela Chichilnisky Content: Graciela Chichilnisky ( born 1944 ) is an Argentine American mathematical economist and an authority on climate change . She is a professor of economics at Columbia University .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Graciela_Chichilnisky", "rank": 96, "score": 84128 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act Content: __ NOTOC __ The Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act of the Canadian province of Alberta was the first law of its type to impose greenhouse gas cuts on large industrial facilities . Starting from July 1 , 2007 , Alberta facilities that emit more than 100,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases per year will be required to reduce their emissions intensity by 12 percent under the Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act . Companies have three ways to meet their reductions : they can make operating improvements , buy an Alberta-based credit , or contribute to the Climate Change and Emissions Management Fund . The regulations apply to about 100 large facilities which emit more than 100,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases a year . Those facilities account for about 70 per cent of Alberta 's industrial greenhouse gas emissions . The annual cost of compliance is estimated to be $ 177 million - or less than one tenth of one per cent of Alberta 's nominal GDP ( $ 242 billion in 2006 ) .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Climate_Change_and_Emissions_Management_Amendment_Act", "rank": 97, "score": 84069 }, { "content": "Title: The Climate Group Content: The Climate Group is a non-profit organization that works internationally with business and government to promote clean technologies and policies , with the aim of expanding clean technology markets and reducing global greenhouse gas emissions . After launching with the support of Tony Blair in 2004 , the organization now has offices in the UK ( headquarters ) , the United States , Europe , Australia , India , mainland China and Hong Kong . As of December 2010 , The Climate Group 's membership included 80 large companies and state/city-level governments from around the world , with members representing 15 % of global GDP . The Climate Group says it is one of the world 's first business and government alliances working to create solutions to climate change that are compatible with economic growth . Solutions pursued by the organization include its technology programs , such as the LED ` Lightsavers ' global trial taking place in cities such as New York City , Hong Kong and Kolkata ; the Climate Principles project , under which financial institutions ( including Credit Agricole , HSBC , Standard Chartered , Swiss Re , F&C Asset Management and BNP Paribas ) agree to consider climate change when structuring their service and product offerings ; the States and Regions Alliance , designed to encourage state , provincial and city government climate change initiatives ; and publications assessing and promoting the potential value of low carbon technologies and policies . The Climate Group also hosts a range of events such as Climate Week NYC in New York City , a week-long global forum examining clean technology policies and financing strategies . It has partnered a range of initiatives and reports with organisations including the Global e-Sustainability Initiative ( GeSi ) , International Emissions Trading Association ( IETA ) , the Carbon Disclosure Project , the Global Infrastructure Basel Foundation , the New York Academy of Sciences , the United Nations Foundation , the German Marshall Fund , the Office of Tony Blair and the World Business Council on Sustainable Development ( WBSCD ) .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "The_Climate_Group", "rank": 98, "score": 84048 }, { "content": "Title: Stop Esso campaign Content: The Stop Esso campaign was a campaign by Greenpeace , Friends of the Earth and People and Planet aimed at boycotting the oil company Esso , known as ExxonMobil in the United States , on the grounds that it is damaging the environment . The campaign alleges that Esso / ExxonMobil is : not investing in renewable energy sources denying the existence of global warming funding the creation of junk science which denies climate change , delaying urgently needed climate change action undermining the Kyoto Protocol .", "qid": "2989", "docid": "Stop_Esso_campaign", "rank": 99, "score": 83985 }, { "content": "Title: List of Australian environmental books Content: This is a list of Australian environmental books : Global Spin : The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism ( 1997 ) , by Sharon Beder Human Ecology , Human Economy : Ideas for an Ecologically Sustainable Future ( 1997 ) , edited by Mark Diesendorf and Clive Hamilton Running from the Storm : The Development of Climate Change Policy in Australia ( 2001 ) , by Clive Hamilton A Big Fix : Radical Solutions for Australia 's Environmental Crisis ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia ( 2005 ) , by Ian Lowe The Weather Makers ( 2005 ) , by Tim Flannery Environmental Principles and Policies ( 2006 ) , by Sharon Beder Patriots : Defending Australia 's Natural Heritage ( 2006 ) , by William J Lines Chasing Kangaroos ( 2007 ) , by Tim Flannery Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy ( 2007 ) , by Mark Diesendorf High and Dry : John Howard , Climate Change and the Selling of Australia 's Future ( 2007 ) , by Guy Pearse The 3rd Degree : Frontline in Australia 's Climate War ( 2007 ) , by Murray Hogarth Maralinga : Australia 's Nuclear Waste Cover-up ( 2007 ) , by Alan Parkinson Reaction Time : Climate Change and the Nuclear Option ( 2007 ) , by Ian Lowe Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change ( 2007 ) , by Clive Hamilton Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action ( 2008 ) , by David Spratt and Philip Sutton Now or Never : A Sustainable Future for Australia ? ( 2008 ) , by Tim Flannery Quarry Vision : Coal , Climate Change and the End of the Resources Boom ( 2009 ) , by Guy Pearse Requiem for a Species ( 2010 ) , by Clive Hamilton", "qid": "2989", "docid": "List_of_Australian_environmental_books", "rank": 100, "score": 83927 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Welfare cost of inflation Content: In macroeconomics , the welfare cost of inflation refers to the analyses of changes in social welfare caused by inflation . The traditional approach , developed by Bailey ( 1956 ) and Friedman ( 1969 ) , treats real money balances as a consumption good and inflation as a tax on real balances . This approach measures the welfare cost by computing the appropriate area under the money demand curve . Fischer ( 1981 ) and Lucas ( 1981 ) , find the cost of inflation to be low . Fischer computes the deadweight loss generated by an increase in inflation from zero to 10 percent as just 0.3 percent of GDP using the monetary base as the definition of money . Lucas places the cost of a 10 percent inflation at 0.45 percent of GDP using M1 as the measure of money . Lucas ( 2000 ) revised his estimate upward , to slightly less than 1 percent of GDP . Ireland ( 2009 ) extends this line of analysis to study the recent behavior of U.S. money demand . Structural models are a recent alternative to econometric estimates of the triangle under an estimated money demand curve . Cooley and Hansen ( 1989 ) calibrate a cash-in-advance version of a business cycle model . They find that the welfare cost of 10 per cent inflation is about 0.4 per cent of GNP . Among recent general-equilibrium models that estimate the welfare cost of inflation are Dotsey and Ireland ( 1996 ) , Aiyagari , Braun , and Eckstein ( 1998 ) , Burstein and Hellwig ( 2008 ) , and Henriksen and Kydland ( 2010 ) . Craig and Rocheteau ( 2008 ) argue that a search-theoretic framework is necessary for appropriately measuring the welfare cost of inflation . Lagos and Wright ( 2005 ) model monetary exchange and provide estimates for the annual cost of 10 percent inflation to be between 3 and 4 percent of GDP .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Welfare_cost_of_inflation", "rank": 1, "score": 105046 }, { "content": "Title: Health care finance in the United States Content: Health care spending in the United States is characterized as the most costly compared to all OECD ( developed ) countries , measured both per person and as a share of GDP . Despite this spending , the quality of health care overall is low by some measures . The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid reported in 2014 that U.S. health care costs were 17.4 % GDP in 2013 , similar to 2009-2012 but up from 13.4 % GDP in 2000 . Healthcare costs per capita have risen steadily from $ 4,881 in 2000 to $ 9,255 in 2013 , a 5 % average annual increase . The annual rate of increase in total healthcare costs has been declining , falling steadily from a 9.6 % increase in 2002 to 3.8 % for 2009 and has been steady since , to a 3.6 % increase in 2013 . The Congressional Budget Office reported in January 2015 that Medicare costs were 3.5 % GDP in 2014 , steady from 2009 but up from 2.1 % GDP in 2000 . Medicaid costs were 1.7 % GDP in 2014 , steady from 2009 but up from 1.2 % GDP in 2000 . CBO projected in June 2015 that federal spending on healthcare programs will rise from 5.2 % GDP in 2015 to 8.0 % GDP by 2040 . This would be driven by a significant increase in the number of program beneficiaries due to the retirement of the Baby Boomers and expanded coverage under the Affordable Care Act , along with healthcare cost inflation . According to the World Health Organization ( WHO ) , total health care spending in the U.S. was 17 % of its GDP in 2012 , the highest in the world . The Health and Human Services Department expects that the health share of GDP will continue its historical upward trend , reaching 19.6 % of GDP by 2024 . Of each dollar spent on health care in the United States , 31 % goes to hospital care , 21 % goes to physician/clinical services , 10 % to pharmaceuticals , 4 % to dental , 6 % to nursing homes and 3 % to home health care , 3 % for other retail products , 3 % for government public health activities , 7 % to administrative costs , 7 % to investment , and 6 % to other professional services ( physical therapists , optometrists , etc. ) . The Commonwealth Fund ranked the United States last in the quality of health care among similar countries , and notes U.S. care costs the most . Around 84.7 % of Americans have some form of health insurance ; either through their employer or the employer of their spouse or parent ( 59.3 % ) , purchased individually ( 8.9 % ) , or provided by government programs ( 27.8 % ; there is some overlap in these figures ) . All government health care programs have restricted eligibility , and there is no government health insurance company which covers all Americans . Americans without health insurance coverage in 2007 totaled 15.3 % of the population , or 45.7 million people . Among those whose employer pays for health insurance , the employee may be required to contribute part of the cost of this insurance , while the employer usually chooses the insurance company and , for large groups , negotiates with the insurance company . Government programs directly cover 27.8 % of the population ( 83 million ) , including the elderly , disabled , children , veterans , and some of the poor , and federal law mandates public access to emergency services regardless of ability to pay . Public spending accounts for between 45 % and 56.1 % of U.S. health care spending . Some Americans do not qualify for government-provided health insurance , are not provided health insurance by an employer , and are unable to afford , can not qualify for , or choose not to purchase , private health insurance . When charity or `` uncompensated '' care is not available , they sometimes simply go without needed medical treatment . This problem has become a source of considerable political controversy on a national level .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Health_care_finance_in_the_United_States", "rank": 2, "score": 93575 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by GDP (nominal) Content: Gross domestic product ( GDP ) is the market value of all final goods and services from a nation in a given year . Countries are sorted by nominal GDP estimates from financial and statistical institutions , which are calculated at market or government official exchange rates . Nominal GDP does not take into account differences in the cost of living in different countries , and the results can vary greatly from one year to another based on fluctuations in the exchange rates of the country 's currency . Such fluctuations may change a country 's ranking from one year to the next , even though they often make little or no difference in the standard of living of its population . Comparisons of national wealth are also frequently made on the basis of purchasing power parity ( PPP ) , to adjust for differences in the cost of living in different countries . PPP largely removes the exchange rate problem , but has its own drawbacks ; it does not reflect the value of economic output in international trade , and it also requires more estimation than nominal GDP . On the whole , PPP per capita figures are less spread than nominal GDP per capita figures . The United States is the world 's largest economy with a GDP of approximately $ 18.56 trillion , notably due to high average incomes , a large population , capital investment , moderate unemployment , high consumer spending , a relatively young population , and technological innovation . Tuvalu is the world 's smallest national economy with a GDP of about $ 32 million because of its very small population , a lack of natural resources , reliance on foreign aid , negligible capital investment , demographic problems , and low average incomes . Although the rankings of national economies have changed considerably over time , the United States has maintained its top position since the Gilded Age , a time period in which its economy saw rapid expansion , surpassing the British Empire and Qing dynasty in aggregate output . Since China 's transition to a market-based economy through privatisation and deregulation , the country has seen its ranking increase from ninth in 1978 to second to only the United States in 2016 as economic growth accelerated and its share of global nominal GDP surged from 2 % in 1980 to 15 % in 2016 . India has also experienced a similar economic boom since the implementation of neoliberal reforms in the early 1990s . When supranational entities are included , the European Union is the second largest economy in the world . It was the largest from 2004 , when ten countries joined the union , to 2014 , after which it was surpassed by the United States . The first list largely includes data compiled by the International Monetary Fund 's World Economic Outlook for 2016 , the second list shows the World Bank 's 2015 estimates , the third list includes data compiled by the United Nations Statistics Division for 2013 , and the fourth list includes mostly 2015 estimates from The World Factbook by the Central Intelligence Agency . Several economies which are not considered to be countries ( the world , the European Union , and some dependent territories ) are included in the lists because they appear in the sources as distinct economies . These economies are italicized and not ranked in the charts , but are listed where applicable .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)", "rank": 3, "score": 86600 }, { "content": "Title: Gross domestic product Content: Gross domestic product ( GDP ) is a monetary measure of the market value of all final goods and services produced in a period ( quarterly or yearly ) . Nominal GDP estimates are commonly used to determine the economic performance of a whole country or region , and to make international comparisons . Nominal GDP per capita does not , however , reflect differences in the cost of living and the inflation rates of the countries ; therefore using a basis of GDP at purchasing power parity ( PPP ) is arguably more useful when comparing differences in living standards between nations .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Gross_domestic_product", "rank": 4, "score": 86404 }, { "content": "Title: Rosenfeld's law Content: Rosenfeld 's law is an axiom relating physics to economics , that states that the amount of energy required to produce one dollar of GDP has decreased by about one percent per year since 1845 . The original quote by Arthur H. Rosenfeld is : From 1845 to the present , the amount of energy required to produce the same amount of gross national product has steadily decreased at the rate of about 1 percent per year . This is not quite as spectacular as Moore 's Law of integrated circuits , but it has been tested over a longer period of time . One percent per year yields a factor of 2.7 when compounded over 100 years . It took 56 BTUs ( 59,000 joules ) of energy consumption to produce one ( 1992 ) dollar of GDP in 1845 . By 1998 , the same dollar required only 12.5 BTUs ( 13,200 joules ) .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Rosenfeld's_law", "rank": 5, "score": 85295 }, { "content": "Title: Brazil cost Content: Brazil cost ( Custo Brasil -LSB- ˈkustu bɾɐˈziw -RSB- ) refers to the increased operational costs associated with doing business in Brazil , making Brazilian goods and services more expensive compared to other countries . There are several factors that contribute to the extra cost , including : High levels of public deficits ; The economy divided into cartels ; Inefficiency of public services ; Maintenance of high real interest rates ; Exaggerated net interest spread of financial institutions ( among the highest in the world ) ; Excessive bureaucracy for importing and exporting , creating difficulties for foreign trade ; Low education levels and lack of qualified labour ; Excessive layers of bureaucracy ( red tape ) , e.g. , to start a company in Brazil takes at least 120 days ; High levels of corruption within the public sector ; High tax burden ; Expensive labour costs ; High social security costs ; Complex and inefficient fiscal legislation ; Economic instability ; High electricity cost ; Legal uncertainty ; High interest rates ; High crime rate , which adds extra security costs ; Underdeveloped infrastructure , including a deteriorated network for domestic shipping by rail , highway and coastal navigation * . * : In 2007 transport costs consumed 13 % of GDP , 5 % more than in the United States . The high transport costs are exacerbated by the scattering of industry over Brazil 's vast territory .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Brazil_cost", "rank": 6, "score": 84745 }, { "content": "Title: Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Content: Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Cool_It:_The_Skeptical_Environmentalist's_Guide_to_Global_Warming", "rank": 7, "score": 84026 }, { "content": "Title: Unnecessary health care Content: Unnecessary health care ( overutilization , overuse , or overtreatment ) is healthcare provided with a higher volume or cost than is appropriate . In the United States , where health care costs are the highest as a percentage of GDP , overuse is the predominant factor in its expense , accounting for about a third of healthcare spending in the US ( $ 750 billion out of $ 2.6 trillion ) . Factors that drive overuse include paying healthcare providers more to do more ( fee-for-service ) , defensive medicine to protect against litigiousness #Noun , and insulation from price sensitivity in instances where the consumer is not the payer #Noun -- the patient receives goods and services but insurance pays for them ( whether public insurance , private , or both ) . Such factors leave many actors in the system ( doctors , patients , pharmaceutical companies , device manufacturers ) with inadequate incentive to restrain health care prices or overuse . This drives payers , such as national health insurance systems or the U.S. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services , to focus on medical necessity as a condition for payment . However , the threshold between necessity and lack thereof can often be subjective . Overtreatment , in the strict sense , may refer to unnecessary medical interventions , including treatment of a self-limited condition ( overdiagnosis ) or to extensive treatment for a condition that requires only limited treatment .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Unnecessary_health_care", "rank": 8, "score": 83913 }, { "content": "Title: Road Logistics Costing in South Africa Content: Road logistics costing in South Africa amounts to anything between 7.4 % and 12.8 % of the South African gross domestic product ( GDP ) depending on the fluctuations in the annual fuel price . Road logistics consist of any road freight transported on South African primary and secondary roads . Most imports and local freight are carried on primary and secondary roads while most freight carried in the agriculture markets are done on non paved roads . Road logistics cost in South Africa account for 50.4 % of total logistics cost and is very sensitive to the crude oil price as this influences the South African fuel price . The cost of fuel as a percentage of total road logistics cost amounts to 30 % of total cost . Road logistics costing consists of fixed cost and variable cost .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Road_Logistics_Costing_in_South_Africa", "rank": 9, "score": 79312 }, { "content": "Title: Economy of the United States Content: The United States is the world 's largest national economy in nominal terms and second largest according to purchasing power parity ( PPP ) , representing 22 % of nominal global GDP and 17 % of gross world product ( GWP ) . The United States ' GDP was estimated to be $ 18.56 trillion in 2016 . The U.S. dollar is the currency most used in international transactions and is the world 's foremost reserve currency , backed by its science and technology , its military , the full faith of the US government to reimburse its debts , its central role in a range of international institutions since World War II and the petrodollar system . Several countries use it as their official currency , and in many others it is the de facto currency . The United States has a mixed economy and has maintained a stable overall GDP growth rate , a moderate unemployment rate , and high levels of research and capital investment . Its seven largest trading partners are Canada , China , Mexico , Japan , Germany , South Korea , and the United Kingdom . The US has abundant natural resources , a well-developed infrastructure , and high productivity . It has the world 's ninth-highest per capita GDP ( nominal ) and tenth-highest per capita GDP ( PPP ) as of 2013 . Americans have the highest average household and employee income among OECD nations , and in 2010 had the fourth highest median household income , down from second highest in 2007 . It has been the world 's largest national economy ( not including colonial empires ) since at least the 1890s . The U.S. is the world 's third largest producer of oil and natural gas . It is one of the largest trading nations in the world as well as the world 's second largest manufacturer , representing a fifth of the global manufacturing output . The US not only has the largest internal market for goods , but also dominates the trade in services . US total trade amounted to $ 4.93 T in 2012 . Of the world 's 500 largest companies , 128 are headquartered in the US . The United States has one of the world 's largest and most influential financial markets . The New York Stock Exchange is by far the world 's largest stock exchange by market capitalization . Foreign investments made in the US total almost $ 2.4 trillion , while American investments in foreign countries total over $ 3.3 trillion . The economy of the U.S. leads in international ranking on venture capital and Global Research and Development funding . Consumer spending comprises 71 % of the US economy in 2013 . The United States has the largest consumer market in the world , with a household final consumption expenditure five times larger than Japan 's . The labor market has attracted immigrants from all over the world and its net migration rate is among the highest in the world . The U.S. is one of the top-performing economies in studies such as the Ease of Doing Business Index , the Global Competitiveness Report , and others . The US economy went through an economic downturn following the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 , with output as late as 2013 still below potential according to the Congressional Budget Office . The economy , however , began to recover in the second half of 2009 , and as of 2016 , unemployment had declined from a high of 10 % to 4.7 % . In December 2014 , public debt was slightly more than 100 % of GDP . Domestic financial assets totaled $ 131 trillion and domestic financial liabilities totaled $ 106 trillion .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Economy_of_the_United_States", "rank": 10, "score": 79275 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Consensus Content: Copenhagen Consensus is a project that seeks to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methodologies based on the theory of welfare economics , using cost -- benefit analysis . It was conceived and organized by Bjørn Lomborg , the author of The Skeptical Environmentalist and the then director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute . The project is run by the Copenhagen Consensus Center , which is directed by Lomborg and was part of the Copenhagen Business School , but it is now an independent 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organisation registered in the USA . The project considers possible solutions to a wide range of problems , presented by experts in each field . These are evaluated and ranked by a panel of economists . The emphasis is on rational prioritization by economic analysis . The panel is given an arbitrary budget constraint and instructed to use cost -- benefit analysis to focus on a bottom line approach in solving/ranking presented problems . The approach is justified as a corrective to standard practice in international development , where , it is alleged , media attention and the `` court of public opinion '' results in priorities that are often far from optimal .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Copenhagen_Consensus", "rank": 11, "score": 79067 }, { "content": "Title: Gross private domestic investment Content: Gross private domestic investment is the measure of physical investment used in computing GDP in the measurement of nations ' economic activity . This is an important component of GDP because it provides an indicator of the future productive capacity of the economy . It includes replacement purchases plus net additions to capital assets plus investments in inventories . From 2002-2011 it amounted to 14.9 % of US GDP , and from 1945-2011 was 15.7 % of GDP ( BEA , USDC , 2013 ) . Net investment is gross investment minus depreciation . Of the four categories of GDP ( investment , consumption , net exports , and government spending on goods and services ) it is by far the least stable . Gross private domestic investment includes 3 types of investment : Non residential investment : Expenditures by firms on capital such as tools , machinery , and factories . Residential Investment : Expenditures on residential structures and residential equipment that is owned by landlords and rented to tenants . Change in inventories : The change of firm inventories in a given period . ( Inventory : is the goods that are produced by firms but kept to be sold later -LSB- `` stock '' in British English . -RSB- ) Category : National accounts Category : Gross domestic product", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Gross_private_domestic_investment", "rank": 12, "score": 78967 }, { "content": "Title: Tourism in Eritrea Content: Tourism in Eritrea made up 2 % of Eritrea 's economy up to 1997 . After 1998 , revenues from tourism fell to one quarter of 1997 levels . In 2006 it made up less than 1 % of the country 's GDP . The World Tourism Organization calculated that the country 's international tourism receipts in 2002 were just US$ 73 million . The government has started a twenty-year plan to develop the country 's tourist industry . However , the development of tourism is hampered by drought , political instability , and war . Eritrea now appears to suggest a long-term potential for development of tourism . However , due to political unrest , the tourism industry is struggling to gain stability . In 2003 , there were 80,029 visitors , a 20 % decrease from 2002 . There were 4,139 hotel rooms with 8,794 beds and an occupancy rate of 52 % . Passports and visas are required . Proof of yellow fever vaccination may also be required if travelling from an infected area . In 2005 , the US Department of State estimated the cost of staying in the capital Asmara at $ 150 per day . In other areas , the cost was estimated at $ 81 per day .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Tourism_in_Eritrea", "rank": 13, "score": 76868 }, { "content": "Title: Comparison of the healthcare systems in Canada and the United States Content: Comparison of the healthcare systems in Canada and the United States is often made by government , public health and public policy analysts . The two countries had similar healthcare systems before Canada changed its system in the 1960s and 1970s . The United States spends much more money on healthcare than Canada , on both a per-capita basis and as a percentage of GDP . In 2006 , per-capita spending for health care in Canada was US$ 3,678 ; in the U.S. , US$ 6,714 . The U.S. spent 15.3 % of GDP on healthcare in that year ; Canada spent 10.0 % . In 2006 , 70 % of healthcare spending in Canada was financed by government , versus 46 % in the United States . Total government spending per capita in the U.S. on healthcare was 23 % higher than Canadian government spending , and U.S. government expenditure on healthcare was just under 83 % of total Canadian spending ( public and private ) though these statistics do n't take into account population differences . Studies have come to different conclusions about the result of this disparity in spending . A 2007 review of all studies comparing health outcomes in Canada and the US in a Canadian peer-reviewed medical journal found that `` health outcomes may be superior in patients cared for in Canada versus the United States , but differences are not consistent . '' Some of the noted differences were a higher life expectancy in Canada , as well as a lower infant mortality rate than the United States . One commonly cited comparison , the 2000 World Health Organization 's ratings of `` overall health service performance '' , which used a `` composite measure of achievement in the level of health , the distribution of health , the level of responsiveness and fairness of financial contribution '' , ranked Canada 30th and the US 37th among 191 member nations . This study rated the US `` responsiveness '' , or quality of service for individuals receiving treatment , as 1st , compared with 7th for Canada . However , the average life expectancy for Canadians was 80.34 years compared with 78.6 years for residents of the US . The WHO 's study methods were criticized by some analyses . While life-expectancy and infant mortality are commonly used in comparing nationwide health care , they are in fact affected by many factors other than the quality of a nation 's health care system , including individual behavior and population makeup . A 2007 report by the Congressional Research Service carefully summarizes some recent data and noted the `` difficult research issues '' facing international comparisons .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Comparison_of_the_healthcare_systems_in_Canada_and_the_United_States", "rank": 14, "score": 76864 }, { "content": "Title: Growth and Transformation Plan Content: The Growth and Transformation Plan ( GTP ) is a national five-year plan created by the Ethiopian Government to improve the country 's economy by achieving a projected gross domestic product ( GDP ) growth of 11-15 % per year from 2010 to 2015 . The plan includes details of the cost ( estimated at US$ 75 -- 79 billion over the five years ) and specific targets the government expects to hit by pursuing the following objectives .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Growth_and_Transformation_Plan", "rank": 15, "score": 75789 }, { "content": "Title: Consumer economy Content: A consumer economy describes an economy driven by consumer spending as a percent of its gross domestic product , as opposed to the other major components of GDP ( gross private domestic investment , government spending , and imports netted against exports ) . In the U.S. , it is usually said by economists , including in Henry Hazlitt 's `` Economics in One Lesson '' that 70 % of spending is consumer-based , but this number is disputed by economists like Businessweek columnist Michael Mandel , . Consumer spending in the US rose from about 62 % of GDP in 1960 , where it stayed until about 1981 , and has since risen to 71 % in 2013 .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Consumer_economy", "rank": 16, "score": 75328 }, { "content": "Title: Threshold price-point Content: In economics , a threshold price point is the psychological fixing of prices to entice a buyer up to a certain threshold at which the buyer will be lost anyway . The most common example in the United States is the $ ?? .99 phenomenon -- e.g. setting the price for a good at $ 9.99 . Though it is effectively ten dollars -- especially when you add sales tax -- it still appears to the potential buyer to be significantly cheaper than if the good was sold $ 10.00 . Economists and advertising analysts note that should a company need to increase the price of a product beyond the threshold price-point , it should only be done in small amounts . If a candy bar originally cost $ 1.99 , then there is apparently little difference in making the new price $ 2.05 or even $ 2.25 . The logic behind the move is that while some potential buyers will be lost by the increase in price beyond the threshold , those that stay will not notice the difference in prices between thresholds . Buyers do not make judgement calls on a per-cent basis , so will not differentiate between $ 2.05 and $ 2.06 . However , they do differentiate at thresholds . So while you would n't necessarily lose a buyer jumping from $ 2.05 and $ 2.06 , you could lose one going from $ 1.99 to $ 2.00 . Therefore companies can actually increase overall profit despite losing customers by increasing the revenue per buyer significantly .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Threshold_price-point", "rank": 17, "score": 74792 }, { "content": "Title: Cost per mille Content: Cost per mille ( CPM ) , also called cost per thousand ( CPT ) ( in Latin and Italian mille means one thousand ) , is a commonly used measurement in advertising . It refers to the cost an advertiser pays for one thousand views or impressions of an advertisement . Radio , television , newspaper , magazine , out-of-home advertising , and online advertising can be purchased on the basis of exposing the ad to one thousand viewers/listeners . It is used in marketing as a benchmarking metric to calculate the relative cost of an advertising campaign or an ad message in a given medium . The `` cost per thousand advertising impressions '' metric ( CPM ) is calculated by dividing the cost of an advertising placement by the number of impressions ( expressed in thousands ) that it generates . CPM is useful for comparing the relative efficiency of various advertising opportunities or media and in evaluating the overall costs of advertising campaigns . For media without countable views , CPM reflects the cost per 1000 estimated views of the ad . This traditional form of measuring advertising cost can also be used in tandem with performance based models such as percentage of sale , or cost per acquisition ( CPA ) .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Cost_per_mille", "rank": 18, "score": 74691 }, { "content": "Title: Green gross domestic product Content: The green gross domestic product ( green GDP or GGDP ) is an index of economic growth with the environmental consequences of that growth factored into a country 's conventional GDP . Green GDP monetizes the loss of biodiversity , and accounts for costs caused by climate change . Some environmental experts prefer physical indicators ( such as `` waste per capita '' or `` carbon dioxide emissions per year '' ) , which may be aggregated to indices such as the `` Sustainable Development Index '' .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Green_gross_domestic_product", "rank": 19, "score": 74087 }, { "content": "Title: Real gross domestic product Content: Real Gross Domestic Product ( real GDP ) is a macroeconomic measure of the value of economic output adjusted for price changes ( i.e. , inflation or deflation ) . This adjustment transforms the money-value measure , nominal GDP , into an index for quantity of total output . Although GDP is total output , it is primarily useful because it closely approximates the total spending : the sum of consumer spending , investment made by industry , excess of exports over imports , and government spending . Due to inflation , GDP increases and does not actually reflect the true growth in an economy . That is why the GDP must be divided by the inflation rate ( raised to the power of units of time in which the rate is measured ) to get the growth of the real GDP .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Real_gross_domestic_product", "rank": 20, "score": 73963 }, { "content": "Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Bjørn_Lomborg", "rank": 21, "score": 73811 }, { "content": "Title: GDP (disambiguation) Content: GDP or gross domestic product is the basic measure of a country 's overall economic output . GDP may also refer to : GDP ( chemotherapy ) , a chemotherapy treatment regimen GDP ( musician ) , an American hip hop musician from New Jersey Gewerkschaft der Polizei ( GdP ) , a trade union of police employees in Germany Giant depolarizing potentials , the first type of electrical activity of developing brain Gibraltar Defence Police , a civil police force which guards and enforces law on Ministry of Defence installations in Gibraltar Good distribution practice , the guidelines for the proper distribution of medicinal products for human use Good Documentation Practice , pharmaceutical description of standards by which documents are created and maintained Ground delay program , a traffic flow initiative for aviation in the United States Guanosine diphosphate , a nucleotide", "qid": "2991", "docid": "GDP_(disambiguation)", "rank": 22, "score": 73161 }, { "content": "Title: GDP deflator Content: In economics , the GDP deflator ( implicit price deflator ) is a measure of the level of prices of all new , domestically produced , final goods and services in an economy . GDP stands for gross domestic product , the total value of all final goods and services produced within that economy during a specified period . Like the consumer price index ( CPI ) , the GDP deflator is a measure of price inflation/deflation with respect to a specific base year ; the GDP deflator of the base year itself is equal to 100 . Unlike the CPI , the GDP deflator is not based on a fixed basket of goods and services ; the `` basket '' for the GDP deflator is allowed to change from year to year with people 's consumption and investment patterns .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "GDP_deflator", "rank": 23, "score": 73036 }, { "content": "Title: Economy of Karnataka Content: Karnataka is one of the high economic growth states in India with the expected GSDP ( Gross State Domestic Product ) growth of 8.2 % in the fiscal year 2010 -- 2011 . The total expected GSDP of Karnataka in 2010 -- 2011 is about Rs .2719.56 billion . Per capita GSDP during 2008 -- 2009 was US$ 1034.9 . Karnataka recorded the highest growth rates in terms of GDP and per capita GDP in the last decade compared to other states . In 2008 -- 09 , the tertiary sector contributed the most to the GSDP amounting to US$ 31.6 billion ( 55 percent ) , followed by the secondary sector , contributing US$ 17 billion ( 29 percent ) , and the primary sector ` s contribution amounting to US$ 9.5 billion ( 16 percent ) . With an overall GDP growth of 56.2 % and a per capita GDP growth of 43.9 % in the last decade , Karnataka surpassed all other states in India , pushing Karnataka 's per capita income in Indian Rupee terms to sixth place . Karnataka received US$ 2,026.4 million worth of Foreign Direct Investment for fiscal year 2008 -- 09 placing it at third spot among states in India . At the end of 2004 , the unemployment rate of Karnataka was 4.57 % compared to a national rate of 5.99 % . For the fiscal year 2006 -- 07 the inflation rate of Karnataka was 4.4 % which was less than the national average .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Economy_of_Karnataka", "rank": 24, "score": 72955 }, { "content": "Title: Healthcare in the United Arab Emirates Content: Standards of health care are considered to be generally high in the United Arab Emirates , resulting from increased government spending during strong economic years . According to the UAE government , total expenditures on health care from 1996 to 2003 were Aed1 ,601,384,360.05 -LSB- US$ 436 million -RSB- . According to the World Health Organisation , in 2004 total expenditures on health care constituted 2.9 percent of gross domestic product ( GDP ) , and the per capita expenditure for health care was US$ 497 . Healthcare currently is free only for UAE citizens . UAE has seven Emirates . The World bank ranked Dubai and Abu Dhabi as being the 2nd and 3rd , respectively , most popular medical tourism destinations in the region , behind Jordan.In first half of 2015 , Dubai attracted 260,000 medical tourists", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Healthcare_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 25, "score": 72915 }, { "content": "Title: Tourism in Indonesia Content: Tourism in Indonesia is an important component of the Indonesian economy as well as a significant source of its foreign exchange revenues . The vast country of sprawling archipelago has much to offer ; from natural beauty , historical heritage to cultural diversity . According to the World Travel and Tourism Council , the direct contribution of travel and tourism to Indonesia 's GDP in 2014 was IDR 325,467 billion ( US$ 26,162 million ) constituting 3.2 % of the total GDP . By 2019 , the Indonesian government wants to have doubled this figure to 8 percent of GDP and the number of visitors needs to double to about 20 million . The tourism sector ranked as the 4th largest among goods and services export sectors . In year 2015 , 9.73 million international visitors entered Indonesia , staying in hotels for an average of 7.5 nights and spending an average of US$ 1,142 per person during their visit , or US$ 152.22 per person per day . Singapore , Malaysia , China , Australia , and Japan are the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia . The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015 ranks Indonesia 50th out of 141 countries overall . The report ranks the price competitiveness of Indonesia 's tourism sector the 3rd out of 141 countries . It mentions that Indonesia has quite good travel and tourism policy and enabling conditions ( ranked 9th ) . The country also scores quite good on natural and cultural resources ( ranked 17th ) . However , the country scored rather low in infrastructure sub-index ( ranked 75th ) , as some aspect of tourist service infrastructure are underdeveloped . In 2016 , the government was reported to be investing more in tourism development by attracting more foreign investors . The government has given priority to 10 destinations as follows : Borobudur , Central Java ; Mandalika , West Nusa Tenggara ; Labuan Bajo , East Nusa Tenggara ; Bromo-Tengger-Semeru , East Java ; Thousand Islands , Jakarta ; Toba , North Sumatra ; Wakatobi , Southeast Sulawesi ; Tanjung Lesung , Banten ; Morotai , North Maluku ; and Tanjung Kelayang , Belitung . As quoted in the Jakarta Post , the government is aiming for 275 million trips by domestic tourists by end of 2019 . The government has also secured commitments from potential investors , totalling US$ 70 million in the areas of building accommodation , marina and ecotourism facilities in 3 of the 10 areas .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Tourism_in_Indonesia", "rank": 26, "score": 72753 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Consensus Center Content: The Copenhagen Consensus Center is a US non-profit think tank , founded and headed by Bjørn Lomborg ( best known for his controversial 2001 book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ) . The Center organizes the Copenhagen Consensus , a conference of prominent economists held every four years , where potential solutions to global issues are examined and prioritized using cost-benefit analysis . The most recent Copenhagen Consensus titled the Post-2015 Consensus was held in 2015 . It focused on the costs and benefits of the 169 global development targets of the United Nation 's Global Goals . The Post-2015 Consensus brought together an expert panel of economists including two Nobel Laureates who reviewed the research produced by the project and identified 19 targets that represent the best value-for-money in development over the period 2016 to 2030 , offering more than $ 15 back on every dollar invested . Recently , the Copenhagen Consensus Center has refocused its efforts into nationally oriented research , and is currently working extensively in Haiti and Bangladesh , while also planning expansion to India , where it is partnering with high profile and influential organisations .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Copenhagen_Consensus_Center", "rank": 27, "score": 72620 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by gross fixed investment as percentage of GDP Content: This is the list of countries by gross fixed investment as percentage of GDP . Gross fixed investment is defined as total business spending on fixed assets , such as factories , machinery , equipment , dwellings , and inventories of raw materials , which provide the basis for future production . It is measured gross of the depreciation of the assets , i.e. , it includes investment that merely replaces worn-out or scrapped capital . The list is based on the CIA World Factbook data . Dependent territories and not fully recognized states are not ranked .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_gross_fixed_investment_as_percentage_of_GDP", "rank": 28, "score": 72274 }, { "content": "Title: Economy of Maharashtra Content: Maharashtra is one of the largest , wealthiest and developed states in India . Maharashtra 's gross state domestic product for 2014 is estimated at $ 295 Billion in current prices which rose to $ 398 Billions in 2015 . As of 2010 Maharashtra had a Per Capita Income of $ 1,660 , far ahead of national average of $ 1,219 . Maharashtra 's GDP Per Capita crossed the US$ 2,000 threshold for the first time in 2011 . Maharashtra is third-most urbanised state with urban population of 45 % of whole population . Mumbai , the capital of Maharashtra and also the financial capital of India houses the headquarters of almost all major banks , financial institutions , insurance companies and mutual funds . India 's largest stock exchange Bombay Stock Exchange , oldest in Asia , is located in the city . More than 41 % of the S&P CNX 500 conglomerates have corporate offices in Maharashtra . After successes in the information technology in the neighbouring states , Maharashtra has set up software parks in Pune , Mumbai , Navi Mumbai , Nagpur and Nasik , Aurangabad and Latur . Maharashtra is the second largest exporter of software with annual exports of 18 000 crores and accounts for more than 30 per cent of the country 's software exports , with over 1,200 software units based in the state . Maharashtra ranks first nationwide in coal-based thermal electricity as well as nuclear electricity generation with national market shares of over 13 % and 17 % respectively . Maharashtra is also introducing Jatropha cultivation and has started a project for the identification of suitable sites for Jatropha plantations . Ralegaon Siddhi is a village in Ahmednagar District that is considered a model of environmental conservation .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Economy_of_Maharashtra", "rank": 29, "score": 72271 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita Content: The world sorted by their gross domestic product per capita at nominal values . This is the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year , converted at market exchange rates to current U.S. dollars , divided by the average ( or mid-year ) population for the same year . The figures presented here do not take into account differences in the cost of living in different countries , and the results may vary greatly from one year to another based on fluctuations in the exchange rates of the country 's currency . Such fluctuations may change a country 's ranking from one year to the next , even though they often make little or no difference to the standard of living of its population . Therefore , these figures should be used with caution . GDP per capita is often considered an indicator of a country 's standard of living ; although this can be problematic because GDP per capita is not a measure of personal income . Comparisons of national income are also frequently made on the basis of purchasing power parity ( PPP ) , to adjust for differences in the cost of living in different countries . ( See List of countries by GDP ( PPP ) per capita . ) PPP largely removes the exchange rate problem but not others ; it does not reflect the value of economic output in international trade , and it also requires more estimation than GDP per capita . On the whole , PPP per capita figures are more narrowly spread than nominal GDP per capita figures . Non-sovereign entities ( the world , and some dependent territories ) are included in the list because they appear in the sources . These economies are not ranked in the charts here , but are listed in sequence by GDP for comparison . They are marked in italics . All data are in current United States dollars .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita", "rank": 30, "score": 72226 }, { "content": "Title: Cost overrun Content: A cost overrun , also known as a cost increase , underrated or budget overrun , involves unexpected costs incurred in excess of budgeted amounts due to an underestimation of the actual cost during budgeting . Cost overrun should be distinguished from cost escalation , which is used to express an anticipated growth in a budgeted cost due to factors such as inflation . Cost overrun is common in infrastructure , building , and technology projects . For IT projects , a 2004 industry study by the Standish Group found an average cost overrun of 43 percent ; 71 percent of projects came in over budget , exceeded time estimates , and had estimated too narrow a scope ; and total waste was estimated at $ 55 billion per year in the US alone . Many major construction projects have incurred cost overruns ; cost estimates used to decide whether important transportation infrastructure should be built can mislead grossly and systematically .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Cost_overrun", "rank": 31, "score": 72132 }, { "content": "Title: Gross national income in the European Union Content: Gross national income at market prices in the European Union of 27 Member States ( GNI ) amounted to EUR 25000 per inhabitant in 2008 . In 2009 GNI in EU-27 fell by -5.5 % over the year 2008 . In 2007 , the highest per capita GNI measured in purchasing power standards ( PPS ) was recorded for Luxembourg ( more than twice of the EU-27 average ) and the lowest was recorded for Bulgaria ( less than half of the EU-27 average ) . Estonia , Ireland , Latvia and Lithuania were the Member States that in 2009 suffered the most from the recession experiencing declines of more than 10 % in GNI ( measured in PPS ) over 2008 .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Gross_national_income_in_the_European_Union", "rank": 32, "score": 71600 }, { "content": "Title: Metallurgical failure analysis Content: Metallurgical failure analysis is the process by which a metallurgist determines the mechanism that has caused a metal component to fail . Typical failure modes involve various types of corrosion and mechanical damage . It has been estimated that the direct annual -LSB- cost of corrosion -RSB- alone in the United States was $ 276 billion , approximately 3.1 % of GDP , in 1998 . Corrosion costs have continued to skyrocket and total corrosion costs now are greater than $ 1 trillion annually in the United States as of 2012 . Metal components fail as a result of the environmental conditions to which they are exposed to as well as the mechanical stresses that they experience . Often a combination of both environmental conditions and stress will cause failure . Metal components are designed to withstand the environment and stresses that they will be subjected to . The design of a metal component involves not only a specific elemental composition but also specific manufacturing process such as heat treatments , machining processes , etc. ... The huge arrays of different metals that result all have unique physical properties . Specific properties are designed into metal components to make them more robust to various environmental conditions . These differences in physical properties will exhibit unique failure modes . A metallurgical failure analysistakes into account as much of this information as possible during analysis . The end goal of failure analysis is to provide a determination of the root cause and a solution to any underlying problems to prevent future failures . Analysis of a failed part can be done using destructive testing or non-destructive testing . Destructive testing involves removing a metal component from service and sectioning the component for analysis . Destructive testing gives the failure analyst the ability to conduct the analysis in a laboratory setting and perform tests on the material that will ultimately destroy the component . Non destructive testing is a test method that allows certain physical properties of metal to be examined without taking the samples completely out of service . NDT is generally used to detect failures in components before the component fails catastrophically . There is no standardized list of metallurgical failure modes and different metallurgists might use a different name for the same failure mode . The Failure Mode Terms listed below are those accepted by ASTM , ASM , and/or NACE as distinct metallurgical failure mechanisms .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Metallurgical_failure_analysis", "rank": 33, "score": 71437 }, { "content": "Title: Personal consumption expenditures price index Content: The personal consumption expenditure ( PCE ) measure is the component statistic for consumption in gross domestic product ( GDP ) collected by the United States Bureau of Economic Analysis ( BEA ) . It consists of the actual and imputed expenditures of households and includes data pertaining to durable and non-durable goods and services . It is essentially a measure of goods and services targeted towards individuals and consumed by individuals . The PCE price index ( PCEPI ) , also referred to as the PCE deflator , PCE price deflator , or the Implicit Price Deflator for Personal Consumption Expenditures ( IPD for PCE ) by the BEA , and as the Chain-type Price Index for Personal Consumption Expenditures ( CTPIPCE ) by the Federal Open Market Committee ( FOMC ) , is a United States-wide indicator of the average increase in prices for all domestic personal consumption . It is benchmarked to a base of 2009 = 100 . Using a variety of data including U.S. Consumer Price Index and Producer Price Index prices , it is derived from the largest component of the GDP in the BEA 's National Income and Product Accounts , personal consumption expenditures . The less volatile measure of the PCE price index is the core PCE ( CPCE ) price index which excludes the more volatile and seasonal food and energy prices . In comparison to the headline United States Consumer Price Index ( CPI ) , which uses one set of expenditure weights for several years , this index uses a Fisher Price Index , which uses expenditure data from the current period and the preceding period . Also , the PCEPI uses a chained index which compares one quarter 's price to the previous quarter 's instead of choosing a fixed base . This price index method assumes that the consumer has made allowances for changes in relative prices . That is to say , they have substituted from goods whose prices are rising to goods whose prices are stable or falling . The PCE rises about one-third percent less than the CPI , a trend that dates back to 1992 . This may be due to the failure of CPI to take into account substitution . Alternatively , an unpublished report on this difference by the Bureau of Labor Statistics suggests that most of it is from different ways of calculating hospital expenses and airfares .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Personal_consumption_expenditures_price_index", "rank": 34, "score": 71310 }, { "content": "Title: List of continents by GDP (nominal) Content: This article includes a list of continents of the world sorted by their gross domestic product ( GDP ) , the market value of all final goods and services from a continent in a given year . The GDP dollar estimates presented here are calculated at market or government official exchange rates . The figures presented here do not take into account differences in the cost of living in different countries , and the results can vary greatly from one year to another based on fluctuations in the exchange rates of the country 's currency . Such fluctuations may change a continents ranking from one year to the next , even though they often make little or no difference to the standard of living of its population . Therefore , these figures should be used with caution . Comparisons of national wealth are also frequently made on the basis of purchasing power parity ( PPP ) , to adjust for differences in the cost of living in different countries . ( See List of countries by GDP ( PPP ) . ) PPP largely removes the exchange rate problem , but has its own drawbacks ; it does not reflect the value of economic output in international trade , and it also requires more estimation than GDP per capita . On the whole , PPP per capita figures are more narrowly spread than nominal GDP per capita figures .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "List_of_continents_by_GDP_(nominal)", "rank": 35, "score": 71224 }, { "content": "Title: Mining industry of Ivory Coast Content: Although the subsoil of Ivory Coast contained many other minerals , none existed in commercially exploitable amounts , given the high costs of extraction . Mining contributed only 1 percent of GDP in 1986 . During the precolonial era , gold was extracted from small shafts dug into the earth or from river and streambeds and was traded at the coast or across the Sahara Desert . Efforts under the colonial administration to exploit gold deposits at Kokoumbo in the center of the country and at small mines in the southeast proved unprofitable . In 1984 the state-owned SODEMI and a French mining company formed the Ity Mining Company ( Société Minières d'Ity -- SMI ) to exploit a deposit discovered thirty years earlier at Ity near Danané . Total investment in this period was estimated at CFA F1 .2 billion . The gold ore was of medium quality , with a ratio of gold to ore in the range of 8.5 grams per ton . Extraction was to begin in 1987 , with output anticipated at 700 kilograms of gold metal during the first two years of operation . Ity estimated an additional investment of CFA F2 .3 billion to expand output to 700 kilograms of gold metal a year . SODEMI also located gold deposits in the region of Issia and in the Lobo River bed , with anticipated annual yields of 100 kilograms and 25 kilograms , respectively . In the mid-1970s , low-grade deposits ( less than 50 percent ) of iron ore estimated at 585 million tons were assayed at Bangolo near the Liberian border . A consortium representing Japanese , French , British , American , Dutch , and Ivoirian interests was formed to exploit the deposits ; however , depressed world prices for iron ore forced the participants to postpone the project indefinitely . Following World War II , diamond mining seemed promising , but by the mid-1980s expectations had waned . The Tortiya diamond mine , operating since 1948 , peaked in 1972 when 260000 carat were mined . In 1980 , however , the mine was closed . The Bobi mine near Séguéla produced 270000 carat per year until the late 1970s ; it was closed in 1979 . Remaining reserves for Tortiya were estimated at 450000 carat ; for Bobi , 150000 carat . Between 1960 and 1966 , manganese mines in the region of Grand-Lahou on the coast yielded 180,000 tons of ore per year . In 1970 , after world market prices had dropped and production costs had risen , the mines were closed . There were additional unexploited managanese deposits near Odienné . Ivory Coast also had small deposits of colombo-tantalite , ilmenite , cobalt , copper , nickel , and bauxite .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Mining_industry_of_Ivory_Coast", "rank": 36, "score": 71080 }, { "content": "Title: Mining in Djibouti Content: Mining and manufacturing in Djibouti accounted for 3 percent of the gross domestic product ( GDP ) in 2004 , which stood at around $ 1.6 billion . Djibouti has been known to produce occasional small quantities of clays , granite , limestone , marble , salt , sand and gravel , and crushed and dimension stone for domestic construction projects . There was no cement production in the country ; most imports came from Persian Gulf countries . Other mineral occurrences of potential economic interest included diatomite , geothermal fluids and mineral salts , gold , gypsum , perlite , petroleum , and pumice . Salt was the only mineral produced in 2004 . Extracted from evaporated pans by artisanal miners in the marshes of Tadjoura , salt production fell sharply from the 173,099 metric tons produced in 2001 to an estimated 30,000 metric tons in 2004 . The government hoped to establish , by the end of 2002 , a fiscal , institutional , and legal framework to support the development of domestic natural resources . The government also planned to promote the use of local materials in construction and public works . The outlook for the mineral industry was for little growth in the short run ; constraints included small domestic markets , minimal known natural resources , and slow GDP growth .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Mining_in_Djibouti", "rank": 37, "score": 70938 }, { "content": "Title: International inequality Content: International inequality refers to economic differences between countries . According to the United Nations Human Development Report 2004 , the gross domestic per capita ( GDP ) in countries with high , medium and low human development ( a classification based on the UN Human Development Index ) was 24,806 , 4,269 and 1,184 PPP$ , respectively ( PPP$ = purchasing power parity measured in United States dollars ) .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "International_inequality", "rank": 38, "score": 70516 }, { "content": "Title: Economy of Uttarakhand Content: Uttarakhand 's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $ 6 billion in current prices . Born out of partition of Uttar Pradesh , the new state of Uttarakhand produces about 8 % of the output of the old Uttar Pradesh state . The Uttarakhand state is the second fastest growing state in India . It 's gross state domestic product ( GSDP ) ( at constant prices ) more than doubled from 24,786 crore in FY2005 to 60,898 crore in FY2012 . The real GSDP grew at 13.7 % ( CAGR ) during the FY2005 -- FY2012 period . The contribution of the service sector to the GSDP of Uttarakhand was just over 50 % during FY 2012 . Per capita income in Uttarakhand is 1,03,000 ( FY 2013 ) which is higher than the national average of 74,920 ( FY2013 ) . According to the Reserve Bank of India , the total foreign direct investment in the state from April 2000 to October 2009 amounted to US$ 46.7 million . Like most of India , agriculture is one of the most significant sectors of the economy of Uttarakhand . Basmati rice , wheat , soybeans , groundnuts , coarse cereals , pulses , and oil seeds are the most widely grown crops . Fruits like apples , oranges , pears , peaches , litchis , and plums are widely grown and important to the large food processing industry . Agricultural export zones have been set up in the state for leechi , horticulture , herbs , medicinal plants , and basmati rice . During 2010 , wheat production was 831 thousand tonnes and rice production was 610 thousand tonnes , while the main cash crop of the state , sugarcane , had a production of 5058 thousand tonnes . As 86 % of the state consists of hills , the yield per hectare is not very high . 86 % of all croplands are in the plains while the remaining is from the hills . Other key industries include tourism and hydropower , and there is prospective development in IT , ITES , biotechnology , pharmaceuticals and automobile industries . The service sector of Uttarakhand mainly includes tourism , information technology , higher education , and banking . During 2005 -- 2006 , the state successfully developed three Integrated Industrial Estates ( IIEs ) at Haridwar , Pantnagar , and Sitarganj ; Pharma City at Selaqui ; Information Technology Park at Sahastradhara ( Dehradun ) ; and a growth centre at Siggadi ( Kotdwar ) . Also in 2006 , 20 industrial sectors in public private partnership mode were developed in the state .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Economy_of_Uttarakhand", "rank": 39, "score": 70475 }, { "content": "Title: Tourism in New Zealand Content: Tourism is an important industry in New Zealand , directly contributing NZ$ 7.3 billion ( or 3.7 % ) of the country 's GDP in 2013 , as well as directly supporting 110,800 full-time equivalent jobs ( nearly 6 % of New Zealand 's workforce ) . A further 5 % of GDP ( or NZ$ 9.8 billion ) is indirectly contributed through the flow-on effects of tourism . International tourist spending accounted for 16 % of New Zealand 's export earnings ( nearly NZ$ 10 billion ) . International and domestic tourism contributes , in total , NZ$ 24 billion to New Zealand 's economy every year . Currently the Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand Paula Bennett also serves as Minister of Tourism . New Zealand is marketed abroad as a `` clean , green '' adventure playground ( Tourism New Zealand 's main marketing slogan , 100 % Pure New Zealand , reflects this ) with typical destinations being nature areas such as Milford Sound , Abel Tasman National Park or the Tongariro Alpine Crossing , while activities such as bungee jumping or whale watching exemplify typical tourist attractions , often marketed primarily to individual and small-group travellers . By far the highest number of New Zealand 's tourists ( about 45 % ) come from Australia due to their close proximity and relations . The vast majority of tourist arrivals to New Zealand come through Auckland Airport , which handled nearly fifteen million passengers in 2013 . Two per cent of visitors arrive by sea ( as of 2009 ) . Many international tourists spend time in Auckland , Christchurch , Queenstown , Rotorua , and Wellington . Other high-profile destinations include the Bay of Islands , Waitomo Caves , Aoraki / Mount Cook , and Milford Sound . Many tourists travel large distances through the country during their stays , typically using coach lines or hire cars . Domestic tourism is also important , though expenditure and trip numbers have been declining or stagnating in the face of fast-growing international tourism . Domestic tourist spending of NZ$ 9.8 billion a year still exceeds that of international visitors ( NZ$ 6.5 billion ) . In November 2012 readers of UK paper The Telegraph voted New Zealand the best country in the world to go to on holiday . The national airline , Air New Zealand , was voted third-best long-haul carrier .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Tourism_in_New_Zealand", "rank": 40, "score": 70387 }, { "content": "Title: LOP Content: LOP may refer to : Law of one price ( LoP ) , an economic concept which posits that `` a good must sell for the same price in all locations '' . Language oriented programming Lean of peak fuel to air ratio in an internal combustion engine Levels-of-processing theory , in cognitive psychology Live Online Portal , see : C2.LOP Line of position in geometry and navigation Left occiput posterior Local Operational Picture Lombok International Airport ( IATA code )", "qid": "2991", "docid": "LOP", "rank": 41, "score": 70108 }, { "content": "Title: Rate of return pricing Content: Target rate of return pricing is a pricing method used almost exclusively by market leaders or monopolists . You start with a rate of return objective , like 5 % of invested capital , or 10 % of sales revenue . Then you arrange your price structure so as to achieve these target rates of return . For example , assume a firm invests $ 100 million in order to produce and market designer snowflakes , and they estimate that with demand for designer snowflakes being what it is , they can sell 2 million flakes per year . Further , from preliminary production data they know that at that level of output their average total cost ( ATC ) is $ 50 per flake . Total annual costs would be $ 100 million ( 2 million units at $ 50 each ) . Next , management decides they want a 20 % return on investment ( ROI ) . That works out to be $ 20 million ( 20 % of a $ 100 million investment ) . Profit margin will need to be $ 10 per flake ( $ 20 million return over 2 million units ) . So the price must be set at $ 60 per designer flake ( $ 50 costs plus $ 10 profit margin ) . Similar calculations will determine price based on rate of return to sales revenue . An unusual consequence of this pricing model is that to keep the target rate of return constant , the firm will have to continuously be changing its price as the level of demand changes . This can be seen in the diagram below . Based on market demand expectations , the firm estimates it will be operating at 70 % capacity . Given its production function and cost structure , it knows its average total costs at that output level will be represented as point A . If its predetermined rate of return requirement is amount A , B , then it will set its price at P * . Because profit is equal to ( P-ATC ) * Q , then their total profit will be defined by area P * , B , A , P70 % .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Rate_of_return_pricing", "rank": 42, "score": 69733 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by GDP (PPP) per hour worked Content: The GDP ( PPP ) per hour worked is a measure of the productivity of a country when not taking into account unemployment or hours worked per week . GDP ( PPP ) stands for gross domestic product normalised to purchasing power parities .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_hour_worked", "rank": 43, "score": 69549 }, { "content": "Title: E-Government in the United Arab Emirates Content: The United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) once largely known for its oil exports today has a diverse and highly developed economy . According to the UAE Economic Report 2009 released by the UAE Ministry of Economy in May 2010 the non-oil sector contributed 71.6 per cent to the UAE 's GDP , compared to 66.5 per cent in 2008 , underscoring the success of the nation 's economic diversification initiatives . The UAE is investing heavily in adopting and implementing Information and Communication Technology ( ICT ) in its government and private sectors . The Global Information Technology Report 2010-2011 indicates that the UAE leads the MENA region in leveraging ICT for increased economic diversification and competitiveness . The contribution of telecommunications sector in the UAE 's economy rose from 4.1 per cent in 2007 to 5.3 per cent in 2010 according to ` UAE Telecommunications Sector Developments & Indicators ( 2007-2010 ) ' , issued in May 2011 by Telecommunications Regulatory Authority ( TRA ) , UAE . Abu Dhabi Department of Economic Development estimates that investments in IT and Telecom sectors are likely to reach AED18 .4 billion ( USD5 billion ) in 2011 , as against AED16 .1 billion in 2010 . The eGovernment programme in the UAE is a key initiative of the UAE Government Strategy 2011-2013 that lays the foundation to achieve UAE Vision 2021 .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "E-Government_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 44, "score": 69494 }, { "content": "Title: Economy of Tamil Nadu Content: Tamil Nadu has the second largest economy in India with a current GSDP of . Per capita GDP of Tamil Nadu was $ 3,000 in the year 2014 -- 15 , the third highest in India . Over 50 % of the state is urbanized , accounting for 9.6 % of the urban population in the country while only comprising 6 % of India 's total population . Services contributes to 45 % of the economic activity in the state , followed by manufacturing at 34 % and agriculture at 21 % . Government is the major investor in the state with 52 % of total investments , followed by private Indian investors at 29.9 % and foreign private investors at 14.9 % . It has been ranked asa the most economically free state in India by the Economic Freedom Rankings for the States of India .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Economy_of_Tamil_Nadu", "rank": 45, "score": 69492 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by total health expenditure per capita Content: This article includes two lists of countries of the world sorted by their total expenditure on health per capita . Total expenditure includes both public and private expenditures . The first table lists the 35 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) member countries , by total expenditure on health in PPP U.S. dollars per capita . The second table lists the World Health Organization ( WHO ) member countries , by total expenditure on health per capita in current U.S. dollars . The chart to the right measures the total cost of health care ( public and private expenditures ) as a percent of GDP for a few nations . GDP is a measure of the total economy of a nation .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_total_health_expenditure_per_capita", "rank": 46, "score": 69447 }, { "content": "Title: Prescription costs Content: Prescription costs are a common health care costs for many people and also the source of economic hardship for some . As of 2017 , health care costs consists between 15 % in high income countries to 25 % in low income countries of medications .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Prescription_costs", "rank": 47, "score": 69417 }, { "content": "Title: Cost Content: In production , research , retail , and accounting , a cost is the value of money that has been used up to produce something , and hence is not available for use anymore . In business , the cost may be one of acquisition , in which case the amount of money expended to acquire it is counted as cost . In this case , money is the input that is gone in order to acquire the thing . This acquisition cost may be the sum of the cost of production as incurred by the original producer , and further costs of transaction as incurred by the acquirer over and above the price paid to the producer . Usually , the price also includes a mark-up for profit over the cost of production . More generalized in the field of economics , cost is a metric that is totaling up as a result of a process or as a differential for the result of a decision . Hence cost is the metric used in the standard modeling paradigm applied to economic processes . Costs ( pl . ) are often further described based on their timing or their applicability .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Cost", "rank": 48, "score": 69338 }, { "content": "Title: Cost per order Content: Cost per order , also called cost per purchase , is the cost of internet advertising divided by the number of orders . Cost per order , along with cost per impression and cost per click , is the starting point for assessing the effectiveness of a company 's internet advertising and can be used for comparison across advertising media and vehicles and as an indicator of the profitability of a firm 's internet marketing .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Cost_per_order", "rank": 49, "score": 69267 }, { "content": "Title: Good distribution practice Content: Good distribution practice ( GDP ) deals with the guidelines for the proper distribution of medicinal products for human use . GDP is a quality warranty system , which includes requirements for purchase , receiving , storage and export of drugs intended for human consumption . GDP regulates the division and movement of pharmaceutical products from the premises of the manufacturer of medicinal products , or another central point , to the end user thereof , or to an intermediate point by means of various transport methods , via various storage and/or health establishments .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Good_distribution_practice", "rank": 50, "score": 69260 }, { "content": "Title: GDP (musician) Content: Matthew Miller , better known by his stage name GDP , is an American hip hop recording artist from West Orange , New Jersey .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "GDP_(musician)", "rank": 51, "score": 69187 }, { "content": "Title: Intermediate consumption Content: Intermediate consumption ( also called `` intermediate expenditure '' ) is an economic concept used in national accounts , such as the United Nations System of National Accounts ( UNSNA ) , the US National Income and Product Accounts ( NIPA ) and the European System of Accounts ( ESA ) . Conceptually , the aggregate `` intermediate consumption '' is equal to the amount of the difference between gross output ( roughly , the total sales value ) and net output ( gross value added or GDP ) . In the US economy , total intermediate consumption represents about 45 % of Gross Output . The services component in intermediate consumption has grown strongly in the US , from about 30 % in the 1980s to more than 40 % today . Thus , intermediate consumption is an accounting flow which consists of the total monetary value of goods and services consumed or used up as inputs in production by enterprises , including raw materials , services and various other operating expenses . Because this value must be subtracted from gross output to arrive at GDP , how it is exactly defined and estimated will importantly affect the size of the GDP estimate . Intermediate goods or services used in production can be either changed in form ( e.g. bulk sugar ) or completely used up ( e.g. electric power ) . Intermediate consumption ( unlike fixed assets ) is not normally classified in national accounts by type of good or service , because the accounts will show net output by sector of activity . However , sometimes more detail is available in sectoral accounts of income & outlay ( e.g. manufacturing ) , and from input-output tables showing the value of transactions between economic sectors .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Intermediate_consumption", "rank": 52, "score": 68994 }, { "content": "Title: Korg Minilogue Content: The Korg Minilogue is a two VCO per-voice , four-voice , polyphonic analog synthesizer from Korg , designed by Korg engineer and synthesizer designer Tatsuya Takahashi . It was announced just prior to NAMM 2016 , and is priced at $ 499.99 in the United States , ¥ 55,000 in Japan and # 449 in the United Kingdom . The minilogue features eight distinct voice-modes : POLY -- operates as a four-voice polyphonic synthesizer DUO -- operates as a unison two-voice polyphonic synthesizer UNISON -- operates as an all-unison mono synthesizer MONO -- operates as a mono synth with sub-oscillators CHORD -- produces chords DELAY -- voices 2 -- 4 sound consecutively at a delay following voice 1 ARP -- an arpeggiator operates with up to four voices SIDE CHAIN -- when a note sounds , the volume of the preceding voice is lowered Its official release was preceded by leaks which caused media speculation .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Korg_Minilogue", "rank": 53, "score": 68888 }, { "content": "Title: Economy of Pernambuco Content: The economy of the Brazilian state of Pernambuco is based on agriculture , animal husbandry and industries . The economy of the state , after stagnating from 1985 and 1995 , has been growing rapidly since the end of the twentieth century . In 2000 , the GDP per capita was R$ 3.673 ( $ 2098 ) , resulting in more than 40 % growth in this period , and more than 10 % in a year . In 2007 , the GDP per capita grew up to R$ 7.337 ( $ 4.217 ) . Since the beginning of the Portuguese domain , the state was basically agriculture based , being one of the biggest sugar cane producers in the country . This is due to the weather and the soil , which is massapê . However , the state is now diversifying its economy ; the production of alcohol and sugar ( even being the 5th largest Brazilian producer ) from the sugar cane is no longer as dominant as it used to be . The biggest industries are related to food production , chemistry , pharmaceutical ( Goiana ) , textile ( Caruaru ) , electric materials , communication , metallurgy , non-metallic minerals ( such as gypsum in Araripina ) and tourism . It also plays an important role in fruit productions along the São Francisco River , which is almost totally destined to exportation - mainly concentrated in Petrolina due to its international airport that has a big capacity for receiving cargo airplanes . Gravatá , which is a fast-growing town in the state , is one of the main temperate flower producers in the Northeast .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Economy_of_Pernambuco", "rank": 54, "score": 68873 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental Assessment Institute Content: The Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) ( Institut for Miljøvurdering -- IMV ) was an independent body under the Danish Ministry of the Environment . It was established in February 2002 by the Liberal/Conservative Danish Government with the task of making environmental and economic cost/benefit analyses . The EAI 's first Director was political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The EAI was seen by some as a vehicle created for Lomborg , whose book The Skeptical Environmentalist argues that many perceived environmental problems are vastly exaggerated by environmental lobby and that policy responses based on such exaggerated claims are often misguided . The Government appointed Ole P. Kristensen , an ex-professor at the institute where Lomborg worked , as the first Director of the Board . His job was to find the director and the other board members . Lomborg was soon announced as the director . The EAI began operating on June 1 , 2002 . The EAI published a series of reports on environmental issues , from the value of a deposit/return system for drink cans to global warming . Most of them are in Danish . A report from October 2002 made an economic cost-benefit analysis of deposits on disposable bottles and cans . It concluded that it would be better to abandon the deposit system and to let the bottles and cans be burned together with other household garbage . However , it turned out afterwards that many of the Danish incineration plants operate at temperatures at which aluminum cans will not burn , but only melt , and that the cans would pose a great economic problem for them . A committee was formed in March 2003 to evaluate the reports issued by the EAI during the second half of 2002 . This committee was composed of one Danish member and four experts from Sweden and Norway . The committee adjudged the first three reports published in 2002 as superficial attempts to focus attention on the EAI . The other reports were adjudged appealing to the public , but the committee was not confident in the conclusions of two reports and in general criticized the cost-benefit analyses . In November 2003 , five out of the seven board members resigned on the same day . Three of them did so because of disagreement about the Institute 's involvement in the Copenhagen Consensus project , the others did so because of lack of time and conflicts of interest . In mid-June 2004 , there was some stir in the Danish printed media because it was revealed that criticism of Lomborg ´ s book from Danish climate experts had been repressed for years by the head of the EAI ( Lomborg ) . Lomborg resigned as director on August 1 , 2004 . From July 1 , 2007 , the Environmental Assessment Institute was changed into a department of the Danish Economic Council , and thus no longer exists as a separate institute .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Environmental_Assessment_Institute", "rank": 55, "score": 68827 }, { "content": "Title: List of North American countries by GDP (nominal) Content: Gross domestic product ( GDP ) is the market value of all final goods and services from a nation in a given year . Countries in North America are sorted by nominal GDP estimates based on 2016 data from the World Economic Outlook by the International Monetary Fund . The figures presented here do not take into account differences in the cost of living in different countries , and the results can vary greatly from one year to another based on fluctuations in the exchange rates of the country 's currency . Such fluctuations may change a country 's ranking from one year to the next , even though they often make little or no difference to the standard of living of its population . Therefore , these figures should be used with caution . Some countries/regions may have citizens which are on average wealthy . These countries/regions could appear in this list as having a small GDP . This would be because the country/region listed has a small population , and therefore small total economy ; the GDP is calculated as the population times market value of the goods and services produced per person in the country . Comparisons of national wealth are also frequently made on the basis of purchasing power parity ( PPP ) , to adjust for differences in the cost of living in different countries . PPP largely removes the exchange rate problem , but has its own drawbacks ; it does not reflect the value of economic output in international trade , and it also requires more estimation than nominal GDP . On the whole , PPP per capita figures are more narrowly spread than nominal GDP per capita figures .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "List_of_North_American_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)", "rank": 56, "score": 68468 }, { "content": "Title: Tourism in India Content: Tourism in India is economically important and is growing rapidly . The World Travel & Tourism Council calculated that tourism generated or 9.6 % of the nation 's GDP in 2016 and supported 40.343 million jobs , 9.3 % of its total employment . The sector is predicted to grow at an annual rate of 6.8 % to by 2027 ( 10 % of GDP ) . In October 2015 , India 's medical tourism sector was estimated to be worth US$ 3 billion . It is projected to grow to $ 7 -- 8 billion by 2020 . In 2014 , 184,298 foreign patients traveled to India to seek medical treatment . About 88.90 lakh ( 8.89 million ) foreign tourists arrived in India in 2016 compared to 80.27 lakh ( 8.027 million ) in 2015 , recording a growth of 10.7 % . Domestic tourist visits to all states and Union Territories numbered 1,036.35 million in 2012 , an increase of 16.5 % from 2011 . In 2014 , Tamil Nadu , Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh were the most popular states for tourists . Delhi , Mumbai , Chennai , Agra and Jaipur have been the five most visited cities of India by foreign tourists during the year 2015 . Worldwide , Delhi is ranked at 28 by the number of foreign tourist arrivals , while Mumbai is ranked at 30 , Chennai at 43 , Agra at 45 , Jaipur at 52 and Kolkata at 90 . The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2017 ranks India 40th out of 136 countries overall . The report ranks the price competitiveness of India 's tourism sector 10th out of 136 countries . It mentions that India has quite good air transport ( ranked 32nd ) , particularly given the country 's stage of development , and reasonable ground transport infrastructure ( ranked 29th ) . The country also scores high on natural and cultural resources ( ranked 9th ) . Some other aspects of its tourism infrastructure remain somewhat underdeveloped however . The nation has very few hotel rooms per capita by international comparison and low ATM penetration . The World Tourism Organization reported that India 's receipts from tourism during 2012 ranked 16th in the world , and 7th among Asian and Pacific countries . The Ministry of Tourism designs national policies for the development and promotion of tourism . In the process , the Ministry consults and collaborates with other stakeholders in the sector including various Central Ministries/agencies , state governments , Union Territories and the representatives of the private sector . Concerted efforts are being made to promote new forms of tourism such as rural , cruise , medical and eco-tourism . The Ministry also maintains the Incredible India campaign . Despite the rich cultural and natural heritage which India possesses , the security issues and crime -- especially against female visitors , form a persisting trouble that has plagued the Indian tourism industry .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Tourism_in_India", "rank": 57, "score": 68126 }, { "content": "Title: Tourism in Kazakhstan Content: Kazakhstan is the ninth-largest country by area and the largest landlocked country . As of 2014 , tourism has accounted for 0.3 % of Kazakhstan 's GDP , but the government has plans to increase it to 3 % by 2020 . According to the World Economic Forum 's Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2017 , travel and tourism industry GDP in Kazakhstan is $ 3.08 billion or 1.6 percent of total GDP . The WEF ranks Kazakhstan 81st in its 2017 report , which four positions higher compared to the previous period .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Tourism_in_Kazakhstan", "rank": 58, "score": 67830 }, { "content": "Title: Tourism in Thailand Content: . Tourism is a major economic factor in the Kingdom of Thailand . Estimates of tourism receipts directly contributing to the Thai GDP of 12 trillion baht range from 9 percent ( one trillion baht ) ( 2013 ) to 17.7 percent ( 2.53 trillion baht ) in 2016 . When including indirect travel and tourism receipts , the 2014 total is estimated to have accounted for 19.3 percent ( 2.3 trillion baht ) of Thailand 's GDP . The global average for tourism revenue is 9 percent of GDP . The Tourism Authority of Thailand ( TAT ) uses the slogan `` Amazing Thailand '' to promote Thailand internationally . In 2015 , this was supplemented by a `` Discover Thainess '' campaign .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Tourism_in_Thailand", "rank": 59, "score": 67829 }, { "content": "Title: Financial position of the United States Content: The financial position of the United States includes assets of at least $ 269.6 trillion ( 1576 % of GDP ) and debts of $ 145.8 trillion ( 852 % of GDP ) to produce a net worth of at least $ 123.8 trillion ( 723 % of GDP ) as of Q1 2014 . The U.S. increased the ratio of public and private debt from 152 % GDP in 1980 to peak at 296 % GDP in 2008 , before falling to 279 % GDP by Q2 2011 . The 2009-2011 decline was due to foreclosures and increased rates of household saving . There were significant declines in debt to GDP in each sector except the government , which ran large deficits to offset deleveraging or debt reduction in other sectors . As of 2009 , there was $ 50.7 trillion of debt owed by US households , businesses , and governments , representing more than 3.5 times the annual gross domestic product of the United States . As of the first quarter of 2010 , domestic financial assetsDomestic financial assets and liabilities are calculated as total assets and liabilities ( table L. 5 ) minus foreign assets and liabilities ( table L. 107 ) totaled $ 131 trillion and domestic financial liabilities $ 106 trillion . Tangible assets in 2008 ( such as real estate and equipment ) for selected sectors totaled an additional $ 56.3 trillion .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Financial_position_of_the_United_States", "rank": 60, "score": 67633 }, { "content": "Title: Low Cost Autonomous Attack System Content: The Low Cost Autonomous Attack System ( LOCAAS ) . In 1998 the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Army Lockheed Martin began to examine the feasibility of a small , affordable cruise missile weapon for use against armoured and unarmoured vehicles , materiel and personnel , and if so develop a demonstration program . The program has cost approx . $ 150,000,000 so far ; the cost per unit is calculated to be $ 30,000 based on a production of 12,000 units . After being launched from a weapon platform , it is guided by GPS/INS to the target general area , where it can loiter . A laser radar ( LIDAR or LADAR ) illuminates the targets , determines their range , and matches their 3-D geometry with pre-loaded signatures . The LOCAAS system then selects the highest priority target and selects the warhead 's mode for the best effect . It is part of the Small Bomb System ( SBS ) program . The LOCAAS has been cancelled .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Low_Cost_Autonomous_Attack_System", "rank": 61, "score": 67598 }, { "content": "Title: Law of increasing costs Content: In economics , the law of increasing costs is a principle that states that once all factors of production ( land , labor , capital ) are at maximum output and efficiency , producing more will cost more than average . As production increases , the opportunity cost does as well . The best way to look at this is to review an example of an economy that only produces two things - cars and oranges . If all the resources of the economy are put into producing only oranges , there will not be any factors of production available to produce cars . So the result is an output of X number of oranges but 0 cars . The reverse is also true - if all the factors of production are used for the production of cars , 0 oranges will be produced . In between these two extremes are situations where some oranges and some cars are produced . There are three assumptions that are made in this possibility . The economy is experiencing full employment ( everyone who wants to work has a job ) , the best technology is being used and production efficiency is being maximized . So the question becomes , what is the cost of producing more oranges or cars ? If the economy is at the maximum for all inputs , then the cost of each unit will be more expensive . The economy will have to incur more variable costs , such as overtime , to produce the unit . The law also applies to switching production in a maxed out economy . Essentially , the economy is still producing more , so the law still applies . The only difference is that resources are being taken from one area and applied to another , instead of simply producing more of the same ( as assumed in the first paragraph )", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Law_of_increasing_costs", "rank": 62, "score": 67544 }, { "content": "Title: Economy of the Solomon Islands Content: A per capita GDP of $ 3,200 ranks Solomon Islands as a lesser developed nation . Over 75 % of its labour force is engaged in subsistence farming and fishing .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Economy_of_the_Solomon_Islands", "rank": 63, "score": 67509 }, { "content": "Title: Economic cost Content: Economic cost is the combination of gains and losses of any goods that have a value attached to them by any one individual . Economic cost is used mainly by economists as means to compare the prudence of one course of action with that of another . The goods to be taken into consideration are e.g. money , time and resources . The comparison includes the gains and losses precluded by taking a course of action , as those of the course taken itself . Economic cost differs from accounting cost because it includes opportunity cost .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Economic_cost", "rank": 64, "score": 67411 }, { "content": "Title: List of Indian states and union territories by GDP Content: This is a lists of Indian states and union territories by their nominal gross state domestic product ( GSDP ) . GSDP is the sum of all value added by industries within each state or union territory and serves as a counterpart to the national gross domestic product ( GDP ) . In India , the Government accounts for around 20 % of the GDP , Agriculture accounts for 20 % , the corporate sector accounts for 12 % and the balance 48 % of the GDP is sourced from small proprietorship and partnership companies , the so called unorganized sector and households . Ki lo", "qid": "2991", "docid": "List_of_Indian_states_and_union_territories_by_GDP", "rank": 65, "score": 67367 }, { "content": "Title: List of African countries by GDP (nominal) Content: Gross domestic product ( GDP ) is the market value of all final goods and services from a nation in a given year . Countries in Africa are sorted according to data from the International Monetary Fund . The figures presented here do not take into account differences in the cost of living in different countries , and the results can vary greatly from one year to another based on fluctuations in the exchange rates of the country 's currency . Such fluctuations may change a country 's ranking from one year to the next , even though they often make little or no difference to the standard of living of its population . Some countries may have citizens that are on average wealthy . These countries/regions could appear in this list as having a small GDP . This would be because the country/region listed has a small population , and therefore small total economy ; the GDP is calculated as the population times market value of the goods and services produced per person in the country . These figures should therefore be used with caution . Comparisons of national wealth are also frequently made on the basis of purchasing power parity ( PPP ) , to adjust for differences in the cost of living in different countries . PPP largely removes the exchange rate problem , but has its own drawbacks ; it does not reflect the value of economic output in international trade , and it also requires more estimation than nominal GDP . On the whole , PPP per capita figures are more narrowly spread than nominal GDP per capita figures .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "List_of_African_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)", "rank": 66, "score": 67308 }, { "content": "Title: Welfare cost of business cycles Content: In macroeconomics , the cost of business cycles is the decrease in social welfare , if any , caused by business cycle fluctuations . Nobel economist Robert Lucas proposed measuring the cost of business cycles as the percentage increase in consumption that would be necessary to make a representative consumer indifferent between a smooth , non-fluctuating , consumption trend and one that is subject to business cycles . Under the assumptions that business cycles represent random shocks around a trend growth path , Robert Lucas argued that the cost of business cycles is extremely small , and as a result the focus of both academic economists and policy makers on economic stabilization policy rather than on long term growth has been misplaced . Lucas himself , after calculating this cost back in 1987 , reoriented his own macroeconomic research program away from the study of short run fluctuations . However , Lucas ' conclusion is controversial . In particular , Keynesian economists typically argue that business cycles should not be understood as fluctuations above and below a trend . Instead , they argue that booms are times when the economy is near its potential output trend , and that recessions are times when the economy is substantially below trend , so that there is a large output gap . Under this viewpoint , the welfare cost of business cycles is larger , because an economy with cycles not only suffers more variable consumption , but also lower consumption on average .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Welfare_cost_of_business_cycles", "rank": 67, "score": 67105 }, { "content": "Title: Real estate in Pakistan Content: Real estate in Pakistan is an important and growing sector of the economy of Pakistan . Pakistan spends $ 5.2 billion on construction in a year . According to the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics , construction output accounts for 2 % of GDP , with housing representing less than half that total . With the rate of urbanization that Pakistan has been experiencing , there is a growing need for urban planning . Demand for residential properties in Pakistan grew in 2010 , leading to increased interest among real estate developers and investors . Since prices have exceeded 10 million PKR , new housing developments are often aimed at the upper middle class . To assist the real-estate sector , the Government of Pakistan announced a reduction in interest rates on mortgage loans in 2012 . Pakistan is home to Asia 's largest real estate investors , Bahria Town .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Real_estate_in_Pakistan", "rank": 68, "score": 67048 }, { "content": "Title: Economy of Guyana Content: With a per capita gross domestic product of only $ 4,700 in 2006 , Guyana is one of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere . This is evident from the contrast between poor slum areas and elite residential areas with imperious mansions , often built within a few miles of one another . The economy made dramatic progress after President Hoyte 's 1989 economic recovery program ( ERP ) . As a result of the ERP , Guyana 's GDP increased six percent in 1991 following 15 years of decline . Growth was consistently above six percent until 1995 , when it dipped to 5.1 percent . The government reported that the economy grew at a rate of 7.9 percent in 1996 , 6.2 percent in 1997 , and fell 1.3 percent in 1998 . The 1999 growth rate was three percent . The unofficial growth rate in 2005 was 0.5 percent . In 2006 , it was 3.2 % . Guyana remains the poorest country in South America . Developed in conjunction with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) , the ERP significantly reduced the government 's role in the economy , encouraged foreign investment , enabled the government to clear all its arrears on loan repayments to foreign governments and the multilateral banks , and brought about the sale of 15 of the 41 government-owned ( parastatal ) businesses . The telephone company and assets in the timber , rice , and fishing industries also were privatised . International corporations were hired to manage the huge state sugar company , GuySuCo , and the largest state bauxite mine . An American company was allowed to open a bauxite mine , and two Canadian companies were permitted to develop the largest open-pit gold mine in South America . However , efforts to privatise the two state-owned bauxite mining companies , Berbice Mining Company and Linden Mining Company have so far been unsuccessful . Most price controls were removed , the laws affecting mining and oil exploration were improved , and an investment policy receptive to foreign investment was announced . Tax reforms designed to promote exports and agricultural production in the private sector were enacted . Agriculture and mining are Guyana 's most important economic activities , with sugar , bauxite , rice , and gold accounting for 70 -- 75 percent of export earnings . However , the rice sector experienced a decline in 2000 , with export earnings down 27 percent through the third quarter 2000 . Ocean shrimp exports , which were heavily impacted by a one-month import ban to the United States in 1999 , accounted for only 3.5 percent of total export earnings that year . Shrimp exports rebounded in 2000 , representing 11 percent of export earnings through the third quarter 2000 . Other exports include timber , diamonds , garments , rum , and pharmaceuticals . The value of these other exports is increasing . Since 1986 , Guyana has received its entire wheat supply from the United States on concessional terms under a PL 480 Food for Peace programme . It is now supplied on a grant basis . The Guyanese currency generated by the sale of the wheat is used for purposes agreed upon by the U.S. and Guyana Governments . As with many developing countries , Guyana is heavily indebted . Reduction of the debt burden has been one of the present administration 's top priorities . In 1999 , through the Paris Club `` Lyons terms '' and the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries ( HIPC ) initiative Guyana managed to negotiate $ 256 million in debt forgiveness . In qualifying for HIPC assistance , for the first time , Guyana became eligible for a reduction of its multilateral debt . About half of Guyana 's debt is owed to the multilateral development banks and 20 % to its neighbour Trinidad and Tobago , which until 1986 was its principal supplier of petroleum products . Almost all debt to the U.S. government has been forgiven . In late 1999 , net international reserves were at $ 123.2 million , down from $ 254 million in 1994 . However , net international reserves had rebounded to $ 174.1 million by January 2001 . Guyana 's extremely high debt burden to foreign creditors has meant limited availability of foreign exchange and reduced capacity to import necessary raw materials , spare parts , and equipment , thereby further reducing production . The increase in global fuel costs also contributed to the country 's decline in production and growing trade deficit . The decline of production has increased unemployment . Although no reliable statistics exist , combined unemployment and underemployment are estimated at about 30 % . Emigration , principally to the U.S. and Canada , remains substantial . Net emigration in 1998 was estimated to be about 1.4 percent of the population , and in 1999 , this figure totalled 1.2 percent . After years of a state-dominated economy , the mechanisms for private investment , domestic or foreign , are still evolving . The shift from a state-controlled economy to a primarily free market system began under Desmond Hoyte and continued under PPP/CIVIC governments . The current PPP/C administration recognises the need for foreign investment to create jobs , enhance technical capabilities , and generate goods for export . The foreign exchange market was fully liberalised in 1991 , and currency is now freely traded without restriction . The rate is subject to change on a daily basis , but the Guyana dollar has depreciated 17.6 % from 1998 to 2000 and may depreciate further pending the stability of the post-election period . Guyana is a member of the WTO .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Economy_of_Guyana", "rank": 69, "score": 66919 }, { "content": "Title: Alchian–Allen effect Content: The Alchian -- Allen effect was described in 1964 by Armen Alchian and William R Allen in the book University Economics ( now called Exchange and Production ) . It states that when the prices of two substitute goods , such as high and low grades of the same product , are both increased by a fixed per-unit amount such as a transportation cost or a lump-sum tax , consumption will shift toward the higher-grade product . This is true because the added per-unit amount decreases the relative price of the higher-grade product . Suppose , for example , that high-grade coffee beans are $ 3/pound and low-grade beans $ 1.50 / pound ; in this example , high-grade beans cost twice as much as low-grade beans . Now add a per-pound international shipping cost of $ 1 . The effective prices are now $ 4 and $ 2.50 ; high-grade beans now cost only 1.6 times as much as low-grade beans . This reduced ratio of difference will induce distant coffee-buyers to now choose a higher ratio of high-to-low grade beans than local coffee-buyers . ( Prices are illustrative only ) . The effect has been studied as it applies to illegal drugs and it has been shown that the potency of marijuana increased in response to higher enforcement budgets , and there was a similar effect for alcohol in the U.S. during Prohibition . Another example is that Australians drink higher-quality Californian wine than Californians , and vice versa , because it is only worth the transportation costs for the most expensive wine . Colloquially , the Alchian -- Allen theorem is also known as the `` shipping the good apples out '' theorem ( Thomas Borcherding ) , or as the `` third law of demand . ''", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Alchian–Allen_effect", "rank": 70, "score": 66863 }, { "content": "Title: Average fixed cost Content: In economics , average fixed cost ( AFC ) is the fixed costs of production ( FC ) divided by the quantity ( Q ) of output produced . Fixed costs are those costs that must be incurred in fixed quantity regardless of the level of output produced . Average fixed cost is a per-unit-of-output of fixed costs . As the total number of units of the good produced increases , the average fixed cost decreases because the same amount of fixed costs is being spread over a larger number of units of output . Average variable cost plus average fixed cost equals average total cost :", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Average_fixed_cost", "rank": 71, "score": 66689 }, { "content": "Title: Cost of capital Content: In economics and accounting , the cost of capital is the cost of a company 's funds ( both debt and equity ) , or , from an investor 's point of view `` the required rate of return on a portfolio company 's existing securities '' . It is used to evaluate new projects of a company . It is the minimum return that investors expect for providing capital to the company , thus setting a benchmark that a new project has to meet .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Cost_of_capital", "rank": 72, "score": 66512 }, { "content": "Title: Science and technology in Albania Content: Expenditure for scientific research and Development in Albania does not exceed 0.18 % of GDP , which marks the lowest level in Europe . Economic competitiveness and exports are low , with the economy still heavily skewed towards low technology .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Science_and_technology_in_Albania", "rank": 73, "score": 66366 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act Content: __ NOTOC __ The Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act of the Canadian province of Alberta was the first law of its type to impose greenhouse gas cuts on large industrial facilities . Starting from July 1 , 2007 , Alberta facilities that emit more than 100,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases per year will be required to reduce their emissions intensity by 12 percent under the Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act . Companies have three ways to meet their reductions : they can make operating improvements , buy an Alberta-based credit , or contribute to the Climate Change and Emissions Management Fund . The regulations apply to about 100 large facilities which emit more than 100,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases a year . Those facilities account for about 70 per cent of Alberta 's industrial greenhouse gas emissions . The annual cost of compliance is estimated to be $ 177 million - or less than one tenth of one per cent of Alberta 's nominal GDP ( $ 242 billion in 2006 ) .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Climate_Change_and_Emissions_Management_Amendment_Act", "rank": 74, "score": 66360 }, { "content": "Title: Cost per impression Content: Cost per impression ( CPI ) , or `` cost per thousand impressions '' ( CPM ) , is a term used in traditional advertising media selection , as well as online advertising and marketing related to web traffic . It refers to the cost of traditional advertising or internet marketing or email advertising campaigns , where advertisers pay each time an ad is displayed . CPI is the cost or expense incurred for each potential customer who views the advertisement ( s ) , while CPM refers to the cost or expense incurred for every thousand potential customers who view the advertisement ( s ) . CPM is an initialism for cost per mille , with mille being Latin for thousand .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Cost_per_impression", "rank": 75, "score": 66311 }, { "content": "Title: List of Oceanian countries by GDP (nominal) Content: Gross domestic product ( GDP ) is the market value of all final goods and services from a nation in a given year . Countries in Oceania are sorted by nominal GDP estimates based on 2013 data from The World Factbook by the Central Intelligence Agency . The figures presented here do not take into account differences in the cost of living in different countries , and the results can vary greatly from one year to another based on fluctuations in the exchange rates of the country 's currency . Such fluctuations may change a country 's ranking from one year to the next , even though they often make little or no difference to the standard of living of its population . Therefore , these figures should be used with caution . Some countries/regions may have citizens which are on average wealthy . These countries/regions could appear in this list as having a small GDP . This would be because the country/region listed has a small population , and therefore small total economy ; the GDP is calculated as the population times market value of the goods and services produced per person in the country . Comparisons of national wealth are also frequently made on the basis of purchasing power parity ( PPP ) , to adjust for differences in the cost of living in different countries . PPP largely removes the exchange rate problem , but has its own drawbacks ; it does not reflect the value of economic output in international trade , and it also requires more estimation than nominal GDP . On the whole , PPP per capita figures are more narrowly spread than nominal GDP per capita figures .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "List_of_Oceanian_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)", "rank": 76, "score": 66096 }, { "content": "Title: Retailing in India Content: Retailing in India is one of the pillars of its economy and accounts for about 10 percent of its GDP . The Indian retail market is estimated to be US$ 600 billion and one of the top five retail markets in the world by economic value . India is one of the fastest growing retail markets in the world , with 1.2 billion people . As of 2003 , India 's retailing industry was essentially owner manned small shops . In 2010 , larger format convenience stores and supermarkets accounted for about 4 percent of the industry , and these were present only in large urban centers . India 's retail and logistics industry employs about 40 million Indians ( 3.3 % of Indian population ) . Until 2011 , Indian central government denied foreign direct investment ( FDI ) in multi-brand retail , forbidding foreign groups from any ownership in supermarkets , convenience stores or any retail outlets . Even single-brand retail was limited to 51 % ownership and a bureaucratic process . In November 2011 , India 's central government announced retail reforms for both multi-brand stores and single-brand stores . These market reforms paved the way for retail innovation and competition with multi-brand retailers such as Walmart , Carrefour and Tesco , as well single brand majors such as IKEA , Nike , and Apple . The announcement sparked intense activism , both in opposition and in support of the reforms . In December 2011 , under pressure from the opposition , Indian government placed the retail reforms on hold till it reaches a consensus . In January 2012 , India approved reforms for single-brand stores welcoming anyone in the world to innovate in Indian retail market with 100 % ownership , but imposed the requirement that the single brand retailer source 30 percent of its goods from India . Indian government continues the hold on retail reforms for multi-brand stores . In June 2012 , IKEA announced it had applied for permission to invest $ 1.9 billion in India and set up 25 retail stores . An analyst from Fitch Group stated that the 30 percent requirement was likely to significantly delay if not prevent most single brand majors from Europe , USA and Japan from opening stores and creating associated jobs in India . On 14 September 2012 , the government of India announced the opening of FDI in multi-brand retail , subject to approvals by individual states . This decision was welcomed by economists and the markets , but caused protests and an upheaval in India 's central government 's political coalition structure . On 20 September 2012 , the Government of India formally notified the FDI reforms for single and multi brand retail , thereby making it effective under Indian law . On 7 December 2012 , the Federal Government of India allowed 51 % FDI in multi-brand retail in India . The government managed to get the approval of multi-brand retail in the parliament despite heavy uproar from the opposition ( the NDA and leftist parties ) . Some states will allow foreign supermarkets like Walmart , Tesco and Carrefour to open while other states will not .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Retailing_in_India", "rank": 77, "score": 65931 }, { "content": "Title: Dread perming Content: Dread perming is a chemical treatment that is used both by beauty salons and do-it-yourselfers to create or maintain dreadlocks . The hair is exposed to chemicals that render the hair frizzy . The frizzy hair is bound together and treated again to form the dreadlocks . Dread perms usually cost in the range of $ 300 -- $ 400 at a salon , and although pricey , often prove to be the easiest and most professional way of creating dreadlocks . Another option is to buy a home-perm kit , as these will only cost $ 10 -- $ 20 , with a similar , if not better result . The process can take upwards of six hours to complete , with maintenance appointments being around two hours long and pricey at upwards of $ 200 if done at a salon . The process works especially well on hair that is more difficult to dread , especially white people 's hair or Asian hair . This method requires no use of waxes or palm rolling the hair . A regular six month appointment is all the maintenance required , although tightening sprays are beneficial in the meantime . The dread perming technique begins with at least 6 inches of hair . The hair is then separated into appropriately sized dreadlock sections . Each individual section is then backcombed , or teased , to knot the hair and create a dreadlock shape . Depending on the method used , the dreads will either be tightly back combed , or more loosely formed . The new dreadlocks are either permed in as is , twisted , or wrapped around curlers to achieve form . Once the chemicals are applied to the hair , each strand of hair begins to swell . This swelling causes the hair to forget its original form . The hair then begins to shrink back to its normal size , permanently taking on the shape the hair is currently in . Dreadlocks created with a dread perm can take on the shape of the method used to set them - curled if they were wrapped around curlers , twisted or kinky . The perm also serves to ` rough up ' Asian or white people 's hair so that it will more easily tangle . A natural look begins to occur a few months later when the hair loosens somewhat . Within the time-span of several weeks to months , depending on the setting method , dread-permed dreadlocks will look nearly indistinguishable from naturally grown dreadlocks .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Dread_perming", "rank": 78, "score": 65893 }, { "content": "Title: Cost-shifting Content: Cost-shifting is either an economic situation where one individual , group , or government underpays for a service , resulting another individual , group or government overpaying for a service ( shifting compared to expected burden ) . It can occur where one group pays a smaller share of costs than before , resulting in another group paying a larger share of costs than before ( shifting compared to previous arrangement ) . Some commentators on health policy in the United States believe the former currently happens in Medicare and Medicaid as they underpay for services resulting in private insurers overpaying . In 1995 , Health Affairs started a study testing the `` cost-shifting '' theory using a unique new data set that combines MarketScan private claims data with Medicare hospital cost reports , the study ran from 1995-2009 . In May 2013 when the findings were released , the study found that a 10 percent reduction in Medicare payment rates led to an estimated reduction in private payment rates of 3 percent or 8 percent , depending on the statistical model used . These payment rate spillovers may reflect an effort by hospitals to rein in their operating costs in the face of lower Medicare payment rates .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Cost-shifting", "rank": 79, "score": 65766 }, { "content": "Title: Gross world product Content: The gross world product ( GWP ) is the combined gross national product of all the countries in the world . Because imports and exports balance exactly when considering the whole world , this also equals the total global gross domestic product ( GDP ) . See measures of national income and output for more details . In 2014 , according to the CIA 's World Factbook , the GWP totalled approximately US$ 107.5 trillion in terms of purchasing power parity ( PPP ) , and around US$ 78.28 trillion in nominal terms . The per capita PPP GWP in 2014 was approximately US$ 16,100 according to the World Factbook . According to the World Bank , the 2013 nominal GWP was approximately US$ 75.59 trillion .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Gross_world_product", "rank": 80, "score": 65657 }, { "content": "Title: Economy of Sri Lanka Content: With an economy worth $ 80.591 billion ( 2015 ) ( $ 278.415 billion ( 2017 ) PPP estimate ) , and a per capita GDP of about $ 11,068.996 ( PPP ) , Sri Lanka has mostly had strong growth rates in recent years.The Sri Lankan economy has seen robust annual growth at 6.4 percent over the course of 2003 to 2012 , well above its regional peers . In GDP per capita terms , it is ahead of other countries in the South Asian region . Since the end of the three-decade terrorism , Sri Lanka is now focusing on long-term strategic and structural development challenges as it strives to transition to an upper middle income country . The main economic sectors of the country are tourism , tea export , apparel , textile , rice production and other agricultural products . In addition to these economic sectors , overseas employment contributes highly in foreign exchange , 90 % of expatriate Sri Lankans reside in the Middle East . Sri Lanka has met the Millennium Development Goal ( MDG ) target of halving extreme poverty and is on track to meet most of the other MDGs , outperforming other South Asian countries . Sri Lanka experienced a major decline in poverty between 2002 and 2009 -- from 23 percent to 9 percent of the population . Despite this pockets of poverty continue to exist . An estimated 9 percent of Sri Lankans who are no longer classified as poor live within 20 percent of the poverty line and are , thus , vulnerable to shocks which could cause them to fall back into poverty . Sri Lanka has one of the lowest tax-to-GDP ratios in the world and creating jobs for the bottom 40 % has become a challenge . Sri Lanka also faces a challenges in Social inclusion , Governance and sustainability . According to Government policies and economic reforms stated by Prime Minister and Minister of National Policy and economic affairs Ranil Wickremesinghe , Sri Lanka plans to create a knowledge based social market economy and an export-oriented economy as well as the Western Region Megapolis a Megapolis in the western province to promote economic growth . Creation of several business and technology development areas specialised in various sectors island wide as well as tourism zones in a planned manner is also being planned .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Economy_of_Sri_Lanka", "rank": 81, "score": 65459 }, { "content": "Title: Video gaming in the United States Content: Video gaming in the United States is one of the fastest growing entertainment industries in the country . According to a 2010 study released by the Entertainment Software Association , the computer and the video game industry added US $ 4.9 billion to the economy of the United States . There are some estimates that by 2015 the worldwide gaming industry will possibly reach $ 70.1 billion . In statistics collected by The ESA for the year 2013 , a reported 58 % of Americans play video games and the average American household now owns at least one dedicated game console , PC or smartphone . The households that own these items play games most commonly on their Console or PC . 36 % of U.S. gamers play on their smart phones . 43 % of Video game consumers believe games give them the most value for their money compared to other common forms of entertainment such as movies , or music . In 2011 , the average American gamer spent an average of 13 hours per week playing video games . In 2013 , almost half of Americans who were gaming more than they did in 2010 spent less time playing board games , watching TV , going to the movies , and watching movies at home . When Americans game , 62 % do so with others online or in person yet the other person is more likely to be a friend than a significant other or family member . The most common reason parents play video games with their children is as a fun family activity , or because they are asked to . 52 % of parents believe video games are a positive part of their child 's life and 71 % of parents with children under 18 see gaming as beneficial to mental stimulation or education .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Video_gaming_in_the_United_States", "rank": 82, "score": 65364 }, { "content": "Title: Congestion pricing Content: Congestion pricing or congestion charges is a system of surcharging users of public goods that are subject to congestion through excess demand such as higher peak charges for use of bus services , electricity , metros , railways , telephones , and road pricing to reduce traffic congestion ; airlines and shipping companies may be charged higher fees for slots at airports and through canals at busy times . This pricing strategy regulates demand , making it possible to manage congestion without increasing supply . Market economics theory , which encompasses the congestion pricing concept , postulates that users will be forced to pay for the negative externalities they create , making them conscious of the costs they impose upon each other when consuming during the peak demand , and more aware of their impact on the environment . The application on urban roads is currently limited to a few cities , including London , Stockholm , Singapore , Milan , and Gothenburg , as well as a few smaller towns , such as Durham , England ; Znojmo , Czech Republic ; Riga ( the scheme ended in 2008 ) , Latvia ; and Valletta , Malta . Four general types of systems are in use ; a cordon area around a city center , with charges for passing the cordon line ; area wide congestion pricing , which charges for being inside an area ; a city center toll ring , with toll collection surrounding the city ; and corridor or single facility congestion pricing , where access to a lane or a facility is priced . Implementation of congestion pricing has reduced congestion in urban areas , but has also sparked criticism and public discontent . Critics maintain that congestion pricing is not equitable , places an economic burden on neighboring communities , has a negative effect on retail businesses and on economic activity in general , and represents another tax levy . A survey of economic literature on the subject , however , finds that most economists agree that some form of road pricing to reduce congestion is economically viable , although there is disagreement on what form road pricing should take . Economists disagree over how to set tolls , how to cover common costs , what to do with any excess revenues , whether and how `` losers '' from tolling previously free roads should be compensated , and whether to privatize highways . Also , concerns regarding fossil fuel supply and urban transport high emissions of greenhouse gases in the context of climate change have renewed interest in congestion pricing , as it is considered one of the demand-side mechanisms that may reduce oil consumption .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Congestion_pricing", "rank": 83, "score": 65242 }, { "content": "Title: Cost (disambiguation) Content: Cost is the value of money that has been used to produce something and is therefore no longer available . Cost may also refer to :", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Cost_(disambiguation)", "rank": 84, "score": 65218 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptical Environmentalist Content: The Skeptical Environmentalist : Measuring the Real State of the World ( Verdens sande tilstand , literal translation : The True State of the World ) is a book by Danish environmentalist author Bjørn Lomborg , controversial for its claims that overpopulation , declining energy resources , deforestation , species loss , water shortages , certain aspects of global warming , and an assortment of other global environmental issues are unsupported by analysis of the relevant data . It was first published in Danish in 1998 , while the English edition was published as a work in environmental economics by Cambridge University Press in 2001 . Due to the scope of the project , comprising the range of topics addressed , the diversity of data and sources employed , and the many types of conclusions and comments advanced , The Skeptical Environmentalist does not fit easily into a particular scientific discipline or methodology . Although published by the social sciences division of Cambridge University Press , the findings and conclusions were widely challenged on the basis of natural science . This interpretation of The Skeptical Environmentalist as a work of environmental science generated much of the controversy and debate that surrounded the book .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "The_Skeptical_Environmentalist", "rank": 85, "score": 65175 }, { "content": "Title: GDPS (disambiguation) Content: GDPS may refer to : Geographically Dispersed Parallel Sysplex , an extension of Parallel Sysplex of mainframes located , potentially , in different cities . Gyan Devi Public School Sr. . Secondary , a CBSE affiliated senior secondary school in Gurgaon , Haryana , India .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "GDPS_(disambiguation)", "rank": 86, "score": 65152 }, { "content": "Title: Housing stress Content: Housing stress describes a situation where the cost of housing ( either as rental , or as a mortgage ) is high relative to household income . It may also be used to describe inadequate housing for a proportion of the population . As a rule of thumb , a household spending 30 per cent or more of its income can be considered under housing stress , and under `` extreme '' housing stress if spending exceeds 50 per cent . Other studies may apply a different threshold , or restrict its definition to households with below average income . The Economic Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture classifies counties as under housing stress '' if 30 per cent or more of its housing units meets one or more of the following criteria : lacked complete plumbing , lacked complete kitchens , paid 30 per cent or more for owner costs or rent , or had more than one person per room .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Housing_stress", "rank": 87, "score": 65081 }, { "content": "Title: Gross output Content: Gross output is an economic concept used to measure total economic activity in the production of new goods and services in an accounting period . It is a much broader measure of the economy than gross domestic product ( GDP ) , which is limited mainly to final output ( finished goods and services ) . In 2016 , the Bureau of Economic Analysis estimated gross output in the United States to be $ 32.4 trillion , compared to $ 18.7 trillion for GDP . GO is defined by the Bureau of Economic Analysis ( BEA ) as `` a measure of an industry 's sales or receipts , which can include sales to final users in the economy ( GDP ) or sales to other industries ( intermediate inputs ) . Gross output can also be measured as the sum of an industry 's value added and intermediate inputs . '' It is equal to the value of net output or GDP ( also known as gross value added ) plus intermediate consumption . Gross output represents , roughly speaking , the total value of sales by producing enterprises ( their turnover ) in an accounting period ( e.g. a quarter or a year ) , before subtracting the value of intermediate goods used up in production . Starting in April , 2014 , the BEA began publishing gross output and gross output-by-industry on a quarterly basis , along with GDP . Economists regard GO and GDP as complementary aggregate measures of the economy . Many analysts view GO as a more comprehensive way to analyze the economy and the business cycle . `` Gross output -LSB- GO -RSB- is the natural measure of the production sector , while net output -LSB- GDP -RSB- is appropriate as a measure of welfare . Both are required in a complete system of accounts . ''", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Gross_output", "rank": 88, "score": 64979 }, { "content": "Title: Health care in Cyprus Content: Healthcare in Cyprus accounted for 7 % of its GDP in 2014 . Between 2010 and 2014 , health care spending increased from $ 1,705 per capita to $ 2,062 per capita . Cyprus has a multi-payer health care system that consists of a public and private sector . The public sector is funded by payroll , earnings taxes , and employer contributions . The public sector healthcare provides social insurance for the employed , self-employed , and for several types of civil servants .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Health_care_in_Cyprus", "rank": 89, "score": 64580 }, { "content": "Title: Menu cost Content: In economics , a menu cost is the cost to a firm resulting from changing its prices . The name stems from the cost of restaurants literally printing new menus , but economists use it to refer to the costs of changing nominal prices in general . In this broader definition , menu costs might include updating computer systems , re-tagging items , and hiring consultants to develop new pricing strategies as well as the literal costs of printing menus . More generally , the menu cost can be thought of as resulting from costs of information , decision and implementation resulting in bounded rationality . Because of this expense , firms sometimes do not always change their prices with every change in supply and demand , leading to nominal rigidity Generally , the effect on the firm of small shifts in price ( by changes in supply and/or demand , or else because of slight adjustments in monetary policy ) is relatively minor compared to the costs of notifying the public of this new information . Therefore , the firm would rather exist in slight disequilibrium than incur the menu costs .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Menu_cost", "rank": 90, "score": 64464 }, { "content": "Title: Economy of Mizoram Content: Mizoram is one of the fastest growing economies among the states of India with a per capita income of Rs 50,021 . Mizoram had the second highest GSDP growth during the 11th Five Year Plan ( 2007-2012 ) in Northeast India at 11 percent exceeding the target of 7.8 percent which is also much higher than the national average of 7.9 percent . During the 10th Five Year Plan ( 2002-2007 ) , the Gross State Domestic Product ( GSDP ) was expected to grow at around 5.3 per cent but grew at 5.7 per cent . The biggest contributors to GSDP growth are Agriculture , Public Administration and Construction work . Tertiary sector of service sector continued to have the contribution to the GSDP with its share hovering between 58 per cent and 60 per cent during the past half a decade .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Economy_of_Mizoram", "rank": 91, "score": 64339 }, { "content": "Title: Goal-Driven Software Development Process Content: Goal-Driven Software Development Process ( GDP ) is an iterative and incremental software development technique . Although similar to other modern process models , GDP is primarily focusing on identifying goals before setting the requirements and explicitly utilizing the bottom-up design approach . The following sections are based on the paper Goal-Driven Software Development where the GDP concept was introduced .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Goal-Driven_Software_Development_Process", "rank": 92, "score": 64297 }, { "content": "Title: Cost escalation Content: Cost escalation is defined as changes in the cost or price of specific goods or services in a given economy over a period . This is similar to the concepts of inflation and deflation except that escalation is specific to an item or class of items ( not as general in nature ) , it is often not primarily driven by changes in the money supply , and it tends to be less sustained . While escalation includes general inflation related to the money supply , it is also driven by changes in technology , practices , and particularly supply-demand imbalances that are specific to a good or service in a given economy . For example , while general inflation ( e.g. , consumer price index ) in the US was less than 5 % in the 2003-2007 time period , steel prices increased ( escalated ) by over 50 % because of supply-demand imbalance . Cost escalation may contribute to a project cost overrun but it is not synonymous with it . Over long periods of time , as market supply and demand imbalances are corrected , escalation will tend to more-or-less equal inflation unless there are sustained technology or efficiency changes in a market . Escalation is usually calculated by examining the changes in price index measures for a good or service . Future escalation can be forecast using econometrics . Unfortunately , because escalation ( unlike inflation ) may occur in a micro-market , and it may be hard to measure with surveys , indices can be difficult to find . For example , the Bureau of Labor Statistics has a price index for construction wages and compensation ( what the construction contractor 's labor cost ) , but has none for the prices that owners must pay the construction contractor for their services . In cost engineering and project management usage , escalation and cost contingency are both considered risk funds , that should be included in project estimates and budgets . When escalation is minimal , it is sometimes estimated together with contingency . However , this is not a best practice , particularly when escalation is significant .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Cost_escalation", "rank": 93, "score": 64230 }, { "content": "Title: Pertransit benefaciendo Content: Pertransit benefaciendo is a Latin phrase which means `` He went about doing good '' . It is applied about one who has died , to show that they have done good in their life . It originates from the words of St. Peter to Cornelius the centurion when speaking of Jesus Christ . The quotation is from the Holy Bible , Acts 10:38 . 34 Then Peter opened his mouth and said ... 38 How God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Ghost and with power : who went about doing good , and healing all that were oppressed of the devil ; for God was with him . Latin 38 Iesum a Nazareth quomodo unxit eum Deus Spiritu Sancto et virtute qui pertransivit benefaciendo et sanando omnes oppressos a diabolo quoniam Deus erat cum illo . The phrase is also found as Pertransivit benefaciendo , Per transiit benefaciendo , etc. .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Pertransit_benefaciendo", "rank": 94, "score": 64195 }, { "content": "Title: Generalised cost Content: In transport economics , the generalized cost is the sum of the monetary and non-monetary costs of a journey . Monetary ( or `` out-of-pocket '' ) costs might include a fare on a public transport journey , or the costs of fuel , wear and tear and any parking charge , toll or congestion charge on a car journey . Non-monetary costs refer to the time spent undertaking the journey . Time is converted to a money value using a value of time figure , which usually varies according to the traveller 's income and the purpose of the trip . The generalised cost is equivalent to the price of the good in supply and demand theory , and so demand for journeys can be related to the generalised cost of those journeys using the price elasticity of demand . Supply is equivalent to capacity ( and , for roads , road quality ) on the network", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Generalised_cost", "rank": 95, "score": 64182 }, { "content": "Title: GDP density Content: GDP Density is a measure of economic activity by area . It is expressed as GDP per square kilometer and can be calculated by multiplying GDP per capita of an area by the population density of that area . Amongst other uses it demonstrates the effects of geography on economy . It is different from Economic geography though both may share some aspects .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "GDP_density", "rank": 96, "score": 64152 }, { "content": "Title: Cost per activity Content: When a mobile consumer requests content in the form of , for example , e-vouchers , audio files or video clips , the advertiser is charged a nominal sum by the platform that supports the marketing campaign . Each request is defined as an `` activity '' . The platform 's pricing charges a cost-per-activity . The amount payable by the advertiser is a function of the number of requests for content from the consumer , multiplied by the agreed cost/activity . This pricing model was created by Mobilitrix , a mobile solutions company based in Cape Town , South Africa . The advertiser only pays when a potential consumer accesses information or content as prompted by static media ( POS poster , billboard , TV , radio or print advertisement ) . Alternatives include the pay per click , also known as the cost per click model .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Cost_per_activity", "rank": 97, "score": 64111 }, { "content": "Title: Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty Content: The Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty ( Udvalgene vedrørende Videnskabelig Uredelighed , or UVVU ) are a set of three committees under the Danish Ministry of Research and Information Technology : a committee for natural science , agricultural and veterinary science and technical science ; a committee for health and medical science ; and a committee for social science and the humanities . They have a common chairman . Previously obscure , the DCSD became embroiled in controversy after its January 2003 decision that the 2001 book The Skeptical Environmentalist by Bjørn Lomborg was `` clearly contrary to the standards of good scientific practice '' , due to the author 's systematically biased choice of data , and objectively was scientifically irredeemable , but Lomborg himself could not be subjectively convicted of intentional or gross negligence . Lomborg had argued in his book that claims by environmentalists about global warming , overpopulation , deforestation , and other matters are not scientifically substantiated . The DCSD further held that because of Lomborg 's lack of scientific expertise , he had not shown intentional or gross negligence , and acquitted him of the accusations of scientific dishonesty . In February 2003 , Lomborg filed a complaint with the Ministry , and in December 2003 , the Ministry found that the DCSD 's handling of the investigation in the case had been improper , and remitted it for re-examination . In March 2004 , the DCSD stated that since its finding had been to acquit Lomborg of the charges of scientific dishonesty ( although they had criticized his biased selection of data ) , there was no basis to re-open the investigation , and dismissed the case . The original DCSD decision about Lomborg provoked a petition among Danish academics . 308 scientists , many of them from the social sciences , criticised the DCSD 's methods in the case and called for the DCSD to be disbanded . The Danish Minister of Science , Technology , and Innovation then asked the Danish Research Agency to form an independent working group to review DCSD practices . In response to this , another group of Danish scientists collected over 600 signatures ( primarily from the medical and natural sciences community ) to support the continued existence of the DCSD and presented their petition to the Danish Research Agency . The DCSD was involved in another controversy investigating a paper on sex and intelligence authored by Helmuth Nyborg . After the DCSD cleared Nyborg of the charges of scientific misconduct , two Aarhus University professors , Lise Togeby and Jens Mammen resigned from their positions in the DCSD , citing that the DCSD operated from too narrow of a framework . Togeby explained that `` Roughly speaking , these committees can only decide whether a researcher has cheated or not . We can not consider the issue of academic quality , or decide whether research has been carried out in accordance with good academic standards '' .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Danish_Committees_on_Scientific_Dishonesty", "rank": 98, "score": 64090 }, { "content": "Title: Health care in France Content: The French health care system is one of universal health care largely financed by government national health insurance . In its 2000 assessment of world health care systems , the World Health Organization found that France provided the `` close to best overall health care '' in the world . In 2011 , France spent 11.6 % of GDP on health care , or US$ 4,086 per capita , a figure much higher than the average spent by countries in Europe but less than in the US . Approximately 77 % of health expenditures are covered by government funded agencies . Most general physicians are in private practice but draw their income from the public insurance funds . These funds , unlike their German counterparts , have never gained self-management responsibility . Instead , the government has taken responsibility for the financial and operational management of health insurance ( by setting premium levels related to income and determining the prices of goods and services refunded ) . The French government generally refunds patients 70 % of most health care costs , and 100 % in case of costly or long-term ailments . Supplemental coverage may be bought from private insurers , most of them nonprofit , mutual insurers . Until 2000 , coverage was restricted to those who contributed to social security ( generally , workers or retirees ) , excluding some poor segments of the population ; the government of Lionel Jospin put into place universal health coverage and extended the coverage to all those legally resident in France . Only about 3.7 % of hospital treatment costs are reimbursed through private insurance , but a much higher share of the cost of spectacles and prostheses ( 21.9 % ) , drugs ( 18.6 % ) and dental care ( 35.9 % ) ( figures from the year 2000 ) . There are public hospitals , non-profit independent hospitals ( which are linked to the public system ) , as well as private for-profit hospitals .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Health_care_in_France", "rank": 99, "score": 64009 }, { "content": "Title: Economic growth Content: Economic growth is the increase in the inflation-adjusted market value of the goods and services produced by an economy over time . It is conventionally measured as the percent rate of increase in real gross domestic product , or real GDP , usually in per capita terms . Growth is usually calculated in real terms -- i.e. , inflation-adjusted terms -- to eliminate the distorting effect of inflation on the price of goods produced . Measurement of economic growth uses national income accounting . Since economic growth is measured as the annual percent change of gross domestic product ( GDP ) , it has all the advantages and drawbacks of that measure . The `` rate of economic growth '' refers to the geometric annual rate of growth in GDP between the first and the last year over a period of time . Implicitly , this growth rate is the trend in the average level of GDP over the period , which implicitly ignores the fluctuations in the GDP around this trend . An increase in economic growth caused by more efficient use of inputs ( such as labor productivity , physical capital , energy or materials ) is referred to as intensive growth . GDP growth caused only by increases in the amount of inputs available for use ( increased population , new territory ) is called extensive growth .", "qid": "2991", "docid": "Economic_growth", "rank": 100, "score": 63955 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 1, "score": 217093 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 2, "score": 191233 }, { "content": "Title: Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Content: The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory ( HVO ) is a volcano observatory located at Uwekahuna Bluff on the rim of Kīlauea Caldera on the Island of Hawaii . The observatory monitors four active Hawaiian volcanoes : Kīlauea , Mauna Loa , Hualālai , and Haleakalā . Because Kīlauea and Mauna Loa are significantly more active than Hualālai and Haleakalā , much of the observatory 's research is concentrated on the former two mountains . The observatory has a worldwide reputation as a leader in the study of active volcanism . Due to the relatively non-explosive nature of Hawaiian volcanic eruptions , scientists can study on-going eruptions in proximity without being in extreme danger . Located at the main site is the public Thomas A. Jaggar Museum .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Hawaiian_Volcano_Observatory", "rank": 3, "score": 166252 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Loa Solar Observatory Content: Mauna Loa Solar Observatory ( MLSO ) is a solar observatory located on the slopes of Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii in the U.S. state of Hawaii . It is operated by the High Altitude Observatory ( HAO ) , a laboratory within the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) . The MLSO sits on property managed by the Mauna Loa Observatory ( MLO ) , which is part of the U.S. Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . MLSO was built in 1965 . The MLSO is tasked with monitoring the solar atmosphere and recording data on plasmic and energetic emissions from the chromosphere and corona . Studies of coronal mass ejections ( CMEs ) are also conducted at MLSO . A number of non-solar astronomical observatories are located at the site . The MLSO instruments record images of the solar disk and limb every 3 minutes for 3 -- 10 hours daily starting at 17:00 UT , weather permitting .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Mauna_Loa_Solar_Observatory", "rank": 4, "score": 161924 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Loa Observatory Content: The Mauna Loa Observatory ( MLO ) is an atmospheric baseline station on Mauna Loa , on the island of Hawaii .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Mauna_Loa_Observatory", "rank": 5, "score": 155872 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Loa (disambiguation) Content: Mauna Loa is a volcano in Hawaii . Mauna Loa may also refer to : Mauna Loa Observatory , an observatory on the slopes of that volcano Mauna Loa Solar Observatory , another observatory on that volcano Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Corporation , a Hawaiian business Maunaloa , a community on the Hawaiian island of Moloka'i SS Mauna Loa , a steam-powered cargo ship USS Mauna Loa , the name of more than one United States Navy ship Mauna Loa ( Molokai ) , an extinct volcano composing the western half of island of Molokai", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Mauna_Loa_(disambiguation)", "rank": 6, "score": 154718 }, { "content": "Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network", "rank": 7, "score": 148955 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Loa Content: Mauna Loa ( -LSB- ˌmɔːnə_ˈloʊ . ə -RSB- or -LSB- ˌmaʊnə_ˈloʊ . ə -RSB- Hawaiian : -LSB- - hawˈmɐwnə ˈlowə -RSB- Long Mountain ) is one of five volcanoes that form the Island of Hawaii in the U.S. state of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean . The largest subaerial volcano in both mass and volume , Mauna Loa has historically been considered the largest volcano on Earth . It is an active shield volcano with relatively gentle slopes , with a volume estimated at approximately 18000 mi3 , although its peak is about 120 ft lower than that of its neighbor , Mauna Kea . Lava eruptions from Mauna Loa are silica-poor and very fluid , and they tend to be non-explosive . Mauna Loa has probably been erupting for at least 700,000 years , and may have emerged above sea level about 400,000 years ago . The oldest-known dated rocks are not older than 200,000 years . The volcano 's magma comes from the Hawaii hotspot , which has been responsible for the creation of the Hawaiian island chain over tens of millions of years . The slow drift of the Pacific Plate will eventually carry Mauna Loa away from the hotspot within 500,000 to one million years from now , at which point it will become extinct . Mauna Loa 's most recent eruption occurred from March 24 to April 15 , 1984 . No recent eruptions of the volcano have caused fatalities , but eruptions in 1926 and 1950 destroyed villages , and the city of Hilo is partly built on lava flows from the late 19th century . Because of the potential hazards it poses to population centers , Mauna Loa is part of the Decade Volcanoes program , which encourages studies of the world 's most dangerous volcanoes . Mauna Loa has been monitored intensively by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory since 1912 . Observations of the atmosphere are undertaken at the Mauna Loa Observatory , and of the Sun at the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory , both located near the mountain 's summit . Hawaii Volcanoes National Park covers the summit and the southeastern flank of the volcano , and also incorporates Kīlauea , a separate volcano .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Mauna_Loa", "rank": 8, "score": 146172 }, { "content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory", "rank": 9, "score": 145473 }, { "content": "Title: Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory Content: The Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory is an atmospheric baseline station operated by Environment and Climate Change Canada located at Alert , Nunavut , on the north-eastern tip of Ellesmere Island , about 800 km south of the geographic north pole . The observatory is the northernmost of 31 Global Stations in an international network coordinated by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) under its Global Atmosphere Watch ( GAW ) program to study the long-term effects of pollution on the atmospheric environment . Among these 31 stations , Alert is one of three greenhouse gas `` intercomparison supersites '' , along with Mauna Loa in Hawaii and Cape Grim in Australia , which , due to their locations far from industrial activity , provide the international scientific community with a baseline record of atmospheric chemistry .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Dr._Neil_Trivett_Global_Atmosphere_Watch_Observatory", "rank": 10, "score": 139764 }, { "content": "Title: UH88 Content: The University of Hawai'i 88-inch ( 2.2-meter ) telescope called UH88 , UH2 .2 , or simply 88 by members of the local astronomical community is situated at the Mauna Kea Observatories and operated by the University 's Institute for Astronomy . It was constructed in 1968 , and entered service in 1970 , at which point it was known as `` The Mauna Kea Observatory . '' It became one of the first professional telescope to be controlled by a computer . The telescope was built with funding from NASA , to support Solar System missions and is controlled by the University of Hawai'i . The success of the telescope helped demonstrate the value of Mauna Kea for astronomical observations . On December 4 , 1984 it became the first telescope to make optical closure phase measurements on an astronomical source using an aperture mask . UH88 is a Cassegrain reflector tube telescope with an f/10 focal ratio , supported by a large open fork equatorial mount . It was the last telescope on Mauna Kea to use a tube design rather than an open truss , and is the largest in the complex to use an open fork mount , with neighboring telescopes in the 3-meter class using English fork designs . As the only research telescope controlled solely by the University , UH88 has long been the primary telescope used by its professors , postdoctoral scholars and graduate students , and as a result , the site of numerous discoveries . David C. Jewitt and Jane X. Luu discovered the first Kuiper belt object , 1992 QB1 using UH88 , and a team led by Jewitt and Scott S. Sheppard discovered 45 of the known moons of Jupiter , as well as moons of Saturn , Uranus and Neptune . The Institute for Astronomy also makes agreements with other organizations for portions of available observing time . Currently , the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan uses UH88 for some research projects for which its far larger and more expensive Subaru Observatory , also on Mauna Kea , would be overkill . The Nearby Supernova Factory project , based at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , also has its Supernova Integrated Field Spectrograph ( SNIFS ) instrument mounted on UH88 . In June 2011 , the telescope and its weather station were struck by lightning , damaging many systems and disabling it , but the telescope was repaired by August 2011 Some of the systems at the observatory were 41 years old at the time of the damage and had to be reverse engineered to be fixed.The weather station is currently under development .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "UH88", "rank": 11, "score": 139279 }, { "content": "Title: West Molokai Volcano Content: West Molokai Volcano , sometimes called Mauna Loa for the census-designated place , is an extinct shield volcano comprising the western half of Molokai island in the U.S. state of Hawaii .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "West_Molokai_Volcano", "rank": 12, "score": 134359 }, { "content": "Title: Ohana project Content: The Ohana project aims to use seven big telescopes on top of Mauna Kea , Hawaii Big Island , in an interferometer configuration . Mauna Kea is a former volcano whose height is 13,600 ft ( 4,145 m ) . It is a good site for telescopes which probe the universe in the optical and infrared wavelengths because of its altitude and low levels of light pollution . OHANA stands for Optical Hawaiian Array for Nanoradian Astronomy . In Hawaiian , ` ohana means `` family '' .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Ohana_project", "rank": 13, "score": 132514 }, { "content": "Title: Submillimeter Array Content: The Submillimeter Array ( SMA ) consists of eight 6 m diameter radio telescopes arranged as an interferometer for submillimeter wavelength observations . It is the first purpose-built submillimeter interferometer , constructed after successful interferometry experiments using the pre-existing 15 m James Clerk Maxwell Telescope and 10.4 m Caltech Submillimeter Observatory as an interferometer . All three of these observatories are located at Mauna Kea Observatory on Mauna Kea , Hawaii , and can be operated together as a ten element interferometer in the 230 and 345 GHz bands ( eSMA , for extended Submillimeter Array ) . The baseline lengths presently in use range from 16 to , and up to 783 m for eSMA operations . The radio frequencies accessible to this telescope range from 180-418 GHz which includes rotational transitions of dozens of molecular species as well as continuum emission from interstellar dust grains . Although the array is capable of operating both day and night , most of the observations take place at nighttime when the atmospheric phase stability is best . The SMA is jointly operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Submillimeter_Array", "rank": 14, "score": 132020 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 15, "score": 130992 }, { "content": "Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Katsuko_Saruhashi", "rank": 16, "score": 129169 }, { "content": "Title: Mazuku Content: In geology , a mazuku ( Swahili : evil wind ) is a pocket of carbon dioxide-rich air that can be lethal to any human or animal life inside . Mazuku are created when carbon dioxide accumulates in pockets low to the ground . CO2 is heavier than air , which causes it to stay close to the ground , and is also undetectable by human olfactory or visual senses in most conditions . Mazuku can be related to volcanic activity or to a natural disaster known as a limnic eruption . In the first case , noxious gases are released from the Earth 's crust into the atmosphere , whereas in the second case the gases originate deep in a lake and boil rapidly to the surface . Because of their nature as sporadic and subtle events , few mazuku have been recorded , but there is a growing understanding of them based on historical and fossil evidence .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Mazuku", "rank": 17, "score": 129093 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Kea Content: Mauna Kea ( -LSB- ˌmɔːnə_ˈkeɪ . ən -RSB- or -LSB- ˌmaʊnə_ˈkeɪ . ə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈmɐwnə ˈkɛjə -RSB- ) , is a dormant volcano on the island of Hawaii . Standing 4207 m above sea level , its peak is the highest point in the state of Hawaii . Much of the mountain is under water ; when measured from its oceanic base , Mauna Kea is over 10000 m tall . Mauna Kea is about a million years old , and has thus passed the most active shield stage of life hundreds of thousands of years ago . In its current post-shield state , its lava is more viscous , resulting in a steeper profile . Late volcanism has also given it a much rougher appearance than its neighboring volcanoes ; contributing factors include the construction of cinder cones , the decentralization of its rift zones , the glaciation on its peak , and the weathering effects of the prevailing trade winds . Mauna Kea last erupted 6,000 to 4,000 years ago and is now considered dormant . In Hawaiian mythology , the peaks of the island of Hawaii are sacred . An ancient law allowed only high-ranking aliʻi to visit its peak . Ancient Hawaiians living on the slopes of Mauna Kea relied on its extensive forests for food , and quarried the dense volcano-glacial basalts on its flanks for tool production . When Europeans arrived in the late 18th century , settlers introduced cattle , sheep and game animals , many of which became feral and began to damage the mountain 's ecological balance . Mauna Kea can be ecologically divided into three sections : an alpine climate at its summit , a Sophora chrysophylla -- Myoporum sandwicense ( or māmane -- naio ) forest on its flanks , and an Acacia koa -- Metrosideros polymorpha ( or koa -- ōhia ) forest , now mostly cleared by the former sugar industry , at its base . In recent years , concern over the vulnerability of the native species has led to court cases that have forced the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources to eradicate all feral species on the mountain . With its high elevation , dry environment , and stable airflow , Mauna Kea 's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation . Since the creation of an access road in 1964 , thirteen telescopes funded by eleven countries have been constructed at the summit . The Mauna Kea Observatories are used for scientific research across the electromagnetic spectrum from visible light to radio , and comprise the largest such facility in the world . Their construction on a landscape considered sacred by Native Hawaiians continues to be a topic of debate .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Mauna_Kea", "rank": 18, "score": 128713 }, { "content": "Title: Project Vulcan Content: Project Vulcan is a NASA/DOE funded effort under the North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) to quantify North American fossil fuel carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions at space/time scales much finer than has been achieved in the past . The initial purpose of the Vulcan Project was to aid in quantification of the North American carbon budget , to support inverse estimation of carbon sources and sinks , and to support the demands posed by higher resolution CO2 observations . The detail and scope of the Vulcan CO2 inventory has now made it a valuable tool for policymakers , demographers , social scientists and the public at large . Project Vulcan has achieved U.S. fossil fuel CO2 emissions at < 10 km spatial scales and an hourly time scale , based on datasets such as air quality emissions reporting , census data , highway statistics , energy statistics , and econometric data . Furthermore , Vulcan includes significant process-level detail , dividing the emissions into economic sectors and sub-sectors in addition to 23 fuel types . It has been produced for the year 2002 , and an annual product spanning 1980-2006 will be available by late-2009 . The first Vulcan inventory ( v1 .0 ) was released to the public in early April 2008 . Version 1.1 was released in February 2009 and Version 1.2 is due out in early August 2009 . In addition to the data release , establishment of the Vulcan website and a press release , a video of various aspects of atmospheric transport was released on Purdue University 's YouTube website and portions of the Vulcan inventory are available on Google Earth . As of 2015 , version 2.2 has been published on a site hosted by Arizona State University .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Project_Vulcan", "rank": 19, "score": 127494 }, { "content": "Title: W. M. Keck Observatory Content: The W. M. Keck Observatory is a two-telescope astronomical observatory at an elevation of 4,145 meters ( 13,600 ft ) near the summit of Mauna Kea in the U.S. state of Hawaii . Both telescopes feature 10 m primary mirrors , currently among the largest astronomical telescopes in use . The combination of an excellent site , large optics and innovative instruments has created the two most scientifically productive telescopes on Earth .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "W._M._Keck_Observatory", "rank": 20, "score": 126771 }, { "content": "Title: Caltech Submillimeter Observatory Content: The Caltech Submillimeter Observatory ( CSO ) is a 10.4-meter ( 34 ft ) diameter submillimeter wavelength telescope situated alongside the 15-meter ( 49 ft ) James Clerk Maxwell Telescope ( JCMT ) at Mauna Kea Observatories . It is engaged in submillimetre astronomy , of the terahertz radiation band . The telescope closed on September 18 , 2015 . The telescope is set to be decommissioned in the near future as part of the Mauna Kea Comprehensive Management Plan .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Caltech_Submillimeter_Observatory", "rank": 21, "score": 124988 }, { "content": "Title: List of Quaternary volcanic eruptions Content: This article is a list of volcanic eruptions of approximately magnitude 6 or more on the Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission during the Holocene , and Pleistocene eruptions of the Decade Volcanoes ( Avachinsky-Koryaksky , Kamchatka ; Colima , Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt ; Mount Etna , Sicily ; Galeras , Andes , Northern Volcanic Zone ; Mauna Loa , Hawaii ; Mount Merapi , Central Java ; Mount Nyiragongo , East African Rift ; Mount Rainier , Washington ; Sakurajima , Kagoshima Prefecture ; Santamaria / Santiaguito , Central America Volcanic Arc ; Santorini , Cyclades ; Taal Volcano , Luzon Volcanic Arc ; Teide , Canary Islands ; Ulawun , New Britain ; Mount Unzen , Nagasaki Prefecture ; Mount Vesuvius , Naples ) ; Campania , Italy ; South Aegean Volcanic Arc ; Laguna de Bay , Luzon Volcanic Arc ; Mount Pinatubo , Luzon Volcanic Arc ; Toba , Sunda Arc ; Mount Meager , Garibaldi Volcanic Belt ; Yellowstone hotspot , Wyoming ; and Taupo Volcanic Zone , greater than VEI 4 . The eruptions in the Holocene on the link : Holocene Volcanoes in Kamchatka were not added yet , but they are listed on the Peter L. Ward 's supplemental table . Some of the eruptions are not listed on the Global Volcanism Program timetable as well , at least not as VEI 6 . The timetables of Global Volcanism Program ; Bristlecone pine tree-rings ( Pinus longaeva , Pinus aristata , Pinus ponderosa , Pinus edulis , Pseudotsuga menziesii ) ; the 4 ka Yamal Peninsula Siberian larch ( Larix sibirica ) chronology ; the 7 ka Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ) chronology from Finnish Lapland ; GISP2 ice core ; GRIP ice core ; Dye 3 ice core ; Bipolar comparison ; Antarctic ice core ( Bunder and Cole-Dai , 2003 ) ; Antarctic ice core ( Cole-Dai et al. , 1997 ) ; Crête ice core , in central Greenland , benthic foraminifera in deep sea sediment cores ( Lisiecki , Raymo 2005 ) , do not agree with each other sometimes . The 536 -- 547 AD dust-veil event might be an impact event .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "List_of_Quaternary_volcanic_eruptions", "rank": 22, "score": 124368 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Ulu Content: Mauna Ulu is a volcanic cone in the eastern rift zone of the Kīlauea volcano on the island of Hawaii . It falls within the bounds of Volcanoes National Park . Mauna Ulu was in a state of eruption from May 1969 to July 1974 . The cone currently contains no lava pool but is considered volcanicly active .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Mauna_Ulu", "rank": 23, "score": 123874 }, { "content": "Title: Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope Content: The Canada -- France -- Hawaii Telescope ( CFHT ) is located near the summit of Mauna Kea mountain on Hawaii 's Big Island at an altitude of 4,204 meters ( 13,793 feet ) , and is one of the observatories that comprise the Mauna Kea Observatories . Operational since 1979 , the telescope is a Prime Focus/Cassegrain configuration with a usable aperture diameter of 3.58 m. The corporation is bound by a tripartite agreement between the University of Hawaii , the National Research Council ( NRC ) in Canada and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique ( CNRS ) in France . CFHT also has partnerships with the National Astronomical Observatory of China ( NAOC ) , the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics ( ASIAA ) in Taiwan , the Laboratório Nacional de Astrofisica ( LNA ) in Brazil and the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute ( KASI ) in Korea . The contributions from these associate partners help fund CFHT 's future instrumentation . Currently , CFHT observing time is offered to scientists from all the seven countries in the partnership . Astronomers from the European Union can also submit proposals through the Optical Infrared Coordination Network for Astronomy ( OPTICON ) access program . CFHT currently operates four instruments : MegaCam , a one square degree field high-resolution CCD mosaic of 40 CCDs totalling 378 megapixels . WIRCam , an infrared mosaic of 4 detectors totalling 16 megapixels , optimized for the J , H , and K spectral bands . ESPaDOnS , an echelle spectrograph/spectropolarimeter . SITELLE , a wide-field Fourier transform spectrograph Future instrumentation planned for CFHT includes SPIRou , a near-infrared spectropolarimeter . CFHT , in collaboration with Coelum Astronomia , maintains a public-outreach website called `` Hawaiian Starlight '' which offers extremely high-quality versions of CFHT images in various formats including a yearly calendar .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Canada–France–Hawaii_Telescope", "rank": 24, "score": 123605 }, { "content": "Title: P/2010 B2 (WISE) Content: P/2010 B2 is a periodic comet in the Solar System . It is the first comet discovered by the space observatory WISE and was first observed on January 22 , 2010 and has since been followed by ground observatories , among them the Mauna Kea Observatory . The comet has an orbital period of 4.7 years , an aphelion of 4 astronomical units and a perihelion of 1.6 astronomical units .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "P/2010_B2_(WISE)", "rank": 25, "score": 123356 }, { "content": "Title: Opposition to the Mauna Kea Observatories Content: Opposition to the Mauna Kea Observatories has existed since the first telescope was built in the late 1960s . Originally part of research begun by Gerard Kuiper of the University of Arizona , the site has expanded into the world 's largest observatory for infrared and submillimeter telescopes . Opposition to the telescope from residents in the city of Hilo , Hawaii were concerned about the visual appearance of the mountain and Native Hawaiians voiced concerns over the site being sacred to the Hawaiian religion as the home of several deities . Environmental groups and activists have been expressing concern over endangered species habitat . The last proposal in 2006 was canceled after a court order to submit a completed Environmental Impact Statement . A current proposal for one of the world 's largest optical telescopes , the Thirty Meter Telescope is currently the focus of protests concerning the continued development of the mountain Hawaiians consider the most sacred peak in the island chain .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Opposition_to_the_Mauna_Kea_Observatories", "rank": 26, "score": 122713 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Kea Observatories Content: The Mauna Kea Observatories ( MKO ) are a number of independent astronomical research facilities and large telescope observatories that are located at the summit of Mauna Kea on the Big Island of Hawaiʻi , United States . The facilities are located in a 525-acre ( 212 ha ) special land use zone known as the `` Astronomy Precinct '' , which is located within the 11,228-acre ( 4,544 ha ) Mauna Kea Science Reserve . The Astronomy Precinct was established in 1967 and is located on land protected by the Historical Preservation Act for its significance to Hawaiian culture . The location is ideal because of its dark skies , good astronomical seeing , low humidity and position above most of the water vapor in the atmosphere , clean air , good weather and almost equatorial location .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Mauna_Kea_Observatories", "rank": 27, "score": 121876 }, { "content": "Title: Onizuka Center for International Astronomy Content: The Onizuka Center for International Astronomy , also known as Hale Pōhaku , is a complex of support facilities for the telescopes and other instruments that comprise the Mauna Kea Observatory atop Mauna Kea , on Hawaii island .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Onizuka_Center_for_International_Astronomy", "rank": 28, "score": 121749 }, { "content": "Title: (91133) 1998 HK151 Content: ( better known as 1998 HK151 ) is a plutino with a 2:3 resonance with Neptune . It was discovered on April 28 , 1998 , by the Mauna Kea Observatory . has the lowest , and thus bluest measured B-V color index of any TNO . On May 24 , 2000 , set a TNO record low B-V of 0.51 . Reddening of the spectrum is caused by cosmic irradiaton by ultraviolet radiation and charged particles . Becoming bluer in the spectrum is caused by impact collisions exposing the interior of an object . Based on an absolute magnitude ( H ) of 7.62 , is estimated to be between 85 -- 190 km in diameter .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "(91133)_1998_HK151", "rank": 29, "score": 121101 }, { "content": "Title: Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes Content: The fifteen volcanoes that make up the eight principal islands of Hawaii are the youngest in a chain of more than 129 volcanoes that stretch 5800 km across the North Pacific Ocean , called the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain . Hawaii 's volcanoes rise an average of 4572 m to reach sea level from their base . The largest and most famous , Mauna Loa , has built itself up to a height of 4169 m . As shield volcanoes , they are built by accumulated lava flows , growing no more than 3 m at a time to form a broad and gently sloping shape . Hawaiian volcanoes all follow a specific pattern of eruption , building , and erosion . Hawaiian islands undergo a systematic pattern of submarine and subaerial growth that is followed by erosion . An island 's stage of development reflects its distance from the Hawaii hotspot .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Evolution_of_Hawaiian_volcanoes", "rank": 30, "score": 121018 }, { "content": "Title: Ninole Hills Content: The Ninole Hills , also known as the Ninole Volcanic Series , are steep eroded hills of shield basalts on the south side of the Island of Hawaii . Recent data suggests that these hills are either the remnants of large escarpments that pre-date the Mauna Loa volcano ( the largest active volcano in the world ) , or uplifted blocks from the oldest parts of the Mauna Loa fault system . The Ninole Hills are remains of the top rim of a big deep hollow left when the prehistoric Punalu`u landslide slid away . The rim over time eroded into deep canyons as lava from Mauna Loa ran down into the hollow and slowly filled it instead of burying the rim area , until now parts of the tops of the inter-canyon ridges are still unburied . It is apparent from the ruggedness of the eroded hills that they are much older than the surrounding landscape . Most of the surface of Mauna Loa is thought to have formed within the last 4,000 years , but the Ninole Hills are estimated to be between 100,000 and 200,000 years old . During this period there seem to have been massive failures in the support of the south wall of Mauna Loa , resulting in debris landslides that removed chunks out of the volcano , revealing remnants of the older sections of Mauna Loa .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Ninole_Hills", "rank": 31, "score": 119836 }, { "content": "Title: Fibre multi-object spectrograph Content: Fibre multi-object spectrograph ( FMOS ) is facility instrument for the Subaru telescope on Mauna Kea in Hawaii . The instrument consists of a complex fibre-optic positioning system mounted at the prime focus of the telescope . Fibres are then fed to a pair of large spectrographs , each weighing nearly 3000 kg . The instrument will be used to look at the light from up to 400 stars or galaxies simultaneously over a field of view of 30 arcminutes ( about the size of the full moon on the sky . The instrument will be used for a number of key programmes , including galaxy formation and evolution and dark energy via a measurement of the rate at which the universe is expanding . It is currently being built by a consortium of institutes led by Kyoto University and Oxford University with parts also being manufactured by the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory , Durham University and the Anglo-Australian Observatory . The instrument is scheduled for engineering first-light in late 2008 . The spectrographs use a technique called OH-suppression to increase the sensitivity of the observations : The incoming light from the fibres is dispersed to a relatively high resolution and this spectrum forms an image on a pair of spherical mirrors which have been etched at the positions corresponding to the bright OH-lines . This spectrum is then re-imaged through a second diffraction grating to allow the full spectrum ( without the OH lines ) to be imaged onto a single infrared detector .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Fibre_multi-object_spectrograph", "rank": 32, "score": 119799 }, { "content": "Title: Lōʻihi Seamount Content: Lōihi Seamount ( also known as Loihi ) is an active submarine volcano located about 35 km off the southeast coast of the island of Hawaii . The top of the seamount is about 975 m below sea level . This seamount lies on the flank of Mauna Loa , the largest shield volcano on Earth . Lōihi , meaning `` long '' in Hawaiian , is the newest volcano in the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain , a string of volcanoes that stretches over 5800 km northwest of Lōihi . Unlike most active volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean that make up the active plate margins on the Pacific Ring of Fire , Lōihi and the other volcanoes of the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain are hotspot volcanoes and formed well away from the nearest plate boundary . Volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands arise from the Hawaii hotspot , and as the youngest volcano in the chain , Lōihi is the only Hawaiian volcano in the deep submarine preshield stage of development . Lōihi began forming around 400,000 years ago and is expected to begin emerging above sea level about 10,000 -- 100,000 years from now . At its summit , Lōihi Seamount stands more than 3000 m above the seafloor , making it taller than Mount St. Helens was before its catastrophic 1980 eruption . A diverse microbial community resides around Lōihi 's many hydrothermal vents . In the summer of 1996 , a swarm of 4,070 earthquakes was recorded at Lōihi . This series included more earthquakes than any other swarm in Hawaiian recorded history . The swarm altered 10 to of the seamount 's summit ; one section , Pele 's Vents , collapsed entirely upon itself and formed the renamed Pele 's Pit . The volcano has remained relatively active since the 1996 swarm and is monitored by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) . The Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory ( HUGO ) provided real-time data on Lōihi between 1997 and 2002 . Lōihi last erupted in 1996 , before the earthquake swarm of that summer .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Lōʻihi_Seamount", "rank": 33, "score": 119671 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Astronomical Observatory Content: The Australian Astronomical Observatory ( AAO ) , formerly the Anglo-Australian Observatory , is an optical/near-infrared astronomy observatory with its headquarters in North Ryde in suburban Sydney , Australia . Originally funded jointly by the United Kingdom and Australian governments , it is now managed wholly by Australia 's Department of Industry , Innovation , Science , Research and Tertiary Education . The AAO operates the 3.9-metre Anglo-Australian Telescope ( AAT ) and 1.2-metre UK Schmidt Telescope ( UKST ) at Siding Spring Observatory , located near the town of Coonabarabran , Australia . In addition to operating the two telescopes , AAO staff carry out astronomical research , as well as design and build innovative astronomical instrumentation for the AAT , UKST , and other telescopes including ESO 's Very Large Telescope in Chile , and the Japanese Subaru Telescope on Mauna Kea in Hawaii . UK involvement in the AAO ceased in June 2010 , with the change of name and management arrangements effective from 1 July 2010 .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Australian_Astronomical_Observatory", "rank": 34, "score": 118905 }, { "content": "Title: Lake Nyos disaster Content: The Lake Nyos disaster occurred on 21 August 1986 , when a limnic eruption at Lake Nyos , in northwestern Cameroon , produced a large cloud of carbon dioxide , which descended onto nearby villages , killing 1,746 people and 3,500 livestock . The eruption triggered the sudden release of about 100,000 -- 300,000 tons ( some sources state as much as 1.6 million tons ) of CO2 . This gas cloud rose at nearly 100 km/h and spilled over the northern lip of the lake . It then rushed down two valleys , branching off to the north , displacing all the air and suffocating people and livestock within 25 km of the lake . A degassing system has since been installed at the lake , with the aim of reducing the concentration of in deep waters and therefore the risk of further eruptions .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Lake_Nyos_disaster", "rank": 35, "score": 118679 }, { "content": "Title: Coropuna Content: Coropuna is a dormant volcano in the southern Peruvian Andes and belonging to the Central Volcanic Zone ; its summit reaches an altitude of 6377 m above sea level . The volcano , located 155 km from Arequipa , is mostly made of lava flows on a basement formed by Miocene ignimbrites . Coropuna has been active for at least five million years , with the bulk of the current cone having formed during the PliocenePleistocene . The volcano is covered by a thick ice cap , the second largest in the tropics , that has existed since at least the Pliocene and has undergone several phases of expansion and reduction . , the ice cap is in retreat ; one estimate predicts that it will disappear by 2045 . The retreat of the Coropuna glaciers threatens the water supply of tens of thousands of people , and interaction between volcanic activity and glacial effects has generated mudflows that could be a hazard to surrounding populations if the mountain returns to volcanic activity . The mountain was considered sacred by the Inca , and a number of archaeological sites have been discovered there . The Inca built the highest irrigation system in the world on Coropuna .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Coropuna", "rank": 36, "score": 118508 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 37, "score": 118505 }, { "content": "Title: 2004 BX159 Content: , also written 2004 BX159 , is an estimated 1.2-kilometer-sized body of the Solar System . It was thought to be a Mars-crossing asteroid because of its poorly known orbit after discovery , and was therefore listed on the Sentry Risk Table as a possible impactor . With an observation arc of 3 days , perihelion was determined to be astronomical units ( AU ) . Precovery observations in archival data of the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope on Mauna Kea were identified in early 2014 , resulting in a dramatic improvement of the orbital accuracy , sufficient to recognize the object as a regular main belt asteroid , not posing any danger to Earth . The body was subsequently linked by the Minor Planet Center with additional observations reported since 1997 . It has now a well-established orbit , observed over decades , with the lowest possible uncertainty of 0 .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "2004_BX159", "rank": 38, "score": 118468 }, { "content": "Title: Vog Content: Vog is a form of air pollution that results when sulfur dioxide and other gases and particles emitted by an erupting volcano react with oxygen and moisture in the presence of sunlight . The word is a portmanteau of the words `` volcanic '' , `` smog '' , and `` fog '' . The term is in common use in the Hawaiian islands , where the Kīlauea volcano , on the Island of Hawaii ( aka `` The Big Island '' ) , has been erupting continuously since January 3 , 1983 . Based on June 2008 measurements , Kīlauea emits 2,000 -- 4,000 tons of sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) every day .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Vog", "rank": 39, "score": 117938 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Corporation Content: Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Corporation is the world 's largest processor of macadamia seeds . The American company was a subsidiary of The Hershey Company from 2004 to 2015 , when it was acquired by Hawaiian Host , Inc. . The company takes its name from the volcano Mauna Loa . Their headquarters and main processing plant are near the mountain , south of Hilo in the Puna District of the island of Hawaii , known as the Big Island .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Mauna_Loa_Macadamia_Nut_Corporation", "rank": 40, "score": 117746 }, { "content": "Title: James Clerk Maxwell Telescope Content: The James Clerk Maxwell Telescope ( JCMT ) is a submillimetre-wavelength telescope at Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawaii . The telescope is near the summit of Mauna Kea at 13,425 ft. Its primary mirror is 15 metres ( 16.4 yards ) across : it is the largest single-dish telescope that operates in submillimetre wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum ( far-infrared to microwave ) . Scientists use it to study the Solar System , interstellar dust and gas , and distant galaxies . The JCMT started operations in 1987 , and was funded until February 2015 by a partnership between the United Kingdom and Canada , and the Netherlands . It was operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre and was named in honour of mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell . In March 2015 the operation of the JCMT was taken over by the East Asian Observatory . The JCMT has the second-largest telescope mirror on Mauna Kea ( the largest is the VLBA antenna ) . The telescope was combined with the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory next to it , to form the first submillimetre interferometer . This success was important in pushing ahead the construction of the later Submillimeter Array and the Atacama Large Millimeter Array interferometers .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "James_Clerk_Maxwell_Telescope", "rank": 41, "score": 117639 }, { "content": "Title: Thirty Meter Telescope Content: The Thirty Meter Telescope ( TMT ) is a proposed astronomical observatory with an extremely large telescope ( ELT ) that has become the source of controversy over its planned location on Mauna Kea in the US state of Hawaii . Construction of the TMT on land which is claimed to be sacred to Native Hawaiian culture and religion , attracted international coverage after October 2014 , when construction was temporarily halted voluntarily due to protests . While construction of the telescope was set to resume on April 2 and later on June 24 , 2015 , it was blocked by further protests each time . The Board of Land and Natural Resources approved the TMT project , but the State Supreme Court of Hawaii invalidated the building permits in December 2015 , ruling that the board had not followed due process . Roque de los Muchachos Observatory , La Palma , Canary Islands , Spain is the alternative site if construction can not go forward in Hawaii . The TMT would become the last area on Mauna Kea on which any telescope will ever be built . Scientists have been considering ELTs since the mid 1980s . In 2000 , astronomers considered the possibility of a telescope with a light-gathering mirror larger than 20 meters in diameter . The technology to build a mirror larger than 8.4 meters does not exist ; instead scientists considered using either small segments that create one large mirror , or a grouping of larger 8-meter mirrors working as one unit . The US National Academy of Sciences recommended a 30-meter telescope be the focus of U.S. interests , seeking to see it built within the decade . Scientists at the University of California and Caltech began development of a design that would eventually become the TMT , consisting of 492 segmented mirrors with nine times the power of the Keck telescope . Due to its immense light-gathering power and the optimal observing conditions which exist atop Mauna Kea , the TMT would enable astronomers to conduct research which is unfeasible with current instruments . The TMT is designed for near-ultraviolet to mid-infrared ( 0.31 to 28 μm wavelengths ) observations , featuring adaptive optics to assist in correcting image blur . The TMT will be at the highest altitude of all the proposed ELTs . The telescope has government-level support from several R&D spending nations : China , Japan , Canada and India .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Thirty_Meter_Telescope", "rank": 42, "score": 117302 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano School Content: The Volcano School refers to a group of non-native Hawaiian artists who painted dramatic nocturnal scenes of Hawaii 's erupting volcanoes . Some of the artists also produced watercolors , which , by the nature of the medium , tended to be diurnal . At their best , these paintings exemplify a fusion of the European Sublime aesthetic , Romantic landscapes , and the American landscape traditions . Two volcanoes on the Island of Hawaii , Kilauea and Mauna Loa , were intermittently active during the 1880s and 1890s , when interest in Volcano School paintings peaked . Getting to Kilauea , the more frequently painted volcano required an arduous two - or three-day roundtrip journey on horseback . Printmaker and art educator Huc-Mazelet Luquiens called this period `` a little Hawaiian renaissance '' .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Volcano_School", "rank": 43, "score": 116102 }, { "content": "Title: Mauga Afi Content: Mauna Afi is a volcanic mountain on the island of Savai'i in Samoa . Its name means Burning Mountain or Mountain of Fire , from the Samoan language mauga ( mountain ) and afi ( fire ) . The most recent eruption of Mauga Afi was around 1725 . The island of Savai'i consists of a massive shield volcano and is still volcanically active . Other volcanoes on Savai'i include Mt Silisili , the highest mountain in Samoa and Mt Matavanu . The eruption of Mt Matavanu ( 1905 -- 1911 ) destroyed villages on the central north coast of Savai'i which can be seen by the lava fields in Saleaula village . In Samoan mythology the god of earthquakes is Mafui'e . Another mythical figure Ti'iti ' i tricked the earthquake god so that Samoans could have fire to cook their food . Samoans well understood the connection between volcanic eruptions/earthquakes and tsunamis , as shown by the ancient term for tsunami - galuafi , or `` wave of fire/volcano '' .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Mauga_Afi", "rank": 44, "score": 115678 }, { "content": "Title: AMiBA Content: The Yuan-Tseh Lee Array for Microwave Background Anisotropy , also known as the Array for Microwave Background Anisotropy ( AMiBA ) , is a radio telescope designed to observe the cosmic microwave background and the Sunyaev-Zel ` dovich effect in clusters of galaxies . It is located on Mauna Loa in Hawaii , at 3396 m above sea level . AMiBA was originally configured as a 7-element interferometer atop a hexapod mount . Observations at a wavelength of 3 mm ( 86 -- 102 GHz ) started in October 2006 , and the detections of six clusters by the Sunyaev-Zel ` dovich effect were announced in 2008 . In 2009 the telescope was upgraded to 13 elements , and it is capable of further expansion to 19 elements . AMiBA is the result of a collaboration between the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics , the National Taiwan University and the Australia Telescope National Facility , and also involves researchers from other universities . __ NOTOC __", "qid": "2992", "docid": "AMiBA", "rank": 45, "score": 115636 }, { "content": "Title: Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park Content: Hawaii Volcanoes National Park , established on August 1 , 1916 , is a United States National Park located in the U.S. State of Hawaii on the island of Hawaii . It encompasses two active volcanoes : Kīlauea , one of the world 's most active volcanoes , and Mauna Loa , the world 's most massive shield volcano . The park delivers scientists insight into the birth of the Hawaiian Islands and ongoing studies into the processes of volcanism . For visitors , the park offers dramatic volcanic landscapes as well as glimpses of rare flora and fauna . In recognition of its outstanding natural values , Hawaii Volcanoes National Park was designated as an International Biosphere Reserve in 1980 and a World Heritage Site in 1987 . In 2012 the Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park was honored on the 14th quarter of the America the Beautiful Quarters series .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Hawaiʻi_Volcanoes_National_Park", "rank": 46, "score": 115493 }, { "content": "Title: Global Oscillations Network Group Content: The Global Oscillation Network Group ( GONG ) is a community-based program to study solar internal structure and dynamics using helioseismology . Six solar observatories are involved , with the intention of achieving almost unbroken observation of the Sun . The six observatories are the Teide Observatory ( Canary Islands ) , the Learmonth Solar Observatory ( Western Australia ) , the Big Bear Solar Observatory ( California ) , the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory ( Hawaii ) , the Udaipur Solar Observatory ( India ) and the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory ( Chile ) . In 2001 , the original GONG detectors were upgraded to 1000 x 1000 pixels and continuous magnetograms were implemented , and the new system is known as GONG + + . More recently ( c. 2010 ) , improvements to GONG observatory instrumentation have been made to enable imaging of the Hα ( `` H-alpha '' ) spectral line of hydrogen in the solar atmosphere . The GONG Program is managed by the National Solar Observatory , which is operated by AURA , Inc. under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Global_Oscillations_Network_Group", "rank": 47, "score": 115412 }, { "content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 Content: Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 ( OCO-2 ) is an American environmental science satellite which launched on 2 July 2014 . A NASA mission , it is a replacement for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory which was lost in a launch failure in 2009 . It is the second successful high-precision ( better than 0.3 % ) observing satellite , after GOSAT .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory_2", "rank": 48, "score": 115108 }, { "content": "Title: USS Mauna Loa (AE-8) Content: USS Mauna Loa ( AE-8 ) was laid down by Tampa Shipbuilding Co. , Tampa , Fla. , 10 December 1942 ; launched 14 April 1943 ; sponsored by Mrs. Robert E. Friend ; and commissioned 27 October 1943 , Comdr. George D. Martin in command . She is named after Mauna Loa , a large shield volcano on the Island of Hawaii .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "USS_Mauna_Loa_(AE-8)", "rank": 49, "score": 114964 }, { "content": "Title: Hawaiian eruption Content: A Hawaiian eruption is a type of volcanic eruption where lava flows from the vent in a relatively gentle , low level eruption ; it is so named because it is characteristic of Hawaiian volcanoes . Typically they are effusive eruptions , with basaltic magmas of low viscosity , low content of gases , and high temperature at the vent . Very little amounts of volcanic ash are produced . This type of eruption occurs most often at hotspot volcanoes such as Kīlauea on Hawaii 's big island and in Iceland , though it can occur near subduction zones ( e.g. Medicine Lake Volcano in California , United States ) and rift zones . Another example of Hawaiian eruptions occurred on the island of Surtsey in Iceland from 1964 to 1967 , when molten lava flowed from the crater to the sea . Hawaiian eruptions may occur along fissure vents , such as during the eruption of Mauna Loa Volcano in 1950 , or at a central vent , such as during the 1959 eruption in Kīlauea Iki Crater , which created a lava fountain 580 meters ( 1,900 ft ) high and formed a 38-meter cone named Puu Puai . In fissure-type eruptions , lava spurts from a fissure on the volcano 's rift zone and feeds lava streams that flow downslope . In central-vent eruptions , a fountain of lava can spurt to a height of 300 meters or more ( heights of 1600 meters were reported for the 1986 eruption of Mount Mihara on Izu Ōshima , Japan ) . Hawaiian eruptions usually start by the formation of a crack in the ground from which a curtain of incandescent magma or several closely spaced magma fountains appear . The lava can overflow the fissure and form aā or pāhoehoe style of flows . When such an eruption from a central cone is protracted , it can form lightly sloped shield volcanoes , for example Mauna Loa or Skjaldbreiður in Iceland .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Hawaiian_eruption", "rank": 50, "score": 114890 }, { "content": "Title: UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey Content: The UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey or UKIDSS is an astronomical survey conducted using the WFCAM wide field camera on the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope on Mauna Kea in Hawaii . Survey observations were commenced in 2005 . UKIDSS consists of five surveys covering a range of areas and depths , using various combinations of five near-infrared filters .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "UKIRT_Infrared_Deep_Sky_Survey", "rank": 51, "score": 114787 }, { "content": "Title: (85627) 1998 HP151 Content: , also written as ( 85627 ) 1998 HP151 is a cubewano . It has a perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) at 40.297 AU and an aphelion ( farthest approach from the Sun ) of 48.306 AU . It is about 146 km in diameter . It was discovered on April 28 , 1998 , at the Mauna Kea Observatory , Hawaii .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "(85627)_1998_HP151", "rank": 52, "score": 114764 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Carbon_offset", "rank": 53, "score": 114324 }, { "content": "Title: (52747) 1998 HM151 Content: , also written as ( 52747 ) 1998 HM151 , is a cubewano . It has a perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) at 41.902 AU and an aphelion ( farthest approach from the Sun ) at 47.500 AU . It is 116 km in diameter . It was discovered on April 29 , 1998 , at the Mauna Kea Observatory , Hawaii .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "(52747)_1998_HM151", "rank": 54, "score": 114220 }, { "content": "Title: Fuel factor Content: The fuel factor , fo , is the ratio of created CO2 to depleted oxygen in a combustion reaction , used to check the accuracy of an emission measurement system . It can be calculated using the equation fo = ( 20.9 - % O2 ) / % CO2 , Where % O2 is the percent O2 by volume , dry basis , % CO2 is the percent CO2 by volume , dry basis , and 20.9 is the percent O2 by volume in ambient air . The Fuel factor can be corrected for the amount of CO , by adding the percent CO on a dry basis to the CO2 , and subtracting half of the percent CO from the O2 .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Fuel_factor", "rank": 55, "score": 114109 }, { "content": "Title: Strategic Explorations of Exoplanets and Disks with Subaru Content: Strategic Explorations of Exoplanets and Disks with Subaru ( SEEDS ) is a multi-year survey that used the Subaru Telescope on Mauna Kea , Hawaii in an effort to directly image extrasolar planets and protoplanetary/debris disks around several hundred nearby stars . Near-infrared imaging was carried out using the AO188 Adaptive Optics System and HiCIAO high-contrast imaging instrument . The survey is headquartered at National Astronomical Observatory of Japan ( NAOJ ) and led by Principal Investigator Motohide Tamura . The survey team includes over a hundred members from dozens of institutes around the world . Observations began in late October 2009 , and finished in early January 2015 . The goals of the survey are to address the following key issues in exoplanet ∕ disk science : ( 1 ) the detection and census of exoplanets in the outer circumstellar regions around stars , ( 2 ) the evolution of protoplanetary and debris disks including their morphological diversity , and ( 3 ) the link between exoplanets and circumstellar disks .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Strategic_Explorations_of_Exoplanets_and_Disks_with_Subaru", "rank": 56, "score": 113951 }, { "content": "Title: Joint Astronomy Centre Content: The Joint Astronomy Centre ( JAC ) was a management organisation based in Hilo , Hawaii , which from c.1980-2015 operated two large telescopes at Mauna Kea Observatory on behalf of an international consortium from the United Kingdom , Canada and the Netherlands , and provided support for other telescopes and public outreach activities . The JAC also maintained the Starlink Project between 2006 and 2015 . Following withdrawal of funding by the partner nations , on March 1 , 2015 the Joint Astronomy Centre closed and the facility was handed over to the East Asian Observatory which now runs the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope . The major telescopes formerly operated by the JAC were : The United Kingdom Infrared Telescope ( UKIRT ) - 3.8 m diameter . The James Clerk Maxwell Telescope - 15m diameter submillimeter telescope", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Joint_Astronomy_Centre", "rank": 57, "score": 113109 }, { "content": "Title: HD 183263 b Content: HD 183263 b is an extrasolar planet orbiting the star HD 183263 . This planet has a minimum mass of 3.69 times more than Jupiter and takes 1.7364 years to orbit the star . The planet was discovered on January 25 , 2005 using multiple Doppler measurements of five nearby FGK main-sequence stars and subgiants obtained during the past 4 -- 6 years at the Keck Observatory in Mauna Kea , Hawaii . These stars , namely , HD 183263 , HD 117207 , HD 188015 , HD 45350 , and HD 99492 , all exhibit coherent variations in their Doppler shifts consistent with a planet in Keplerian motion , and the results were published in a paper by Geoffrey Marcy et al. . Photometric observations were acquired for four of the five host stars with an automatic telescope at Fairborn Observatory . The lack of brightness variations in phase with the radial velocities supports planetary-reflex motion as the cause of the velocity variations . An additional planet in the system was discovered later .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "HD_183263_b", "rank": 58, "score": 113062 }, { "content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide", "rank": 59, "score": 112629 }, { "content": "Title: Multi-component gas analyzer system Content: A multi-component gas analyzer system ( Multi-GAS ) is an instrument package used to take real-time high-resolution measurements of volcanic gas plumes . A Multi-GAS package includes an infrared spectrometer for CO2 , two electrochemical sensors for SO2 and H2S , and pressure -- temperature -- humidity sensors , all in a weatherproof box weighing approximately 3 kg , as well as radio transmitters to transmit data to remote locations . The instrument package is portable , and its operation and data analysis are simple enough to be conducted by non-specialists . Multi-GAS instruments have been used to measure volcanic gas plumes at Mount Etna , Stromboli , Vulcano Italy , Villarrica ( volcano ) Chile , Masaya Volcano Nicaragua , Mount Yasur and Ambrym Vanuatu , Miyake-jima and Mount Asama Japan , Soufrière Hills Montserrat , with permanent installations at Etna and Stromboli . Multi-GAS measurements of CO2/SO2 ratios can allow detection of the pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas , improving prediction of volcanic activity .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Multi-component_gas_analyzer_system", "rank": 60, "score": 112489 }, { "content": "Title: 1995 GJ Content: 1995 GJ with an inclination of 22.9 ° may be the first cubewano ( classical KBO ) discovered to have an inclination greater than 20 degrees . Most cubewanos have inclinations of less than 10 degrees . Using the assumed eccentricity of this asteroid , 1995 GJ may come to opposition in mid March of each year at an apparent magnitude of 22.9 . Unfortunately , this object was only observed six times over the two nights of 1995 April 3 -- 4 , so the orbit is very inaccurate , and the asteroid is lost . 1995 GJ was discovered by David C. Jewitt and J. Chen at the Mauna Kea Observatory , Hawaii using the 88-inch ( 2.2-meter ) University of Hawaii telescope .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "1995_GJ", "rank": 61, "score": 112349 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 62, "score": 111338 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 63, "score": 111309 }, { "content": "Title: Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project Content: Deep Earth Carbon Degassing ( DECADE ) project is an initiative to unite scientists around the world to make tangible advances towards quantifying the amount of carbon outgassed from the Earth 's deep interior ( core , mantle , crust ) into the surface environment ( e.g. biosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , atmosphere ) through naturally occurring processes . DECADE is an initiative within the Deep Carbon Observatory ( DCO ) . Volcanoes are the main pathway in which deeply-sourced volatiles , including carbon , are transferred from the Earth 's interior to the surface environment . An additional , though less well understood pathway includes along faults and fractures within the Earth 's crust , often referred to as tectonic degassing . When the DCO was first formed in 2009 estimates of global carbon flux from volcanic regions ranged from 65 to 540 Mt/yr , and constraints on global tectonic degassing were virtually unknown . The order of magnitude uncertainty in current volcanic/tectonic carbon outgassing makes answering fundamental questions about the global carbon budget virtually impossible . In particular , one fundamental unknown is if carbon transferred to the Earth 's interior via subduction is efficiently recycled back to the Earth 's mantle lithosphere , crust and surface environment through volcanic and tectonic degassing , or if significant quantities of carbon are being subducted into the deep mantle . Because significant quantities of mantle carbon are also released through Mid-Ocean Ridge volcanism , if carbon inputs and outputs at subduction zone settings are in balance , then the net effect will be an imbalance in the global carbon budget , with carbon being preferentially removed from the Earth 's deep interior and redistributed to more shallow reservoirs including the mantle lithosphere , crust , hydrosphere and atmosphere . The implications of this may mean that carbon concentrations in the surface environment are increasing over Earth 's history , which has significant implications for climate change . Findings from the DECADE project will increase our understanding of the way carbon cycles through deep Earth , and patterns in volcanic emissions data could potentially alert scientists to an impending eruption .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Deep_Earth_Carbon_Degassing_Project", "rank": 64, "score": 110580 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Carbon_footprint", "rank": 65, "score": 110232 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Content: Mauna can refer to : Mauna ( moth ) , genus of moths Mauna ( silence ) , silence in Hindu philosophy Mauna , Käbschütztal , village in Käbschütztal , Germany A Hawaiian word for mountain , used in the following Hawaiian volcano names : Mauna Loa , on Hawai'i Mauna Kea , on Hawai'i Mauna Ulu , cinder cone of Kīlauea , on Hawai'i Mauna Iki , cinder cone of Kīlauea , on Hawai'i Mauna Haleakalā , on Maui Mauna Hina , cinder cone of Haleakalā", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Mauna", "rank": 66, "score": 110107 }, { "content": "Title: (86047) 1999 OY3 Content: , also written as ( 86047 ) 1999 OY3 , is a trans-Neptunian object that resides in the Kuiper belt beyond Pluto . It was discovered on July 18 , 1999 , at the Mauna Kea Observatory , Hawaii .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "(86047)_1999_OY3", "rank": 67, "score": 109960 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Kea Trail Content: The Mauna Kea Trail is considered the easiest route to hike to the summit of Mauna Kea volcano , the highest volcano on the island of Hawai . The trail is 6 mi long and loosely follows an unmaintained dirt road . Iron poles mark the path every 500 ft. The trailhead begins at the Visitor Information Station at the Onizuka Center for International Astronomy at 9200 ft , at which can be reached by car from the Saddle Road ( Hawaii route 200 ) and then turning north on the Mauna Kea Access Road . Registration is required and there is a drop box for hikers who might start before the visitor center opens . The first 0.2 miles of the trail is on the Mauna Kea Access Road after which it veers left off the road onto dirt . From 10000 to the path consists of scree . From 11000 to the area is predominantly a ' a lava flows and is not as steep . At 13130 ft the road forks , with one path going to Lake Waiau and the other fork to the summit . At 13200 ft , the trail meets the Mauna Kea Access Road . From this point on the trail continues by following the road and the 2 switchbacks to the rim of the crater at 13680 ft where the observatories on the top are located . From this point , there are multiple routes to the highest point of the rim . Since the mountain is considered sacred to the Native Hawaiians , there is sign posted requesting hikers to respect the culture and environment and not hike to the actual summit . The actual wording is `` Aloha . Mauna Kea is historically , culturally and environmentally significant . Help preserve our cultural and natural landscape and show your respect by not hiking beyond this point to the summit '' . The summit region is typically very cold ( winter storms can drop up to 2 feet of snow on January and February ) , and sunscreen for protection from UV rays is recommended . Water is also recommended , although Lake Waiau is also drinkable . The air is 40 % thinner at the summit than at sea level . Also , because of the atmosphere above Mauna Kea , there are many large telescopes and other space observation instruments . Mauna Loa is usually visible from the summit area as well as most of the trail .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Mauna_Kea_Trail", "rank": 68, "score": 109944 }, { "content": "Title: Hualālai Content: Hualālai ( pronounced -LSB- - hawhuwəˈlaːlɐi -RSB- in Hawaiian ) is an active volcano on the island of Hawaii in the Hawaiian Islands . It is the westernmost , third-youngest and the third most active of the five shield volcanoes that form the island of Hawaii , following Kīlauea and the much larger Mauna Loa . Its peak stands 8,271 ft above sea level . Hualālai is estimated to have risen above sea level about 300,000 years ago . Despite maintaining a very low level of activity since its last eruption in 1801 , Hualālai is still considered active , and is expected to erupt again some time within the next century . The relative unpreparedness of the residents in the area caused by the lull in activity would worsen the consequences of such an event . The area near the volcano has been inhabited for centuries by Hawaiian natives , dating back to before recorded history . The coast west of Hualālai in particular had several royal complexes . The volcano is also important ecologically , is home to many rare species and several nature reserves near the summit , and is a popular hiking attraction . Today the coast near Hualālai is dotted by vacation resorts , some built on historic flows , and a National Historical Park .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Hualālai", "rank": 69, "score": 109935 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Carbon_profiling", "rank": 70, "score": 109572 }, { "content": "Title: International Planetary Patrol Program Content: The NASA International Planetary Patrol Program consists of a network of astronomical observatories to collect uninterrupted images and observations of the large-scale atmospheric and surface features of the planets . This group was established in 1969 , and consisted of the Mauna Kea Observatory , the Mount Stromlo Observatory , the Perth Observatory , the Republic Observatory , the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory , the Magdalena Peak Station of the New Mexico State University , and the Lowell Observatory . The activities were coordinated by William A. Baum of Lowell Observatory . For Mars , they monitored clouds and dust storms , as well as the seasonal fluctuations in the climate . The martian dust storms of 1971 and 1973 were extensively covered . They also observed changes in the Jovian atmosphere , including the Great Red Spot . Venus has been monitored for circulation of the cloud deck .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "International_Planetary_Patrol_Program", "rank": 71, "score": 109091 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_sensor", "rank": 72, "score": 109060 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite", "rank": 73, "score": 108580 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 74, "score": 108497 }, { "content": "Title: Hawaii Volcanoes Wilderness Content: Hawaii Volcanoes Wilderness is a designated wilderness area within Hawaii Volcanoes National Park on the island of Hawaii in the U.S. state of Hawaii . It was designated in 1978 with 123100 acre , and was later expanded to 130790 acre . Wilderness designation covers the northwestern extension of the National Park , including Mokuaweoweo , the summit of the volcano Mauna Loa . In the southwestern portion of the park , a large chunk of wilderness includes several miles of coastline , a small portion southeast of the visitors center , and the Olaa Forest , which is separate from and just north of the park .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Hawaii_Volcanoes_Wilderness", "rank": 75, "score": 108452 }, { "content": "Title: Royal Observatory of Madrid Content: The Royal Observatory of Madrid is a historic observatory situated on a small hill next to the Buen Retiro Park in Madrid , Spain . It was completed in 1790 and took over some of the work previously done by the naval observatory on the south coast . It is the seat of the Spanish National Astronomical Observatory and the Observatorio Geofísico Central , both administered by the National Geographic Institute ( via its department of Astronomía , Geofísica y Aplicaciones Espaciales ) . Madrid is affected by light pollution and is not a good location for optical astronomy . Conditions for astronomical seeing are much better in other parts of Spanish territory , notably the Canary Islands , the second-best location for optical and infrared astronomy in the Northern Hemisphere , after Mauna Kea Observatory , Hawaii .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Royal_Observatory_of_Madrid", "rank": 76, "score": 108185 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide", "rank": 77, "score": 108070 }, { "content": "Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "ACEA_agreement", "rank": 78, "score": 108061 }, { "content": "Title: X-ray astronomy Content: X-ray astronomy is an observational branch of astronomy which deals with the study of X-ray observation and detection from astronomical objects . X-radiation is absorbed by the Earth 's atmosphere , so instruments to detect X-rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons , sounding rockets , and satellites . X-ray astronomy is the space science related to a type of space telescope that can see farther than standard light-absorption telescopes , such as the Mauna Kea Observatories , via x-ray radiation . X-ray emission is expected from astronomical objects that contain extremely hot gasses at temperatures from about a million kelvin ( K ) to hundreds of millions of kelvin ( MK ) . Although X-rays have been observed emanating from the Sun since the 1940s , the discovery in 1962 of the first cosmic X-ray source was a surprise . This source is called Scorpius X-1 ( Sco X-1 ) , the first X-ray source found in the constellation Scorpius . The X-ray emission of Scorpius X-1 is 10,000 times greater than its visual emission , whereas that of the Sun is about a million times less . In addition , the energy output in X-rays is 100,000 times greater than the total emission of the Sun in all wavelengths . Based on discoveries in this new field of X-ray astronomy , starting with Scorpius X-1 , Riccardo Giacconi received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2002 . It is now known that such X-ray sources as Sco X-1 are compact stars , such as neutron stars or black holes . Material falling into a black hole may emit X-rays , but the black hole itself does not . The energy source for the X-ray emission is gravity . Infalling gas and dust is heated by the strong gravitational fields of these and other celestial objects . Many thousands of X-ray sources are known . In addition , the space between galaxies in galaxy clusters is filled with a very hot , but very dilute gas at a temperature between 10 and 100 megakelvins ( MK ) . The total amount of hot gas is five to ten times the total mass in the visible galaxies .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "X-ray_astronomy", "rank": 79, "score": 107897 }, { "content": "Title: NASA Infrared Telescope Facility Content: The NASA Infrared Telescope Facility ( NASA IRTF ) is a 3 m telescope optimized for use in infrared astronomy and located at the Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawaii . It was first built to support the Voyager missions and is now the USA national facility for infrared astronomy , providing continued support to planetary , solar neighborhood , and deep space applications . The IRTF is operated by the University of Hawaii under a cooperative agreement with NASA . According to the IRTF 's time allocation rules , at least 50 % of the observing time is devoted to planetary science .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "NASA_Infrared_Telescope_Facility", "rank": 80, "score": 107697 }, { "content": "Title: Kīlauea Content: Kīlauea ( -LSB- langˌkiːlaʊˈeɪə -RSB- , also -LSB- ˌkɪləˈweɪə -RSB- ; -LSB- tiːlɐwˈwɛjə -RSB- ) is a currently active shield volcano in the Hawaiian Islands , and the most active of the five volcanoes that together form the island of Hawaii . Located along the southern shore of the island , the volcano is between 300,000 and 600,000 years old and emerged above sea level about 100,000 years ago . It is the second youngest product of the Hawaiian hotspot and the current eruptive center of the Hawaiian -- Emperor seamount chain . Because it lacks topographic prominence and its activities historically coincided with those of Mauna Loa , Kīlauea was once thought to be a satellite of its much larger neighbor . Structurally , Kīlauea has a large , fairly recently formed caldera at its summit and two active rift zones , one extending 125 km east and the other 35 km west , as an active fault of unknown depth moving vertically an average of 2 to per year . Kīlauea 's eruptive history has been a long and active one ; its name means `` spewing '' or `` much spreading '' in the Hawaiian language , referring to its frequent outpouring of lava . The earliest lavas from the volcano date back to its submarine preshield stage , samples having been recovered by remotely operated underwater vehicles from its submerged slopes ; samples of other flows have been recovered as core samples . Lavas younger than 1,000 years cover 90 percent of the volcano 's surface . The oldest exposed lavas date back 2,800 years . The first well-documented eruption of Kīlauea occurred in 1823 ( Western contact and written history began in 1778 ) , and since that time the volcano has erupted repeatedly . Most historical eruptions have occurred at the volcano 's summit or its eastern rift zone , and are prolonged and effusive in character . The geological record shows , however , that violent explosive activity predating European contact was extremely common , and in 1790 one such eruption killed over 80 warriors ; should explosive activity start anew the volcano would become much more of a danger to humans . Kīlauea 's current eruption dates back to January 3 , 1983 , and is by far its longest-duration historical period of activity , as well as one of the longest-duration eruptions in the world ; as of January 2011 , the eruption has produced 3.5 km3 of lava and resurfaced 123.2 km2 of land . Kīlauea 's high state of activity has a major impact on its mountainside ecology , where plant growth is often interrupted by fresh tephra and drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide , producing acid rains particularly in a barren area south of its southwestern rift zone known as the Kaʻū Desert . Nonetheless , wildlife flourishes where left undisturbed elsewhere on the volcano and is highly endemic thanks to Kīlauea 's ( and the island of Hawaii 's ) isolation from the nearest landmass . Historically , the five volcanoes on the island were considered sacred by the Hawaiian people , and in Hawaiian mythology Kīlauea 's Halemaumau Crater served as the body and home of Pele , goddess of fire , lightning , wind , and volcanoes . William Ellis , a missionary from England , gave the first modern account of Kīlauea and spent two weeks traveling along the volcano ; since its foundation by Thomas Jaggar in 1912 , the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory , located on the rim of Kīlauea caldera , has served as the principal investigative and scientific body on the volcano and the island in general . In 1916 , a bill forming the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson ; since then , the park has become a World Heritage Site and a major tourist destination , attracting roughly 2.6 million people annually .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Kīlauea", "rank": 81, "score": 107579 }, { "content": "Title: TanSat Content: TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) . TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "TanSat", "rank": 82, "score": 107331 }, { "content": "Title: Subaru Telescope Content: is the 8.2-metre flagship telescope of the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan , located at the Mauna Kea Observatory on Hawaii . It is named after the open star cluster known in English as the Pleiades . It had the largest monolithic primary mirror in the world from its commission until 2005 .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Subaru_Telescope", "rank": 83, "score": 107212 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas monitoring Content: Greenhouse gas monitoring is the direct measurement of greenhouse gas emissions and levels . Methods include satellite monitoring such as the Orbiting Carbon Observatory and networks of ground stations such as the Integrated Carbon Observation System . The individual units of ground stations often use an infrared detector to assess the concentration of a certain gas .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_monitoring", "rank": 84, "score": 106765 }, { "content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Amorphous_carbonia", "rank": 85, "score": 106150 }, { "content": "Title: (15875) 1996 TP66 Content: , also written as ( 15875 ) 1996 TP66 , is a resonant trans-Neptunian object in 2:3 resonance with Neptune , like Pluto ( plutino ) . It was discovered on 11 October 1996 by Chad Trujillo , David C. Jewitt , and Jane X. Luu at the Mauna Kea Observatory , Hawaii .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "(15875)_1996_TP66", "rank": 86, "score": 105949 }, { "content": "Title: Institute for Astronomy Content: Not to be confused with the Institute for Astronomy of the University of Edinburgh School of Physics and Astronomy . For other astronomy institutes with similar names , see : Institute of Astronomy . The Institute for Astronomy ( IfA ) is a research unit within the University of Hawaii system , led by Günther Hasinger as Director . IfA main headquarters are located at 2680 Woodlawn Drive in Honolulu , Hawaii , , on the University of Hawaii at Mānoa campus . Additional facilities are located at Pukalani , Maui and Hilo on Hawaii island ( the Big Island ) . IfA employs over 150 astronomers and support staff . IfA astronomers perform research into solar system objects , stars , galaxies and cosmology . The Institute for Astronomy was founded in 1967 to conduct research and to manage the observatory complexes at Haleakalā , Maui and the Mauna Kea Observatory on the summit of Mauna Kea . It has around 55 faculty and employs over 300 people .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Institute_for_Astronomy", "rank": 87, "score": 105754 }, { "content": "Title: Maunaloa, Hawaii Content: Maunaloa or Mauna Loa is a census-designated place ( CDP ) in Maui County , Hawaii , United States , in the western part of the island of Molokai . The population was 376 at the 2010 census .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Maunaloa,_Hawaii", "rank": 88, "score": 105674 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano Winery Content: Volcano Winery is one of three commercial wineries in the U.S. state of Hawaii , and the first winery founded on the Big Island of Hawaii in the town of Volcano , Hawaii , near the summit of the active shield volcano Kīlauea . It is the southernmost winery in the United States . The winery is located on a fault line that runs near Mauna Loa .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Volcano_Winery", "rank": 89, "score": 105620 }, { "content": "Title: Besançon Astronomical Observatory Content: The Besançon Astronomical Observatory ( Observatoire de Besançon ; Observatoire des sciences de l'Univers de Besançon ) is an astronomical observatory owned and operated by the Centre national de la recherche scientifique ( CNRS , National Center for Scientific Research ) . It is located in Besançon , France . In the past , the Besançon Observatory participated in assessing and rating Swiss timepiece movements for accuracy . As marine navigation adopted the usage of mechanical timepieces for navigational aid , the accuracy of such timepieces became more critical . From this need developed an accuracy testing regime involving various astronomical observatories . In Europe , the Neuchatel Observatory , Geneva Observatory , Besançon Observatory and Kew Observatory were examples of prominent observatories that tested timepiece movements for accuracy . The testing process lasted for many days , typically 45 days . Each movement was tested in 5 positions and 2 temperatures , in 10 series of 4 or 5 days each . The tolerances for error were much finer than any other standard , including the ISO 3159 chronometer standard that other testing bodies such as COSC use . Movements that passed the stringent tests were issued a certification from the observatory called a Bulletin de Marche , signed by the Director of the Observatory . The General Bulletin Order stated the testing criteria , and the actual performance of the movement . A movement with a bulletin from an observatory became known as an Observatory Chronometer , and such were issued a chronometer reference number by the Observatory . The role of the observatories in assessing the accuracy of mechanical timepieces was instrumental in driving the mechanical watchmaking industry toward higher and higher levels of accuracy . As a result , today high quality mechanical watch movements have an extremely high degree of accuracy . However , no mechanical movement could ultimately compare to the accuracy of the quartz movements being developed . Accordingly , such chronometer certification ceased in the late 1960s and early 1970s with the advent of the quartz watch movement .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Besançon_Astronomical_Observatory", "rank": 90, "score": 105505 }, { "content": "Title: Occator (crater) Content: Occator -LSB- Q'keit@r -RSB- is an impact crater located on Ceres that contains `` Spot 5 '' , the brightest of the bright spots observed by the Dawn spacecraft . It was known as `` Region A '' in ground-based images taken by the W. M. Keck Observatory on Mauna Kea . The crater was named after Occator , the Roman god of the harrow and a helper to Ceres . On 9 December 2015 , scientists reported that the bright spots on Ceres , including those in Occator crater , may be related to a type of salt , particularly a form of brine containing magnesium sulfate hexahydrite ( MgSO4 · 6H2O ) ; the spots were also found to be associated with ammonia-rich clays . More recently , on 29 June 2016 , scientists reported the bright spot to be mostly sodium carbonate , implying that hydrothermal activity was probably involved in creating the bright spots . The spot in the center of the crater is named Cerealia Facula , and the group of spots to the east - Vinalia Faculae . __ TOC __", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Occator_(crater)", "rank": 91, "score": 105274 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano observatory Content: A volcano observatory is an institution that conducts research and monitoring of a volcano . Each observatory provides continuous and periodic monitoring of the seismicity , other geophysical changes , ground movements , volcanic gas chemistry , and hydrologic conditions and activity between and during eruptions . They also provide a detailed record of eruptions in progress .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Volcano_observatory", "rank": 92, "score": 104798 }, { "content": "Title: Paranal Observatory Content: Paranal Observatory is an astronomical observatory operated by the European Southern Observatory ( ESO ) ; it is located in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile on Cerro Paranal at 2,635 m altitude , 120 km south of Antofagasta . By total light-collecting area , it is the largest optical-infrared observatory in the Southern hemisphere ; worldwide , it is second to the Mauna Kea Observatory on Hawaii . The Very Large Telescope ( VLT ) , the largest telescope on Paranal , is composed of four separate 8.2 m telescopes . In addition , the four main telescopes can combine their light to make a fifth instrument , the Very Large Telescope Interferometer ( VLTI ) . Four auxiliary telescopes of 1.8 m each are also part of the VLTI to make it available when the main telescopes are being used for other projects . The site also houses the 2.6 m VLT Survey Telescope and 4.0 m VISTA survey telescope with wider fields of view for surveying large areas of sky uniformly . Two major new facilities are under construction nearby : the Southern part of the Cherenkov Telescope Array gamma-ray telescope ( not owned by ESO ) will be sited in the grounds 10km south-east of Paranal ; while ESO 's future E-ELT will be on the nearby peak of Cerro Armazones 20km east of Paranal , and will share some of the base facilities .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Paranal_Observatory", "rank": 93, "score": 104405 }, { "content": "Title: Haleakalā Content: Haleakalā ( -LSB- ˌhɑːliːˌɑːkəˈlɑː -RSB- Hawaiian : -LSB- - hawˈhɐlɛˈjɐkəˈlaː -RSB- ) , or the East Maui Volcano , is a massive shield volcano that forms more than 75 % of the Hawaiian Island of Maui . The western 25 % of the island is formed by another volcano , Mauna Kahalawai , also referred to as the West Maui Mountains . The tallest peak of Haleakalā ( `` house of the sun '' ) , at 10023 ft , is Puu Ulaula ( Red Hill ) . From the summit one looks down into a massive depression some 11.25 km ( 7 mi ) across , 3.2 km ( 2 mi ) wide , and nearly 800 m ( 2,600 ft ) deep . The surrounding walls are steep and the interior mostly barren-looking with a scattering of volcanic cones .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Haleakalā", "rank": 94, "score": 104257 }, { "content": "Title: Respiratory exchange ratio Content: The respiratory exchange ratio ( RER ) is the ratio between the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) produced in metabolism and oxygen ( O2 ) used . Humans typically inhale more molecules of oxygen than they exhale of carbon dioxide because air contains much more oxygen by volume . The ratio is determined by comparing exhaled gases to room air . Measuring this ratio can be used for estimating the respiratory quotient ( RQ ) , an indicator of which fuel ( carbohydrate or fat ) is being metabolized to supply the body with energy . This estimation is only valid if metabolism is in a steady state . RER is about 0.8 at rest with a modern diet . This value however , can exceed 1 during intense exercise , as CO2 production by the working muscles becomes greater and more of the inhaled O2 gets used rather than being expelled . During moderate or higher intensity aerobic exercise and anaerobic exercise , using RER for estimating RQ loses accuracy because of factors including bicarbonate buffering of hydrogen ions , which affects the CO2 levels being expelled by the respiratory system . Calculation of RER is commonly done in conjunction with exercise tests such as the VO2 Max Test and can be used as an indicator that the participants are nearing exhaustion and the limits of their cardio-respiratory system . An RER greater than or equal to 1.15 is often used as a secondary endpoint criterion of a VO2 Max Test . An RER of 0.70 indicates that fat is the predominant fuel source , RER of 0.85 suggests a mix of fat and carbohydrates , and a value of 1.00 or above is indicative of carbohydrate being the predominant fuel source . Oxidation of a molecule of Carbohydrate 6 O2 + C6H12O6 = > 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 6 CO2/6 O2 = 1.0 Oxidation of a molecule of Fatty Acid 23 O2 + C16H32O2 = > 16 CO2 + 16 H2O + 129 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 16 CO2/23 O2 = 0.7", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Respiratory_exchange_ratio", "rank": 95, "score": 103710 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 96, "score": 103610 }, { "content": "Title: Roque de los Muchachos Observatory Content: Roque de los Muchachos Observatory ( Spanish : Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos , ORM ) is an astronomical observatory located in the municipality of Garafía on the island of La Palma in the Canary Islands . The observatory site is operated by the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias , based on nearby Tenerife . ORM is part of the European Northern Observatory . The seeing statistics at ORM make it the second-best location for optical and infrared astronomy in the Northern Hemisphere , after Mauna Kea Observatory , Hawaii . The site also has some of the most extensive astronomical facilities in the Northern Hemisphere ; its fleet of telescopes includes the 10.4 m Gran Telescopio Canarias , the world 's largest single-aperture optical telescope as of July 2009 , the William Herschel Telescope ( second largest in Europe ) , and the adaptive optics corrected Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope , which provides the highest resolution solar imaging of any telescope .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "Roque_de_los_Muchachos_Observatory", "rank": 97, "score": 103150 }, { "content": "Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 98, "score": 103136 }, { "content": "Title: 1993 RP Content: 1993 RP is a trans-Neptunian object ( TNO ) of the plutino class . It was discovered a day after ( 385185 ) 1993 RO and a day before ( 15788 ) 1993 SB . The discovery was made in 1993 at the Mauna Kea Observatory with a 2.2 m telescope . Very little is known about the object .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "1993_RP", "rank": 99, "score": 102898 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2992", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 100, "score": 102783 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 1, "score": 230660 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 2, "score": 170053 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 3, "score": 134270 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 4, "score": 130422 }, { "content": "Title: Manning Massif Content: Manning Massif is a large rock massif between Loewe Massif and McLeod Massif in the eastern part of the Aramis Range , Prince Charles Mountains , Antarctica . It was plotted from air photographs , and was first visited by a party from the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions ( ANARE ) Prince Charles Mountains survey in 1969 . The massif was named by the Antarctic Names Committee of Australia for J. Manning , a surveyor at Mawson Station in 1967 , and surveyor-in-charge of field survey operations during the ANARE Prince Charles Mountains surveys of 1969 , 1971 and 1972 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Manning_Massif", "rank": 5, "score": 129442 }, { "content": "Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "774–775_carbon-14_spike", "rank": 6, "score": 127793 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Loa Solar Observatory Content: Mauna Loa Solar Observatory ( MLSO ) is a solar observatory located on the slopes of Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii in the U.S. state of Hawaii . It is operated by the High Altitude Observatory ( HAO ) , a laboratory within the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) . The MLSO sits on property managed by the Mauna Loa Observatory ( MLO ) , which is part of the U.S. Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . MLSO was built in 1965 . The MLSO is tasked with monitoring the solar atmosphere and recording data on plasmic and energetic emissions from the chromosphere and corona . Studies of coronal mass ejections ( CMEs ) are also conducted at MLSO . A number of non-solar astronomical observatories are located at the site . The MLSO instruments record images of the solar disk and limb every 3 minutes for 3 -- 10 hours daily starting at 17:00 UT , weather permitting .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Mauna_Loa_Solar_Observatory", "rank": 7, "score": 127372 }, { "content": "Title: MAVEN Content: Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN Mission ( MAVEN ) is a space probe developed by NASA designed to study the Martian atmosphere while orbiting Mars . Mission goals include determining how the planet 's atmosphere and water , presumed to have once been substantial , were lost over time . MAVEN was successfully launched aboard an Atlas V launch vehicle at the beginning of the first launch window on November 18 , 2013 . Following the first engine burn of the Centaur second stage , the vehicle coasted in low Earth orbit for 27 minutes before a second Centaur burn of five minutes to insert it into a heliocentric Mars transit orbit . On September 22 , 2014 , MAVEN reached Mars and was inserted into an areocentric elliptic orbit 6200 km by 150 km above the planet 's surface . The principal investigator for the spacecraft is Bruce Jakosky of the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder . On 5 November 2015 , NASA announced that data from MAVEN shows that the deterioration of Mars ' atmosphere increases significantly during solar storms . That loss of atmosphere to space likely played a key role in Mars ' gradual shift from its carbon dioxide-dominated atmosphere - which had kept Mars relatively warm and allowed the planet to support liquid surface water - to the cold , arid planet seen today . This shift took place between about 4.2 to 3.7 billion years ago .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "MAVEN", "rank": 8, "score": 125283 }, { "content": "Title: Jacob Manning House Content: The Jacob Manning House is a historic house at 140 High Street in Reading , Massachusetts . Built in 1877 for garden nursery owner Jacob Manning , this 2.5 story wood frame house is an excellent local example of Stick style architecture . It has a steeply pitched roof , multiple gables , tall thin windows , and decorative half-timber woodwoork . The owner , Jacob Manning , owned one of the largest nurseries in the area , and was responsible for the landscaping of the Massachusetts pavilion at the 1893 Chicago World Fair . The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Jacob_Manning_House", "rank": 9, "score": 124609 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 10, "score": 124348 }, { "content": "Title: Charles Manning House Content: The Charles Manning House is a historic house at 145 Salem Street in Reading , Massachusetts . It is a - story wood-frame house , three bays wide , with a front-facing gable roof , clapboard siding , and a granite foundation . Built c. 1850 , it has well-preserved Greek Revival details . It has a typical three-bay side-hall plan , with corner pilasters and a main entry surround consisting of long sidelight windows framed by pilasters and topped by an entablature . The windows are topped by shallow pedimented lintels . Charles Manning was a longtime Reading resident and part of its woodworking community , building parlor desks . Reading 's Manning Street is named for him . The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Charles_Manning_House", "rank": 11, "score": 123808 }, { "content": "Title: Rowhouses at 256-274 Haven Street Content: The Rowhouses at 256-274 Haven Street ( also known as the Edward Manning Houses ) are a series of historic rowhouses at 256-274 Haven Street in Reading , Massachusetts , USA . They were built in 1886 by Edward Manning on the site of a millyard that had been destroyed by fire a few years before . The rowhouses are in a Greek Revival/Italianate style , unusual given that these styles had passed out of fashion by that time . They are the only period rowhouses in Reading . The rowhouses were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Rowhouses_at_256-274_Haven_Street", "rank": 12, "score": 123718 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Loa Content: Mauna Loa ( -LSB- ˌmɔːnə_ˈloʊ . ə -RSB- or -LSB- ˌmaʊnə_ˈloʊ . ə -RSB- Hawaiian : -LSB- - hawˈmɐwnə ˈlowə -RSB- Long Mountain ) is one of five volcanoes that form the Island of Hawaii in the U.S. state of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean . The largest subaerial volcano in both mass and volume , Mauna Loa has historically been considered the largest volcano on Earth . It is an active shield volcano with relatively gentle slopes , with a volume estimated at approximately 18000 mi3 , although its peak is about 120 ft lower than that of its neighbor , Mauna Kea . Lava eruptions from Mauna Loa are silica-poor and very fluid , and they tend to be non-explosive . Mauna Loa has probably been erupting for at least 700,000 years , and may have emerged above sea level about 400,000 years ago . The oldest-known dated rocks are not older than 200,000 years . The volcano 's magma comes from the Hawaii hotspot , which has been responsible for the creation of the Hawaiian island chain over tens of millions of years . The slow drift of the Pacific Plate will eventually carry Mauna Loa away from the hotspot within 500,000 to one million years from now , at which point it will become extinct . Mauna Loa 's most recent eruption occurred from March 24 to April 15 , 1984 . No recent eruptions of the volcano have caused fatalities , but eruptions in 1926 and 1950 destroyed villages , and the city of Hilo is partly built on lava flows from the late 19th century . Because of the potential hazards it poses to population centers , Mauna Loa is part of the Decade Volcanoes program , which encourages studies of the world 's most dangerous volcanoes . Mauna Loa has been monitored intensively by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory since 1912 . Observations of the atmosphere are undertaken at the Mauna Loa Observatory , and of the Sun at the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory , both located near the mountain 's summit . Hawaii Volcanoes National Park covers the summit and the southeastern flank of the volcano , and also incorporates Kīlauea , a separate volcano .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Mauna_Loa", "rank": 13, "score": 123479 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 14, "score": 119010 }, { "content": "Title: Manning Nunataks Content: The Manning Nunataks are a group of nunataks in the eastern side of the southern part of the Amery Ice Shelf , Antarctica , about 20 nmi north-northeast of Pickering Nunatak . They were photographed from the air by Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions in 1957 , and were named by the Antarctic Names Committee of Australia for Sergeant A.S. Manning , Royal Australian Air Force , an airframe fitter at Mawson Station in 1958 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Manning_Nunataks", "rank": 15, "score": 118195 }, { "content": "Title: USS Mauna Loa (AE-8) Content: USS Mauna Loa ( AE-8 ) was laid down by Tampa Shipbuilding Co. , Tampa , Fla. , 10 December 1942 ; launched 14 April 1943 ; sponsored by Mrs. Robert E. Friend ; and commissioned 27 October 1943 , Comdr. George D. Martin in command . She is named after Mauna Loa , a large shield volcano on the Island of Hawaii .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "USS_Mauna_Loa_(AE-8)", "rank": 16, "score": 118041 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Loa Observatory Content: The Mauna Loa Observatory ( MLO ) is an atmospheric baseline station on Mauna Loa , on the island of Hawaii .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Mauna_Loa_Observatory", "rank": 17, "score": 117367 }, { "content": "Title: Bomb pulse Content: The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Bomb_pulse", "rank": 18, "score": 116579 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 19, "score": 116094 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 20, "score": 116033 }, { "content": "Title: Leighton relationship Content: In atmospheric chemistry , the Leighton relationship is an equation that determines the concentration of tropospheric ozone in areas polluted by the presence of nitrogen oxides . Ozone in the troposphere is primarily produced through the photolysis of nitrogen dioxide at wavelengths less than 430 nm , which are able to reach the lowest levels of the atmosphere , through the following mechanism : NO2 + hν ( λ < 240 nm ) → NO + O ( 3P ) ( J1 ) O ( 3P ) + O2 + M → O3 + M ( k2 ) NO + O3 → NO2 + O2 ( k3 ) Since O ( 3P ) is very reactive it can be assumed to be in steady state , and thus an equation linking the concentrations of the species involved can be derived : The Leighton relationship above shows how production of ozone is directly related to the solar intensity and hence to the zenith angle . The yield of this molecule will therefore be a maximum during the day , especially at noon and in the summer season ; it also demonstrates how high concentrations of both ozone and nitric oxide are unfeasible . However , NO can react with peroxyl radicals to give back NO2 without loss of ozone : RO2 + NO → NO2 + RO providing another pathway to allow the buildup of O3 . This relationship is named after Philip Leighton , who wrote a significant book in 1961 describing air pollution , as recognition of his contributions in the understanding of tropospheric chemistry .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Leighton_relationship", "rank": 21, "score": 113708 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 22, "score": 112956 }, { "content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory", "rank": 23, "score": 112276 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 24, "score": 111670 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 25, "score": 111452 }, { "content": "Title: Ainapo Trail Content: The Ainapo Trail was the primary route to the summit of Mauna Loa from prehistory to 1916 . The trail began on the southeast flank at 2000 feet of elevation and reached Mokuaweoweo , the summit crater , at 13200 ft. It was sometimes called Menzies Trail after Archibald Menzies who was the first recorded outsider to climb the mountain in 1794 . The Ainapo Trail was added to the National Register of Historic Places on August 30 , 1974 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Ainapo_Trail", "rank": 26, "score": 111388 }, { "content": "Title: SS Mauna Loa Content: SS Mauna Loa was a steam-powered cargo ship of Matson Navigation Company that was sunk in the bombing of Darwin in February 1942 . She was christened SS West Conob in 1919 and renamed SS Golden Eagle in 1928 . At the time of her completion in 1919 , the ship was inspected by the United States Navy for possible use as USS West Conob ( ID-4033 ) but was neither taken into the Navy nor ever commissioned . West Conob was built in 1919 for the , part of the West series of ships -- steel-hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort -- and was the 14th ship built at Los Angeles Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company in San Pedro , California . She initially sailed for the Pacific Mail Steamship Company and circumnavigated the globe twice by 1921 . She began sailing to South America for Swayne & Hoyt Lines in 1925 , and then , to Australia and New Zealand . When Swayne & Hoyt 's operation was taken over by the Oceanic and Oriental Navigation Company a few years later , she sailed under the name Golden Eagle until 1934 , when she was taken over by the Matson Navigation Company for service between Hawaii and the U.S. mainland and renamed Mauna Loa , after the large shield volcano on the Island of Hawaii . Shortly before the United States ' entry into World War II , Mauna Loa was chartered by the United States Department of War to carry supplies to the Philippines . The ship was part of an aborted attempt to reinforce Allied forces under attack by the Japanese on Timor in mid-February 1942 . After the return of her convoy to Darwin , Northern Territory , Mauna Loa was one of eight ships sunk in Darwin Harbour in the first Japanese bombing attack on the Australian mainland on 19 February . The remains of her wreck and her cargo are a dive site in the harbor .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "SS_Mauna_Loa", "rank": 27, "score": 111141 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 28, "score": 111012 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide", "rank": 29, "score": 110473 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Carbon_monoxide", "rank": 30, "score": 110017 }, { "content": "Title: Paleoatmosphere Content: A paleoatmosphere ( or palaeoatmosphere ) is an atmosphere , particularly that of Earth , at some unspecified time in the geological past . The composition of Earth 's paleoatmosphere can be inferred today from the study of the abundance of proxy materials such as iron oxides , charcoal and the stomatal density of fossil leaves in geological deposits . Although today 's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , and argon ( about 1 % ) , the pre-biological atmosphere is thought to have been a highly reducing atmosphere , having virtually no free oxygen , virtually no argon , which is generated by the radioactive decay of 40K , and to have been dominated by nitrogen , carbon dioxide and methane . Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago ( Ma ) . After the Great Oxygenation Event , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials , notably dissolved iron . By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma , free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms . Following the subsequent appearance , rapid evolution and radiation of land plants , which covered much of the Earth 's land surface , beginning about 450 Ma , oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations . This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Paleoatmosphere", "rank": 31, "score": 109754 }, { "content": "Title: Manning Manse Content: The Manning Manse is a historic house at 56 Chelmsford Road in North Billerica , Massachusetts . The two story wood frame house was built c. 1696 by Samuel Manning . It has a classic First Period form , with five bays on the front facade , a large central chimney , and a rear leanto section ( which in this instance faces the street , as the house faces south , away from the street ) . The house was preserved in the late 19th century due to the efforts of Manning descendant William H. Manning . The building was extensively damaged by fire in 1994 , but was restored . The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982 . It is the oldest building in Billerica .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Manning_Manse", "rank": 32, "score": 109428 }, { "content": "Title: Jack Manning (footballer) Content: John Tom `` Jack '' Manning ( 1886 -- March 1946 ) was an English professional footballer who scored 31 goals from 218 appearances in the Football League either side of the First World War . He played as a forward , most frequently at outside right . Manning represented four clubs -- Hull City , Bradford Park Avenue , Rotherham County and Queens Park Rangers -- during the first season played by each of those clubs in the Football League , and also played league football for Lincoln City .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Jack_Manning_(footballer)", "rank": 33, "score": 108598 }, { "content": "Title: Fred M. Manning Content: Fred M. Manning ( D. 1958 ) was an American oil developer . Manning was born in Henrietta , Texas . He founded an oil drilling company in Fort Worth , Texas in 1925 , and moved his family to Denver in 1930 . Manning is credited with discovering the biggest oil field in Oklahoma , and , later in life , as founder of Coastal Drilling , Co. in California , of large finds in the Kettleman North Dome Oil Field . At one point , the oil drilling operation run by Manning , father and son , was the third largest in the United States . In 1948 , Fred M. Manning became acquainted with Dwight D. Eisenhower during one of Eisenhower 's visits to the Doud family in Denver . The two men corresponded frequently over the next several years . > In the early 1950s Manning moved to Rancho Santa Fe , California , where he died in October 1958 . His wife Hazel continued to correspond with the Eisenhowers for several years thereafter .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Fred_M._Manning", "rank": 34, "score": 108240 }, { "content": "Title: Ninole Hills Content: The Ninole Hills , also known as the Ninole Volcanic Series , are steep eroded hills of shield basalts on the south side of the Island of Hawaii . Recent data suggests that these hills are either the remnants of large escarpments that pre-date the Mauna Loa volcano ( the largest active volcano in the world ) , or uplifted blocks from the oldest parts of the Mauna Loa fault system . The Ninole Hills are remains of the top rim of a big deep hollow left when the prehistoric Punalu`u landslide slid away . The rim over time eroded into deep canyons as lava from Mauna Loa ran down into the hollow and slowly filled it instead of burying the rim area , until now parts of the tops of the inter-canyon ridges are still unburied . It is apparent from the ruggedness of the eroded hills that they are much older than the surrounding landscape . Most of the surface of Mauna Loa is thought to have formed within the last 4,000 years , but the Ninole Hills are estimated to be between 100,000 and 200,000 years old . During this period there seem to have been massive failures in the support of the south wall of Mauna Loa , resulting in debris landslides that removed chunks out of the volcano , revealing remnants of the older sections of Mauna Loa .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Ninole_Hills", "rank": 35, "score": 107962 }, { "content": "Title: Manning, Bowman & Co. Content: The Manning , Bowman & Co. ( 1849-1945 ) was formed in Meriden , Connecticut , and over the years produced granite iron and pearl agate ware , electro-silver and nickel-plated ware , britannia and planished goods . The company location was at Pratt and Miller Streets in Meriden , occupying a unique triangular-shaped building that has since been demolished . Across the street across from the Meriden Public Library original , brick back buildings of the original Manning , Bowman & Co. can be seen . As of 2016 , over 70 Manning , Bowman & Co. designs are in American museums and collections , including most notably at Connecticut Historical Society in Hartford as well as the Brooklyn Museum , the Dallas Museum of Art , Museum of Fine Arts , Boston and Yale University Art Gallery . Manning , Bowman & Co. exhibited products in the 1876 Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia , the Exposition Universelle ( 1878 ) in Paris and the Melbourne International Exhibition ( 1880 ) .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Manning,_Bowman_&_Co.", "rank": 36, "score": 107817 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 37, "score": 107574 }, { "content": "Title: Manning House (Andover, Massachusetts) Content: The Manning House is a historic house at 37 Porter Road in Andover , Massachusetts . It was built c. 1760 for Hezekiah Ballard , a local farmer . Ballard sold the property to Thomas Manning , a cordwainer , in 1771 , and it has been in the Manning family ever since . The main block of the house is a 2.5 story colonial structure with a gambrel roof , which is rare in Andover for the period . Its main entrance is into a projected central vestibule , and there are a series of additions added to the back of the house . The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Manning_House_(Andover,_Massachusetts)", "rank": 38, "score": 107505 }, { "content": "Title: USS Mauna Loa (SP-28) Content: The first USS Mauna Loa ( SP-28 ) was an armed motorboat that served in the United States Navy as a patrol vessel from 1917 to 1918 . Mauna Loa was built in 1916 by George Lawley and Sons at Neponset , Massachusetts , as a private motorboat of the same name . The U.S. Navy acquired her from her owner , A. C. James , on a free lease contract on 10 May 1917 for World War I service . She was commissioned as USS Mauna Loa ( SP-28 ) on 11 May 1917 . Mauna Loa was assigned to the 1st Naval District . She patrolled the coast of northern New England until the end of the war . The Navy decommissioned Mauna Loa on 5 December 1918 and returned her to her owner the same day .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "USS_Mauna_Loa_(SP-28)", "rank": 39, "score": 107386 }, { "content": "Title: USS Mauna Loa Content: USS Mauna Loa has been the name of more than one United States Navy ship , and may refer to : USS Mauna Loa ( SP-28 ) , a patrol boat in commission from 1917 to 1918 , a Matson Navigation Company ship under charter to the United States Department of War to rush supplies to the Philippines in November 1941 that was later sunk by Japanese bombs in the bombing of Darwin , Australia on 19 February 1942 . , an ammunition ship in commission from 1943 to 1947 , from 1955 to 1958 , and from 1961 to 1971 Category : United States Navy ship names", "qid": "2994", "docid": "USS_Mauna_Loa", "rank": 40, "score": 107192 }, { "content": "Title: UH88 Content: The University of Hawai'i 88-inch ( 2.2-meter ) telescope called UH88 , UH2 .2 , or simply 88 by members of the local astronomical community is situated at the Mauna Kea Observatories and operated by the University 's Institute for Astronomy . It was constructed in 1968 , and entered service in 1970 , at which point it was known as `` The Mauna Kea Observatory . '' It became one of the first professional telescope to be controlled by a computer . The telescope was built with funding from NASA , to support Solar System missions and is controlled by the University of Hawai'i . The success of the telescope helped demonstrate the value of Mauna Kea for astronomical observations . On December 4 , 1984 it became the first telescope to make optical closure phase measurements on an astronomical source using an aperture mask . UH88 is a Cassegrain reflector tube telescope with an f/10 focal ratio , supported by a large open fork equatorial mount . It was the last telescope on Mauna Kea to use a tube design rather than an open truss , and is the largest in the complex to use an open fork mount , with neighboring telescopes in the 3-meter class using English fork designs . As the only research telescope controlled solely by the University , UH88 has long been the primary telescope used by its professors , postdoctoral scholars and graduate students , and as a result , the site of numerous discoveries . David C. Jewitt and Jane X. Luu discovered the first Kuiper belt object , 1992 QB1 using UH88 , and a team led by Jewitt and Scott S. Sheppard discovered 45 of the known moons of Jupiter , as well as moons of Saturn , Uranus and Neptune . The Institute for Astronomy also makes agreements with other organizations for portions of available observing time . Currently , the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan uses UH88 for some research projects for which its far larger and more expensive Subaru Observatory , also on Mauna Kea , would be overkill . The Nearby Supernova Factory project , based at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , also has its Supernova Integrated Field Spectrograph ( SNIFS ) instrument mounted on UH88 . In June 2011 , the telescope and its weather station were struck by lightning , damaging many systems and disabling it , but the telescope was repaired by August 2011 Some of the systems at the observatory were 41 years old at the time of the damage and had to be reverse engineered to be fixed.The weather station is currently under development .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "UH88", "rank": 41, "score": 106808 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Corporation Content: Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Corporation is the world 's largest processor of macadamia seeds . The American company was a subsidiary of The Hershey Company from 2004 to 2015 , when it was acquired by Hawaiian Host , Inc. . The company takes its name from the volcano Mauna Loa . Their headquarters and main processing plant are near the mountain , south of Hilo in the Puna District of the island of Hawaii , known as the Big Island .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Mauna_Loa_Macadamia_Nut_Corporation", "rank": 42, "score": 106498 }, { "content": "Title: International Planetary Patrol Program Content: The NASA International Planetary Patrol Program consists of a network of astronomical observatories to collect uninterrupted images and observations of the large-scale atmospheric and surface features of the planets . This group was established in 1969 , and consisted of the Mauna Kea Observatory , the Mount Stromlo Observatory , the Perth Observatory , the Republic Observatory , the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory , the Magdalena Peak Station of the New Mexico State University , and the Lowell Observatory . The activities were coordinated by William A. Baum of Lowell Observatory . For Mars , they monitored clouds and dust storms , as well as the seasonal fluctuations in the climate . The martian dust storms of 1971 and 1973 were extensively covered . They also observed changes in the Jovian atmosphere , including the Great Red Spot . Venus has been monitored for circulation of the cloud deck .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "International_Planetary_Patrol_Program", "rank": 43, "score": 106472 }, { "content": "Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth", "rank": 44, "score": 106408 }, { "content": "Title: Manning Bowl Content: Manning Bowl is a former American football and soccer stadium located in Lynn , Massachusetts . It was the home stadium for Lynn English , Lynn Classical , Lynn Tech , St. Mary 's High School , the Boston Rovers of the United Soccer Association in 1967 , and the Bay State Titans of the Minor League Football System in 1990 . Demolished in 2005 , it was replaced by Manning Field built at the same location .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Manning_Bowl", "rank": 45, "score": 106077 }, { "content": "Title: West Molokai Volcano Content: West Molokai Volcano , sometimes called Mauna Loa for the census-designated place , is an extinct shield volcano comprising the western half of Molokai island in the U.S. state of Hawaii .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "West_Molokai_Volcano", "rank": 46, "score": 105932 }, { "content": "Title: Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory Content: The Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory is an atmospheric baseline station operated by Environment and Climate Change Canada located at Alert , Nunavut , on the north-eastern tip of Ellesmere Island , about 800 km south of the geographic north pole . The observatory is the northernmost of 31 Global Stations in an international network coordinated by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) under its Global Atmosphere Watch ( GAW ) program to study the long-term effects of pollution on the atmospheric environment . Among these 31 stations , Alert is one of three greenhouse gas `` intercomparison supersites '' , along with Mauna Loa in Hawaii and Cape Grim in Australia , which , due to their locations far from industrial activity , provide the international scientific community with a baseline record of atmospheric chemistry .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Dr._Neil_Trivett_Global_Atmosphere_Watch_Observatory", "rank": 47, "score": 105695 }, { "content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage", "rank": 48, "score": 105693 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Kea Content: Mauna Kea ( -LSB- ˌmɔːnə_ˈkeɪ . ən -RSB- or -LSB- ˌmaʊnə_ˈkeɪ . ə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈmɐwnə ˈkɛjə -RSB- ) , is a dormant volcano on the island of Hawaii . Standing 4207 m above sea level , its peak is the highest point in the state of Hawaii . Much of the mountain is under water ; when measured from its oceanic base , Mauna Kea is over 10000 m tall . Mauna Kea is about a million years old , and has thus passed the most active shield stage of life hundreds of thousands of years ago . In its current post-shield state , its lava is more viscous , resulting in a steeper profile . Late volcanism has also given it a much rougher appearance than its neighboring volcanoes ; contributing factors include the construction of cinder cones , the decentralization of its rift zones , the glaciation on its peak , and the weathering effects of the prevailing trade winds . Mauna Kea last erupted 6,000 to 4,000 years ago and is now considered dormant . In Hawaiian mythology , the peaks of the island of Hawaii are sacred . An ancient law allowed only high-ranking aliʻi to visit its peak . Ancient Hawaiians living on the slopes of Mauna Kea relied on its extensive forests for food , and quarried the dense volcano-glacial basalts on its flanks for tool production . When Europeans arrived in the late 18th century , settlers introduced cattle , sheep and game animals , many of which became feral and began to damage the mountain 's ecological balance . Mauna Kea can be ecologically divided into three sections : an alpine climate at its summit , a Sophora chrysophylla -- Myoporum sandwicense ( or māmane -- naio ) forest on its flanks , and an Acacia koa -- Metrosideros polymorpha ( or koa -- ōhia ) forest , now mostly cleared by the former sugar industry , at its base . In recent years , concern over the vulnerability of the native species has led to court cases that have forced the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources to eradicate all feral species on the mountain . With its high elevation , dry environment , and stable airflow , Mauna Kea 's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation . Since the creation of an access road in 1964 , thirteen telescopes funded by eleven countries have been constructed at the summit . The Mauna Kea Observatories are used for scientific research across the electromagnetic spectrum from visible light to radio , and comprise the largest such facility in the world . Their construction on a landscape considered sacred by Native Hawaiians continues to be a topic of debate .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Mauna_Kea", "rank": 49, "score": 105427 }, { "content": "Title: Limiting oxygen concentration Content: Limiting oxygen concentration , ( LOC ) , also known as the Minimum oxygen concentration , ( MOC ) , is defined as the limiting concentration of oxygen below which combustion is not possible , independent of the concentration of fuel . It is expressed in units of volume percent of oxygen . The LOC varies with pressure and temperature . It is also dependent on the type of inert ( non-flammable ) gas . The effect of increasing the concentration of inert gas can be understood by viewing the inert as thermal ballast that quenches the flame temperature to a level below which the flame can not exist . Carbon dioxide is therefore more effective than nitrogen due to its higher molar heat capacity The concept has important practical use in fire safety engineering . For instance , to safely fill a new container or a pressure vessel with flammable gasses , the atmosphere of normal air ( containing about 21 volume percent of oxygen ) in the vessel would first be flushed ( purged ) with nitrogen or another non-flammable inert gas , thereby reducing the oxygen concentration inside the container . When the oxygen concentration is below the LOC , flammable gas can be safely admitted to the vessel because the possibility of internal explosion has been eliminated . The limiting oxygen concentration is a necessary parameter when designing hypoxic air fire prevention systems .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Limiting_oxygen_concentration", "rank": 50, "score": 105401 }, { "content": "Title: Paul Manning (TV producer) Content: Paul Manning ( December 3 , 1959 in Madison , Wisconsin -- January 2 , 2005 in Sherman Oaks , California ) was an American television producer and writer .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Paul_Manning_(TV_producer)", "rank": 51, "score": 105396 }, { "content": "Title: Ethelwyn Manning Content: Ethelwyn Manning ( 23 November 1885 -- 1 June 1972 ) was the second Chief Librarian of the Frick Art Reference Library . During World War II , she assisted the Committee of the American Council of Learned Societies ( ACLS ) on Protection of Cultural Treasures in War Areas , later known as the Monuments , Fine Arts , and Archives program ( MFAA ) .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Ethelwyn_Manning", "rank": 52, "score": 105354 }, { "content": "Title: J. Fred Manning Content: J. Fred Manning ( September 17 , 1875 -- December 6 , 1955 ) was a Massachusetts politician who served as the 39th Mayor of Lynn , Massachusetts . The Manning Bowl , Lynn 's football stadium from 1938 to 2004 was named for Manning . Manning Field , Lynn 's current football stadium was named for Manning .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "J._Fred_Manning", "rank": 53, "score": 105050 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Loa (disambiguation) Content: Mauna Loa is a volcano in Hawaii . Mauna Loa may also refer to : Mauna Loa Observatory , an observatory on the slopes of that volcano Mauna Loa Solar Observatory , another observatory on that volcano Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Corporation , a Hawaiian business Maunaloa , a community on the Hawaiian island of Moloka'i SS Mauna Loa , a steam-powered cargo ship USS Mauna Loa , the name of more than one United States Navy ship Mauna Loa ( Molokai ) , an extinct volcano composing the western half of island of Molokai", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Mauna_Loa_(disambiguation)", "rank": 54, "score": 104943 }, { "content": "Title: Joseph K. Manning House Content: The Joseph K. Manning House is a historic house at 35 -- 37 Forest Street in Medford , Massachusetts . Built in 1875 , this three story wood frame house is the most elaborate Second Empire house in the city . The most prominent feature of this architecturally complex building is a hexagonal pavilion attached to its porch at the western corner . It has an elaborate jigsaw-cut frieze and Stick style decorative woodwork , with a balustrade with heavy turned balusters . The house 's mansard roof is shingled in multiple bands of colored slate , and pierced by pedimented dormers . At the upper roof line there is iron cresting . The house was built for Joseph King Manning , the son of a wealthy lumber dealer . The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Joseph_K._Manning_House", "rank": 55, "score": 104756 }, { "content": "Title: Project Vulcan Content: Project Vulcan is a NASA/DOE funded effort under the North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) to quantify North American fossil fuel carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions at space/time scales much finer than has been achieved in the past . The initial purpose of the Vulcan Project was to aid in quantification of the North American carbon budget , to support inverse estimation of carbon sources and sinks , and to support the demands posed by higher resolution CO2 observations . The detail and scope of the Vulcan CO2 inventory has now made it a valuable tool for policymakers , demographers , social scientists and the public at large . Project Vulcan has achieved U.S. fossil fuel CO2 emissions at < 10 km spatial scales and an hourly time scale , based on datasets such as air quality emissions reporting , census data , highway statistics , energy statistics , and econometric data . Furthermore , Vulcan includes significant process-level detail , dividing the emissions into economic sectors and sub-sectors in addition to 23 fuel types . It has been produced for the year 2002 , and an annual product spanning 1980-2006 will be available by late-2009 . The first Vulcan inventory ( v1 .0 ) was released to the public in early April 2008 . Version 1.1 was released in February 2009 and Version 1.2 is due out in early August 2009 . In addition to the data release , establishment of the Vulcan website and a press release , a video of various aspects of atmospheric transport was released on Purdue University 's YouTube website and portions of the Vulcan inventory are available on Google Earth . As of 2015 , version 2.2 has been published on a site hosted by Arizona State University .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Project_Vulcan", "rank": 56, "score": 104606 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 57, "score": 104370 }, { "content": "Title: Camptandriidae Content: The Camptandriidae are a family of crabs , with 38 species in 21 genera : Baruna Stebbing , 1904 Calabarium Manning & Holthuis , 1981 Camptandrium Stimpson , 1858 Cleistostoma De Haan , 1833 Deiratonotus Manning & Holthuis , 1981 Ecphantor Manning & Holthuis , 1981 Ilyogynnis Manning & Holthuis , 1981 Lillyanella Manning & Holthuis , 1981 Manningis Al-Khayat & Jones , 1996 Moguai C. G. S. Tan & Ng , 1999 Mortensenella Rathbun , 1909 Nanusia C. G. S. Tan & Ng , 1999 Nasima Manning , 1991 Paracleistostoma De Man , 1895 Paratylodiplax Serène , 1974 Serenella Manning & Holthuis , 1981 Takedellus C. G. S. Tan & Ng , 1999 Telmatothrix Manning & Holthuis , 1981 Tylodiplax De Man , 1895", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Camptandriidae", "rank": 58, "score": 104330 }, { "content": "Title: Bruce A. Manning Content: Bruce A. Manning is a Professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry at San Francisco State University . He is an internationally recognized expert in environmental chemistry . He earned a B.S. in environmental science at the University of Massachusetts Amherst in 1985 and a Ph.D. in environmental chemistry from the University of California , Davis in 1993 . Prior to joining SFSU he was a Postdocoral Scientist at the USDA U.S. Salinity Laboratory in Riverside CA and the University of California , Riverside . Professor Manning has been a pioneer in applying X-ray techniques such as X-ray diffraction , fluorescence , and absorption spectroscopy to environmental chemistry problems and materials chemical research . Professor Manning 's research interests include soil chemistry , surface analysis , mineralogy , remediation , inorganic chemical analysis , and computational chemistry . His research has been funded by NSF , USDA , and DuPont and was a Research Corporation Cottrell College Science Award Fellow from 2001-2005 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Bruce_A._Manning", "rank": 59, "score": 104206 }, { "content": "Title: M. Joseph Manning Content: M. Joseph Manning ( 1924 or 1925 -- April 14 , 2015 ) was an American politician who was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "M._Joseph_Manning", "rank": 60, "score": 103891 }, { "content": "Title: P/2010 B2 (WISE) Content: P/2010 B2 is a periodic comet in the Solar System . It is the first comet discovered by the space observatory WISE and was first observed on January 22 , 2010 and has since been followed by ground observatories , among them the Mauna Kea Observatory . The comet has an orbital period of 4.7 years , an aphelion of 4 astronomical units and a perihelion of 1.6 astronomical units .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "P/2010_B2_(WISE)", "rank": 61, "score": 103374 }, { "content": "Title: Manning's Law Content: Manning 's Law describes the combination of principles that need to be balanced in the design and growth of universal linguistic dependencies . These dependencies are used to describe and model syntactic relations , for all languages . This supports natural language processing , and is a major topic , with its own event , thousands of linguistics and AI researchers working with and on it , and widely-adopted . The law is put forward by Christopher Manning .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Manning's_Law", "rank": 62, "score": 103146 }, { "content": "Title: Free-air concentration enrichment Content: Free-Air Carbon dioxide Enrichment ( FACE ) is a method used by ecologists and plant biologists that raises the concentration of in a specified area and allows the response of plant growth to be measured . Experiments using FACE are required because most studies looking at the effect of elevated concentrations have been conducted in labs and where there are many missing factors including plant competition . Measuring the effect of elevated using FACE is a better way of estimating how plant growth will change in the future as the concentration rises in the atmosphere . FACE also allows the effect of elevated on plants that can not be grown in small spaces ( trees for example ) to be measured .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Free-air_concentration_enrichment", "rank": 63, "score": 103084 }, { "content": "Title: Michael Manning (priest) Content: Father Michael John Manning ( December 30 , 1940 -- December 14 , 2016 ) was a Roman Catholic priest whose ministry is television . His program , The Word in the World , is seen weekly on The Church Channel . His programs also broadcast on Catholic television stations in Rockville Center , Yonkers , Youngstown and Fresno . Manning is also aired on the worldwide Military Network . In 1972 Manning began his ministry by hosting and producing the program `` Run for Daylight '' on a cable system in San Bernardino , California . In 1978 he started a nationally syndicated weekly program . Born in Muncie , Indiana in 1940 , Manning died on December 14 , 2016 from brain cancer . Manning 's goal is to present Catholic perspectives on life 's issues . He has a driving desire to build bridges among people of different Christian denominations and religions . He champions the causes of the poor and disenfranchised . His teachings bring insights into the Bible and the Catholic faith . Manning has appeared as a guest on Larry King Live , The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , Nancy Grace , The History Channel , Doctor Laura , The Leeza Show , The Montel Williams Show , The Phil Donahue Show , Hard Copy , Helpline at NBC and CBS Real People , The 700 Club , and Today 's Religion . For nine years he was a regular guest on the radio program Religion on the Line on KABC in Los Angeles with Dennis Prager .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Michael_Manning_(priest)", "rank": 64, "score": 102980 }, { "content": "Title: House v. Napolitano Content: House v. Napolitano ( D. Mass. , 2012 ) is a United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts case involving David House , a known supporter of Chelsea Manning and co-founder of the Manning Support Network , who brought action against Janet Napolitano , Secretary of the United States Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) , Alan Bersin , Commissioner of the U.S. Customs and Border Protection ( CBP ) , and John T. Morton , Director of the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement ( ICE ) ( collectively referred to as `` Defendants '' ) for the search and seizure of his electronic devices by federal agents at the border . Defendants moved to dismiss , and the court denied the motion on First Amendment and Fourth Amendment grounds . House subsequently reached a settlement with the government in May 2013 , to return or destroy all information obtained from the investigation .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "House_v._Napolitano", "rank": 65, "score": 102735 }, { "content": "Title: Geological history of oxygen Content: Before photosynthesis evolved , Earth 's atmosphere had no free oxygen ( O2 ) . Photosynthetic prokaryotic organisms that produced O2 as a waste product lived long before the first build-up of free oxygen in the atmosphere , perhaps as early as 3.5 billion years ago . The oxygen they produced would have been rapidly removed from the atmosphere by weathering of reducing minerals , most notably iron . This `` mass rusting '' led to the deposition of iron oxide on the ocean floor , forming banded iron formations . Oxygen only began to persist in the atmosphere in small quantities about 50 million years before the start of the Great Oxygenation Event . This mass oxygenation of the atmosphere resulted in rapid buildup of free oxygen . At current rates of primary production , today 's concentration of oxygen could be produced by photosynthetic organisms in 2,000 years . In the absence of plants , the rate of oxygen production by photosynthesis was slower in the Precambrian , and the concentrations of O2 attained were less than 10 % of today 's and probably fluctuated greatly ; oxygen may even have disappeared from the atmosphere again around 1.9 billion years ago . These fluctuations in oxygen concentration had little direct effect on life , with mass extinctions not observed until the appearance of complex life around the start of the Cambrian period , . The presence of provided life with new opportunities . Aerobic metabolism is more efficient than anaerobic pathways , and the presence of oxygen undoubtedly created new possibilities for life to explore . Since the start of the Cambrian period , atmospheric oxygen concentrations have fluctuated between 15 % and 35 % of atmospheric volume . The maximum of 35 % was reached towards the end of the Carboniferous period ( about 300 million years ago ) , a peak which may have contributed to the large size of insects and amphibians at that time . Whilst human activities , such as the burning of fossil fuels , affect relative carbon dioxide concentrations , their effect on the much larger concentration of oxygen is less significant .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Geological_history_of_oxygen", "rank": 66, "score": 102644 }, { "content": "Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "C._Kumar_N._Patel", "rank": 67, "score": 102406 }, { "content": "Title: Manning-Ball House Content: The Manning-Ball House is a historic house at 370 Manning Street in Jefferson , a village of Holden , Massachusetts . It is estimated to have been built c. 1790 , and is a well-preserved vernacular four-bay Cape style house . The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1995 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Manning-Ball_House", "rank": 68, "score": 102138 }, { "content": "Title: Warren H. Manning Content: Warren Henry Manning ( November 7 , 1860 -- 1938 ) was an American landscape designer and promoter of the informal and naturalistic `` wild garden '' approach to garden design . In his designs , Manning emphasized pre-existing flora through a process of selective pruning to create a `` spatial structure and character . '' ( Karson , 1997 ) An advocate for the conservation of the American landscape , Manning was a key figure in the formation of the American Society of Landscape Architects and a proponent of the National Park System .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Warren_H._Manning", "rank": 69, "score": 102021 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 70, "score": 102004 }, { "content": "Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Katsuko_Saruhashi", "rank": 71, "score": 101991 }, { "content": "Title: Lake Nyos disaster Content: The Lake Nyos disaster occurred on 21 August 1986 , when a limnic eruption at Lake Nyos , in northwestern Cameroon , produced a large cloud of carbon dioxide , which descended onto nearby villages , killing 1,746 people and 3,500 livestock . The eruption triggered the sudden release of about 100,000 -- 300,000 tons ( some sources state as much as 1.6 million tons ) of CO2 . This gas cloud rose at nearly 100 km/h and spilled over the northern lip of the lake . It then rushed down two valleys , branching off to the north , displacing all the air and suffocating people and livestock within 25 km of the lake . A degassing system has since been installed at the lake , with the aim of reducing the concentration of in deep waters and therefore the risk of further eruptions .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Lake_Nyos_disaster", "rank": 72, "score": 101930 }, { "content": "Title: USS Manning (DE-199) Content: USS Manning ( DE-199 ) , a of the United States Navy , was named in honor of Ordnanceman Milburn A. Manning ( 1920 -- 1941 ) , who was killed in action during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , 7 December 1941 . Manning was laid down by Charleston Navy Yard , on 15 February 1943 ; launched on 1 June 1943 ; sponsored by Mrs. J. H. Hughes ; and commissioned at the Charleston Navy Yard on 1 October 1943 , Lieutenant John I. Mingay in command .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "USS_Manning_(DE-199)", "rank": 73, "score": 101560 }, { "content": "Title: Mazuku Content: In geology , a mazuku ( Swahili : evil wind ) is a pocket of carbon dioxide-rich air that can be lethal to any human or animal life inside . Mazuku are created when carbon dioxide accumulates in pockets low to the ground . CO2 is heavier than air , which causes it to stay close to the ground , and is also undetectable by human olfactory or visual senses in most conditions . Mazuku can be related to volcanic activity or to a natural disaster known as a limnic eruption . In the first case , noxious gases are released from the Earth 's crust into the atmosphere , whereas in the second case the gases originate deep in a lake and boil rapidly to the surface . Because of their nature as sporadic and subtle events , few mazuku have been recorded , but there is a growing understanding of them based on historical and fossil evidence .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Mazuku", "rank": 74, "score": 101373 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Kea Observatories Content: The Mauna Kea Observatories ( MKO ) are a number of independent astronomical research facilities and large telescope observatories that are located at the summit of Mauna Kea on the Big Island of Hawaiʻi , United States . The facilities are located in a 525-acre ( 212 ha ) special land use zone known as the `` Astronomy Precinct '' , which is located within the 11,228-acre ( 4,544 ha ) Mauna Kea Science Reserve . The Astronomy Precinct was established in 1967 and is located on land protected by the Historical Preservation Act for its significance to Hawaiian culture . The location is ideal because of its dark skies , good astronomical seeing , low humidity and position above most of the water vapor in the atmosphere , clean air , good weather and almost equatorial location .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Mauna_Kea_Observatories", "rank": 75, "score": 101095 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 76, "score": 100721 }, { "content": "Title: Rolling Stones Concert in Lynn, Massachusetts Content: On June 24 , 1966 , the Rolling Stones rock band performed at Manning Bowl , in Lynn , Massachusetts , as the opening stop of The Rolling Stones American Tour 1966 . The venue in Lynn was selected at the last minute , as the original concert location in Boston was suddenly unavailable and the show promoters had to find an emergency alternative . The show was most memorable for the ensuing riot and the Rolling stones ( and audience ) were teargassed by the police . In post-event quotes , the Stones vowed to never come back to Lynn . ( Attributions coming ) Category : The Rolling Stones concert tours", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Rolling_Stones_Concert_in_Lynn,_Massachusetts", "rank": 77, "score": 100716 }, { "content": "Title: 2001 QW322 Content: is a binary minor planet and cubewano in the Kuiper belt . The object was discovered at Mauna Kea on July 27 , 2001 by JJ Kavelaars , J.-M . Petit , B. Gladman , and M. Holman . J. Kavelaars later in 2001 discovered that it is a binary . The components are estimated at about 130 km in diameter . It has been nicknamed Antipholus and Antipholus after twins in Shakespeare 's The Comedy of Errors . In 2008 , work was published showing that the binary has an extraordinarily long orbital period ( for a binary trans-Neptunian object , asteroid or minor planet ) of some 25 -- 30 years . The orbital radius is also remarkably high ( 105,000 to 135,000 km ) while the eccentricity is unusually low ( < 0.4 ) . All of these parameters are in the extremes of their normal ranges for such objects . The wide spacing and low eccentricity conspire to make the system prone to disruption , and its lifetime is estimated to be in the order of another billion years .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "2001_QW322", "rank": 78, "score": 100650 }, { "content": "Title: Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes Content: The fifteen volcanoes that make up the eight principal islands of Hawaii are the youngest in a chain of more than 129 volcanoes that stretch 5800 km across the North Pacific Ocean , called the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain . Hawaii 's volcanoes rise an average of 4572 m to reach sea level from their base . The largest and most famous , Mauna Loa , has built itself up to a height of 4169 m . As shield volcanoes , they are built by accumulated lava flows , growing no more than 3 m at a time to form a broad and gently sloping shape . Hawaiian volcanoes all follow a specific pattern of eruption , building , and erosion . Hawaiian islands undergo a systematic pattern of submarine and subaerial growth that is followed by erosion . An island 's stage of development reflects its distance from the Hawaii hotspot .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Evolution_of_Hawaiian_volcanoes", "rank": 79, "score": 99962 }, { "content": "Title: Thomas Manning (sinologist) Content: Thomas Manning ( November 8 , 1772 -- 1840 ) is considered the first lay Chinese studies scholar in Europe and was the first Englishman to enter Lhasa , the holy city of Tibet .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Thomas_Manning_(sinologist)", "rank": 80, "score": 99913 }, { "content": "Title: 2004 BX159 Content: , also written 2004 BX159 , is an estimated 1.2-kilometer-sized body of the Solar System . It was thought to be a Mars-crossing asteroid because of its poorly known orbit after discovery , and was therefore listed on the Sentry Risk Table as a possible impactor . With an observation arc of 3 days , perihelion was determined to be astronomical units ( AU ) . Precovery observations in archival data of the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope on Mauna Kea were identified in early 2014 , resulting in a dramatic improvement of the orbital accuracy , sufficient to recognize the object as a regular main belt asteroid , not posing any danger to Earth . The body was subsequently linked by the Minor Planet Center with additional observations reported since 1997 . It has now a well-established orbit , observed over decades , with the lowest possible uncertainty of 0 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "2004_BX159", "rank": 81, "score": 99829 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Ulu Content: Mauna Ulu is a volcanic cone in the eastern rift zone of the Kīlauea volcano on the island of Hawaii . It falls within the bounds of Volcanoes National Park . Mauna Ulu was in a state of eruption from May 1969 to July 1974 . The cone currently contains no lava pool but is considered volcanicly active .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Mauna_Ulu", "rank": 82, "score": 99755 }, { "content": "Title: Alberta general election, 1959 Content: The Alberta general election of 1959 was the fourteenth general election for the Province of Alberta , Canada . It was held on June 18 , 1959 to elect members of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta . Ernest C. Manning , in his fifth election as party leader and provincial premier , led the Social Credit Party to its seventh consecutive term in government , with 55 % of the popular vote , and all but four of the sixty five seats in the legislature . Social Credit was also helped by a split in the opposition vote : whereas in the 1955 election , opponents were largely united behind the Liberal Party , in this election the vote was divided between the Liberals and the resurgent Progressive Conservative Party under the leadership of Cam Kirby , won almost 15 % of the popular vote , placing ahead of the Liberals whose leader , Grant MacEwan lost his Calgary seat . The Tories and Liberals each won only one seat in the legislature while the Alberta CCF was shut out of the legislature for the first time in seventeen years . The Social Credit government did away with the Instant-runoff voting system , that had been in place in the rural constituencies , and the Single Transferable Vote system in Edmonton and Calgary , both of which had been in place since 1924 . The move was made to standardize and simplify voting results across the province . Under single transferable vote and instant-runoff voting , results would take up to five days to count all the possible vote transfers , before anyone was declared elected . This was especially problematic , in Edmonton that elected seven members . As well , the government in 1955 had lost a few members in rural constituencies due to IRV , when they had received the largest portion of the vote in the constituency but were not elected to the seat after re-distribution of the ballots in the second round . The cancellation of IRV system was meant to prevent this in the future . As a result , 1959 saw the biggest increase in new districts since 1909 mostly in Calgary and Edmonton . The change was met by some harsh criticism at the time , for failing to consult the public , but it did little to hurt the Social Credit government at the polls .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Alberta_general_election,_1959", "rank": 83, "score": 99374 }, { "content": "Title: Murder of Mallory Manning Content: Ngatai Lynette Manning ( also known as Mallory Manning ) was murdered in Christchurch , New Zealand on 18 December 2008 . Manning was picked up from her inner city , Manchester Street corner that she worked on as a prostitute , was taken to a property in Avonside and brutally killed by stabbing , strangling and assault with a metal pole . Her body was then dumped in the nearby Avon River and found the next morning by a kayaker . In March 2012 , Mauha Huatahi Fawcett , a 24-year-old , unemployed man was arrested and charged with the murder and abduction of Manning . Previously , the case 's severity and longevity had led police to fear of a repeat killer , and a reward on information was issued . Following the arrest police acknowledged there were more people involved than the man in custody and the investigation would be ongoing .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Murder_of_Mallory_Manning", "rank": 84, "score": 99248 }, { "content": "Title: Jack Manning (baseball) Content: John E. `` Jack '' Manning ( December 20 , 1853 -- August 15 , 1929 ) was an American Major League Baseball player . Born in Braintree , Massachusetts , United States , he broke into the National Association in at the age of 19 . His career covered 12 seasons , eight teams , and 3 leagues . He was a primarily a right fielder who also played many games as a pitcher , and would play the infield positions on occasion as well . On October 9 , , when his Philadelphia Quakers ballclub were visiting the Chicago White Stockings in Lakeshore Park , he hit three home runs in the same game , becoming the third player to do so . The first occasions were done by Ned Williamson and Cap Anson . All three had their big game in that hitter-friendly park in 1884 . Manning died in Boston , Massachusetts , and was interred at New Calvary Cemetery in Boston .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Jack_Manning_(baseball)", "rank": 85, "score": 99046 }, { "content": "Title: Brian G. W. Manning Content: Brian George William Manning ( 14 May 1926 -- 10 November 2011 ) was an English astronomer who discovered 19 minor planets . He was born in 1926 in Birmingham . He constructed his first mirror from a piece of glass that a World War II bomb blew out of the roof of the factory where his father worked . He began as an engineering draughtsman but later became a metrologist at the University of Birmingham . In the late 1950s , he constructed an interference-controlled ruling machine in a home workshop , which was able to rule high-quality 3 by 2 inch gratings . In 1990 , he received the H. E. Dall prize of the BAA .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Brian_G._W._Manning", "rank": 86, "score": 98845 }, { "content": "Title: Coropuna Content: Coropuna is a dormant volcano in the southern Peruvian Andes and belonging to the Central Volcanic Zone ; its summit reaches an altitude of 6377 m above sea level . The volcano , located 155 km from Arequipa , is mostly made of lava flows on a basement formed by Miocene ignimbrites . Coropuna has been active for at least five million years , with the bulk of the current cone having formed during the PliocenePleistocene . The volcano is covered by a thick ice cap , the second largest in the tropics , that has existed since at least the Pliocene and has undergone several phases of expansion and reduction . , the ice cap is in retreat ; one estimate predicts that it will disappear by 2045 . The retreat of the Coropuna glaciers threatens the water supply of tens of thousands of people , and interaction between volcanic activity and glacial effects has generated mudflows that could be a hazard to surrounding populations if the mountain returns to volcanic activity . The mountain was considered sacred by the Inca , and a number of archaeological sites have been discovered there . The Inca built the highest irrigation system in the world on Coropuna .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Coropuna", "rank": 87, "score": 98801 }, { "content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Keith_E._Idso", "rank": 88, "score": 98613 }, { "content": "Title: Opposition to the Mauna Kea Observatories Content: Opposition to the Mauna Kea Observatories has existed since the first telescope was built in the late 1960s . Originally part of research begun by Gerard Kuiper of the University of Arizona , the site has expanded into the world 's largest observatory for infrared and submillimeter telescopes . Opposition to the telescope from residents in the city of Hilo , Hawaii were concerned about the visual appearance of the mountain and Native Hawaiians voiced concerns over the site being sacred to the Hawaiian religion as the home of several deities . Environmental groups and activists have been expressing concern over endangered species habitat . The last proposal in 2006 was canceled after a court order to submit a completed Environmental Impact Statement . A current proposal for one of the world 's largest optical telescopes , the Thirty Meter Telescope is currently the focus of protests concerning the continued development of the mountain Hawaiians consider the most sacred peak in the island chain .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Opposition_to_the_Mauna_Kea_Observatories", "rank": 89, "score": 98543 }, { "content": "Title: Manning Canyon Shale Content: The Manning Canyon Shale is a geologic formation in Utah . It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Manning_Canyon_Shale", "rank": 90, "score": 98412 }, { "content": "Title: Maunaloa, Hawaii Content: Maunaloa or Mauna Loa is a census-designated place ( CDP ) in Maui County , Hawaii , United States , in the western part of the island of Molokai . The population was 376 at the 2010 census .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Maunaloa,_Hawaii", "rank": 91, "score": 98013 }, { "content": "Title: Manning School of Business Content: The Robert J. Manning School of Business is the business school at the University of Massachusetts Lowell . The school offers Bachelor 's , graduate certificate , Master 's , and PhD programs in a variety of disciplines . As of fall 2012 , the school had 1,805 undergraduate students , 737 graduate students , and 82 full time faculty members . The school is fully accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business ( AACSB ) .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Manning_School_of_Business", "rank": 92, "score": 97769 }, { "content": "Title: Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park Content: Hawaii Volcanoes National Park , established on August 1 , 1916 , is a United States National Park located in the U.S. State of Hawaii on the island of Hawaii . It encompasses two active volcanoes : Kīlauea , one of the world 's most active volcanoes , and Mauna Loa , the world 's most massive shield volcano . The park delivers scientists insight into the birth of the Hawaiian Islands and ongoing studies into the processes of volcanism . For visitors , the park offers dramatic volcanic landscapes as well as glimpses of rare flora and fauna . In recognition of its outstanding natural values , Hawaii Volcanoes National Park was designated as an International Biosphere Reserve in 1980 and a World Heritage Site in 1987 . In 2012 the Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park was honored on the 14th quarter of the America the Beautiful Quarters series .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Hawaiʻi_Volcanoes_National_Park", "rank": 93, "score": 97698 }, { "content": "Title: Manning Cabin Content: The Manning Cabin was the first vacation cabin built in what is now Saguaro National Park . The log structure was built by Levi H. Manning , Surveyor General of the Arizona Territory and later mayor of Tucson , in 1905 . From 1922 to 1939 it was used by the U.S. Forest Service to house fire and trail crews , and for the same purpose by the National Park Service from the park 's establishment in 1940 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Manning_Cabin", "rank": 94, "score": 97696 }, { "content": "Title: Mauga Afi Content: Mauna Afi is a volcanic mountain on the island of Savai'i in Samoa . Its name means Burning Mountain or Mountain of Fire , from the Samoan language mauga ( mountain ) and afi ( fire ) . The most recent eruption of Mauga Afi was around 1725 . The island of Savai'i consists of a massive shield volcano and is still volcanically active . Other volcanoes on Savai'i include Mt Silisili , the highest mountain in Samoa and Mt Matavanu . The eruption of Mt Matavanu ( 1905 -- 1911 ) destroyed villages on the central north coast of Savai'i which can be seen by the lava fields in Saleaula village . In Samoan mythology the god of earthquakes is Mafui'e . Another mythical figure Ti'iti ' i tricked the earthquake god so that Samoans could have fire to cook their food . Samoans well understood the connection between volcanic eruptions/earthquakes and tsunamis , as shown by the ancient term for tsunami - galuafi , or `` wave of fire/volcano '' .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Mauga_Afi", "rank": 95, "score": 97490 }, { "content": "Title: Manning Archeological Site Content: Manning Archeological Site is a historic archaeological site located near Cayce , Lexington County , South Carolina . The site contains evidence of prehistoric Indian occupation beginning with the Paleo-Indian ( 9,500 BC ) period though the historic Indians of the 1700s . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Manning_Archeological_Site", "rank": 96, "score": 97377 }, { "content": "Title: Carbogen Content: Carbogen , also called Meduna 's Mixture after its inventor Ladislas Meduna , is a mixture of carbon dioxide and oxygen gas . Meduna 's original formula was 30 % CO2 and 70 % oxygen , but the term carbogen can refer to any mixture of these two gases , from 1.5 % to 50 % CO2 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Carbogen", "rank": 97, "score": 97331 }, { "content": "Title: Kenneth Manning Content: Kenneth R. Manning ( born December 11 , 1947 ) is an American academic professor and author . He is currently the Thomas Meloy Professor of Rhetoric and of the History of Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Kenneth_Manning", "rank": 98, "score": 97307 }, { "content": "Title: Charles Manning (disambiguation) Content: Charles Manning ( 1894 -- 1978 ) was a South African academic . Charles Manning may also refer to : Charles Manning ( rugby league ) , New Zealand rugby league player Charles Manning , style editor for Cosmopolitan magazine Charles Manning Child , American zoologist Charles Manning Reed , Whig member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania Charles Manning Reed Mansion , also known as the Erie Club , is a historic home/clubhouse located in Erie , Pennsylvania Charles Manning Hope Clark , Australian historian Charles Manning House , historic house in Reading , Massachusetts Charles H. Manning , photographer and associate of Townsend Duryea Charles Nelson Manning , former professional baseball relief pitcher Ernest Charles Manning , Canadian politician", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Charles_Manning_(disambiguation)", "rank": 99, "score": 97273 }, { "content": "Title: Jeffrey Manning Content: Jeffrey Manning ( died February 13 , 2004 ) was a county prosecutor and a member of the Ohio House of Representatives . He was appointed to be Lorain County , Ohio prosecutor to succeed Gregory White , who left to become United States Attorney for Northern Ohio . Manning died of complications of a heart condition in 2004 . His wife , Gayle Manning , is currently ( 2010 ) a candidate for the Ohio Senate in district 13 .", "qid": "2994", "docid": "Jeffrey_Manning", "rank": 100, "score": 97239 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 1, "score": 189852 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 2, "score": 169512 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Loa Content: Mauna Loa ( -LSB- ˌmɔːnə_ˈloʊ . ə -RSB- or -LSB- ˌmaʊnə_ˈloʊ . ə -RSB- Hawaiian : -LSB- - hawˈmɐwnə ˈlowə -RSB- Long Mountain ) is one of five volcanoes that form the Island of Hawaii in the U.S. state of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean . The largest subaerial volcano in both mass and volume , Mauna Loa has historically been considered the largest volcano on Earth . It is an active shield volcano with relatively gentle slopes , with a volume estimated at approximately 18000 mi3 , although its peak is about 120 ft lower than that of its neighbor , Mauna Kea . Lava eruptions from Mauna Loa are silica-poor and very fluid , and they tend to be non-explosive . Mauna Loa has probably been erupting for at least 700,000 years , and may have emerged above sea level about 400,000 years ago . The oldest-known dated rocks are not older than 200,000 years . The volcano 's magma comes from the Hawaii hotspot , which has been responsible for the creation of the Hawaiian island chain over tens of millions of years . The slow drift of the Pacific Plate will eventually carry Mauna Loa away from the hotspot within 500,000 to one million years from now , at which point it will become extinct . Mauna Loa 's most recent eruption occurred from March 24 to April 15 , 1984 . No recent eruptions of the volcano have caused fatalities , but eruptions in 1926 and 1950 destroyed villages , and the city of Hilo is partly built on lava flows from the late 19th century . Because of the potential hazards it poses to population centers , Mauna Loa is part of the Decade Volcanoes program , which encourages studies of the world 's most dangerous volcanoes . Mauna Loa has been monitored intensively by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory since 1912 . Observations of the atmosphere are undertaken at the Mauna Loa Observatory , and of the Sun at the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory , both located near the mountain 's summit . Hawaii Volcanoes National Park covers the summit and the southeastern flank of the volcano , and also incorporates Kīlauea , a separate volcano .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Mauna_Loa", "rank": 3, "score": 145275 }, { "content": "Title: Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory Content: The Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory is an atmospheric baseline station operated by Environment and Climate Change Canada located at Alert , Nunavut , on the north-eastern tip of Ellesmere Island , about 800 km south of the geographic north pole . The observatory is the northernmost of 31 Global Stations in an international network coordinated by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) under its Global Atmosphere Watch ( GAW ) program to study the long-term effects of pollution on the atmospheric environment . Among these 31 stations , Alert is one of three greenhouse gas `` intercomparison supersites '' , along with Mauna Loa in Hawaii and Cape Grim in Australia , which , due to their locations far from industrial activity , provide the international scientific community with a baseline record of atmospheric chemistry .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Dr._Neil_Trivett_Global_Atmosphere_Watch_Observatory", "rank": 4, "score": 135765 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Kea Content: Mauna Kea ( -LSB- ˌmɔːnə_ˈkeɪ . ən -RSB- or -LSB- ˌmaʊnə_ˈkeɪ . ə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈmɐwnə ˈkɛjə -RSB- ) , is a dormant volcano on the island of Hawaii . Standing 4207 m above sea level , its peak is the highest point in the state of Hawaii . Much of the mountain is under water ; when measured from its oceanic base , Mauna Kea is over 10000 m tall . Mauna Kea is about a million years old , and has thus passed the most active shield stage of life hundreds of thousands of years ago . In its current post-shield state , its lava is more viscous , resulting in a steeper profile . Late volcanism has also given it a much rougher appearance than its neighboring volcanoes ; contributing factors include the construction of cinder cones , the decentralization of its rift zones , the glaciation on its peak , and the weathering effects of the prevailing trade winds . Mauna Kea last erupted 6,000 to 4,000 years ago and is now considered dormant . In Hawaiian mythology , the peaks of the island of Hawaii are sacred . An ancient law allowed only high-ranking aliʻi to visit its peak . Ancient Hawaiians living on the slopes of Mauna Kea relied on its extensive forests for food , and quarried the dense volcano-glacial basalts on its flanks for tool production . When Europeans arrived in the late 18th century , settlers introduced cattle , sheep and game animals , many of which became feral and began to damage the mountain 's ecological balance . Mauna Kea can be ecologically divided into three sections : an alpine climate at its summit , a Sophora chrysophylla -- Myoporum sandwicense ( or māmane -- naio ) forest on its flanks , and an Acacia koa -- Metrosideros polymorpha ( or koa -- ōhia ) forest , now mostly cleared by the former sugar industry , at its base . In recent years , concern over the vulnerability of the native species has led to court cases that have forced the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources to eradicate all feral species on the mountain . With its high elevation , dry environment , and stable airflow , Mauna Kea 's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation . Since the creation of an access road in 1964 , thirteen telescopes funded by eleven countries have been constructed at the summit . The Mauna Kea Observatories are used for scientific research across the electromagnetic spectrum from visible light to radio , and comprise the largest such facility in the world . Their construction on a landscape considered sacred by Native Hawaiians continues to be a topic of debate .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Mauna_Kea", "rank": 5, "score": 131257 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 6, "score": 130727 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 7, "score": 129004 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Loa Solar Observatory Content: Mauna Loa Solar Observatory ( MLSO ) is a solar observatory located on the slopes of Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii in the U.S. state of Hawaii . It is operated by the High Altitude Observatory ( HAO ) , a laboratory within the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) . The MLSO sits on property managed by the Mauna Loa Observatory ( MLO ) , which is part of the U.S. Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . MLSO was built in 1965 . The MLSO is tasked with monitoring the solar atmosphere and recording data on plasmic and energetic emissions from the chromosphere and corona . Studies of coronal mass ejections ( CMEs ) are also conducted at MLSO . A number of non-solar astronomical observatories are located at the site . The MLSO instruments record images of the solar disk and limb every 3 minutes for 3 -- 10 hours daily starting at 17:00 UT , weather permitting .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Mauna_Loa_Solar_Observatory", "rank": 8, "score": 128889 }, { "content": "Title: West Molokai Volcano Content: West Molokai Volcano , sometimes called Mauna Loa for the census-designated place , is an extinct shield volcano comprising the western half of Molokai island in the U.S. state of Hawaii .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "West_Molokai_Volcano", "rank": 9, "score": 126857 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Corporation Content: Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Corporation is the world 's largest processor of macadamia seeds . The American company was a subsidiary of The Hershey Company from 2004 to 2015 , when it was acquired by Hawaiian Host , Inc. . The company takes its name from the volcano Mauna Loa . Their headquarters and main processing plant are near the mountain , south of Hilo in the Puna District of the island of Hawaii , known as the Big Island .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Mauna_Loa_Macadamia_Nut_Corporation", "rank": 10, "score": 125537 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Loa (disambiguation) Content: Mauna Loa is a volcano in Hawaii . Mauna Loa may also refer to : Mauna Loa Observatory , an observatory on the slopes of that volcano Mauna Loa Solar Observatory , another observatory on that volcano Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Corporation , a Hawaiian business Maunaloa , a community on the Hawaiian island of Moloka'i SS Mauna Loa , a steam-powered cargo ship USS Mauna Loa , the name of more than one United States Navy ship Mauna Loa ( Molokai ) , an extinct volcano composing the western half of island of Molokai", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Mauna_Loa_(disambiguation)", "rank": 11, "score": 125217 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Loa Observatory Content: The Mauna Loa Observatory ( MLO ) is an atmospheric baseline station on Mauna Loa , on the island of Hawaii .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Mauna_Loa_Observatory", "rank": 12, "score": 123025 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 13, "score": 121073 }, { "content": "Title: Ninole Hills Content: The Ninole Hills , also known as the Ninole Volcanic Series , are steep eroded hills of shield basalts on the south side of the Island of Hawaii . Recent data suggests that these hills are either the remnants of large escarpments that pre-date the Mauna Loa volcano ( the largest active volcano in the world ) , or uplifted blocks from the oldest parts of the Mauna Loa fault system . The Ninole Hills are remains of the top rim of a big deep hollow left when the prehistoric Punalu`u landslide slid away . The rim over time eroded into deep canyons as lava from Mauna Loa ran down into the hollow and slowly filled it instead of burying the rim area , until now parts of the tops of the inter-canyon ridges are still unburied . It is apparent from the ruggedness of the eroded hills that they are much older than the surrounding landscape . Most of the surface of Mauna Loa is thought to have formed within the last 4,000 years , but the Ninole Hills are estimated to be between 100,000 and 200,000 years old . During this period there seem to have been massive failures in the support of the south wall of Mauna Loa , resulting in debris landslides that removed chunks out of the volcano , revealing remnants of the older sections of Mauna Loa .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Ninole_Hills", "rank": 14, "score": 120085 }, { "content": "Title: Mazuku Content: In geology , a mazuku ( Swahili : evil wind ) is a pocket of carbon dioxide-rich air that can be lethal to any human or animal life inside . Mazuku are created when carbon dioxide accumulates in pockets low to the ground . CO2 is heavier than air , which causes it to stay close to the ground , and is also undetectable by human olfactory or visual senses in most conditions . Mazuku can be related to volcanic activity or to a natural disaster known as a limnic eruption . In the first case , noxious gases are released from the Earth 's crust into the atmosphere , whereas in the second case the gases originate deep in a lake and boil rapidly to the surface . Because of their nature as sporadic and subtle events , few mazuku have been recorded , but there is a growing understanding of them based on historical and fossil evidence .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Mazuku", "rank": 15, "score": 117342 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Ulu Content: Mauna Ulu is a volcanic cone in the eastern rift zone of the Kīlauea volcano on the island of Hawaii . It falls within the bounds of Volcanoes National Park . Mauna Ulu was in a state of eruption from May 1969 to July 1974 . The cone currently contains no lava pool but is considered volcanicly active .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Mauna_Ulu", "rank": 16, "score": 116686 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 17, "score": 116647 }, { "content": "Title: Lōʻihi Seamount Content: Lōihi Seamount ( also known as Loihi ) is an active submarine volcano located about 35 km off the southeast coast of the island of Hawaii . The top of the seamount is about 975 m below sea level . This seamount lies on the flank of Mauna Loa , the largest shield volcano on Earth . Lōihi , meaning `` long '' in Hawaiian , is the newest volcano in the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain , a string of volcanoes that stretches over 5800 km northwest of Lōihi . Unlike most active volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean that make up the active plate margins on the Pacific Ring of Fire , Lōihi and the other volcanoes of the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain are hotspot volcanoes and formed well away from the nearest plate boundary . Volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands arise from the Hawaii hotspot , and as the youngest volcano in the chain , Lōihi is the only Hawaiian volcano in the deep submarine preshield stage of development . Lōihi began forming around 400,000 years ago and is expected to begin emerging above sea level about 10,000 -- 100,000 years from now . At its summit , Lōihi Seamount stands more than 3000 m above the seafloor , making it taller than Mount St. Helens was before its catastrophic 1980 eruption . A diverse microbial community resides around Lōihi 's many hydrothermal vents . In the summer of 1996 , a swarm of 4,070 earthquakes was recorded at Lōihi . This series included more earthquakes than any other swarm in Hawaiian recorded history . The swarm altered 10 to of the seamount 's summit ; one section , Pele 's Vents , collapsed entirely upon itself and formed the renamed Pele 's Pit . The volcano has remained relatively active since the 1996 swarm and is monitored by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) . The Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory ( HUGO ) provided real-time data on Lōihi between 1997 and 2002 . Lōihi last erupted in 1996 , before the earthquake swarm of that summer .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Lōʻihi_Seamount", "rank": 18, "score": 116363 }, { "content": "Title: Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes Content: The fifteen volcanoes that make up the eight principal islands of Hawaii are the youngest in a chain of more than 129 volcanoes that stretch 5800 km across the North Pacific Ocean , called the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain . Hawaii 's volcanoes rise an average of 4572 m to reach sea level from their base . The largest and most famous , Mauna Loa , has built itself up to a height of 4169 m . As shield volcanoes , they are built by accumulated lava flows , growing no more than 3 m at a time to form a broad and gently sloping shape . Hawaiian volcanoes all follow a specific pattern of eruption , building , and erosion . Hawaiian islands undergo a systematic pattern of submarine and subaerial growth that is followed by erosion . An island 's stage of development reflects its distance from the Hawaii hotspot .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Evolution_of_Hawaiian_volcanoes", "rank": 19, "score": 115457 }, { "content": "Title: USS Mauna Loa (AE-8) Content: USS Mauna Loa ( AE-8 ) was laid down by Tampa Shipbuilding Co. , Tampa , Fla. , 10 December 1942 ; launched 14 April 1943 ; sponsored by Mrs. Robert E. Friend ; and commissioned 27 October 1943 , Comdr. George D. Martin in command . She is named after Mauna Loa , a large shield volcano on the Island of Hawaii .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "USS_Mauna_Loa_(AE-8)", "rank": 20, "score": 112586 }, { "content": "Title: Maunaloa, Hawaii Content: Maunaloa or Mauna Loa is a census-designated place ( CDP ) in Maui County , Hawaii , United States , in the western part of the island of Molokai . The population was 376 at the 2010 census .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Maunaloa,_Hawaii", "rank": 21, "score": 111856 }, { "content": "Title: Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Content: The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory ( HVO ) is a volcano observatory located at Uwekahuna Bluff on the rim of Kīlauea Caldera on the Island of Hawaii . The observatory monitors four active Hawaiian volcanoes : Kīlauea , Mauna Loa , Hualālai , and Haleakalā . Because Kīlauea and Mauna Loa are significantly more active than Hualālai and Haleakalā , much of the observatory 's research is concentrated on the former two mountains . The observatory has a worldwide reputation as a leader in the study of active volcanism . Due to the relatively non-explosive nature of Hawaiian volcanic eruptions , scientists can study on-going eruptions in proximity without being in extreme danger . Located at the main site is the public Thomas A. Jaggar Museum .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Hawaiian_Volcano_Observatory", "rank": 22, "score": 111469 }, { "content": "Title: Hawaiian eruption Content: A Hawaiian eruption is a type of volcanic eruption where lava flows from the vent in a relatively gentle , low level eruption ; it is so named because it is characteristic of Hawaiian volcanoes . Typically they are effusive eruptions , with basaltic magmas of low viscosity , low content of gases , and high temperature at the vent . Very little amounts of volcanic ash are produced . This type of eruption occurs most often at hotspot volcanoes such as Kīlauea on Hawaii 's big island and in Iceland , though it can occur near subduction zones ( e.g. Medicine Lake Volcano in California , United States ) and rift zones . Another example of Hawaiian eruptions occurred on the island of Surtsey in Iceland from 1964 to 1967 , when molten lava flowed from the crater to the sea . Hawaiian eruptions may occur along fissure vents , such as during the eruption of Mauna Loa Volcano in 1950 , or at a central vent , such as during the 1959 eruption in Kīlauea Iki Crater , which created a lava fountain 580 meters ( 1,900 ft ) high and formed a 38-meter cone named Puu Puai . In fissure-type eruptions , lava spurts from a fissure on the volcano 's rift zone and feeds lava streams that flow downslope . In central-vent eruptions , a fountain of lava can spurt to a height of 300 meters or more ( heights of 1600 meters were reported for the 1986 eruption of Mount Mihara on Izu Ōshima , Japan ) . Hawaiian eruptions usually start by the formation of a crack in the ground from which a curtain of incandescent magma or several closely spaced magma fountains appear . The lava can overflow the fissure and form aā or pāhoehoe style of flows . When such an eruption from a central cone is protracted , it can form lightly sloped shield volcanoes , for example Mauna Loa or Skjaldbreiður in Iceland .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Hawaiian_eruption", "rank": 23, "score": 111018 }, { "content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2", "rank": 24, "score": 110928 }, { "content": "Title: Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park Content: Hawaii Volcanoes National Park , established on August 1 , 1916 , is a United States National Park located in the U.S. State of Hawaii on the island of Hawaii . It encompasses two active volcanoes : Kīlauea , one of the world 's most active volcanoes , and Mauna Loa , the world 's most massive shield volcano . The park delivers scientists insight into the birth of the Hawaiian Islands and ongoing studies into the processes of volcanism . For visitors , the park offers dramatic volcanic landscapes as well as glimpses of rare flora and fauna . In recognition of its outstanding natural values , Hawaii Volcanoes National Park was designated as an International Biosphere Reserve in 1980 and a World Heritage Site in 1987 . In 2012 the Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park was honored on the 14th quarter of the America the Beautiful Quarters series .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Hawaiʻi_Volcanoes_National_Park", "rank": 25, "score": 110608 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 26, "score": 110170 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Kea Observatories Content: The Mauna Kea Observatories ( MKO ) are a number of independent astronomical research facilities and large telescope observatories that are located at the summit of Mauna Kea on the Big Island of Hawaiʻi , United States . The facilities are located in a 525-acre ( 212 ha ) special land use zone known as the `` Astronomy Precinct '' , which is located within the 11,228-acre ( 4,544 ha ) Mauna Kea Science Reserve . The Astronomy Precinct was established in 1967 and is located on land protected by the Historical Preservation Act for its significance to Hawaiian culture . The location is ideal because of its dark skies , good astronomical seeing , low humidity and position above most of the water vapor in the atmosphere , clean air , good weather and almost equatorial location .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Mauna_Kea_Observatories", "rank": 27, "score": 109618 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Content: Mauna can refer to : Mauna ( moth ) , genus of moths Mauna ( silence ) , silence in Hindu philosophy Mauna , Käbschütztal , village in Käbschütztal , Germany A Hawaiian word for mountain , used in the following Hawaiian volcano names : Mauna Loa , on Hawai'i Mauna Kea , on Hawai'i Mauna Ulu , cinder cone of Kīlauea , on Hawai'i Mauna Iki , cinder cone of Kīlauea , on Hawai'i Mauna Haleakalā , on Maui Mauna Hina , cinder cone of Haleakalā", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Mauna", "rank": 28, "score": 109184 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 29, "score": 109082 }, { "content": "Title: Mauga Afi Content: Mauna Afi is a volcanic mountain on the island of Savai'i in Samoa . Its name means Burning Mountain or Mountain of Fire , from the Samoan language mauga ( mountain ) and afi ( fire ) . The most recent eruption of Mauga Afi was around 1725 . The island of Savai'i consists of a massive shield volcano and is still volcanically active . Other volcanoes on Savai'i include Mt Silisili , the highest mountain in Samoa and Mt Matavanu . The eruption of Mt Matavanu ( 1905 -- 1911 ) destroyed villages on the central north coast of Savai'i which can be seen by the lava fields in Saleaula village . In Samoan mythology the god of earthquakes is Mafui'e . Another mythical figure Ti'iti ' i tricked the earthquake god so that Samoans could have fire to cook their food . Samoans well understood the connection between volcanic eruptions/earthquakes and tsunamis , as shown by the ancient term for tsunami - galuafi , or `` wave of fire/volcano '' .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Mauga_Afi", "rank": 30, "score": 108746 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 31, "score": 108728 }, { "content": "Title: Global Oscillations Network Group Content: The Global Oscillation Network Group ( GONG ) is a community-based program to study solar internal structure and dynamics using helioseismology . Six solar observatories are involved , with the intention of achieving almost unbroken observation of the Sun . The six observatories are the Teide Observatory ( Canary Islands ) , the Learmonth Solar Observatory ( Western Australia ) , the Big Bear Solar Observatory ( California ) , the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory ( Hawaii ) , the Udaipur Solar Observatory ( India ) and the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory ( Chile ) . In 2001 , the original GONG detectors were upgraded to 1000 x 1000 pixels and continuous magnetograms were implemented , and the new system is known as GONG + + . More recently ( c. 2010 ) , improvements to GONG observatory instrumentation have been made to enable imaging of the Hα ( `` H-alpha '' ) spectral line of hydrogen in the solar atmosphere . The GONG Program is managed by the National Solar Observatory , which is operated by AURA , Inc. under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Global_Oscillations_Network_Group", "rank": 32, "score": 106737 }, { "content": "Title: Argyroxiphium kauense Content: Argyroxiphium kauense ( Mauna Loa silversword , also commonly known as Kaū silversword ) is a rare species of flowering plant in the Asteraceae family . It is endemic to the eastern and southern slopes of Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii . A. kauense occurs in a much broader range of habitats than the closely related and better-known Haleakalā silversword ( A. sandwicense macrocephalum ) , and is found in montane shrubland , bogs , and open mesic forest . Although threatened by damage from feral pigs , goats , and mouflon sheep , most of the areas where it currently exists are now protected , and the species is actively managed by the National Park Service and Hawaii State Department of Forestry and Wildlife . It is a federally listed endangered species of the United States . There are three known occurrences remaining , for a total of fewer than 1000 individuals .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Argyroxiphium_kauense", "rank": 33, "score": 106368 }, { "content": "Title: Hualālai Content: Hualālai ( pronounced -LSB- - hawhuwəˈlaːlɐi -RSB- in Hawaiian ) is an active volcano on the island of Hawaii in the Hawaiian Islands . It is the westernmost , third-youngest and the third most active of the five shield volcanoes that form the island of Hawaii , following Kīlauea and the much larger Mauna Loa . Its peak stands 8,271 ft above sea level . Hualālai is estimated to have risen above sea level about 300,000 years ago . Despite maintaining a very low level of activity since its last eruption in 1801 , Hualālai is still considered active , and is expected to erupt again some time within the next century . The relative unpreparedness of the residents in the area caused by the lull in activity would worsen the consequences of such an event . The area near the volcano has been inhabited for centuries by Hawaiian natives , dating back to before recorded history . The coast west of Hualālai in particular had several royal complexes . The volcano is also important ecologically , is home to many rare species and several nature reserves near the summit , and is a popular hiking attraction . Today the coast near Hualālai is dotted by vacation resorts , some built on historic flows , and a National Historical Park .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Hualālai", "rank": 34, "score": 105823 }, { "content": "Title: Opposition to the Mauna Kea Observatories Content: Opposition to the Mauna Kea Observatories has existed since the first telescope was built in the late 1960s . Originally part of research begun by Gerard Kuiper of the University of Arizona , the site has expanded into the world 's largest observatory for infrared and submillimeter telescopes . Opposition to the telescope from residents in the city of Hilo , Hawaii were concerned about the visual appearance of the mountain and Native Hawaiians voiced concerns over the site being sacred to the Hawaiian religion as the home of several deities . Environmental groups and activists have been expressing concern over endangered species habitat . The last proposal in 2006 was canceled after a court order to submit a completed Environmental Impact Statement . A current proposal for one of the world 's largest optical telescopes , the Thirty Meter Telescope is currently the focus of protests concerning the continued development of the mountain Hawaiians consider the most sacred peak in the island chain .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Opposition_to_the_Mauna_Kea_Observatories", "rank": 35, "score": 105757 }, { "content": "Title: Coropuna Content: Coropuna is a dormant volcano in the southern Peruvian Andes and belonging to the Central Volcanic Zone ; its summit reaches an altitude of 6377 m above sea level . The volcano , located 155 km from Arequipa , is mostly made of lava flows on a basement formed by Miocene ignimbrites . Coropuna has been active for at least five million years , with the bulk of the current cone having formed during the PliocenePleistocene . The volcano is covered by a thick ice cap , the second largest in the tropics , that has existed since at least the Pliocene and has undergone several phases of expansion and reduction . , the ice cap is in retreat ; one estimate predicts that it will disappear by 2045 . The retreat of the Coropuna glaciers threatens the water supply of tens of thousands of people , and interaction between volcanic activity and glacial effects has generated mudflows that could be a hazard to surrounding populations if the mountain returns to volcanic activity . The mountain was considered sacred by the Inca , and a number of archaeological sites have been discovered there . The Inca built the highest irrigation system in the world on Coropuna .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Coropuna", "rank": 36, "score": 105577 }, { "content": "Title: Kona coffee Content: Kona coffee is the market name for coffee ( Coffea arabica ) cultivated on the slopes of Hualalai and Mauna Loa in the North and South Kona Districts of the Big Island of Hawaii . It is one of the most expensive coffees in the world . Only coffee from the Kona Districts can be described as `` Kona '' . The weather of sunny mornings , cloud or rain in the afternoon , little wind , and mild nights combined with porous , mineral-rich volcanic soil create favorable coffee growing conditions . The loanword for coffee in the Hawaiian language is kope , pronounced -LSB- - hawˈkope -RSB- .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Kona_coffee", "rank": 37, "score": 105519 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 38, "score": 105335 }, { "content": "Title: Koa'e Fault Zone Content: The Koa'e Fault Zone ( pronounced coe-wah-hee ) is a series of fault scarpes connecting the East and Southwest Rift Zones on Kilauea Volcano on the big island of Hawaii . The fault zone intersects the East Rift near the Pauahi Crater and extends nearly 12 kilometers in an east-northeast direction towards the westernmost boundary near Mauna Iki and the Southwest Rift Zone . Boundaries of the Koa'e Fault Zone also cover 2 kilometers in a north-south orientation along the 12 kilometer length . It is believed that the fault zone has been active for tens of thousands of years . The area is infrequently visited by park patrons due to the lack of eruptive activity and closure of certain areas to the general public . Features The Koa'e Fault Zone contains numerous thrust fault scarpes and ground cracks that are slowly moving towards the Pacific Ocean . The area is covered with pahoehoe lava flows dated between 700 and 500 years old . The exact number of lava flows in this region is debatable . Numerous exposed scarpes have very poor distinctions between various lava flows due to weathering of the basalt . Because Kilauea has erupted explosively in the past , the Koa'e Fault Zone is also covered with tephra deposits . The stratigraphy of the sediments contains many clues to the eruptive history of Kilauea Volcano . • A layer of scoria overlies the basaltic lava flows . The age of these deposits has been determined to be roughly 400 years old . Groundwater penetration into Kilauea most likely created a steam explosion followed by an eruption of these tephra deposits . • Above the scoria is a layer of orange ash roughly 3 cm thick . The fined grained texture of the ash also suggests an explosive style of eruption sometime after the tephra was deposited . Biologists believe that this layer of ash served as a soil horizon for native and invasive plants to colonize the area . • The top layer is a sandy material which is also the product of an explosive eruption . In order to get a stratigraphy like this , a large eruption with tephra reaching the jet stream is required , suggesting that energetic pyroclastic eruptions have occurred in the past , making Kilauea significantly more hazardous than once thought . Fault Scarpes in the Koa'e Fault Zone create a Horst and Graben type of terrain . Some of the scarpes ( called `` pali '' in native Hawaiian ) face northwards , towards the summit of Kilauea Volcano and Halemaumau Crater . This is unusual because the scarpes usually face in the direction of flow . Monitoring data of the fault zone has revealed that at the Pacific Ocean , the land mass is moving at a rate of 2.5 centimeters per year . In the upper regions of the fault zone , the crust is moving at a rate of 8 cm annually . This vast difference in movement rates has over time created numerous antiforms in the region , with some of the most prominent being near the White Rabbit . Kulanaokuaiki Pali is the southernmost fault in the Koa'e Fault Zone . During a period of intense earthquakes in December 1965 , Kulanaokuaiki Pali was vertically displaced by more than 2.4 meters ( 7.87 feet ) . The region has been intensively studied since then . Displacements in other parts of the Koa'e Fault Zone based on historical data suggest that movements as great as 15 meters ( nearly 50 feet ) have occurred . Mechanics The Koa'e Fault Zone is one of the most active fault zones in the entire world . The massive weight of Kilauea is largely responsible for the movement along the Koa'e Fault Zone as well as the East and Southwest Rift Zones . Some scientists have interpreted the Koa'e Fault System as a break away structure as a direct result from the southward displacement of the southern flank of Kilauea . The mobility is caused by gravitational forces acting on the massive weight of the volcano as well as the forceful injection of magmatic dikes into the East and Southwest Rift Zones . Bathymetric contouring of the seafloor off the south coast of the Big Island , have revealed that massive landslides have occurred in Kilauea 's past , most likely as the result of rifting and catastrophic collapse .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Koa'e_Fault_Zone", "rank": 39, "score": 105275 }, { "content": "Title: Kīlauea Content: Kīlauea ( -LSB- langˌkiːlaʊˈeɪə -RSB- , also -LSB- ˌkɪləˈweɪə -RSB- ; -LSB- tiːlɐwˈwɛjə -RSB- ) is a currently active shield volcano in the Hawaiian Islands , and the most active of the five volcanoes that together form the island of Hawaii . Located along the southern shore of the island , the volcano is between 300,000 and 600,000 years old and emerged above sea level about 100,000 years ago . It is the second youngest product of the Hawaiian hotspot and the current eruptive center of the Hawaiian -- Emperor seamount chain . Because it lacks topographic prominence and its activities historically coincided with those of Mauna Loa , Kīlauea was once thought to be a satellite of its much larger neighbor . Structurally , Kīlauea has a large , fairly recently formed caldera at its summit and two active rift zones , one extending 125 km east and the other 35 km west , as an active fault of unknown depth moving vertically an average of 2 to per year . Kīlauea 's eruptive history has been a long and active one ; its name means `` spewing '' or `` much spreading '' in the Hawaiian language , referring to its frequent outpouring of lava . The earliest lavas from the volcano date back to its submarine preshield stage , samples having been recovered by remotely operated underwater vehicles from its submerged slopes ; samples of other flows have been recovered as core samples . Lavas younger than 1,000 years cover 90 percent of the volcano 's surface . The oldest exposed lavas date back 2,800 years . The first well-documented eruption of Kīlauea occurred in 1823 ( Western contact and written history began in 1778 ) , and since that time the volcano has erupted repeatedly . Most historical eruptions have occurred at the volcano 's summit or its eastern rift zone , and are prolonged and effusive in character . The geological record shows , however , that violent explosive activity predating European contact was extremely common , and in 1790 one such eruption killed over 80 warriors ; should explosive activity start anew the volcano would become much more of a danger to humans . Kīlauea 's current eruption dates back to January 3 , 1983 , and is by far its longest-duration historical period of activity , as well as one of the longest-duration eruptions in the world ; as of January 2011 , the eruption has produced 3.5 km3 of lava and resurfaced 123.2 km2 of land . Kīlauea 's high state of activity has a major impact on its mountainside ecology , where plant growth is often interrupted by fresh tephra and drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide , producing acid rains particularly in a barren area south of its southwestern rift zone known as the Kaʻū Desert . Nonetheless , wildlife flourishes where left undisturbed elsewhere on the volcano and is highly endemic thanks to Kīlauea 's ( and the island of Hawaii 's ) isolation from the nearest landmass . Historically , the five volcanoes on the island were considered sacred by the Hawaiian people , and in Hawaiian mythology Kīlauea 's Halemaumau Crater served as the body and home of Pele , goddess of fire , lightning , wind , and volcanoes . William Ellis , a missionary from England , gave the first modern account of Kīlauea and spent two weeks traveling along the volcano ; since its foundation by Thomas Jaggar in 1912 , the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory , located on the rim of Kīlauea caldera , has served as the principal investigative and scientific body on the volcano and the island in general . In 1916 , a bill forming the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson ; since then , the park has become a World Heritage Site and a major tourist destination , attracting roughly 2.6 million people annually .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Kīlauea", "rank": 40, "score": 104883 }, { "content": "Title: Ohana project Content: The Ohana project aims to use seven big telescopes on top of Mauna Kea , Hawaii Big Island , in an interferometer configuration . Mauna Kea is a former volcano whose height is 13,600 ft ( 4,145 m ) . It is a good site for telescopes which probe the universe in the optical and infrared wavelengths because of its altitude and low levels of light pollution . OHANA stands for Optical Hawaiian Array for Nanoradian Astronomy . In Hawaiian , ` ohana means `` family '' .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Ohana_project", "rank": 41, "score": 103978 }, { "content": "Title: Carbogen Content: Carbogen , also called Meduna 's Mixture after its inventor Ladislas Meduna , is a mixture of carbon dioxide and oxygen gas . Meduna 's original formula was 30 % CO2 and 70 % oxygen , but the term carbogen can refer to any mixture of these two gases , from 1.5 % to 50 % CO2 .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Carbogen", "rank": 42, "score": 103912 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano School Content: The Volcano School refers to a group of non-native Hawaiian artists who painted dramatic nocturnal scenes of Hawaii 's erupting volcanoes . Some of the artists also produced watercolors , which , by the nature of the medium , tended to be diurnal . At their best , these paintings exemplify a fusion of the European Sublime aesthetic , Romantic landscapes , and the American landscape traditions . Two volcanoes on the Island of Hawaii , Kilauea and Mauna Loa , were intermittently active during the 1880s and 1890s , when interest in Volcano School paintings peaked . Getting to Kilauea , the more frequently painted volcano required an arduous two - or three-day roundtrip journey on horseback . Printmaker and art educator Huc-Mazelet Luquiens called this period `` a little Hawaiian renaissance '' .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Volcano_School", "rank": 43, "score": 103213 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 44, "score": 103183 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 45, "score": 103031 }, { "content": "Title: Puʻu Kukui Content: Puu Kukui is a mountain peak in Hawaii . It is the highest peak of Mauna Kahalawai ( the West Maui Mountains ) . The 1764 m summit rises above the Puu Kukui Watershed Management Area , an 8661 acre private nature preserve maintained by the Maui Land & Pineapple Company . The peak was formed by a volcano whose caldera eroded into what is now Īao Valley . Puu Kukui is one of the wettest spots on Earth and the second wettest in the state after Mount Waialeale , receiving an average of 386.5 in of rain a year . Rainwater unable to drain away flows into a bog . The soil is dense , deep , and acidic . Puu Kukui is home to many endemic plants , insects , and birds , including the greensword ( Argyroxiphium grayanum ) , a distinctive bog variety of ōhia lehua ( Metrosideros polymorpha var . pseudorugosa ) and many lobelioid species . Due to the mountain peak 's extreme climate and peat soil , many species , such as the ōhia , are represented as dwarfs . Access to the area is restricted to researchers and conservationists .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Puʻu_Kukui", "rank": 46, "score": 102797 }, { "content": "Title: Ainapo Trail Content: The Ainapo Trail was the primary route to the summit of Mauna Loa from prehistory to 1916 . The trail began on the southeast flank at 2000 feet of elevation and reached Mokuaweoweo , the summit crater , at 13200 ft. It was sometimes called Menzies Trail after Archibald Menzies who was the first recorded outsider to climb the mountain in 1794 . The Ainapo Trail was added to the National Register of Historic Places on August 30 , 1974 .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Ainapo_Trail", "rank": 47, "score": 102675 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 48, "score": 102284 }, { "content": "Title: Thirty Meter Telescope protests Content: The Thirty Meter Telescope protests are a series of protests and demonstrations that began on the Island of Hawaii in the United States over the choosing of Mauna Kea for the site location of the Thirty Meter Telescope . Mauna Kea is considered the most sacred mountain of Native Hawaiian religion and culture . Protests began locally within the state of Hawaii on October 7 , 2014 but went global within weeks of the April 2 , 2015 arrest of 31 people who had blockaded the roadway to keep construction crews off the summit . The TMT , a ground-based , large segmented mirror reflecting telescope grew from astronomers ' prioritization in 2000 of a thirty-meter telescope to be built within the decade . Mauna Kea was announced as TMT 's preferred site in 2009 . Opposition to the project began shortly after the announcement of Mauna Kea as the chosen site out of 5 proposals . While opposition against the observatories on Mauna Kea has been ongoing since the first telescope this protest may be the most vocal . The project was expected to be completed by 2024 , nearly simultaneously with the 39-meter European Extremely Large Telescope being built in Chile however , on December 2 , 2015 , the Supreme Court of Hawaii invalidated the TMT 's building permits . The court ruled that due process was not followed . The TMT corporation has removed all construction equipment and vehicles from Mauna Kea .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests", "rank": 49, "score": 101786 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Kea silversword Content: Argyroxiphium sandwicense subsp . sandwicense , the Mauna Kea silversword , is a highly endangered flowering plant endemic to the island of Hawaiʻi ( Big Island ) of Hawaii . It is the `` crown jewel '' of the volcanic mountain Mauna Kea , from which it derives its English name . The Hawaiian name is ahinahina ; it applies to silverswords more broadly . The Mauna Kea silversword was once common on the volcano , and extraordinary conservation efforts are being made to preserve the species .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Mauna_Kea_silversword", "rank": 50, "score": 101386 }, { "content": "Title: Hawaii Volcanoes Wilderness Content: Hawaii Volcanoes Wilderness is a designated wilderness area within Hawaii Volcanoes National Park on the island of Hawaii in the U.S. state of Hawaii . It was designated in 1978 with 123100 acre , and was later expanded to 130790 acre . Wilderness designation covers the northwestern extension of the National Park , including Mokuaweoweo , the summit of the volcano Mauna Loa . In the southwestern portion of the park , a large chunk of wilderness includes several miles of coastline , a small portion southeast of the visitors center , and the Olaa Forest , which is separate from and just north of the park .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Hawaii_Volcanoes_Wilderness", "rank": 51, "score": 101199 }, { "content": "Title: Koko Head Content: Koko Head is the headland that defines the eastern side of Maunalua Bay along the southeastern side of the Island of Oahu in Hawaii . On its western slope is the community of Portlock , a part of Hawaii Kai . Koko Head ( at 642 ft or 196 m ) is an ancient tuff cone that is somewhat dwarfed by its neighboring tuff cone , Koko Crater , with its peak , Kohelepelepe ( or Puu Mai ) , rising to 1208 ft or 368 m. Koko Head itself has three significant depressions or old vents , the largest of which forms the well-known Hanauma Bay . Koko Head 's last eruption was 30,000 -- 35,000 years ago . This eastern end of Oahu is quite scenic and most of the area is part of Koko Head Regional Park , administered by the City & County of Honolulu . The following features and natural areas are found between Koko Head and the eastern end of the island at Makapuu : Koko Crater is a large tuff cone that visually dominates the area . Within the crater are horse stables and the Koko Crater Botanical Garden specializing in cacti and succulents . Hanauma Bay is a tuff ring breached by the ocean . Lānai Lookout is a scenic lookout that features a very distant view of the Island of Lānai to the southeast of Oahu . Molokai , directly across the Ka'iwi Channel , is closer and nearly always visible during the day ; Lānai is visible only under good atmospheric conditions , although if visible from anywhere on Oahu , it will be visible from this pull-out/parking area . The cremated ashes of President Barack Obama 's mother , Stanley Ann Dunham ( 1995 ) and maternal grandmother , Madelyn Lee Payne Dunham ( 2008 ) were scattered here . Hālona Blowhole is a blowhole in the rocky shore . A large pull-out/parking area is present . The adjacent Hālona Cove is best known as the site of the love scene between Burt Lancaster and Deborah Kerr in the movie From Here to Eternity . Sandy Beach is a popular beach for surfing and a park popular for kite flying because trade winds ( offshore here ) are strong and steady most days . Sea conditions off the beach tend to be rough most of the time and the bottom drops away relatively quickly , so this is not a beach for relaxed swimming , but very popular for more extreme water sports and watchers .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Koko_Head", "rank": 52, "score": 100884 }, { "content": "Title: SS Mauna Loa Content: SS Mauna Loa was a steam-powered cargo ship of Matson Navigation Company that was sunk in the bombing of Darwin in February 1942 . She was christened SS West Conob in 1919 and renamed SS Golden Eagle in 1928 . At the time of her completion in 1919 , the ship was inspected by the United States Navy for possible use as USS West Conob ( ID-4033 ) but was neither taken into the Navy nor ever commissioned . West Conob was built in 1919 for the , part of the West series of ships -- steel-hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort -- and was the 14th ship built at Los Angeles Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company in San Pedro , California . She initially sailed for the Pacific Mail Steamship Company and circumnavigated the globe twice by 1921 . She began sailing to South America for Swayne & Hoyt Lines in 1925 , and then , to Australia and New Zealand . When Swayne & Hoyt 's operation was taken over by the Oceanic and Oriental Navigation Company a few years later , she sailed under the name Golden Eagle until 1934 , when she was taken over by the Matson Navigation Company for service between Hawaii and the U.S. mainland and renamed Mauna Loa , after the large shield volcano on the Island of Hawaii . Shortly before the United States ' entry into World War II , Mauna Loa was chartered by the United States Department of War to carry supplies to the Philippines . The ship was part of an aborted attempt to reinforce Allied forces under attack by the Japanese on Timor in mid-February 1942 . After the return of her convoy to Darwin , Northern Territory , Mauna Loa was one of eight ships sunk in Darwin Harbour in the first Japanese bombing attack on the Australian mainland on 19 February . The remains of her wreck and her cargo are a dive site in the harbor .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "SS_Mauna_Loa", "rank": 53, "score": 100433 }, { "content": "Title: List of Quaternary volcanic eruptions Content: This article is a list of volcanic eruptions of approximately magnitude 6 or more on the Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission during the Holocene , and Pleistocene eruptions of the Decade Volcanoes ( Avachinsky-Koryaksky , Kamchatka ; Colima , Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt ; Mount Etna , Sicily ; Galeras , Andes , Northern Volcanic Zone ; Mauna Loa , Hawaii ; Mount Merapi , Central Java ; Mount Nyiragongo , East African Rift ; Mount Rainier , Washington ; Sakurajima , Kagoshima Prefecture ; Santamaria / Santiaguito , Central America Volcanic Arc ; Santorini , Cyclades ; Taal Volcano , Luzon Volcanic Arc ; Teide , Canary Islands ; Ulawun , New Britain ; Mount Unzen , Nagasaki Prefecture ; Mount Vesuvius , Naples ) ; Campania , Italy ; South Aegean Volcanic Arc ; Laguna de Bay , Luzon Volcanic Arc ; Mount Pinatubo , Luzon Volcanic Arc ; Toba , Sunda Arc ; Mount Meager , Garibaldi Volcanic Belt ; Yellowstone hotspot , Wyoming ; and Taupo Volcanic Zone , greater than VEI 4 . The eruptions in the Holocene on the link : Holocene Volcanoes in Kamchatka were not added yet , but they are listed on the Peter L. Ward 's supplemental table . Some of the eruptions are not listed on the Global Volcanism Program timetable as well , at least not as VEI 6 . The timetables of Global Volcanism Program ; Bristlecone pine tree-rings ( Pinus longaeva , Pinus aristata , Pinus ponderosa , Pinus edulis , Pseudotsuga menziesii ) ; the 4 ka Yamal Peninsula Siberian larch ( Larix sibirica ) chronology ; the 7 ka Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ) chronology from Finnish Lapland ; GISP2 ice core ; GRIP ice core ; Dye 3 ice core ; Bipolar comparison ; Antarctic ice core ( Bunder and Cole-Dai , 2003 ) ; Antarctic ice core ( Cole-Dai et al. , 1997 ) ; Crête ice core , in central Greenland , benthic foraminifera in deep sea sediment cores ( Lisiecki , Raymo 2005 ) , do not agree with each other sometimes . The 536 -- 547 AD dust-veil event might be an impact event .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "List_of_Quaternary_volcanic_eruptions", "rank": 54, "score": 100399 }, { "content": "Title: UH88 Content: The University of Hawai'i 88-inch ( 2.2-meter ) telescope called UH88 , UH2 .2 , or simply 88 by members of the local astronomical community is situated at the Mauna Kea Observatories and operated by the University 's Institute for Astronomy . It was constructed in 1968 , and entered service in 1970 , at which point it was known as `` The Mauna Kea Observatory . '' It became one of the first professional telescope to be controlled by a computer . The telescope was built with funding from NASA , to support Solar System missions and is controlled by the University of Hawai'i . The success of the telescope helped demonstrate the value of Mauna Kea for astronomical observations . On December 4 , 1984 it became the first telescope to make optical closure phase measurements on an astronomical source using an aperture mask . UH88 is a Cassegrain reflector tube telescope with an f/10 focal ratio , supported by a large open fork equatorial mount . It was the last telescope on Mauna Kea to use a tube design rather than an open truss , and is the largest in the complex to use an open fork mount , with neighboring telescopes in the 3-meter class using English fork designs . As the only research telescope controlled solely by the University , UH88 has long been the primary telescope used by its professors , postdoctoral scholars and graduate students , and as a result , the site of numerous discoveries . David C. Jewitt and Jane X. Luu discovered the first Kuiper belt object , 1992 QB1 using UH88 , and a team led by Jewitt and Scott S. Sheppard discovered 45 of the known moons of Jupiter , as well as moons of Saturn , Uranus and Neptune . The Institute for Astronomy also makes agreements with other organizations for portions of available observing time . Currently , the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan uses UH88 for some research projects for which its far larger and more expensive Subaru Observatory , also on Mauna Kea , would be overkill . The Nearby Supernova Factory project , based at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , also has its Supernova Integrated Field Spectrograph ( SNIFS ) instrument mounted on UH88 . In June 2011 , the telescope and its weather station were struck by lightning , damaging many systems and disabling it , but the telescope was repaired by August 2011 Some of the systems at the observatory were 41 years old at the time of the damage and had to be reverse engineered to be fixed.The weather station is currently under development .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "UH88", "rank": 55, "score": 99849 }, { "content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory", "rank": 56, "score": 99820 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Kea Trail Content: The Mauna Kea Trail is considered the easiest route to hike to the summit of Mauna Kea volcano , the highest volcano on the island of Hawai . The trail is 6 mi long and loosely follows an unmaintained dirt road . Iron poles mark the path every 500 ft. The trailhead begins at the Visitor Information Station at the Onizuka Center for International Astronomy at 9200 ft , at which can be reached by car from the Saddle Road ( Hawaii route 200 ) and then turning north on the Mauna Kea Access Road . Registration is required and there is a drop box for hikers who might start before the visitor center opens . The first 0.2 miles of the trail is on the Mauna Kea Access Road after which it veers left off the road onto dirt . From 10000 to the path consists of scree . From 11000 to the area is predominantly a ' a lava flows and is not as steep . At 13130 ft the road forks , with one path going to Lake Waiau and the other fork to the summit . At 13200 ft , the trail meets the Mauna Kea Access Road . From this point on the trail continues by following the road and the 2 switchbacks to the rim of the crater at 13680 ft where the observatories on the top are located . From this point , there are multiple routes to the highest point of the rim . Since the mountain is considered sacred to the Native Hawaiians , there is sign posted requesting hikers to respect the culture and environment and not hike to the actual summit . The actual wording is `` Aloha . Mauna Kea is historically , culturally and environmentally significant . Help preserve our cultural and natural landscape and show your respect by not hiking beyond this point to the summit '' . The summit region is typically very cold ( winter storms can drop up to 2 feet of snow on January and February ) , and sunscreen for protection from UV rays is recommended . Water is also recommended , although Lake Waiau is also drinkable . The air is 40 % thinner at the summit than at sea level . Also , because of the atmosphere above Mauna Kea , there are many large telescopes and other space observation instruments . Mauna Loa is usually visible from the summit area as well as most of the trail .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Mauna_Kea_Trail", "rank": 57, "score": 99643 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 58, "score": 99222 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide", "rank": 59, "score": 98590 }, { "content": "Title: Waiākea-Uka Content: Waiākea-Uka ( IPA : / ` waj.ə.kei.ə . ` u.kə / ) is an ancient subdivision ( ahupuaa ) in the Hilo District of the Big Island of Hawaii , located mauka ( mountain-side ) of the Waiākea ahupua'a ; its location is on the lower flanks of the volcano Mauna Loa . Because of this , one meaning of the name ` Waiākea-Uka ' can be translated from ` Olelo Hawai'i as ' ( the ) mountain-side ( of ) Waiākea ' . Many ahupua'a have this - uka appellation , as the directions ` mountain-side ' and ` sea-side ' ( makai ) are the two best ways of orientating something in space on any of the islands .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Waiākea-Uka", "rank": 60, "score": 98543 }, { "content": "Title: Haleakalā Content: Haleakalā ( -LSB- ˌhɑːliːˌɑːkəˈlɑː -RSB- Hawaiian : -LSB- - hawˈhɐlɛˈjɐkəˈlaː -RSB- ) , or the East Maui Volcano , is a massive shield volcano that forms more than 75 % of the Hawaiian Island of Maui . The western 25 % of the island is formed by another volcano , Mauna Kahalawai , also referred to as the West Maui Mountains . The tallest peak of Haleakalā ( `` house of the sun '' ) , at 10023 ft , is Puu Ulaula ( Red Hill ) . From the summit one looks down into a massive depression some 11.25 km ( 7 mi ) across , 3.2 km ( 2 mi ) wide , and nearly 800 m ( 2,600 ft ) deep . The surrounding walls are steep and the interior mostly barren-looking with a scattering of volcanic cones .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Haleakalā", "rank": 61, "score": 98542 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Pluto Content: The atmosphere of Pluto is the tenuous layer of gases surrounding Pluto . It consists mainly of nitrogen ( N2 ) , with minor amounts of methane ( CH4 ) and carbon monoxide ( CO ) , all of which are vaporized from their ices on Pluto 's surface . It contains layered haze , probably consisting of heavier compounds which form from these gases due to high-energy radiation . The atmosphere of Pluto is notable for its strong and not completely clear seasonal changes caused by peculiarities of the orbital and axial rotation of Pluto . Surface pressure of the atmosphere of Pluto , measured by New Horizons in 2015 , is about , roughly 100,000 times less than Earth 's atmospheric pressure . Temperature on the surface is 40 to , but it quickly grows with altitude due to methane-generated greenhouse effect . Near the altitude it reaches 110 K , and then slowly decreases . Pluto is the only trans-Neptunian object with a known atmosphere . Its closest analog is the atmosphere of Triton , although in some aspects it resembles even the atmosphere of Mars . The atmosphere of Pluto has been studied since the 1980s by way of earth-based observation of occultations of stars by Pluto and spectroscopy . In 2015 , it was studied from a close distance by the spacecraft New Horizons .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Pluto", "rank": 62, "score": 98084 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 63, "score": 98080 }, { "content": "Title: HI-SEAS Content: HI-SEAS ( Hawaii Space Exploration Analog and Simulation ) is an analog habitat for human spaceflight to Mars . HI-SEAS is located in an isolated position on the slopes of the Mauna Loa volcano on the island of Hawaii . The area has Mars-like features and an elevation of approximately 8200 ft above sea level . The first HI-SEAS study was in 2013 and NASA 's Human Research Program continues to fund and sponsor follow-up studies . The missions are of extended duration from four months to a year . The purpose of the detailed research studies is to determine what is required to keep a space flight crew happy and healthy during an extended mission to Mars and while living on Mars . Research into food , crew dynamics , behaviors , roles and performance , and other aspects of space flight and a mission on Mars itself is the primary focus . The HI-SEAS researchers also carry out studies on a variety of other topics as part of their daily activities . One thing under study by NASA is trying to understand crew dynamics such as morale , stress management , and how they solve problems as group .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "HI-SEAS", "rank": 64, "score": 97804 }, { "content": "Title: P/2010 B2 (WISE) Content: P/2010 B2 is a periodic comet in the Solar System . It is the first comet discovered by the space observatory WISE and was first observed on January 22 , 2010 and has since been followed by ground observatories , among them the Mauna Kea Observatory . The comet has an orbital period of 4.7 years , an aphelion of 4 astronomical units and a perihelion of 1.6 astronomical units .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "P/2010_B2_(WISE)", "rank": 65, "score": 97634 }, { "content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Revelle_factor", "rank": 66, "score": 97546 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 67, "score": 97306 }, { "content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Amorphous_carbonia", "rank": 68, "score": 97166 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 69, "score": 96893 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 70, "score": 96604 }, { "content": "Title: AMiBA Content: The Yuan-Tseh Lee Array for Microwave Background Anisotropy , also known as the Array for Microwave Background Anisotropy ( AMiBA ) , is a radio telescope designed to observe the cosmic microwave background and the Sunyaev-Zel ` dovich effect in clusters of galaxies . It is located on Mauna Loa in Hawaii , at 3396 m above sea level . AMiBA was originally configured as a 7-element interferometer atop a hexapod mount . Observations at a wavelength of 3 mm ( 86 -- 102 GHz ) started in October 2006 , and the detections of six clusters by the Sunyaev-Zel ` dovich effect were announced in 2008 . In 2009 the telescope was upgraded to 13 elements , and it is capable of further expansion to 19 elements . AMiBA is the result of a collaboration between the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics , the National Taiwan University and the Australia Telescope National Facility , and also involves researchers from other universities . __ NOTOC __", "qid": "2997", "docid": "AMiBA", "rank": 71, "score": 96283 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano Winery Content: Volcano Winery is one of three commercial wineries in the U.S. state of Hawaii , and the first winery founded on the Big Island of Hawaii in the town of Volcano , Hawaii , near the summit of the active shield volcano Kīlauea . It is the southernmost winery in the United States . The winery is located on a fault line that runs near Mauna Loa .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Volcano_Winery", "rank": 72, "score": 95439 }, { "content": "Title: Maunalua Bay Content: Maunalua Bay is a bay on the Southeast shore of the island of Oahu , between Diamond Head and Koko Head , and forming the shoreline of the Hawaii Kai area of Honolulu . `` Maunalua '' in Hawaiian means two mountains .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Maunalua_Bay", "rank": 73, "score": 94902 }, { "content": "Title: (85627) 1998 HP151 Content: , also written as ( 85627 ) 1998 HP151 is a cubewano . It has a perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) at 40.297 AU and an aphelion ( farthest approach from the Sun ) of 48.306 AU . It is about 146 km in diameter . It was discovered on April 28 , 1998 , at the Mauna Kea Observatory , Hawaii .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "(85627)_1998_HP151", "rank": 74, "score": 94685 }, { "content": "Title: Phyllostegia racemosa Content: Phyllostegia racemosa is a rare species of flowering plant in the mint family known by the common names kiponapona and racemed phyllostegia . It is endemic to Hawaii , where it is known only from the slopes of the volcanoes Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea . It is a federally listed endangered species of the United States . This plant is a white-flowered vine with a `` spicy '' scent . There are probably fewer than 1000 individuals remaining in the moist and wet forests of the two volcanoes . Threats to the remaining plants include feral pigs and introduced species of plants .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Phyllostegia_racemosa", "rank": 75, "score": 94616 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 76, "score": 94522 }, { "content": "Title: Lake Nyos disaster Content: The Lake Nyos disaster occurred on 21 August 1986 , when a limnic eruption at Lake Nyos , in northwestern Cameroon , produced a large cloud of carbon dioxide , which descended onto nearby villages , killing 1,746 people and 3,500 livestock . The eruption triggered the sudden release of about 100,000 -- 300,000 tons ( some sources state as much as 1.6 million tons ) of CO2 . This gas cloud rose at nearly 100 km/h and spilled over the northern lip of the lake . It then rushed down two valleys , branching off to the north , displacing all the air and suffocating people and livestock within 25 km of the lake . A degassing system has since been installed at the lake , with the aim of reducing the concentration of in deep waters and therefore the risk of further eruptions .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Lake_Nyos_disaster", "rank": 77, "score": 94504 }, { "content": "Title: Hawaiian tropical high shrublands Content: The Hawaiian tropical high shrublands are a tropical savanna ecoregion in the Hawaiian Islands . They cover an area of 1900 km2 on the upper slopes of the volcanoes Mauna Kea , Mauna Loa , Hualālai , and Haleakalā . They include open shrublands , grasslands , and deserts . Shrubland species include āheahea ( Chenopodium oahuense ) , ōhelo ai ( Vaccinium reticulatum ) , naenae ( Dubautia menziesii ) , and iliahi ( Santalum haleakalae ) . Alpine grasslands are dominated by tussock grasses , such as Deschampsia nubigena , Eragrostis atropioides , Panicum tenuifolium , and pili uka ( Trisetum glomeratum ) . Deserts occur on the coldest and driest peaks , where only extremely hardy plants such as āhinahina ( Argyroxiphium sandwicense ) and Dubautia species are able to grow . The nēnē ( Branta sandvicensis ) is one of the few birds found in alpine shrublands , while uau ( Pterodroma sandwichensis ) nest in this ecoregion .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Hawaiian_tropical_high_shrublands", "rank": 78, "score": 94377 }, { "content": "Title: Pu'u'oke'oke'o Content: Pu`u ` oke`oke ` o is a 6716 ft mountain peak near Hawaiian Ocean View , Hawaii . This peak is a satellite and sub peak of Mauna Loa . Category : Mountains of Hawaii", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Pu'u'oke'oke'o", "rank": 79, "score": 94216 }, { "content": "Title: USS Mauna Loa (SP-28) Content: The first USS Mauna Loa ( SP-28 ) was an armed motorboat that served in the United States Navy as a patrol vessel from 1917 to 1918 . Mauna Loa was built in 1916 by George Lawley and Sons at Neponset , Massachusetts , as a private motorboat of the same name . The U.S. Navy acquired her from her owner , A. C. James , on a free lease contract on 10 May 1917 for World War I service . She was commissioned as USS Mauna Loa ( SP-28 ) on 11 May 1917 . Mauna Loa was assigned to the 1st Naval District . She patrolled the coast of northern New England until the end of the war . The Navy decommissioned Mauna Loa on 5 December 1918 and returned her to her owner the same day .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "USS_Mauna_Loa_(SP-28)", "rank": 80, "score": 93889 }, { "content": "Title: (52747) 1998 HM151 Content: , also written as ( 52747 ) 1998 HM151 , is a cubewano . It has a perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) at 41.902 AU and an aphelion ( farthest approach from the Sun ) at 47.500 AU . It is 116 km in diameter . It was discovered on April 29 , 1998 , at the Mauna Kea Observatory , Hawaii .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "(52747)_1998_HM151", "rank": 81, "score": 93853 }, { "content": "Title: West Maui Mountains Content: The West Maui Mountains or West Maui Volcano , known to the Hawaiians as Maui Komohana and to geologists as Mauna Kahalawai , forms a much eroded shield volcano that constitutes the western one-quarter of the Hawaiian Island of Maui . Since its last eruption approximately 320,000 years ago , the West Maui Mountains have undergone substantial stream erosion . The three moku or districts of west Maui are Lāhaina , Kāanapali , and Wailuku . Wailuku is also known as Pūalikomohana , or Nā Wai Ehā which means the four waters . The 4 waters are the ahupuaa ( smaller land division than district ) , which are Waikapū , Wailuku , Waiehu , and Waihee . The port of Lāhainā lies on the southwestern slope . The summit peak is called Puu Kukui , at 5788 ft elevation . Pu'u Kukui translates into `` candlenut hill '' .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "West_Maui_Mountains", "rank": 82, "score": 93812 }, { "content": "Title: Onizuka Center for International Astronomy Content: The Onizuka Center for International Astronomy , also known as Hale Pōhaku , is a complex of support facilities for the telescopes and other instruments that comprise the Mauna Kea Observatory atop Mauna Kea , on Hawaii island .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Onizuka_Center_for_International_Astronomy", "rank": 83, "score": 93682 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Kea Anaina Hou Content: Mauna Kea Anaina Hou ( `` People who pray for the mountain '' , ) and its sister group , Mauna Kea Hui , are indigenous , Native Hawaiian , cultural groups with environmental concerns located in the state of Hawaii .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Mauna_Kea_Anaina_Hou", "rank": 84, "score": 93558 }, { "content": "Title: Mauna Kea State Recreation Area Content: Mauna Kea State Recreation Area also known as Mauna Kea State Park , is a state of Hawaii protected area at the southern base of Mauna Kea . The 20.5 acre park is administered by the Hawai'i Department of Land and Natural Resources . The park is located on Saddle Road ( Route 200 ) 35 mi west of Hilo , at with about 6500 ft elevation . Facilities include restrooms , cabins and camping , trash cans , and a picnic area . water improvements are planned . Wild pigs and sheep can be hunted in the area . The dry shrublands get cold at night due to the elevation . The nearby Bradshaw Field , a military airstrip on the Pohakuloa Training Area , and artillery practices can disturb the quiet of the site . On August 18 , 2009 Senator Daniel Inouye and other officials held a ceremony at the park marking the third phase of the realignment of the Saddle Road . The first three phases improved 22 miles of the 55 mi road , through the 8 mi west of the park and 14 mi east of the park . On August 22 , 2010 , a fire broke out between the park and the training area . Dry conditions , strong winds , and steep terrain hampered fighting efforts , although military helicopters were used . The fire burned for over a week , with traffic diverted to the older saddle road and the park closed down .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Mauna_Kea_State_Recreation_Area", "rank": 85, "score": 93402 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 86, "score": 93246 }, { "content": "Title: MAVEN Content: Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN Mission ( MAVEN ) is a space probe developed by NASA designed to study the Martian atmosphere while orbiting Mars . Mission goals include determining how the planet 's atmosphere and water , presumed to have once been substantial , were lost over time . MAVEN was successfully launched aboard an Atlas V launch vehicle at the beginning of the first launch window on November 18 , 2013 . Following the first engine burn of the Centaur second stage , the vehicle coasted in low Earth orbit for 27 minutes before a second Centaur burn of five minutes to insert it into a heliocentric Mars transit orbit . On September 22 , 2014 , MAVEN reached Mars and was inserted into an areocentric elliptic orbit 6200 km by 150 km above the planet 's surface . The principal investigator for the spacecraft is Bruce Jakosky of the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder . On 5 November 2015 , NASA announced that data from MAVEN shows that the deterioration of Mars ' atmosphere increases significantly during solar storms . That loss of atmosphere to space likely played a key role in Mars ' gradual shift from its carbon dioxide-dominated atmosphere - which had kept Mars relatively warm and allowed the planet to support liquid surface water - to the cold , arid planet seen today . This shift took place between about 4.2 to 3.7 billion years ago .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "MAVEN", "rank": 87, "score": 93167 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding", "rank": 88, "score": 93041 }, { "content": "Title: Tharsis Montes Content: The Tharsis Montes are three large shield volcanoes in the Tharsis region of the planet Mars . From north to south , the volcanoes are Ascraeus Mons , Pavonis Mons and Arsia Mons . Mons ( plural montes ) is the Latin word for mountain . It is a descriptor term used in astrogeology for mountainous features in the Solar System . The three Tharsis Montes volcanoes are enormous by terrestrial standards , ranging in diameter from 375 km ( Pavonis Mons ) to 475 km ( Arsia Mons ) . Ascraeus Mons is the tallest with a summit elevation of over 18 km , or 15 km base-to-peak . For comparison , the largest volcano on Earth , Mauna Loa in Hawaii , is about 120 km across and stands 9 km above the ocean floor . The Tharsis Montes volcanoes lie near the equator , along the crest of a vast volcanic plateau called the Tharsis region or Tharsis bulge . The Tharsis region is thousands of kilometers across and averages nearly 10 km above the mean elevation of the planet . Olympus Mons , the tallest known mountain in the Solar System , is located about 1,200 km northwest of the Tharsis Montes , at the edge of the Tharsis region . The Tharsis Montes were discovered by the Mariner 9 spacecraft in 1971 . They were among the few surface features visible as the spacecraft entered orbit during a global dust storm . Appearing as faint spots through the dusty haze , they were informally christened North Spot , Middle Spot , and South Spot . ( A fourth spot corresponding to the albedo feature Nix Olympica was also visible and later named Olympus Mons . ) As the dust cleared , it became obvious that the spots were the tops of enormous shield volcanoes with complex central calderas ( collapse craters ) . The three Tharsis Montes volcanoes are evenly spaced about 700 km apart ( from peak to peak ) in a line oriented southwest-northeast . This alignment is unlikely to be coincidental . Several smaller volcanic centers northeast of the Tharsis Montes are on an extension of the line . The three volcanoes ( most notably Arsia Mons ) also all have collapse features and rifts , from which flank eruptions issued , that transect them along the same northeast-southwest trend . The line clearly represents a major structural feature of the planet , but its origin is uncertain .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Tharsis_Montes", "rank": 89, "score": 92827 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 90, "score": 92743 }, { "content": "Title: Geysers on Mars Content: Martian geysers (or CO2 jets) are putative sites of small gas and dust eruptions that occur in the south polar region of Mars during the spring thaw. \"Dark dune spots\" and \"spiders\" – or araneiforms – are the two most visible types of features ascribed to these eruptions. Martian geysers are distinct from geysers on Earth, which are typically associated with hydrothermal activity. These are unlike any terrestrial geological phenomenon. The reflectance (albedo), shapes and unusual spider appearance of these features have stimulated a variety of hypotheses about their origin, ranging from differences in frosting reflectance, to explanations involving biological processes. However, all current geophysical models assume some sort of jet or geyser-like activity on Mars. Their characteristics, and the process of their formation, are still a matter of debate. These features are unique to the south polar region of Mars in an area informally called the 'cryptic region', at latitudes 60° to 80° south and longitudes 150°W to 310°W; this 1 meter deep carbon dioxide (CO2) ice transition area—between the scarps of the thick polar ice layer and the permafrost—is where clusters of the apparent geyser systems are located. The seasonal frosting and defrosting of carbon dioxide ice results in the appearance of a number of features, such dark dune spots with spider-like rilles or channels below the ice, where spider-like radial channels are carved between the ground and the carbon dioxide ice, giving it an appearance of spider webs, then, pressure accumulating in their interior ejects gas and dark basaltic sand or dust, which is deposited on the ice surface and thus, forming dark dune spots. This process is rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a growth rate rather unusual in geology – especially for Mars. However, it would seem that multiple years would be required to carve the larger spider-like channels. There is no direct data on these features other than images taken in the visible and infrared spectra.", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Geysers_on_Mars", "rank": 91, "score": 92529 }, { "content": "Title: International Planetary Patrol Program Content: The NASA International Planetary Patrol Program consists of a network of astronomical observatories to collect uninterrupted images and observations of the large-scale atmospheric and surface features of the planets . This group was established in 1969 , and consisted of the Mauna Kea Observatory , the Mount Stromlo Observatory , the Perth Observatory , the Republic Observatory , the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory , the Magdalena Peak Station of the New Mexico State University , and the Lowell Observatory . The activities were coordinated by William A. Baum of Lowell Observatory . For Mars , they monitored clouds and dust storms , as well as the seasonal fluctuations in the climate . The martian dust storms of 1971 and 1973 were extensively covered . They also observed changes in the Jovian atmosphere , including the Great Red Spot . Venus has been monitored for circulation of the cloud deck .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "International_Planetary_Patrol_Program", "rank": 92, "score": 92491 }, { "content": "Title: Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) Carbon Neutral Resolution Content: The Presbyterian Church ( USA ) Carbon Neutral Resolution was a resolution passed at the June , 2006 , 217th General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) strongly urging all Presbyterians to ` immediately aspire to live carbon neutral lives ' . It is believed that resolution was the first in the world by a major religious denomination for its followers to become carbon neutral . The resolution also directed the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy to make available detail of how Presbyterians could take to reduce their energy consumption and recognised that ` the Christian mandate to care for creation and the biblical promise of the restoration of right relationships between God , human beings , and the rest of creation impels and inspires Presbyterians to act to reduce -LSB- their -RSB- energy usage ' . The resolution was based on a report by a task force prepared for the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy . After the Advisory Committee voted to postpone consideration of the report until the 2008 General Assembly , two General Assembly Commissioners bypassed the committee and were successful in getting the resolution adopted . The Church first noted its ` serious concern ' over global warming at the 1990 General Assembly , when it warned that ` the global atmospheric warming trend ( the greenhouse effect ) represents one of the most serious global environmental challenges to the health , security , and stability of human life and natural ecosystems ' . Despite this , a survey carried out in 2004 revealed that over half of all Presbyterians had not taken even the ` simplest steps to decrease their energy usage ' , and that most congregations had not implemented energy conservation programs .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Presbyterian_Church_(U.S.A.)_Carbon_Neutral_Resolution", "rank": 93, "score": 92397 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 94, "score": 92221 }, { "content": "Title: Hibiscadelphus giffardianus Content: Hibiscadelphus giffardianus ( Kilauea hau kuahiwi ) is a species of flowering plant in the mallow family , Malvaceae , that is endemic to the Big Island of Hawaii . It is believed to be extinct in the wild ; any remaining plants are threatened by habitat loss . Cultivated plants exist in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park . It inhabits mixed mesic forests on the slopes of Mauna Loa at elevations of 1200 - . Associated plants include ōhia lehua ( Metrosideros polymorpha ) , koa ( Acacia koa ) , mānele ( Sapindus saponaria ) , hoio ( Diplazium sandwicianum ) , pilo ( Coprosma spp . ) , māmaki ( Pipturus albidus ) , kōpiko ( Psychotria spp . ) , olopua ( Nestegis sandwicensis ) , alani ( Melicope spp . ) , aalii ( Dodonaea viscosa ) , and naio ( Myoporum sandwicense ) . H. giffardianus is a small tree , reaching a height of 7 m and trunk diameter of 30 cm .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Hibiscadelphus_giffardianus", "rank": 95, "score": 91934 }, { "content": "Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Landfill_gas", "rank": 96, "score": 91846 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 97, "score": 91781 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 98, "score": 91761 }, { "content": "Title: Submillimeter Array Content: The Submillimeter Array ( SMA ) consists of eight 6 m diameter radio telescopes arranged as an interferometer for submillimeter wavelength observations . It is the first purpose-built submillimeter interferometer , constructed after successful interferometry experiments using the pre-existing 15 m James Clerk Maxwell Telescope and 10.4 m Caltech Submillimeter Observatory as an interferometer . All three of these observatories are located at Mauna Kea Observatory on Mauna Kea , Hawaii , and can be operated together as a ten element interferometer in the 230 and 345 GHz bands ( eSMA , for extended Submillimeter Array ) . The baseline lengths presently in use range from 16 to , and up to 783 m for eSMA operations . The radio frequencies accessible to this telescope range from 180-418 GHz which includes rotational transitions of dozens of molecular species as well as continuum emission from interstellar dust grains . Although the array is capable of operating both day and night , most of the observations take place at nighttime when the atmospheric phase stability is best . The SMA is jointly operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Submillimeter_Array", "rank": 99, "score": 91737 }, { "content": "Title: Yedoma Content: Yedoma is an organic-rich ( about 2 % carbon by mass ) Pleistocene-age permafrost with ice content of 50 -- 90 % by volume . The amount of carbon trapped in this type of permafrost is much more prevalent than originally thought and may be about 210 to 450 Gt , that is a multiple of the amount of carbon released into the air each year by the burning of fossil fuels . Thawing yedoma is a significant source of atmospheric methane ( about 4 Tg of per year ) . The Yedoma region currently occupies an area of more than one million square kilometers from northeast Siberia to Alaska and Canada , and in many regions is tens of meters thick . During the Last Glacial Maximum , when the global sea level was 120 m lower than that of today , similar deposits covered substantial areas of the exposed northeast Eurasian continental shelves . At the end of last ice age , at the Pleistocene -- Holocene transition , thawing yedoma and the resulting thermokarst lakes may have produced 33 to 87 % of the high-latitude increase in atmospheric methane concentration .", "qid": "2997", "docid": "Yedoma", "rank": 100, "score": 91671 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Mount Spurr Content: Mount Spurr is a stratovolcano in the Aleutian Arc of Alaska , named after United States Geological Survey geologist and explorer Josiah Edward Spurr , who led an expedition to the area in 1898 . The Alaska Volcano Observatory ( AVO ) currently rates Mount Spurr as Level of Concern Color Code Green . The mountain is known aboriginally by the Dena'ina Athabascan name K'idazq ` eni , literally ` that which is burning inside ' . Mount Spurr , the highest volcano of the Aleutian arc , is a large lava dome constructed at the center of a roughly 5 km-wide horseshoe-shaped caldera that is open to the south . The volcano lies 130 km west of Anchorage and NE of Chakachamna Lake . The caldera was formed by a late-Pleistocene or early Holocene debris avalanche and associated pyroclastic flows that destroyed an ancestral Spurr volcano . The debris avalanche traveled more than 25 km to the SE , and the resulting deposit contains blocks as large as 100m in diameter . Several ice-carved post-caldera domes lie in the caldera . Present Mt. Spurr is the highest of the post-caldera . This regrown summit peak of Spurr experienced a heating event in 2004 which created a small crater lake . By 2008 , the summit crater had cooled enough to have begun to have accumulated significant amounts of snow again . The youngest post-caldera dome , Crater Peak ( 2309m , 7575 ft ) , formed at the breached southern end of the caldera about 3.2 km south of Spurr , has been the source of about 40 identified Holocene tephra layers . Spurr 's two historical eruptions , from Crater Peak in 1953 and 1992 , deposited ash on the city of Anchorage . Crater Peak has a summit crater that is itself slightly breached along the south rim ; the north wall of the crater exposes the truncated remains of an older dome or lava lake . Before the 1992 eruption , a small crater lake occupied the bottom of Crater Peak 's crater . As with other Alaskan volcanoes , the proximity of Spurr to major trans-Pacific aviation routes means that an eruption of this volcano can significantly disrupt air travel . Volcanic ash can cause jet engines to fail .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Mount_Spurr", "rank": 1, "score": 87321 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanology of Chile Content: Volcanology of Chile studies a continuous volcanic process that has a strong influence on Chilean landscape , geology , economy and society . Volcanism constantly renews the Chilean landscape with lava flows , lava plateaus , lava domes , cinder cones , stratovolcanoes , shield volcanoes , submarine volcanoes , calderas , diatremes , and maars . However volcanism in Chile as well as in other parts of the world is also associated with several natural hazards such as lahars , earthquakes , pyroclastic flows , toxic gases and ash . Continental Chile has a high concentration of active volcanoes due to its location along the Peru -- Chile Trench , a subduction zone where the Nazca and Antarctic Plates are driven beneath the South American Plate . Chile has been subject to volcanism since at least late Paleozoic when subduction along the western margin of South America began . Easter Island , Juan Fernández Islands and other oceanic islands of Chile are extinct volcanoes created by hotspots . Chile has about 500 volcanoes considered active , 60 of which have had recorded eruptions in the last 450 years . The volcanoes with most recorded eruptions are : Llaima ( 8 ) Villarrica ( 6 ) Antuco Volcano ( 4 ) Planchón-Peteroa ( 3 ) Lonquimay ( 3 ) Calbuco ( 3 )", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanology_of_Chile", "rank": 2, "score": 83072 }, { "content": "Title: Ash Ingestion Detection for Aircraft (AIDA) Content: Aircraft are susceptible to encounters with volcanic ash particles during flight . The volcanic ash particles which are ingested can easily contaminate the fuselage of the aircraft . The contamination will necessitate the cleaning of the cockpit electronics and panels , panels , circuit breaker panels and passenger and baggage compartments . The electrical and aircraft avionics systems can be so heavily be covered with volcanic ash particles to the point where a complete replacement is required , due to overheating or diminished accuracy of the equipment . The ash can be drawn into cargo-hold and affect the fire-warning system and can cause spurious alarms . The ash itself is hazardous to the engines by melting and solidifying as a glassy material on the turbine blades , affects the small tolerances which make the turbine efficient . The glassy material which is formed on the blades also has the possibility of shattering and throwing hard debris through the engine which can cause damage . An EU FP7 project was set up by a consortium of partners : Greenbank Group UK , Intelligent Systems Research Institute ( ISRI ) , Innora , WLB , Lenis Global , AeroCARE and AeroSTAR . The project delivers an advanced airborne volcanic ash detection prototype which uses bespoke machine vision interrogation of volcanic ash and an intelligent image analysis algorithm to classify the a cluster of debris into ash and not ash . The prototype is designed to be retrofitted to an aircraft where it examines the air in the aircraft 's ventilation or air-conditioning ducts . By interrogating foreign bodies using birefringence an initial classification of `` ash '' and `` not ash '' can be determined . The system then feeds the counted particles through a trigger system which calculates the size and speed of the particles triggering a high resolution camera . The images collected are interrogated using surface feature recognition to verify the presence of volcanic ash by finding known surface features . The presence of ash is counted and gives an early warning to the pilot , ground crews and Airline maintenance team to potentially avoid catastrophic failure of aircraft parts . Tests completed displayed the clear differences that can be seen between non-uniform silicates ( such as sand and ash ) and more uniform particles . Long term testing indicated that system cleaning would be required regularly for high loads of particulates but this is expected to occur naturally over the course of a flight . Assessment of the prototype classification algorithm was completed with a subset of the collected results using manual particle segmentation . To fully automate the process development would be required . Results from the tests performed in laboratory conditions showed a 100 % accuracy of classifying ash as ` ash ' and a 95 % accuracy of classifying sand as ` not ash ' which is a very promising outcome . These results indicate that particle classification is extremely successful , especially taking into account the fact that the error is distributed towards false positives rather than false negatives ; the classifier does not miss volcanic ash particles which is a crucial condition to ensure safety , since misclassifying volcanic ash particles as harmless can prove much more costly than misclassifying sand particles as harmful .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Ash_Ingestion_Detection_for_Aircraft_(AIDA)", "rank": 3, "score": 82535 }, { "content": "Title: Hawaiian eruption Content: A Hawaiian eruption is a type of volcanic eruption where lava flows from the vent in a relatively gentle , low level eruption ; it is so named because it is characteristic of Hawaiian volcanoes . Typically they are effusive eruptions , with basaltic magmas of low viscosity , low content of gases , and high temperature at the vent . Very little amounts of volcanic ash are produced . This type of eruption occurs most often at hotspot volcanoes such as Kīlauea on Hawaii 's big island and in Iceland , though it can occur near subduction zones ( e.g. Medicine Lake Volcano in California , United States ) and rift zones . Another example of Hawaiian eruptions occurred on the island of Surtsey in Iceland from 1964 to 1967 , when molten lava flowed from the crater to the sea . Hawaiian eruptions may occur along fissure vents , such as during the eruption of Mauna Loa Volcano in 1950 , or at a central vent , such as during the 1959 eruption in Kīlauea Iki Crater , which created a lava fountain 580 meters ( 1,900 ft ) high and formed a 38-meter cone named Puu Puai . In fissure-type eruptions , lava spurts from a fissure on the volcano 's rift zone and feeds lava streams that flow downslope . In central-vent eruptions , a fountain of lava can spurt to a height of 300 meters or more ( heights of 1600 meters were reported for the 1986 eruption of Mount Mihara on Izu Ōshima , Japan ) . Hawaiian eruptions usually start by the formation of a crack in the ground from which a curtain of incandescent magma or several closely spaced magma fountains appear . The lava can overflow the fissure and form aā or pāhoehoe style of flows . When such an eruption from a central cone is protracted , it can form lightly sloped shield volcanoes , for example Mauna Loa or Skjaldbreiður in Iceland .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Hawaiian_eruption", "rank": 4, "score": 81975 }, { "content": "Title: Maritime impacts of volcanic eruptions Content: Less commonly publicized than the effects on aviation -- and with less potential for catastrophe -- maritime Impacts of volcanic eruptions are also dangerous . When a volcano erupts , large amounts of noxious gases , steam , rock , and ash are released into the atmosphere ; fine ash can be transported thousands of miles from the volcano , while high concentrations of coarse particles fall out of the air near the volcano . The high concentrations of hazardous toxic gases are localized in the immediate vicinity of the volcano . Until more recently public focus has mainly been on effects on aviation effects -- ash , which can be undetectable , can cause an aircraft 's engine to cut out with catastrophic potential . However , the July 2008 eruption of Okmok Volcano in Alaska triggered attention to the maritime effects . Employees at the National Weather Service Ocean Prediction Center 's Ocean Applications Branch examined this event and partnered with the Alaska Volcano Observatory to compile information on the topic . Ash can affect marine transportation in many ways : Volcanic ash can clog air intake filters in a matter of minutes , crippling airflow to vital machinery . Ash particles are very abrasive and , if they get into an engine 's moving parts , can cause severe damage very quickly . Water is the main component in volcanic eruptions ; it is what makes them so explosive . Through chemical reactions , toxic gases that are released in eruptions can bond or adsorb to ashfall particles . As the particles land on skin , metal , or other exposed shipboard equipment , they can begin to corrode . Certain types of volcanic ash do not dissolve easily in water . Instead , they clump on the surface of the ocean in pumice rafts . These rafts can clog salt water intake strainers very quickly , which can result in overheating of shipboard machinery dependent on sea water service cooling . Heavy amounts of volcanic ash reduce visibility to less than 1/2 mi , which is a hazard to navigation . This , combined with the above three other main impacts make sailing in the vicinity of volcanic ash very dangerous for mariners .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Maritime_impacts_of_volcanic_eruptions", "rank": 5, "score": 80289 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano (supergroup) Content: Volcano was a supergroup band , formed by Meat Puppets frontman Curt Kirkwood , Sublime drummer Bud Gaugh , Sublime soundman Michael ` Miguel ' Happoldt , and bass player of The Ziggens Jon Poutney after the breakup of Eyes Adrift . They released one self-titled studio album in 2004 . In an interview with Rolling Stone , Kirkwood said : `` The producer says it sounds a lot like Eighties , SST-era , Up On the Sun Meat Puppets . But there 's more bouncy rhythms -- we do a lot more stuff that was inspired by the Selecter , the Specials and Bob Marley . '' Kirkwood wanted to name the band `` Pine Cone '' , but was outvoted by other group members . The album was released as a limited edition on Skunk Records and to date ( 2015 ) has not been reprinted . Volcano was released in 2004 .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_(supergroup)", "rank": 6, "score": 79815 }, { "content": "Title: Subaqueous volcano Content: A subaqueous volcano is a volcano formed beneath freshwater and never builds above lake level . They are commonly in the form of gently sloping tuff cones , although they can sometimes have an , such as White Horse Bluff in the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field of east-central British Columbia , Canada . Subaqueous volcanoes can be compared to subaerial volcanoes which are formed and erupt on land surface , or under the air . The major differences of volcanic eruptions are due to the effects of pressure , heat capacity or conductivity of water , the presence of steam and water rheology . The thermal conductivity of water is about 20 times that of air and steam has a thermal conductivity nearly 50 times that of water . Subaqueous volcanoes are most commonly formed in oceans , but can also form in lakes , rivers and subglacial lakes . In improving our understanding of subaqueous volcanoes , it is important to consider the differences between the characteristics of modern and ancient approaches to the study . Modern studies offer fresh and unaltered observances , can see and map surface features and the water depth is known in areas that allow observation . Ancient studies have had stratigraphic exposure to sections , are easier to work on , have more and better exposures and have an existing relationship to resources . Some geologists would restrict the term subaqueous pyroclastic flow deposits to volcaniclastic units that show characteristics of emplacement in a hot state deposited underwater -- however , this ca n't always be done because of the subsequent process of alteration/diagenesis such as active hot springs and associated hydrothermal alteration . Deposits from pyroclastic flows that interact with water and are transformed into water-supported mass flows are called subaqueous pyroclastic debris flow deposits by some geologists . On the other hand , processes that are associated with eruption , transportation and deposition are notably different because of the presence of water . Such differences that the presence of water entails is the ability to vaporize when in contact with water , a high density and resulting confining pressure , high viscosity relative to air and differences in the thermal conductivities/heat capacities in the air relative to water . Some understanding of subaqueous volcanoes can be inferred from knowledge of volcanic processes based on ancient successions . Subaqueous volcano deposits have been occurring in the south of Honshu , the largest island among Japan 's four principal islands . The four subaqueous volcanic deposits have been documented and are located throughout Japan offer significant evidence to study . Subaqueous volcanic deposits are associated with subaqueous sedimentary deposits and these deposits range from near shore , off-shore and abyssal mudstone deposits . Unfortunately , paleo-depth constraints for sedimentary strata are poor and subject to contradicting interpretations . However , the depth of emplacement can be conjectured with minor control of water depth . In determining the characteristics of pyroclastic flows in subaerial versus subaqueous deposits , it is commonly believed that water fluidized volcaniclastic flows become normally graded in terms of all components except for large , buoyant pumice blocks which settle to form large pumice layers . However , this phenomenon is usually seen as subaerial ignimbrite ( pumice rich pyroclastic flows ) deposits . Because of this , the characteristic is not considered clear evidence for the interpretation of the fluidizing agent ( hot gas or water ) and can therefore only be used in conjunction with other criteria . Characteristics can be sorted to infer subaqueous eruption or emplacement of silicic pyroclastic deposits . Larger pumice blocks rise for a more extended period of time ( minutes to hours ) in comparison to smaller pumice fragments because of gases trapped within vesicles and the very fine ash fragments may become entrained into the rising plume of gas and heated water because of the low density and weight . Therefore , subaqueous silicic pyroclastic eruptions may be diminished in the course size fraction as well as the very fine ash size fraction based on the buoyancy of the material in the water medium . These characteristics may be important in determining the style of subaqueous eruption and emplacement mechanism . The characteristics of texture , such as grain morphology and grain size abundances can also provide knowledge on the process of controlling the eruption style or transport/flow properties , whether turbulent or laminar . Seafloor exploration has discovered that more volcanic eruptions occur at the bottom of the sea than on land . However , the effects of ambient water and hydrostatic pressure on silicic volcanic eruptions in subaqueous settings are not entirely understood because deep marine eruptions are not directly observed and studied . Because of this , information of recent deep-water volcanic eruptions are still incomplete and limited . The conclusions of the studies of subaqueous volcanoes in Japan determine that clear evidence for eruption and/or emplacement of pyroclastic flows continue to be determined from the examination of these deposits although inferential evidence such as grain morphology , sorting and grading can be used to identify and document ancient subaqueous volcanic deposits . The University of California , Santa Barbara will continue to conduct further research which may be able to provide further information on styles of subaqueous volcanic eruptions and/or flow characteristics of volcanic deposits .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Subaqueous_volcano", "rank": 7, "score": 79073 }, { "content": "Title: Koh-i-Sultan Content: Koh-i-Sultan is a volcano in Balochistan , Pakistan . It is part of the tectonic belt formed by the collision of India and Asia : specifically , a segment influenced by the subduction of the Arabian plate beneath the Asian plate and forming a volcanic arc which includes the Bazman and Taftan volcanoes in Iran . The volcano consists of three main cones , with heavily eroded craters running west-northwest and surrounded by a number of subsidiary volcanic centres . Its summit is 2334 m high , and the crater associated with the Miri cone has a smaller crater inside . The volcano is formed by andesite and dacite rocks , with fragmentary rocks prevailing over lava flows . The rocks have typical arc-volcano chemistry and composition , with a progression from andesite to dacite in the eruption products with younger age . Potassium-argon dating has indicated an age range from 5,900,000 to 90,000 years . Subsequent erosion has generated a large debris apron around the base of the volcano and carved rock formations which impressed early explorers ; one well-known rock formation is Neza e Sultan . Geothermal activity and the emission of volcanic gases are ongoing , and the volcano has been prospected for the possibility of obtaining geothermal energy . The geothermal activity has resulted in widespread rock alteration and the formation of sulfur deposits , which were mentioned in a 1909 report and later mined . Koh-i-Sultan also has deposits of other minerals .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Koh-i-Sultan", "rank": 8, "score": 78689 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanology Content: Volcanology ( also spelled vulcanology ) is the study of volcanoes , lava , magma , and related geological , geophysical and geochemical phenomena . The term volcanology is derived from the Latin word vulcan . Vulcan was the ancient Roman god of fire . A volcanologist is a geologist who studies the eruptive activity and formation of volcanoes , and their current and historic eruptions . Volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes , especially active ones , to observe volcanic eruptions , collect eruptive products including tephra ( such as ash or pumice ) , rock and lava samples . One major focus of enquiry is the prediction of eruptions ; there is currently no accurate way to do this , but predicting eruptions , like predicting earthquakes , could save many lives .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanology", "rank": 9, "score": 78188 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano Content: A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object , such as Earth , that allows hot lava , volcanic ash , and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface . Earth 's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major , rigid tectonic plates that float on a hotter , softer layer in its mantle . Therefore , on Earth , volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging , and most are found underwater . For example , a mid-oceanic ridge , such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart ; the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together . Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust 's , e.g. , in the East African Rift and the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and Rio Grande Rift in North America . This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of `` plate hypothesis '' volcanism . Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes . These so-called `` hotspots '' , for example Hawaii , are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the core -- mantle boundary , 3,000 km deep in the Earth . Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another . Erupting volcanoes can pose many hazards , not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption . One such hazard is that volcanic ash can be a threat to aircraft , in particular those with jet engines where ash particles can be melted by the high operating temperature ; the melted particles then adhere to the turbine blades and alter their shape , disrupting the operation of the turbine . Large eruptions can affect temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure the sun and cool the Earth 's lower atmosphere ( or troposphere ) ; however , they also absorb heat radiated up from the Earth , thereby warming the upper atmosphere ( or stratosphere ) . Historically , so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano", "rank": 10, "score": 77682 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano tectonic earthquake Content: A volcano tectonic earthquake is an earthquake induced by the movement ( injection or withdrawal ) of magma . The movement results in pressure changes in the rock around where the magma has experienced stress . At some point , the rock may break or move . The earthquakes may also be related to dike intrusion and may occur as earthquake swarms . An example is the 2007 -- 2008 Nazko earthquake swarm in central British Columbia , Canada . Other types of seismic activity related to volcanoes and their eruptions are long period seismic waves , which are from sudden sporadic movement of magma , which is blocked from moving due to a blockage . Another is a harmonic tremor , which is steady movement of magma , deep in the mantle .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_tectonic_earthquake", "rank": 11, "score": 77633 }, { "content": "Title: List of largest volcanic eruptions Content: In a volcanic eruption , lava , tephra ( volcanic bombs , lapilli , and ash ) , and various gases are expelled from a volcanic vent or fissure . While many eruptions only pose dangers to the immediately surrounding area , Earth 's largest eruptions can have a major regional or even global impact , with some affecting the climate and contributing to mass extinctions . Volcanic eruptions can generally be characterized as either explosive eruptions , sudden ejections of rock and ash , or effusive eruptions , relatively gentle outpourings of lava . A separate list is given below for each type . All of the eruptions listed below have produced at least 1000 km3 of lava and tephra ; for explosive eruptions , this corresponds to a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( or VEI ) of 8 . They are at least a thousand times larger than the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens , which produced only 1 km3 of material , and at least six times larger than the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora , the largest eruption in recent history , which produced 160 km3 of volcanic deposits . There have probably been many such eruptions during Earth 's history beyond those shown in these lists . However erosion and plate tectonics have taken their toll , and many eruptions have not left enough evidence for geologists to establish their size . Even for the eruptions listed here , estimates of the volume erupted can be subject to considerable uncertainty .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "List_of_largest_volcanic_eruptions", "rank": 12, "score": 77587 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic Rock (album) Content: Volcanic Rock is the second studio album by Australian proto-heavy metal band Buffalo , recorded and originally released in 1973 on the Vertigo label . The album was stylistically a much harder , heavier and rawer release than its predecessor ( Dead Forever ... ) -- marking a move away from the band 's previous progressive rock influences , although retaining a psychedelic element to their sound . Volcanic Rock had been recorded effectively as a live-in-the-studio effort , with only vocal and additional guitar overdubs added later during the recording sessions . The album courted controversy with its cover artwork upon its release . Illustrated by J. Phillip Thomas , the artwork was designed as a vertically opening gatefold cover , with the top half of the cover ( i.e. the front cover ) depicting an androgynous human standing atop a volcanic mountain holding up a phallus-shaped rock , whilst the lower half of the cover ( i.e. rear cover ) depicted the base of the mountain as the lower half of a female torso ( viewed from the rear ) , menstruating molten lava . Inevitably , it led to accusations of misogyny towards the band and many record stores either refusing to stock or display the album on the shelves as a result . Despite this , the album is regarded by both many fans and critics as the band 's most musically accomplished effort and has subsequently become a much sought-after album by music collectors . The album was remastered and reissued in September 2005 by Australian record label Aztec Music on CD with additional tracks . `` Freedom '' was covered by Screaming Trees as an unlisted B-side to their single `` Butterfly '' from Sweet Oblivion .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanic_Rock_(album)", "rank": 13, "score": 77580 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano (disambiguation) Content: A volcano is a geological landform usually generated by the eruption through a vent in a planet 's surface of magma . Volcano may also refer to :", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_(disambiguation)", "rank": 14, "score": 77112 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano! (band) Content: volcano ! is a three-piece rock band from Chicago , Illinois that are influenced by classic rock , post-punk , free jazz and noise rock .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano!_(band)", "rank": 15, "score": 76942 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano (1997 film) Content: Volcano is a 1997 American disaster film directed by Mick Jackson and produced by Andrew Z. Davis , Neal H. Moritz and Lauren Shuler Donner . The storyline was conceived from a screenplay written by Jerome Armstrong and Billy Ray . The film features Tommy Lee Jones , Anne Heche , and Don Cheadle . Jones is cast as the head of the Los Angeles County Office of Emergency Management ( LAC OEM ) which has complete authority in the event of an emergency or natural disaster . His character attempts to divert the path of a dangerous lava flow through the streets of Los Angeles following the formation of a volcano at the La Brea Tar Pits . A joint collective effort to commit to the film 's production was made by the film studios of 20th Century Fox , Moritz Original and Shuler Donner/Donner Productions . It was commercially distributed by 20th Century Fox . Volcano explores civil viewpoints , such as awareness , evacuation and crisis prevention . Although the film used extensive special effects , it failed to receive any award nominations from mainstream motion picture organizations for its production merits . Volcano premiered in theaters nationwide in the United States on April 25 , 1997 grossing $ 49,323,468 in domestic ticket receipts , on a $ 90 million budget . It earned an additional $ 73.5 million in business through international release to top out at a combined $ 122,823,468 in gross revenue . Despite its release and recognition , Dante 's Peak ( which was released 2 months before ) gained more commercial success than Volcano . It was also met with mixed critical reviews before its initial screening in cinemas . The Region 1 code widescreen edition of the film featuring special features was released on DVD in the United States on March 9 , 1999 .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_(1997_film)", "rank": 16, "score": 76062 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic impacts on the oceans Content: Explosive volcanic eruptions affect the global climate mainly through injecting sulfur bearing gases into the stratosphere , which oxidize to form sulfate aerosols . Stratospheric sulfur aerosols spread around the globe by the atmospheric circulation , producing surface cooling by scattering solar radiation back to space . This cooling effect on the ocean surface usually lasts for several years as the lifetime of sulfate aerosols is about 2 -- 3 years . However , in the subsurface ocean the cooling signal may persist for a longer time and may have impacts on some decadal variabilities , such as the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation ( AMOC ) .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanic_impacts_on_the_oceans", "rank": 17, "score": 75753 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic plug Content: A volcanic plug , also called a volcanic neck or lava neck , is a volcanic object created when magma hardens within a vent on an active volcano . When present , a plug can cause an extreme build-up of pressure if rising volatile-charged magma is trapped beneath it , and this can sometimes lead to an explosive eruption . Glacial erosion can lead to exposure of the plug on one side , while a long slope of material remains on the opposite side . Such landforms are called crag and tail . If a plug is preserved , erosion may remove the surrounding rock while the erosion-resistant plug remains , producing a distinctive upstanding landform . An example of two volcanic plugs can be found at the Pitons , in Saint Lucia , as they rise abruptly out of the eastern Caribbean Sea .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanic_plug", "rank": 18, "score": 75097 }, { "content": "Title: Subglacial eruption Content: Subglacial eruptions , those of ice-covered volcanoes , result in the interaction of magma with ice and snow , leading to meltwater formation , jökulhlaups , and lahars . Flooding associated with meltwater is a significant hazard in some volcanic areas , including Iceland , Alaska , and parts of the Andes . Jökulhlaups , glacial outburst floods , have been identified as the most frequently occurring volcanic hazard in Iceland , with major events where peak discharges can reach 10 000 -- 100 000 m3/s occurring when there are large eruptions beneath glaciers . It is important to explore volcano-ice interactions to improve our ability to effectively monitor these events and to undertake hazard assessments . This is particularly relevant given that subglacial eruptions have recently demonstrated their ability to cause widespread impact , with the ash cloud associated with Iceland 's Eyjafjallajökull eruption resulting in significant impacts to aviation across Europe .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Subglacial_eruption", "rank": 19, "score": 74743 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanology of Venus Content: The surface of Venus is dominated by volcanic features and has more volcanoes than any other planet in the Solar System . It has a surface that is 90 % basalt , and about 65 % of the planet consists of a mosaic of volcanic lava plains , indicating that volcanism played a major role in shaping its surface . There are more than 1000 volcanic structures and possible periodic resurfacing of Venus by floods of lava . The planet may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago , from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface . Venus has a carbon dioxide rich atmosphere , with a density that is 90 times greater than Earth . Even though there are over 1,600 major volcanoes on Venus , none are known to be erupting at present and most are probably long extinct . However , radar sounding by the Magellan probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic activity at Venus 's highest volcano Maat Mons , in the form of ash flows near the summit and on the northern flank . Although many lines of evidence suggest that Venus is likely to be volcanically active , present-day eruptions at Maat Mons have not been confirmed .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanology_of_Venus", "rank": 20, "score": 74282 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano tectonics Content: Volcano tectonics is a scientific field that uses the techniques and methods of structural geology , tectonics , and physics to analyse and interpret physical processes and the associated deformation in volcanic areas , at any scale . These processes may be 1 ) magma-induced or , conversely , 2 ) control magma propagation and emplacement . In the first case , the process has a local extent , usually within the volcanic area . Typical examples include the development of calderas and resurgences , pit craters , dikes , sills , laccoliths , magma chambers , eruptive fissures , volcanic rift zones and any type of volcano flank dynamics , including sector collapses . In the second case , the process controlling the magma may have a regional extent , also outside the volcanic area . Typical examples include the activity of regional faults and earthquakes along divergent , convergent and transform plate boundaries , as continental , transitional and oceanic rifts , magmatic arcs and back-arcs , as well as of any intraplate structure possibly controlling volcanism . The study of these processes is not restricted to the Earth 's crust . In fact , an increasing number of studies has been considering also the Volcano-Tectonic features of extraterrestrial bodies , including Venus , Mars and Jupiter 's moon Io . As a volcano consists , in the broadest sense , of a volcanic edifice , a plumbing system and a deeper magma reservoir , Volcano-Tectonics is not restricted to the surface processes , but also includes any subsurface process in the host rock related to the shallower and deeper plumbing system of the volcano . The latter may be directly accessible in the eroded portions of active volcanoes or , more commonly , in extinct eroded volcanoes . The general aim of Volcano-Tectonics is to capture the shallower and deeper structure of volcanoes , establishing the overall stress-strain relationships between the magma and the host rock , to ultimately understand how volcanoes work in their regional context . This approach allows defining the dynamic behaviour of active volcanoes during unrest periods and eruptions and thus being able to make reliable forecasts as to the likely scenarios . Volcano-Tectonics merges the knowledge and expertise of a wide range of methodologies . These primarily include structural geology ( usually at the outcrop scale ) , tectonics ( usually at the regional scale ) , geodesy from active volcanoes ( GPS , InSAR , levelling , strainmeters , tiltmeters ) , geophysics ( seismicity , gravity , seismic lines ) , remote sensing ( optical and thermal ) , and modelling ( analytical , numerical and analogue models ) . More volcanological-oriented methodologies are also involved , including stratigraphy , petrology , geochemistry and geochronology . Data , however , are of little use if they can not be interpreted and understood within the framework of a reasonable model or theory of volcano behaviour . Quantitative and testable models must , in the end , be related to some physical theories and thus to physics . In Volcano-Tectonics , like in solid-earth geophysics in general , the main physical theories used are those that derive from continuum mechanics . For solid-earth sciences , these are mainly solid mechanics , including rock mechanics , fracture mechanics and general tectonophysics , and fluid mechanics , including fluid transport in rock fractures .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_tectonics", "rank": 21, "score": 73989 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of the April 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption Content: The eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland on 14th April 2010 affected the economic , political and cultural activities in Europe and across the world . There was an extensive air travel disruption caused by the closure of airspace over many countries affecting the travel arrangements of hundreds of thousands of people in Europe and elsewhere . Sporting , entertainment and many other events were cancelled , delayed or disrupted when individuals or teams were unable to travel to their destination . The state funeral of Lech Kaczyński and Maria Kaczyńska on 18 April 2010 was affected as some national leaders were unable to attend , including Barack Obama , Stephen Harper , Angela Merkel , and Nicolas Sarkozy .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Effects_of_the_April_2010_Eyjafjallajökull_eruption", "rank": 22, "score": 73957 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano (Jimmy Buffett song) Content: `` Volcano '' is a song performed by American popular music singer-songwriter Jimmy Buffett . It was written by Jimmy Buffett , Keith Sykes , and Harry Dailey and released as a single ( b/w `` Stranded on a Sandbar '' ) on MCA 41161 in November 1979 . It was first released on his 1979 album Volcano . It reached # 66 on the Billboard Hot 100 and # 43 on the Easy Listening chart . This song was originally a minor hit . The song and album are named for the then-dormant Soufrière Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat in the British West Indies where Buffett recorded the album in May 1979 at AIR Studios . The studio was destroyed by Hurricane Hugo in 1989 and Soufrière Hills erupted again in 1995 . The bridge before the final chorus mentions a number of placenames , some important largely in the context of 1979 : `` Volcano '' is one of Buffett 's more popular songs with fans , and is part of `` The Big 8 '' that he has played at almost all of his concerts . Recorded live versions of the song appear on Feeding Frenzy , Buffett Live : Tuesdays , Thursdays , Saturdays , and the video Live by the Bay . The placenames in the final bridge are often altered in concert to reflect more recent news . The song was also re-recorded and released for Rock Band on June 3 , 2008 , with the last two lines listed above changed to , `` I want to be a couch potato / Just play Rock Band everyday . '' Volcano was recorded in Montserrat and was played at the concert `` Music for Montserrat '' when Montserrat was struck by a volcano . The lyrics were changed to fit the context . For example , the phrase `` We 've got to help our friends in Montserrat '' appeared in the song . When performed at concerts , a video of the song on Rock Band is shown .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_(Jimmy_Buffett_song)", "rank": 23, "score": 73674 }, { "content": "Title: Subglacial volcano Content: A subglacial volcano , also known as a glaciovolcano , is a volcanic form produced by subglacial eruptions or eruptions beneath the surface of a glacier or ice sheet which is then melted into a lake by the rising lava . Today they are most common in Iceland and Antarctica ; older formations of this type are found also in British Columbia and Yukon Territory , Canada . During the eruption , the heat of the lava from the subglacial volcano melts the overlying ice . The water quickly cools the lava , resulting in pillow lava shapes similar to those of underwater volcanoes . When the pillow lavas break off and roll down the volcano slopes , pillow breccia , tuff breccia , and hyaloclastite form . The meltwater may be released from below the ice as happened in Iceland in 1996 when the Grímsvötn caldera erupted , melting 3 km3 of ice and giving rise to a large glacial lake outburst flood . The shape of subglacial volcanoes tends to be quite characteristic and unusual , with a flattened top and steep sides supported against collapse by the pressure of the surrounding ice and meltwater . If the volcano eventually melts completely through the ice layer , then horizontal lava flows are deposited , and the top of the volcano assumes a nearly level form . However , if significant amounts of lava are later erupted subaerially , then the volcano may assume a more conventional shape . In Canada the volcanos have been known to form both conical and nearly level shapes . The more distinctly flat-topped , steep-sided subglacial volcanoes are called tuyas , named after Tuya Butte in northern British Columbia by Canadian geologist Bill Mathews in 1947 . In Iceland , such volcanoes are also known as table mountains .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Subglacial_volcano", "rank": 24, "score": 73412 }, { "content": "Title: Supervolcano Content: A supervolcano is an informal term that describes a volcano which has erupted more than 1015 kg ( 1012 t ) of ejecta . This corresponds to larger eruptions of Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) 7 , and all eruptions of VEI-8 and higher , or around 500 km3 or more of ejecta . A supervolcanic eruption may be a single short-term event , or a long-term massive lava flow lasting up to millions of years . Supervolcanoes occur when magma in the mantle rises into the crust but is unable to break through it and pressure builds in a large and growing magma pool until the crust is unable to contain the pressure . This can occur at hotspots ( for example , Yellowstone Caldera ) or at subduction zones ( for example , Toba ) . Another setting for the eruption of very large amounts of volcanic material is in large igneous provinces , which can cover huge areas with lava and volcanic ash , causing long-lasting climate change ( such as the triggering of a small ice age or global warming ) , which can threaten species with extinction . The Oruanui eruption of New Zealand 's Taupo Volcano ( around 25,360 years ago ) was the world 's most recent supereruption and a VEI-8 eruption .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Supervolcano", "rank": 25, "score": 73359 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanic_winter", "rank": 26, "score": 73265 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanology of Io Content: Volcanology of Io , a moon of Jupiter , is the scientific study of lava flows , volcanic pits , and volcanism ( volcanic activity ) on the surface of Io . Its volcanic activity was discovered in 1979 by Voyager 1 imaging scientist Linda Morabito . Observations of Io by passing spacecraft ( the Voyagers , Galileo , Cassini , and New Horizons ) and Earth-based astronomers have revealed more than 150 active volcanoes . Up to 400 such volcanoes are predicted to exist based on these observations . Io 's volcanism makes the satellite one of only four known currently volcanically active worlds in the Solar System ( the other three being Earth , Saturn 's moon Enceladus , and Neptune 's moon Triton ) . First predicted shortly before the Voyager 1 flyby , the heat source for Io 's volcanism comes from tidal heating produced by its forced orbital eccentricity . This differs from Earth 's internal heating , which is derived primarily from radioactive isotope decay and primordial heat of accretion . Io 's eccentric orbit leads to a slight difference in Jupiter 's gravitational pull on the satellite between its closest and farthest points on its orbit , causing a varying tidal bulge . This variation in the shape of Io causes frictional heating in its interior . Without this tidal heating , Io might have been similar to the Moon , a world of similar size and mass , geologically dead and covered with numerous impact craters . Io 's volcanism has led to the formation of hundreds of volcanic centres and extensive lava formations , making it the most volcanically active body in the Solar System . Three different types of volcanic eruptions have been identified , differing in duration , intensity , lava effusion rate , and whether the eruption occurs within a volcanic pit ( known as a patera ) . Lava flows on Io , tens or hundreds of kilometres long , have primarily basaltic composition , similar to lavas seen on Earth at shield volcanoes such as Kīlauea in Hawaii . Although most of the lava on Io is made of basalt , a few lava flows consisting of sulfur and sulfur dioxide have been seen . In addition , eruption temperatures as high as 1600 K were detected , which can be explained by the eruption of high-temperature ultramafic silicate lavas . As a result of the presence of significant quantities of sulfurous materials in Io 's crust and on its surface , some eruptions propel sulfur , sulfur dioxide gas , and pyroclastic material up to 500 km into space , producing large , umbrella-shaped volcanic plumes . This material paints the surrounding terrain in red , black , and/or white , and provides material for Io 's patchy atmosphere and Jupiter 's extensive magnetosphere . Spacecraft that have flown by Io since 1979 have observed numerous surface changes as a result of Io 's volcanic activity .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanology_of_Io", "rank": 27, "score": 73189 }, { "content": "Title: Kunlun Volcanic Group Content: Kunlun volcanic group , also known as Ashikule , is a volcanic field in northwestern Tibet . Eight other volcanic fields are also in the area . The field is within a basin that also contains three lakes . Volcanism in the field has produced lavas and cones , with rocks having varying compositions dominated by trachyandesite . Volcanism in the field may be influenced by faults in the area . The dates obtained from the field range from 5.0 ± 0.6 million years ago to 74,000 ± 4,000 years ago . An eruption of Ashi volcano was observed in 1951 , making this one of China 's youngest volcanoes .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Kunlun_Volcanic_Group", "rank": 28, "score": 73161 }, { "content": "Title: Abu (volcano) Content: is the name of a group of shield volcanoes located on the coast of Japan on the southwest end of the island of Honshū . It is primarily based in the city of Hagi , Yamaguchi Prefecture . The group dates from 800,000 years ago and was active into the Holocene era . The last eruption occurred around 9000 years ago . The group of volcanoes consists of basalt and dacitic lava flows , small shield volcanoes , cinder cones , and lava domes . Altogether , there are about 40 volcanoes , with the highest peak being Irao-yama . Volcanic activity in the region is thought to be related to subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Abu_(volcano)", "rank": 29, "score": 72933 }, { "content": "Title: Xitle Content: Xitle ( -LSB- ʃitɬe -RSB- Nahuatl , `` navel '' ) is a monogenetic volcano in the Ajusco range in Cumbres del Ajusco National Park . It is located in the Tlalpan borough in the southwestern part of Mexico City . It is an ash cone volcano with a conical form , round base , altitude of approximately 300m , and a slope between 30 ° and 40 ° . Xitle erupted during the period AD 245-315 , according to the results of radiocarbon dating . Among the consequences of this eruption were the formation of the Pedregal de San Ángel lava fields , to the south of the Mexican Federal District . Cuicuilco , one of the most refined cities of Mesoamerica was destroyed and covered by lava . The subsequent diaspora of the Cuicuilcans , and the attendant diffusion of their culture across most of central Mexico , influenced important cultural changes in the nearby power center of Teotihuacan . According to some other sources , a series of big volcano eruptions , and the destruction of Cuicuilco took place in the 1st century BC .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Xitle", "rank": 30, "score": 72751 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanology of Mars Content: Volcanic activity , or volcanism , has played a significant role in the geologic evolution of Mars . Scientists have known since the Mariner 9 mission in 1972 that volcanic features cover large portions of the Martian surface . These features include extensive lava flows , vast lava plains , and the largest known volcanoes in the Solar System . Martian volcanic features range in age from Noachian ( > 3.7 billion years ) to late Amazonian ( < 500 million years ) , indicating that the planet has been volcanically active throughout its history , and some speculate it probably still is so today . Both Earth and Mars are large , differentiated planets built from similar chondritic materials . Many of the same magmatic processes that occur on Earth also occurred on Mars , and both planets are similar enough compositionally that the same names can be applied to their igneous rocks and minerals . Volcanism is a process in which magma from a planet 's interior rises through the crust and erupts on the surface . The erupted materials consist of molten rock ( lava ) , hot fragmental debris ( tephra or ash ) , and gases . Volcanism is a principal way that planets release their internal heat . Volcanic eruptions produce distinctive landforms , rock types , and terrains that provide a window on the chemical composition , thermal state , and history of a planet 's interior . Magma is a complex , high-temperature mixture of molten silicates , suspended crystals , and dissolved gases . Magma on Mars likely ascends in a similar manner to that on Earth . It rises through the lower crust in diapiric bodies that are less dense than the surrounding material . As the magma rises , it eventually reaches regions of lower density . When the magma density matches that of the host rock , buoyancy is neutralized and the magma body stalls . At this point , it may form a magma chamber and spread out laterally into a network of dikes and sills . Subsequently , the magma may cool and solidify to form intrusive igneous bodies ( plutons ) . Geologists estimate that about 80 % of the magma generated on Earth stalls in the crust and never reaches the surface . As magma rises and cools , it undergoes many complex and dynamic compositional changes . Heavier minerals may crystallize and settle to the bottom of the magma chamber . The magma may also assimilate portions of host rock or mix with other batches of magma . These processes alter the composition of the remaining melt , so that any magma reaching the surface may be chemically quite different from its parent melt . Magmas that have been so altered are said to be `` evolved '' to distinguish them from `` primitive '' magmas that more closely resemble the composition of their mantle source . ( See igneous differentiation and fractional crystallization . ) More highly evolved magmas are usually felsic , that is enriched in silica , volatiles , and other light elements compared to iron - and magnesium-rich ( mafic ) primitive magmas . The degree and extent to which magmas evolve over time is an indication of a planet 's level of internal heat and tectonic activity . The Earth 's continental crust is made up of evolved granitic rocks that developed through many episodes of magmatic reprocessing . Evolved igneous rocks are much less common on cold , dead bodies such as the Moon . Mars , being intermediate in size between the Earth and the Moon , is thought to be intermediate in its level of magmatic activity . At shallower depths in the crust , the lithostatic pressure on the magma body decreases . The reduced pressure can cause gases ( volatiles ) , such as carbon dioxide and water vapor , to exsolve from the melt into a froth of gas bubbles . The nucleation of bubbles causes a rapid expansion and cooling of the surrounding melt , producing glassy shards that may erupt explosively as tephra ( also called pyroclastics ) . Fine-grained tephra is commonly referred to as volcanic ash . Whether a volcano erupts explosively or effusively as fluid lava depends on the composition of the melt . Felsic magmas of andesitic and rhyolitic composition tend to erupt explosively . They are very viscous ( thick and sticky ) and rich in dissolved gases . Mafic magmas , on the other hand , are low in volatiles and commonly erupt effusively as basaltic lava flows . However , these are only generalizations . For example , magma that comes into sudden contact with groundwater or surface water may erupt violently in steam explosions called hydromagmatic ( phreatomagmatic or phreatic ) eruptions . Also , erupting magmas may behave differently on planets with different interior compositions , atmospheres , and gravity fields .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanology_of_Mars", "rank": 31, "score": 72609 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano (2011 film) Content: Volcano ( Eldfjall ) is a 2011 Icelandic drama film directed by Rúnar Rúnarsson . The film was selected as the Icelandic entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 84th Academy Awards , but it did not make the final shortlist . At the 2012 Edda Awards , the film was nominated in 14 categories , winning in 5 . The film screened within many international film festivals , including the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival and the 2012 Maryland Film Festival .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_(2011_film)", "rank": 32, "score": 72377 }, { "content": "Title: The Volcano (British Columbia) Content: The Volcano , also known as Lava Fork volcano , is a small cinder cone in the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains in northwestern British Columbia , Canada . It is located approximately 60 km northwest of the small community of Stewart near the head of Lava Fork . With a summit elevation of 1656 m and a topographic prominence of 311 m , it rises above the surrounding rugged landscape on a remote mountain ridge that represents the northern flank of a glaciated U-shaped valley . Lava Fork volcano is associated with a small group of related volcanoes called the Iskut-Unuk River Cones . This forms part of the much larger Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province , which extends from the Alaska -- Yukon border to near the port city of Prince Rupert , British Columbia . Eruptive activity at The Volcano is relatively young compared to most other volcanoes in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province . Geologic studies have shown that The Volcano and its eruptive products were emplaced in the past 400 years ; this is well after the last glacial period , which ended about 10,000 years ago .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "The_Volcano_(British_Columbia)", "rank": 33, "score": 72331 }, { "content": "Title: Spurr (crater) Content: Spurr is the lava-flooded remains of a lunar impact crater . It is located in the midst of the Palus Putredinis plain , to the southeast of the crater Archimedes . Only the southern half of the rim protrudes significantly through the lunar mare material , while the northern section of the wall has a resemblance to a ghost crater rim . The formation was known as Archimedes K before being renamed by the IAU .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Spurr_(crater)", "rank": 34, "score": 71976 }, { "content": "Title: Stratovolcano Content: A stratovolcano , also known as a composite volcano , is a conical volcano built up by many layers ( strata ) of hardened lava , tephra , pumice , and volcanic ash . Unlike shield volcanoes , stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile and periodic explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions , although some have collapsed craters called calderas . The lava flowing from stratovolcanoes typically cools and hardens before spreading far due to high viscosity . The magma forming this lava is often felsic , having high-to-intermediate levels of silica ( as in rhyolite , dacite , or andesite ) , with lesser amounts of less-viscous mafic magma . Extensive felsic lava flows are uncommon , but have travelled as far as 15 km . Stratovolcanoes are sometimes called `` composite volcanoes '' because of their composite layered structure built up from sequential outpourings of eruptive materials . They are among the most common types of volcanoes , in contrast to the less common shield volcanoes . Two famous stratovolcanoes are Krakatoa , best known for its catastrophic eruption in 1883 and Vesuvius , famous for its destruction of the towns Pompeii and Herculaneum in 79 CE . Both eruptions claimed thousands of lives . In modern times , Mount Saint Helens and Mount Pinatubo have erupted catastrophically . Existence of stratovolcanoes has not been proved on other terrestrial bodies of the solar system with one exception . Their existence was suggested for some isolated massifs on Mars , e.g. , Zephyria Tholus .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Stratovolcano", "rank": 35, "score": 71869 }, { "content": "Title: Pirurayo Content: Pirurayo is a volcano in the Pirurayo range , Jujuy Province of Argentina . It is formed by several sequences of block-and-ash flows with subordinate lava flows which reach thicknesses of 640 m . They were erupted from possibly two vents , although the intense tectonic deformation makes it impossible to tell . These vents probably generated a compound volcano consisting of lava domes , which repeatedly grew and collapsed . Pirurayo has erupted andesite and dacite , which belong to the potassium-rich volcanics series . They probably formed from a mafic magma , which underwent assimilation of crustal materials and fractional crystallization . Volcaniclastic rocks from Pirurayo form part of the regional Moreta formation . Volcanic activity occurred between 28 ± 3 and 20 ± 2 million years ago . The Pirurayo rocks were later influenced by faulting and hydrothermally altered .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Pirurayo", "rank": 36, "score": 71839 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano (Jimmy Buffett album) Content: Volcano is the ninth studio album by American popular music singer-songwriter Jimmy Buffett and is his 11th overall . It was released in August 1979 as MCA 5102 and was his first release on that label after its absorption of ABC Dunhill . The album and its title song are named for the then dormant Soufrière Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat in the British West Indies where Buffett recorded the album in May 1979 at AIR Studios . ( The studio was destroyed by Hurricane Hugo in 1989 and Soufrière Hills erupted again in 1995 . ) Additional recording was done at Quadrafonic Studios in Nashville Tennessee and Sunset Sound Studios in Los Angeles , California in the United States . The album is dedicated to Buffett 's wife and his daughter , Savannah Jane Buffett , who was born just before its release .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_(Jimmy_Buffett_album)", "rank": 37, "score": 71822 }, { "content": "Title: Esjufjöll Content: The subglacial Esjufjöll volcano at the SE part of the Vatnajökull icecap , north of Öraefajökull volcano , consists of the Snaehetta central volcano and a large caldera . Most of the volcano , including the 40 km2 caldera , is covered by the icecap , but parts of the SE flank are exposed in NW-SE-trending ridges . Most of the exposed rocks are mildly alkaline basalts , but small amounts of rhyolitic rocks are also present . A large jökulhlaup that came down the Jokulsa a Breidamerkursandi along the coast SE of Vatnajökull in the beginning of September 1927 was accompanied by a sulfur stench , and on one occasion , ash fall on the Breidamerkurjökull considered to have possibly originated from Esjufjöll . Although Holocene eruptions have not been confirmed from Esjufjöll , earthquake swarms that could indicate magma movements were detected in October 2002 , and recently in October 2010 .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Esjufjöll", "rank": 38, "score": 71728 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanologist Content: A volcanologist or vulcanologist is a geologist who studies the processes involved in the formation and eruptive activity of volcanoes and their current and historic eruptions . Volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes , especially active ones , to observe volcanic eruptions , collect eruptive products including tephra ( such as ash or pumice ) , rock and lava samples . One major focus of enquiry is the prediction of eruptions ; there is currently no accurate way to do this , but predicting eruptions could alleviate the impact on surrounding populations .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanologist", "rank": 39, "score": 71579 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano Choir Content: Volcano Choir is an American indie rock band from Wisconsin , formed in 2005 . The band began as a collaboration between Bon Iver 's Justin Vernon and members of Collections of Colonies of Bees . Their debut album , Unmap , was released on September 22 , 2009 , reaching number 92 on the Billboard Top 200 chart . Since the band 's formation , Jon Mueller ( Death Blues ) and Thomas Wincek ( of All Tiny Creatures ) have left Collections of Colonies of Bees , but continue to be members of Volcano Choir . They have also added Matthew Skemp on bass , who also plays in All Tiny Creatures . It was revealed in a 2014 interview with band members that the name `` Volcano Choir '' originated from a vaporizer called the `` Volcano '' . The cover art for `` Unmap '' was created by Adreienne DeBoer , and and insert art was illustrated by Dave Godowsky . Volcano Choir released their second studio album , Repave , on September 3 , 2013 , on Jagjaguwar . Andrew Fitzpatrick from All Tiny Creatures became a touring member in 2013 , supporting the album Repave and is now a member of the band . He then became a touring member of Bon Iver supporting the album 22 , A Million . Thomas Wincek joined Field Report in 2014 . Volcano Choir 's song `` Byegone '' was used in the 4th episode of the first season of The 100 ( TV series ) .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_Choir", "rank": 40, "score": 71434 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic Sunlight Content: Volcanic Sunlight is the fourth studio album by Saul Williams . It features a different approach than his previous albums , embracing a dance-pop direction , with various influences from funk , disco , '60s garage rock , new wave , and dubstep . The song `` Dance '' includes a sample from the song `` Disco ' 82 '' original soundtrack of the Bollywood film Khud-Daar ( Hindi : खुद्दार ) , directed by Ravi Tandon . The song was composed by Rajesh Roshan , with lyrics by Majrooh Sultanpuri , and performed by Kishore Kumar .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanic_Sunlight", "rank": 41, "score": 71404 }, { "content": "Title: List of volcanoes in Indonesia Content: The geography of Indonesia is dominated by volcanoes that are formed due to subduction zones between the Eurasian plate and the Indo-Australian plate . Some of the volcanoes are notable for their eruptions , for instance , Krakatau for its global effects in 1883 , Lake Toba for its supervolcanic eruption estimated to have occurred 74,000 years before present which was responsible for six years of volcanic winter , and Mount Tambora for the most violent eruption in recorded history in 1815 . Volcanoes in Indonesia are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire . The 150 entries in the list below are grouped into six geographical regions , four of which belong to the volcanoes of the Sunda Arc trench system . The remaining two groups are volcanoes of Halmahera , including its surrounding volcanic islands , and volcanoes of Sulawesi and the Sangihe Islands . The latter group is in one volcanic arc together with the Philippine volcanoes . The most active volcanoes are Kelud and Merapi on Java island which have been responsible for thousands of deaths in the region . Since AD 1000 , Kelut has erupted more than 30 times , of which the largest eruption was at scale 5 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) , while Mount Merapi has erupted more than 80 times . The International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth 's Interior has named Mount Merapi as a Decade Volcano since 1995 because of its high volcanic activity . In 2012 , Indonesia has 127 active volcanoes with about 5 million people have activities within the danger zone . The earthquake and tsunami event of 26 December 2004 is thought to bring disruption to the volcanoes ' eruption pattern . The 2010 eruption of Mount Sinabung , which has no recorded eruption since the 1600s , is presented as one possible example of the hypothesis . The word for Mount in Indonesian and many regional languages of the country ( such as Javanese ) is Gunung . Thus , Mount Merapi for example , is referred to as Gunung Merapi in Indonesian and also in some English-based sites .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "List_of_volcanoes_in_Indonesia", "rank": 42, "score": 71392 }, { "content": "Title: Types of volcanic eruptions Content: Several types of volcanic eruptions -- during which lava , tephra ( ash , lapilli , volcanic bombs and volcanic blocks ) , and assorted gases are expelled from a volcanic vent or fissure -- have been distinguished by volcanologists . These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type of behavior has been observed . Some volcanoes may exhibit only one characteristic type of eruption during a period of activity , while others may display an entire sequence of types all in one eruptive series . There are three different types of eruptions . The most well-observed are magmatic eruptions , which involve the decompression of gas within magma that propels it forward . Phreatomagmatic eruptions are another type of volcanic eruption , driven by the compression of gas within magma , the direct opposite of the process powering magmatic activity . The third eruptive type is the phreatic eruption , which is driven by the superheating of steam via contact with magma ; these eruptive types often exhibit no magmatic release , instead causing the granulation of existing rock . Within these wide-defining eruptive types are several subtypes . The weakest are Hawaiian and submarine , then Strombolian , followed by Vulcanian and Surtseyan . The stronger eruptive types are Pelean eruptions , followed by Plinian eruptions ; the strongest eruptions are called `` Ultra-Plinian . '' Subglacial and phreatic eruptions are defined by their eruptive mechanism , and vary in strength . An important measure of eruptive strength is Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) , an order of magnitude scale ranging from 0 to 8 that often correlates to eruptive types .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Types_of_volcanic_eruptions", "rank": 43, "score": 71216 }, { "content": "Title: Monte Nuovo Content: Monte Nuovo is a cinder cone volcano within the Campi Flegrei caldera , near Naples , southern Italy . A series of damaging earthquakes and changes in land elevation preceded its only eruption , during the most recent part of the Holocene , which lasted from September 29 to October 6 , 1538 , when it was formed . The event is important in the history of science because it was the first eruption in modern times to be described by a large number of witnesses . Volcanologists feared another eruption between 1969 and 1984 , when there were again earthquakes and changes in land elevations in the area .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Monte_Nuovo", "rank": 44, "score": 71137 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano plot (statistics) Content: In statistics , a volcano plot is a type of scatter-plot that is used to quickly identify changes in large data sets composed of replicate data . It plots significance versus fold-change on the y and x axes , respectively . These plots are increasingly common in omic experiments such as genomics , proteomics , and metabolomics where one often has a list of many thousands of replicate data points between two conditions and one wishes to quickly identify the most meaningful changes . A volcano plot combines a measure of statistical significance from a statistical test ( e.g. , a p value from an ANOVA model ) with the magnitude of the change , enabling quick visual identification of those data-points ( genes , etc. ) that display large magnitude changes that are also statistically significant . A volcano plot is constructed by plotting the negative log of the p value on the y axis ( usually base 10 ) . This results in data points with low p values ( highly significant ) appearing toward the top of the plot . The x axis is the log of the fold change between the two conditions . The log of the fold change is used so that changes in both directions appear equidistant from the center . Plotting points in this way results in two regions of interest in the plot : those points that are found toward the top of the plot that are far to either the left - or right-hand sides . These represent values that display large magnitude fold changes ( hence being left or right of center ) as well as high statistical significance ( hence being toward the top ) . Additional information can be added by coloring the points according to a third dimension of data ( such as signal intensity ) , but this is not uniformly employed . Volcano plots are also used to graphically display a significance analysis of microarrays ( SAM ) gene selection criterion , an example of regularization . The concept of volcano plot can be generalized to other applications , where the x axis is related to a measure of the strength of a statistical signal , and y axis is related to a measure of the statistical significance of the signal . For example , in a genetic association case-control study , such as Genome-wide association study , a point in a volcano plot represents a single-nucleotide polymorphism . Its x value can be the odds ratio and its y value can be - log10 of the p value from a Chi-square test or a Chi-square test statistic .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_plot_(statistics)", "rank": 45, "score": 71115 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano (1950 film) Content: Volcano ( Italian title Vulcano ) is a 1950 Italian drama film by the director William Dieterle and starring Anna Magnani . It was filmed on location on Salina Island , in the Aeolian Islands , and in Messina , Sicily , Italy . The film is seen by some as a vehicle of revenge by Magnani against her estranged lover , the director Roberto Rossellini who had chosen Ingrid Bergman to star in his film series about marriage over her . Rossellini filmed his film Stromboli on the nearby volcanic island of Stromboli at the same time as Volcano was being made on Salina . Both films were shot in similar locales in the Aeolian Islands only 40 kilometres apart ; both actresses played independent-minded roles in a neorealist fashion ; and both films were shot simultaneously . Life magazine wrote , '' ... in an atmosphere crackling with rivalry ... Reporters were accredited , like war correspondents , to one or the other of the embattled camps ... . Partisanship infected the Via Veneto ( boulevard in Rome ) , where Magnaniacs and Bergmaniacs clashed frequently . '' However , Magnani still considered Rossellini the `` greatest director she ever acted for '' .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_(1950_film)", "rank": 46, "score": 71106 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanology of Java Content: The Indonesian island of Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin , and contains numerous volcanoes , 45 of which are considered active volcanoes . As is the case for many other Indonesian islands , volcanoes have played a vital role in the geological and human history of Java . Indeed , land is created on Java as a result of lava flows , ash deposits , and mud flows ( lahars ) . Volcanoes are a major contributor to the immense fertility of Java , as natural erosion transports volcanic material as alluvium to the island 's plains , forming thick layers of fertile sediment . The benefit is not just in the immediate vicinity of the volcano , with fine ash emitted from eruptions being dispersed over wide areas . Climbing volcanoes ( and other mountains ) is increasingly popular .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanology_of_Java", "rank": 47, "score": 71094 }, { "content": "Title: Prediction of volcanic activity Content: Prediction of volcanic eruption ( also : volcanic eruption forecasting ) is an interdisciplinary monitoring and research effort to predict the time and severity of a volcano 's eruption . Of particular importance is the prediction of hazardous eruptions that could lead to catastrophic loss of life , property , and disruption of human activities .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Prediction_of_volcanic_activity", "rank": 48, "score": 71073 }, { "content": "Title: Kula (volcano) Content: Kula is a volcanic field located in western Turkey . Kula field consists of a broad area of cinder cones and maars . It is the westernmost volcano of Turkey . The volcanic character of the area was recognized in antiquity , when it was named Katakekaumene ( the burned lands ) from the appearance of the environment , which was mostly suited for viticulture . Volcanism began in the Miocene and over three stages continued in the Holocene . It is associated with the presence of two neighbouring active ( in 1969 last earthquake ) graben structures . Most cones are of small size and one of them ( Akcakoy Tepe ) has its internal structure exposed . Total volume of the volcanic field extrusion is about 2,3 km3 and the lavas are rich in xenoliths . The plant succession on the lava fields and cones was subject of a study in 1974 , which found that the vegetation is influenced both by climate factors such as temperature and precipitation and the orientation of the sides of the volcanoes in question . Footprints of prehistoric humans have been found in the area . The area is a geopark recognized by UNESCO given the universal and scientific value .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Kula_(volcano)", "rank": 49, "score": 70917 }, { "content": "Title: Ceraunius Tholus Content: Ceraunius Tholus is a volcano on Mars located in the Tharsis quadrangle at 24.25 ° north latitude and 262.75 ° east longitude , part of the Uranius group of volcanoes . It is 130 km across , 5.5 km high and is named after a classical albedo feature name . It is generally believed to be a basaltic shield with the lower part buried beneath plain forming lavas . Earlier interpretations suggested that it is a stratovolcano . The slopes on Ceraunius Tholus are quite steep with an average slope of 8 ° with many radial erosion channels and pitted valleys extending from just below the rim of the caldera toward the base of the volcano . The current view is that the valleys were eroded by water . Interesting features on Ceraunius Tholus are three large canyons at the northwest flank of Ceraunius Tholus which are up to 2.5 km wide and 300 m deep . The biggest of these three also appears to be the youngest and protrude from the lowest point of the volcanic caldera and ends at the interesting crater Rahe ( an oblique impact crater with measures of 35 × 18 km ) , just north from the volcano where it formed a depositional fan . Its origin is still debatable and there are four main models proposed : fluvial action , volcanic flows , valley being a lava channel or some combination of previously mentioned models . Ceraunius appears small compared to other larger volcanoes , but it is almost as tall as Earth 's Mount Everest . The caldera of Ceranius Tholus is also dotted with many collapse pits , which are distinct from impact craters as they have no rim and vary in abundance across the caldera . Ceraunius Tholus is probably late Hesperian in age .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Ceraunius_Tholus", "rank": 50, "score": 70895 }, { "content": "Title: Influence line Content: In engineering , an influence line graphs the variation of a function ( such as the shear felt in a structure member ) at a specific point on a beam or truss caused by a unit load placed at any point along the structure . Some of the common functions studied with influence lines include reactions ( the forces that the structure 's supports must apply in order for the structure to remain static ) , shear , moment , and deflection . Influence lines are important in designing beams and trusses used in bridges , crane rails , conveyor belts , floor girders , and other structures where loads will move along their span . The influence lines show where a load will create the maximum effect for any of the functions studied . Influence lines are both scalar and additive . This means that they can be used even when the load that will be applied is not a unit load or if there are multiple loads applied . To find the effect of any non-unit load on a structure , the ordinate results obtained by the influence line are multiplied by the magnitude of the actual load to be applied . The entire influence line can be scaled , or just the maximum and minimum effects experienced along the line . The scaled maximum and minimum are the critical magnitudes that must be designed for in the beam or truss . In cases where multiple loads may be in effect , the influence lines for the individual loads may be added together in order to obtain the total effect felt by the structure at a given point . When adding the influence lines together , it is necessary to include the appropriate offsets due to the spacing of loads across the structure . For example , a truck load is applied to the structure . Rear axle , B , is three feet behind front axle , A , then the effect of A at x feet along the structure must be added to the effect of B at ( x -- 3 ) feet along the structure -- not the effect of B at x feet along the structure . Many loads are distributed rather than concentrated . Influence lines can be used with either concentrated or distributed loadings . For a concentrated ( or point ) load , a unit point load is moved along the structure . For a distributed load of a given width , a unit-distributed load of the same width is moved along the structure , noting that as the load nears the ends and moves off the structure only part of the total load is carried by the structure . The effect of the distributed unit load can also be obtained by integrating the point load 's influence line over the corresponding length of the structures .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Influence_line", "rank": 51, "score": 70825 }, { "content": "Title: Lafayette Gilchrist Content: Lafayette Gilchrist ( born August 3 , 1967 ) is an American jazz pianist and composer . As of January 2014 , he lived in Baltimore . He has had a long association with saxophonist David Murray , with whom he has toured internationally . Gilchrist leads an octet/nonet named the New Volcanoes , and a trio called Inside Out ( with bassist Michael Formanek and drummer Eric Kennedy ) . Gilchrist acknowledges multiple influences on his music : `` I come from hip-hop culture , -LSB- ... -RSB- I 'm not a rapper . I 'm not a DJ . I 'm not a dancer . But I feed off of all that . All of that 's part of what I grew up in , what I grew up around . ''", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Lafayette_Gilchrist", "rank": 52, "score": 70793 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic rock Content: Volcanic rock ( often shortened to volcanics in scientific contexts ) is a rock formed from magma erupted from a volcano . In other words , it differs from other igneous rock by being of volcanic origin . Like all rock types , the concept of volcanic rock is artificial , and in nature volcanic rocks grade into hypabyssal and metamorphic rocks and constitute an important element of some sediments and sedimentary rocks . For these reasons , in geology , volcanics and shallow hypabyssal rocks are not always treated as distinct . In the context of Precambrian shield geology , the term `` volcanic '' is often applied to what are strictly metavolcanic rocks . Volcanic rocks are among the most common rock types on Earth 's surface , particularly in the oceans . On land , they are very common at plate boundaries and in flood basalt provinces . It has been estimated that volcanic rocks cover about 8 % of the Earth 's current land surface .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanic_rock", "rank": 53, "score": 70648 }, { "content": "Title: Hekla 3 eruption Content: The Hekla 3 eruption ( H-3 ) circa 1000 BC is considered the most severe eruption of Hekla during the Holocene . It threw about 7.3 km3 of volcanic rock into the atmosphere , placing its Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) at 5 . This would have cooled temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere for several years afterwards . An eighteen-year span of global cooling that is recorded in Irish bog oaks has been attributed to H-3 . The eruption is detectable in Greenland ice-cores , the bristlecone pine sequence , and the Irish oak sequence of extremely narrow growth rings . Andy Baker 's team of researchers dated it to 1021 BC ± 130 -- 100 . A `` high chronology '' ( earlier ) interpretation of the above results is preferred by Baker , based also on growth of stalagmites . In Sutherland , northwest Scotland , a spurt of four years of doubled annual luminescent growth banding of calcite in a stalagmite is datable to 1135 BC ± 130 . A rival , `` low-chronology '' interpretation of the eruption has been made by Andrew Dugmore : 2879 BP ( 929 BC ± 34 ) . In 1999 , Dugmore suggested a non-volcanic explanation for the Scottish results . In 2000 skepticism concerning conclusions about connecting Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 ( probably 2310 BC ± 20 ) with paleoenvironmental events and archaeologically attested abandonment of settlement sites in northern Scotland was expressed by John P. Grattan and David D. Gilbertson . Some Egyptologists have firmly dated the eruption to 1159 BC , and blamed it for famines under Ramesses III during the wider Bronze Age collapse . Dugmore has rebutted this dating . Other scholars have held off on this dispute , preferring the neutral and vague `` 3000 BP '' .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Hekla_3_eruption", "rank": 54, "score": 70531 }, { "content": "Title: Soufrière Hills Content: The Soufrière Hills volcano is an active , complex stratovolcano with many lava domes forming its summit , on the Caribbean island of Montserrat . Many volcanoes in the Caribbean are named Soufrière ( French : `` sulphur outlet '' ) . These include La Soufrière or Soufrière Saint Vincent on the island of Saint Vincent and La Grande Soufrière on Guadeloupe . After a long period of dormancy , the Soufrière Hills volcano became active in 1995 , and has continued to erupt ever since . Its eruptions have rendered more than half of Montserrat uninhabitable , destroying the capital city , Plymouth , and causing widespread evacuations : about two thirds of the population have left the island . It is andesitic in nature and the current pattern of activity includes periods of lava dome growth , punctuated by brief episodes of dome collapse which result in pyroclastic flows , ash venting , and explosive eruption . The volcano is monitored by the Montserrat Volcano Observatory . Volcanic gas emissions from this volcano are measured by a Multi-Component Gas Analyzer System , which detects pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas , improving prediction of volcanic activity .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Soufrière_Hills", "rank": 55, "score": 70444 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanology of Iceland Content: The volcano system in Iceland that started activity on August 17 , 2014 , and ended on February 27 , 2015 , is Bárðarbunga . The volcano in Iceland that erupted in May 2011 is Grímsvötn . Volcanology of Iceland includes a high concentration of active volcanoes due to Iceland 's location on the mid-Atlantic Ridge , a divergent tectonic plate boundary , and also due to its location over a hot spot . The island has 30 active volcanic systems , of which 13 have erupted since the settlement of Iceland in AD 874 . Of these 30 active volcanic systems , the most active/volatile is Grímsvötn . Over the past 500 years , Iceland 's volcanoes have erupted a third of the total global lava output . The most fatal volcanic eruption of Iceland 's history was the so-called Skaftáreldar ( fires of Skaftá ) in 1783-84 . The eruption was in the crater row Lakagígar ( craters of Laki ) southwest of Vatnajökull glacier . The craters are a part of a larger volcanic system with the subglacial Grímsvötn as a central volcano . Roughly a quarter of the Icelandic nation died because of the eruption . Most died not because of the lava flow or other direct effects of the eruption , but from indirect effects , including changes in climate and illnesses in livestock in the following years caused by the ash and poisonous gases from the eruption . The 1783 eruption in Lakagígar is thought to have erupted the largest quantity of lava from a single eruption in historic times . The eruption under Eyjafjallajökull ( `` glacier of Eyjafjöll '' ) in 2010 was notable because the volcanic ash plume disrupted air travel in northern Europe for several weeks ; however this volcano is minor in Icelandic terms . In the past , eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull have been followed by eruption of the larger volcano Katla , but after the 2010 eruption no signs of an imminent eruption of Katla were seen . The eruption in May 2011 at Grímsvötn under the Vatnajökull glacier sent thousands of tonnes of ash into the sky in a few days , raising concerns of a repeat of the travel chaos seen across northern Europe .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanology_of_Iceland", "rank": 56, "score": 70380 }, { "content": "Title: Spurr Content: Spurr may refer to : Spurr Township , Michigan Mount Spurr , a volcano in Alaska Spurr ( crater ) , a lunar crater People Josiah Edward Spurr , American geologist and explorer ( eponym of the volcano and crater ) Laura Spurr , Tribal Chairwoman , Nottawaseppi Huron Band of the Potawatomi Dr. Stephen Spurr , English public school headmaster Tommy Spurr , English football player Robert Spurr , rugby league footballer of the 1960s , 1970s and 1980s", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Spurr", "rank": 57, "score": 70348 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano, California Content: Volcano ( formerly , Soldier 's Gulch and The Volcano ) is a census-designated place in Amador County , California . It lies at an elevation of 2070 feet ( 631 m ) . The population was 115 at the 2010 census . It is located at , just north of Pine Grove . The town is registered as a California Historical Landmark . The community is in ZIP code 95689 and area code 209 .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano,_California", "rank": 58, "score": 70252 }, { "content": "Title: Decade Volcanoes Content: The Decade Volcanoes are 16 volcanoes identified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth 's Interior ( IAVCEI ) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large , destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas . The Decade Volcanoes project encourages studies and public-awareness activities at these volcanoes , with the aim of achieving a better understanding of the volcanoes and the dangers they present , and thus being able to reduce the severity of natural disasters . They are named Decade Volcanoes because the project was initiated as part of the United Nations -- sponsored International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction , in the 1990s . A volcano may be designated a Decade Volcano if it exhibits more than one volcanic hazard ( people living near the Decade Volcanoes may experience tephra fall , pyroclastic flows , lava flows , lahars , volcanic edifice instability and lava dome collapse ) ; shows recent geological activity ; is located in a populated area ( eruptions at any of the Decade Volcanoes may threaten tens or hundreds of thousands of people , and therefore mitigating eruption hazards at these volcanoes is crucial ) ; is politically and physically accessible for study ; and there is local support for the work .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Decade_Volcanoes", "rank": 59, "score": 70123 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic Explosivity Index Content: The Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) is a relative measure of the explosiveness of volcanic eruptions . It was devised by Chris Newhall of the United States Geological Survey and Stephen Self at the University of Hawaii in 1982 . Volume of products , eruption cloud height , and qualitative observations ( using terms ranging from `` gentle '' to `` mega-colossal '' ) are used to determine the explosivity value . The scale is open-ended with the largest volcanoes in history given magnitude 8 . A value of 0 is given for non-explosive eruptions , defined as less than 10000 m3 of tephra ejected ; and 8 representing a mega-colossal explosive eruption that can eject ( 240 cubic miles ) of tephra and have a cloud column height of over 20 km . The scale is logarithmic , with each interval on the scale representing a tenfold increase in observed ejecta criteria , with the exception of between VEI 0 , VEI 1 and VEI 2 .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanic_Explosivity_Index", "rank": 60, "score": 70089 }, { "content": "Title: Sousaki volcano Content: Sousaki is an extinct volcano and modern solfatara field in northeastern Corinthia , Greece , at the northwest end of the Aegean volcanic arc . The volcano was active 4.0 to 2.3 million years ago , during the Pliocene and early Quaternary periods of the Earth 's geological history . There is still significant solfataric activity at this location . The volcano erupted dacite lava . The geothermal system releases about 1 megagram per day of gases at 42 ° C , 90 % CO2 and < 1 % each of CH4 and H2S . The earthquakes of 1997 of 3-4 R had as a result the uprising magma in higher areas of the earth crust . So future activities are possible . The last eruption of this volcano was a side eruption which created new land in the Gulf of Megara , where there are major port and refinery facilities .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Sousaki_volcano", "rank": 61, "score": 70027 }, { "content": "Title: El Valle (volcano) Content: El Valle is a stratovolcano in central Panama and is the easternmost volcano along the Central American Volcanic Arc which has been formed by the subduction of the Nazca Plate below Central America . Some time prior to 200,000 years ago , the volcano underwent a huge eruption event that caused the top of the volcano to collapse into the empty magma chamber below forming a large caldera . Several lava domes have developed inside the caldera since the collapse -- forming Cerro Pajita , Cerro Gaital and Cerro Caracoral peaks . Prior to research in the early 1990s , it was thought that no active volcanism existed within Panama . But radioactive dates from El Valle show that the volcano last erupted as recently as 200,000 years ago . Work by de Boer et al. and Defant et al. of other volcanoes within Panama have shown that there are two episodes of volcanism -- young ( < 2.5 million years ago ) and old ( > 4.5 million years ago ) groups . The young volcanism consists of adakites ( slab melts ) whereas the older volcanism appears to be normal calc-alkaline volcanism .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "El_Valle_(volcano)", "rank": 62, "score": 69979 }, { "content": "Title: Ushas Mons Content: Ushas Mons is a 2-kilometer-high ( 1.25 mile ) volcano in the southern hemisphere of Venus at 25 degrees south latitude , 323 degrees east longitude . Its name is derived from vedic goddess of dawn Ushas The volcano is marked by numerous bright lava flows and a set of north-south trending fractures , many of which appear to have formed after the lavas were erupted onto the surface . In the central summit area , however , younger flows remain unfractured . An impact crater can be seen among the fractures in the upper center of the image . The association of faulting and volcanism is common on this type of volcano on Venus , and is believed to result from a large zone of hot material upwelling from the Venusian mantle , a phenomenon known on Earth as a `` hotspot . '' Category : Volcanoes of Venus", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Ushas_Mons", "rank": 63, "score": 69923 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano (Gatsbys American Dream album) Content: Volcano is the third album by Gatsbys American Dream . The album is also known by the full title printed on the cover , Gatsbys American Dream and the Volcano . After recording the album In the Land of Lost Monsters in 2004 , the band began looking for a new record label . Gatsbys was approached by Fearless Records , and quickly began work on the album Volcano . Volcano was produced by Casey Bates and Tom Pfaeffle and was recorded at The Tank Studio , where In the Land of Lost Monsters was also recorded . To date , Volcano is Gatsbys ' most significant album , and , as a concept album , the most thematically-focused . It revolves around the theme of humans emotions and their similarities to a volcano . Elaborating on this theme , the album explores the story of Pompeii , the ancient Roman city that was both lost to and preserved by a volcanic eruption . The song `` Theatre '' , is used in the EA Sports game NHL 2007 .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_(Gatsbys_American_Dream_album)", "rank": 64, "score": 69893 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano (South Park) Content: `` Volcano '' is the second episode of the American animated television series South Park . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on August 20 , 1997 . In the episode , Stan , Kyle , Cartman and Kenny go on a hunting trip with Stan 's uncle Jimbo and his war buddy Ned . While on the trip , Stan is frustrated by his inability to shoot a living creature and Cartman tries to scare the hunting party with tales of a creature named Scuzzlebutt . Meanwhile , the group is unaware that a nearby volcano is about to erupt . The episode was written by series co-creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone . It was inspired by the 1997 disaster films Volcano and Dante 's Peak , both of which Parker and Stone strongly disliked . The plot was also based on the large amount of hunting Parker and Stone witnessed while growing up in Colorado ; Stan 's hesitation about the sport mirrors Parker 's real-life feelings about hunting . `` Volcano '' was the third episode produced , but it was broadcast as the second . Parker and Stone felt the computer animation in `` Volcano '' had greatly improved compared to the early episodes ; they were particularly pleased with the lava , which was made to resemble orange construction paper . `` Volcano '' received generally positive reviews and was nominated for a 1997 Environmental Media Award . Slightly more than 1 million viewers watched the original broadcast , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode featured the first appearances of recurring characters Ned Gerblansky and Randy Marsh . The latter , who is also the town geologist , is established as Stan 's father in later episodes . It also marked the first of two appearances for Scuzzlebutt , who became a popular minor character and appeared in the video games South Park 10 : The Game and South Park Rally . The episode parodied the Duck and Cover educational videos from the 1950s and 1960s that advised people to hide under tables in the event of a nuclear attack .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_(South_Park)", "rank": 65, "score": 69727 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic (disambiguation) Content: Volcanic is an adjective used for things and concepts related to volcanos . It may also refer to :", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanic_(disambiguation)", "rank": 66, "score": 69667 }, { "content": "Title: List of volcanoes in Montserrat Content:", "qid": "3000", "docid": "List_of_volcanoes_in_Montserrat", "rank": 67, "score": 69645 }, { "content": "Title: Lonquimay (volcano) Content: Lonquimay Volcano is a stratovolcano of late-Pleistocene to dominantly Holocene age , with the shape of a truncated cone . The cone is largely andesitic , though basaltic and dacitic rocks are present . It is located in the La Araucanía Region of Chile , immediately SE of Tolhuaca volcano . Sierra Nevada and Llaima are their neighbors to the south . The snow-capped volcano lies within the protected area Malalcahuello-Nalcas . The volcano 's last eruption began on December 25 , 1988 , earning it the nickname `` Navidad '' . The eruption lasted for 13 months before ending in 1990 . The Volcanic Explositivy Index was 3 , indicating tropospheric injections and catastrophic damage . The eruption was from a flank vent and involved mostly andesite lava , and had been preceded by increased seismicity for three weeks . The volume of the lava flow decreased as time went on and the vent dimensions decreased , though by the end of the eruption the andesite had still built up to a length of 10.2 km . There was only a single fatality for the duration of the eruption , but it caused the evacuation of over 2000 people and caused extensive damage to farming and livestock in the surrounding region .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Lonquimay_(volcano)", "rank": 68, "score": 69609 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic field Content: A volcanic field is an area of the Earth 's crust that is prone to localized volcanic activity . They usually contain 10 to 100 volcanoes such as cinder cones and are usually in clusters . Lava flows may also occur . They may occur as a monogenetic volcanic field or a polygenetic volcanic field .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanic_field", "rank": 69, "score": 69486 }, { "content": "Title: Nevado del Ruiz Content: The Nevado del Ruiz ( -LSB- neβaðo ðel ˈrwis -RSB- ) , also known as La Mesa de Herveo ( Mesa of Herveo , the name of the nearby town ) , or Kumanday in the language of the local pre-Columbian indigenous people , is a volcano located on the border of the departments of Caldas and Tolima in Colombia , about 129 km west of the capital city Bogotá . It is a stratovolcano , composed of many layers of lava alternating with hardened volcanic ash and other pyroclastic rocks . Nevado del Ruiz has been active for about two million years , since the early Pleistocene or late Pliocene epoch , with three major eruptive periods . The current volcanic cone formed during the present eruptive period , which began 150 thousand years ago . The volcano usually generates Plinian eruptions , which produce swift-moving currents of hot gas and rock called pyroclastic flows . These eruptions often cause massive lahars ( mud and debris flows ) , which pose a threat to human life and the environment . The impact of such an eruption is increased as the hot gas and lava melt the mountain 's snowcap , adding large quantities of water to the flow . On November 13 , 1985 , a small eruption produced an enormous lahar that buried and destroyed the town of Armero in Tolima , causing an estimated 25,000 deaths . This event later became known as the Armero tragedy -- the deadliest lahar in recorded history . Similar but less deadly incidents occurred in 1595 and 1845 , consisting of a small explosive eruption followed by a large lahar . The volcano is part of Los Nevados National Natural Park , which also contains several other volcanoes . The summit of Nevado del Ruiz is covered by large glaciers . The volcano continues to pose a threat to the nearby towns and villages , and it is estimated that up to 500,000 people could be at risk from lahars from future eruptions .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Nevado_del_Ruiz", "rank": 70, "score": 69459 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano (Edie Brickell album) Content: Volcano is the second solo album ( fourth album overall ) by American singer/songwriter Edie Brickell , released in 2003 . The album sold about 21,000 copies as of November 2003 .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_(Edie_Brickell_album)", "rank": 71, "score": 69405 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano, West Virginia Content: Volcano is a ghost town in Wood County , West Virginia . It burned to the ground in 1879 and was never rebuilt . It was a petroleum town . Gas flares at night made the skyline appear like a volcano , hence the name . Its Post Office no longer exists . The Volcano oil field was discovered in 1860 , according to the West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey ( WVGES ) , `` and from 1865 to 1870 , drilling was very active , producing from the Salt sand at a depth of about 360 feet . The heavy lubricants produced led to the development of West Virginia 's first oil pipeline , from Volcano to Parkersburg , in 1879 . '' In 1874 , W.C. Stiles , Jr. , employed the endless-wire method of pumping many wells from a central engine , `` a technique he invented , '' according to the WVGES . `` Using wheels , belts , and cables , perhaps as many as 40 wells could be pumped by one engine . One of the systems operated until 1974 . '' The Volcano town-site is located south of the US-50 expressway at the junction of Wood County Routes 5 and 28 .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano,_West_Virginia", "rank": 72, "score": 69395 }, { "content": "Title: Central America Volcanic Arc Content: The Central American Volcanic Arc ( often abbreviated to CAVA ) is a chain of volcanoes which extends parallel to the Pacific coast line of the Central American Isthmus , from Guatemala , El Salvador , Honduras , Nicaragua , Costa Rica , and down to northern Panama . This volcanic arc , which has a length of 1500 km , is formed by an active subduction zone along the western boundary of the Caribbean Plate . The Central American Volcanic Arc includes hundreds of volcanic formations , ranging from major stratovolcanoes , to lava domes and cinder cones . Some of these have produced large explosive eruptions , like the colossal VEI 6 eruption of the Santa Maria volcano in 1902 . Central America 's highest volcanoes are found in Guatemala and include the Tajumulco and Volcán Tacaná , both above 4,000 meters . Several volcanoes in Central America are currently active , including Arenal , Turrialba , Irazú , Poás in Costa Rica ; Cerro Negro , San Cristóbal , Concepción in Nicaragua ; Chaparrastique or San Miguel , Ilamatepec or Santa Ana , Izalco in El Salvador ; Santa Maria/Santiaguito , Pacaya , Fuego in Guatemala .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Central_America_Volcanic_Arc", "rank": 73, "score": 69133 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano (Satyricon album) Content: Volcano is the fifth studio album by Norwegian black metal band Satyricon . It was released on 25 October 2002 , through Moonfog Productions . The album is one of the band 's more successful records , having won several awards including the Norwegian Grammy for Best Metal Album , Alarm awards for Metal Album of the Year , Song of the Year for `` Fuel for Hatred '' and an Oslo award for Best Overall Album . A video was made for the single `` Fuel for Hatred '' .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_(Satyricon_album)", "rank": 74, "score": 69064 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano, The Blast Coaster Content: Volcano , The Blast Coaster , or simply Volcano , is a launched inverted roller coaster at Kings Dominion in Doswell , Virginia . Designed by both Paramount Parks and Werner Stengel and built by Intamin , Volcano was the world 's first inverted roller coaster to feature an LIM ( linear induction motor ) and is the only one of its kind that completes a full circuit . Since its opening on August 3 , 1998 , Volcano has been one of the more popular rides in the park . Most of Volcano 's circuit is located inside a man-made volcano , making it an enclosed roller coaster .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano,_The_Blast_Coaster", "rank": 75, "score": 69061 }, { "content": "Title: Ixcanul Content: Ixcanul ( English : Volcano ) is a 2015 Guatemalan drama film , a debut written and directed by Jayro Bustamante . It was screened in the main competition section of the 65th Berlin International Film Festival where it won the Alfred Bauer Prize . The film was selected as the Guatemalan entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 88th Academy Awards but was not nominated . It is the first film produced in the Kaqchikel language of the Mayan family .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Ixcanul", "rank": 76, "score": 69037 }, { "content": "Title: Irruputuncu Content: Irruputuncu is a volcano in the commune of Pica , Tamarugal Province , Tarapacá Region , Chile , as well as San Pedro de Quemes Municipality , Nor Lípez Province , Potosí Department , Bolivia . The mountain 's summit is 5163 m high and has two summit craters -- the southernmost 200 m-wide one has active fumaroles . The volcano also features lava flows , block-and-ash flows and several lava domes . The volcano is part of the Andean Central Volcanic Zone ( CVZ ) . The volcano has been active during the Pleistocene and Holocene , with major eruptions occurring 258.2 ± 48.8 ka ago , between 55.9 ka and 140 ka ago and 1570 ± 900 BP ( 380 ± 900 AD ) , which were accompanied by the formation of ignimbrites . Historical volcanic activity is less clear ; an eruption in 1989 is considered unconfirmed . Plumes linked to phreatomagmatic eruptive activity were observed on 26 November 1995 and 1 September 2003 . Seismic activity is also observed on Irruputuncu , and ongoing fumarolic activity releasing abbr = on 21 of has left sulfur deposits in the active crater . The Central Volcanic Zone is thinly inhabited and most volcanoes are not under reconnaissance , but Irruputuncu is watched by the Chilean SERNAGEOMIN geologic service . The possibility of geothermal energy production from the volcano has been examined .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Irruputuncu", "rank": 77, "score": 69031 }, { "content": "Title: Mount Edziza volcanic complex Content: The Mount Edziza volcanic complex is a large and potentially active north-south trending complex volcano in Stikine Country , northwestern British Columbia , Canada , located 38 km southeast of the small community of Telegraph Creek . It occupies the southeastern portion of the Tahltan Highland , an upland area of plateau and lower mountain ranges , lying east of the Boundary Ranges and south of the Inklin River , which is the east fork of the Taku River . As a volcanic complex , it consists of many types of volcanoes , including shield volcanoes , calderas , lava domes , stratovolcanoes , and cinder cones . Most of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex is encompassed within a large provincial park called Mount Edziza Provincial Park . Named after Mount Edziza , this 2660.95 km2 park was established in 1972 to preserve the volcanic and cultural treasures unique to the northern British Columbia area . The Mount Edziza volcanic complex is remote , and , without roads , accessible only along trails . The easiest access is from Highway 37 and a spur road from Dease Lake to Telegraph Creek . From Kinaskan Lake , on Highway 37 , a poorly maintained trail extends west for 30 km into the heart of the complex . From Telegraph Creek another trail extends east for 25 km to the north slope of Mount Edziza .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Mount_Edziza_volcanic_complex", "rank": 78, "score": 69025 }, { "content": "Title: Cryovolcano Content: A cryovolcano ( colloquially known as an ice volcano ) is a theoretical type of volcano that erupts volatiles such as water , ammonia or methane , instead of molten rock . Collectively referred to as cryomagma or ice-volcanic melt , these substances are usually liquids and can form plumes , but can also be in vapour form . After eruption , cryomagma is expected to condense to a solid form when exposed to the very low surrounding temperature . Cryovolcanoes may potentially form on icy moons and other objects with abundant water past the Solar System 's snow line ( such as Pluto ) . A number of features have been identified as possible cryovolcanoes on Pluto , Titan and Ceres . In addition , although they are not known to form volcanoes , ice geysers have been observed on Enceladus and potentially Triton . One potential energy source on some solar system bodies for melting ices and producing cryovolcanoes is tidal friction . It has also been suggested that translucent deposits of frozen materials could create a subsurface greenhouse effect that would accumulate the required heat . Signs of past warming of the Kuiper belt object Quaoar have led scientists to speculate that it exhibited cryovolcanism in the past . Radioactive decay could provide the energy necessary for such activity , as cryovolcanoes can emit water mixed with ammonia , which would melt at − 95 ° C and create an extremely cold liquid that would flow out of the volcano .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Cryovolcano", "rank": 79, "score": 68991 }, { "content": "Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Future_of_Earth", "rank": 80, "score": 68956 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano (1942 film) Content: Volcano is the eighth of the seventeen animated Technicolor short films based upon the DC Comics character of Superman , originally created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster . This eight-minute animated short , produced by Fleischer Studios , features Superman 's adventures in saving a small island community from a volcanic eruption . It was originally released on July 10 , 1942 by Paramount Pictures .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_(1942_film)", "rank": 81, "score": 68934 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano! (1926 film) Content: Volcano ! is a 1926 silent film drama starring Bebe Daniels and directed by William K. Howard . It was produced by Famous Players-Lasky and distributed by Paramount Pictures . It is based on a 1920 Broadway play Martinique by Laurence Eyre . It is preserved in the Library of Congress , UCLA Film and Television Archives and The Museum of Modern Art .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano!_(1926_film)", "rank": 82, "score": 68898 }, { "content": "Title: Myōjin-shō Content: is a submarine volcano located about 450 kilometers south of Tokyo on the Izu-Ogasawara Ridge in the Izu Islands . Volcanic activity has been detected there since 1869 . Since then it has undergone more eruptions , the most powerful of which resulted in the appearance and disappearance of a small island . The name Myōjin-shō derives from a fishing boat , No. 11 Myōjin-Maru of Yaizu City , Shizuoka Prefecture , the crew of which first witnessed the major volcanic eruption of 1952 .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Myōjin-shō", "rank": 83, "score": 68876 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano observatory Content: A volcano observatory is an institution that conducts research and monitoring of a volcano . Each observatory provides continuous and periodic monitoring of the seismicity , other geophysical changes , ground movements , volcanic gas chemistry , and hydrologic conditions and activity between and during eruptions . They also provide a detailed record of eruptions in progress .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_observatory", "rank": 84, "score": 68865 }, { "content": "Title: Effusive eruption Content: An effusive eruption is a type of volcanic eruption in which lava steadily flows out of a volcano onto the ground . Effusive eruption differs from explosive eruption , wherein magma is violently fragmented when expelled from a volcano . The shape of the lava flows created by effusive eruptions is governed by the type of lava , rate and duration of eruption , and slope of the surrounding areas . A volcanic eruption is effusive when low-viscosity magma , usually basaltic in composition , is released from the Earth 's crust . In an effusive eruption , gas escapes the magma as it erupts and forms lava that flows downhill continuously . This type of lava flow can build shield volcanoes , which are numerous in Hawaii . Eruptions of basaltic magma often transition between effusive and explosive eruption patterns . The behavior of these eruptions is largely dependent on the permeability of the magma and the magma ascent rate . For an effusive eruption to occur , magma must be permeable enough to allow the expulsion of gas bubbles contained within it . If the magma is not above a certain permeability threshold , it can not degas and will erupt explosively . Additionally , at a certain threshold , fragmentation within the magma can cause an explosive eruption . This threshold is governed by the Reynolds Number , a dimensionless number in fluid dynamics that is directly proportional to fluid velocity . Eruptions will be effusive if the magma has a low ascent velocity . At higher magma ascent rates , the fragmentation within the magma passes a threshold and results in explosive eruptions . Silicic magma also exhibits this transition between effusive and explosive eruptions , but the fragmentation mechanism differs . The 1912 Novarupta eruption and the 2003 Stromboli eruption both exhibited a transition between explosive and effusive eruption patterns . Effusive basalt lava flows cool to either of two forms , ʻaʻā or pāhoehoe . Andesite lava typically forms blocky lava flows . Dacite lava flows often form steep-sided mounds , called lava domes , due to their greater viscosity .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Effusive_eruption", "rank": 85, "score": 68819 }, { "content": "Title: Almolonga Content: The Almolonga volcano , usually called `` Cerro Quemado '' ( Burned Mountain ) is an andesitic stratovolcano in the south-western department of Quetzaltenango in Guatemala . The volcano is located near the town of Almolonga , just south of Quetzaltenango , Guatemala 's second largest city . The volcano is set along the Zunil fault zone and has a central caldera surrounded by several dacitic and rhyolitic lava domes and formed in a back-arc volcanic setting , with activity commencing 84,000 BP . Almolonga stratovolcano is the oldest edifice and underwent collapse prior to the caldera forming eruption of Lake Atitlan , the major chronological marker of volcanism in the region . The collapse of the stratovolcano left a caldera with a diameter of 3,3 km and a depth of 350m that was subsequently occupied by lava domes on its northern edge and covered by tephra layers from numerous volcanoes , both in the Almolonga field and others . Cerro Quemado is the largest ( about 2 km3 ) and youngest lava dome complex formed by eight vents with viscous lava flows and plugs during four distinct volcanic phases - the first two involving effusion of lava and formation of new domes . Cerro Quemado underwent a flank collapse 1,150 BP , generating a landslide that went 6 km SSW in the Llano de Pilar valley and occupied an area of 13 km2 , generating a lateral blast that affected the neighbouring Volcán Siete Orejas volcano as well . A lava dome emerged inside the collapse scar subsequently . 1818 an eruption formed a block lava flow over half a year that travelled 2.5 km eastward . Lahars and further explosive activity are potential hazards from this volcano .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Almolonga", "rank": 86, "score": 68753 }, { "content": "Title: Hala-'l Badr Content: Hala - ' l Badr ( or Hala - ' l Bedr / Hallat al Badr , in حلا البدر ) is a volcano in northwestern Saudi Arabia at 27.25 ° N , 37.235 ° E . The volcano is of the cinder cone ( or scoria-cone ) type , and is on the northeast corner of the Thadra table mountain in the al Jaww basin , an erosional divide between Harrat ar-Rahah and Harrat al ` Uwayrid . Its eruption history is currently unknown , but geological studies have shown that Hallat al Badr erupted some time during the Holocene period , and the most recent lava flows were in the al Jaww basin . Badr has a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) of at least 2 , so it is capable of producing an eruption column at least 3 mi high . A number of scholars , including Charles Beke , Sigmund Freud , Immanuel Velikovsky , Eduard Meyer , Martin Noth , and Hermann Gunkel have proposed that the biblical description of devouring fire on Mount Sinai refers to an erupting volcano in the land of biblical Midian . Gunkel writes , `` The characteristic Israelite narratives of Yahweh 's appearance in the burning thorn bush ( Exod . 3:2 ) , in the burning and smoking Sinai ( Exod . 19:9 , 20:18 ; Deut . 4:11 ) , and especially in the pillars of smoke and fire ( Exod . 13:21 ) ... can be explained originally from the fact that , in Israel 's earliest belief , Yahweh was the god of the Sinai volcano . '' This possibility would exclude all the peaks on the Sinai Peninsula and Mount Seir , but would match a number of places in northwestern Saudi Arabia , of which Hala - ' l Badr is the most prominent . Beke renounced his theory that Sinai was a volcano when he learned that Mount Baghir ( also `` Mountain of Light '' ) , his volcanic Mount Sinai which was just northeast of the Gulf of Aqaba , was not a volcanic mountain after all . The equation of Sinai with Hala - ' l Badr has been advocated by various scholars and authors , including Jean Koenig in 1971 Colin Humphreys in 2003 In part , Humphreys ' argument that Hallat al Badr is Mount Sinai rests on Alois Musils ' argument that the itinerary stations given in Numbers 33 lead directly to Badr ; he also reports that a volcano in the region erupted in 640 AD , but it is not known exactly which volcano this was . James K. Hoffmeier argues that the route suggested by Humphreys would have put the supposed volcano behind the Israelites at times , not in front . He also notes that the words for `` cloud '' and `` pillar of cloud '' appear frequently in Numbers - it covers the mountain , the temple built on top of the mountain , `` it occupies the holy of holies in Solomon 's temple '' and `` Numbers 12:5 specifically refers to God coming down in a pillar of cloud to denounce Miriam 's charges against Moses after departing the mountain of God . '' Thus `` fire and cloud are understood to be vessels of theophany . ''", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Hala-'l_Badr", "rank": 87, "score": 68717 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic arc Content: A volcanic arc is a chain of volcanoes formed above a subducting plate , positioned in an arc shape as seen from above . Offshore volcanoes form islands , resulting in a volcanic island arc . Generally , volcanic arcs result from the subduction of an oceanic tectonic plate under another tectonic plate , and often parallel an oceanic trench . The oceanic plate is saturated with water , and volatiles such as water drastically lower the melting point of the mantle . As the oceanic plate is subducted , it is subjected to greater and greater pressures with increasing depth . This pressure squeezes water out of the plate and introduces it to the mantle . Here the mantle melts and forms magma at depth under the overriding plate . The magma ascends to form an arc of volcanoes parallel to the subduction zone . These should not be confused with hotspot volcanic chains , where volcanoes often form one after another in the middle of a tectonic plate , as the plate moves over the hotspot , and so the volcanoes progress in age from one end of the chain to the other . The Hawaiian Islands form a typical hotspot chain ; the older islands ( tens of millions of years old ) to the northwest are smaller and more lush than the recently created ( 400,000 years ago ) Hawaii island itself , which is more rocky . Hotspot volcanoes are also known as `` intra-plate '' volcanoes , and the islands they create are known as Volcanic Ocean Islands . Volcanic arcs do not generally exhibit such a simple age-pattern . There are two types of volcanic arcs : oceanic arcs form when oceanic crust subducts beneath other oceanic crust on an adjacent plate , creating a volcanic island arc . ( Not all island arcs are volcanic island arcs . ) continental arcs form when oceanic crust subducts beneath continental crust on an adjacent plate , creating an arc-shaped mountain belt . ( Not all mountain belts form in this way . ) In some situations , a single subduction zone may show both aspects along its length , as part of a plate subducts beneath a continent and part beneath adjacent oceanic crust . ( The term `` volcanic arc '' is often confused with the term `` island arc '' . The former is a series of volcanoes , but not necessarily offshore . The latter is a series of islands , not necessarily composed solely of volcanoes . ) Volcanoes are present in almost any mountain belt , but this does not make it a volcanic arc . Often there are isolated , but impressively huge volcanoes in a mountain belt . For instance , Vesuvius and the Etna volcanoes in Italy are part of separate but different kinds of mountainous volcanic ensembles . The active front of a volcanic arc is the belt where volcanism develops at a given time . Active fronts may move over time ( millions of years ) , changing their distance from the oceanic trench as well as their width .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanic_arc", "rank": 88, "score": 68704 }, { "content": "Title: Nova Iguaçu Volcano Content: The Nova Iguaçu Volcano ( `` Vulcão de Nova Iguaçu '' in Portuguese ) is located in the state of Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , in an area of volcanic rocks at the north-eastern border of the Mendanha massif . Klein and Vieira proposed the site to be an extinct volcano with a volcanic cone , volcanic crater , and volcanic bomb . Scientific journals have studied the volcanic geology of the area , identifying the rocks of volcanic appearance as constituted of subvolcanic intrusive rock bodies . The Nova Iguaçu volcano theory is now extinct in academic communities , but the myth continues in sightseeing promotion groups . Recent research revealed that volcanic eruptions did occur in the Nova Iguaçu region . After the eruptions , an intense uplifting and consequent regional denudation took place . The cones , craters , lavas , pyroclastic flow deposits , and volcanic bombs have been washed away in the strong tropical erosion of this region , exposing the underlying geologic structure . The Municipal Park is underlain by the geologic bodies corresponding to the magma chamber ( composed of syenite and trachyte ) and subvolcanic conduit ( made up of pyroclastic rocks ) of a depth of 3 kilometers , such as pyroclastic dikes . That is , no extinct volcano is present at Nova Iguaçu . The outcrops are world-rare geological phenomena that expose the underground geologic structures of the volcanic area .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Nova_Iguaçu_Volcano", "rank": 89, "score": 68497 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanoes of the Galápagos Islands Content: The Galápagos Islands are an isolated set of volcanoes , consisting of shield volcanoes and lava plateaus , located 1200 km west of Ecuador . They are driven by the Galápagos hotspot , and are between 4.2 million and 700,000 years of age . The largest island , Isabela , consists of six coalesced shield volcanoes , each delineated by a large summit caldera . Española , the oldest island , and Fernandina , the youngest , are also shield volcanoes , as are most of the other islands in the chain . The Galápagos Islands are perched on a large lava plateau known as the Galápagos Platform , which creates a shallow-water depth of 360 to at the base of the islands , which stretch over a 174 mi-long diameter . Since Charles Darwin 's famous visit to the islands in 1835 , over 60 recorded eruptions have occurred in the islands , from six different shield volcanoes . Of the 21 emergent volcanoes , 13 are considered active . The Galápagos are geologically young for such a big chain , and the pattern of their rift zones follows one of two trends , one north-northwest , and one east-west . The composition of the lavas of the Galápagos shields are strikingly similar to those of the Hawaiian volcanoes . Curiously , they do not form the same volcanic `` line '' associated with most hotspots . They are not alone in this regard ; the Cobb-Eickelberg Seamount chain in the North Pacific is another example of such a delineated chain . In addition , no clear pattern of age is seen between the volcanoes , suggesting a complicated , irregular pattern of creation . How exactly the islands were formed remains a geological mystery , although several theories have been posited .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanoes_of_the_Galápagos_Islands", "rank": 90, "score": 68406 }, { "content": "Title: Operation Volcano Content: Operation Volcano was a British operation to clear a village that the Taliban were using as a command and control node , consisting of 25 compounds , near the Kajaki hydroelectric dam in February 2007 . The British troops came from Troops from 42 Commando , Royal Marines and 59 Commando , Royal Engineers . During the operation , the marines received fire from Taliban forces further in the compounds and from the village of Chinah . This threat was neutralized by air assets and Royal Marine 's mortars . Operation Volcano was part of the March -- May 2007 Operation Achilles . Some parts of this operation is described in the documentary Ross Kemp in Afghanistan aired 2008 .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Operation_Volcano", "rank": 91, "score": 68405 }, { "content": "Title: The Volcano Disaster (film) Content: The Volcano Disaster ( also called Volcano : Nature Unleashed or Nature Unleashed : Volcano ) is a 2005 Bulgarian direct-to-video film by First Look Studios . The film concerns a volcanologist who learns of an impending eruption at an Italian town and tries to warn the skeptic citizens . Unlike `` traditional '' disaster films , the eruption is predicted by supernatural rather than technological means . No seismometers are seen in the entire film .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "The_Volcano_Disaster_(film)", "rank": 92, "score": 68383 }, { "content": "Title: Alcedo Volcano Content: Alcedo Volcano is one of the six coalescing shield volcanoes that make up Isabela Island in the Galapagos . The remote location of the volcano has meant that even the most recent eruption in 1993 was not recorded until two years later . It is also the only volcano in the Galapagos to have erupted rhyolite and basaltic lava . The volcano has the largest number of wild tortoises of any of the volcanoes in the Galapagos , though their genetic diversity is amongst the lowest of any of the breeds in the archipelago . The habitat of the tortoises was threatened when feral goats crossed from southern Isabela Island in the 1970s and then reproduced rapidly .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Alcedo_Volcano", "rank": 93, "score": 68288 }, { "content": "Title: Siletz River Volcanics Content: The Siletz River Volcanics , located in the Oregon Coast Range , United States , are a sequence of basaltic pillow lavas that make up part of Siletzia . The basaltic pillow lavas originally came from submarine volcanoes that existed during the Eocene . The Paleocene to Eocene volcanics consist of volcanism flows and sills of tholeitic to alkalic basalts with associated tuff-breccia , siltstone and sandstone . The flows are vesiculated with zeolite filled amygdules . The volcanics originated as oceanic crust and seamounts . Potassium argon dating gives an age of 50.7 ± 3.1 to 58.1 ± 1.5 Ma . The sequence has been divided into a lower pillowed tholeiitic unit and an upper porphyritic alkali basalt unit . The volcanics occur in the following counties of western Oregon : Benton , Coos , Douglas , Lane , Lincoln , Polk , Tillamook , Washington and Yamhill .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Siletz_River_Volcanics", "rank": 94, "score": 68171 }, { "content": "Title: Jackson Volcano Content: Jackson Volcano is an extinct volcano 2900 feet ( 884 meters ) beneath the city of Jackson , Mississippi , under the Mississippi Coliseum . The uplifted terrain around the volcano forms the Jackson Dome , an area of dense rock clearly noticeable in local gravity measurements . E.W. Hilgard published his theory of an anticline beneath Jackson in 1860 due to his observations of surface strata.The dome contains relatively pure carbon dioxide which is used in oil production in Gulf Coast oil fields . The noble gas data suggests mantle origins with a date of 70 million years for the Jackson Dome intrusion . Geologists have evidence of repeated uplifts accompanied by dike intrusions and volcanic extrusions , erosion , and sedimentation with one coral reef having developed during a submergence . Much of the oil at the crest of the dome volatilized during a late uplift , but oil production wells numbered over a hundred in 1934 . Jackson Volcano is believed to have been extinct for at least 66 million years . A hypothesis states that the Jackson Volcano and related igneous activity in Mississippi were a result of the North America Plate 's passage over the Bermuda hotspot 66 million years ago . Alternatively , the volcanism may have been part of a worldwide eruption driven by superplumes , similar to the conditions that created the Deccan Traps and the Siberian Traps . The volcano is one of four inside cities in the United States , Diamond Head in Honolulu , Hawaii , Pilot Butte in Bend , Oregon , and Mount Tabor in Portland , Oregon being the others . The volcano was discovered in 1819 .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Jackson_Volcano", "rank": 95, "score": 68145 }, { "content": "Title: South Aegean Volcanic Arc Content: The South Aegean Volcanic Arc is a chain of volcanic islands in the South Aegean Sea formed by plate tectonics as a consequence of the subduction of the African tectonic plate beneath the Eurasian plate . The southern Aegean is one of the most rapidly deforming regions of the Himalayan-Alpine mountain belt . The active portion of the South Aegean Arc comprises a number of dormant and historically active volcanoes , including Aegina , Methana , Milos , Santorini and Kolumbo , and Kos , Nisyros and Yali . Of these , only Santorini , Kolumbo and Nisyros have either erupted or shown any significant evidence of unrest during the past 100 years . One of the most noted volcanic eruptions from this arc occurred on the island of Santorini in the second millennium BC ; during this eruption the Bronze Age city of Akrotiri was destroyed , with archaeological remains becoming well preserved under the volcanic ash .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "South_Aegean_Volcanic_Arc", "rank": 96, "score": 68145 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic bomb Content: A volcanic bomb is a mass of molten rock ( tephra ) larger than 64 mm ( 2.5 inches ) in diameter , formed when a volcano ejects viscous fragments of lava during an eruption . They cool into solid fragments before they reach the ground . Because volcanic bombs cool after they leave the volcano , they are extrusive igneous rocks . Volcanic bombs can be thrown many kilometres from an erupting vent , and often acquire aerodynamic shapes during their flight . Bombs can be extremely large ; the 1935 eruption of Mount Asama in Japan expelled bombs measuring 5 -- 6 m in diameter up to 600 m from the vent . Volcanic bombs are a significant volcanic hazard , and can cause severe injuries and death to people in an eruption zone . One such incident occurred at Galeras volcano in Colombia in 1993 ; six people near the summit were killed and several seriously injured by lava bombs when the volcano erupted unexpectedly . Volcanic bombs are known to occasionally explode from internal gas pressure as they cool , but in most cases , most of the damage they cause is from impact , or subsequent fire damage . Bomb explosions are most often observed in `` bread-crust '' type bombs .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcanic_bomb", "rank": 97, "score": 68114 }, { "content": "Title: Mata o le Afi Content: Mata o le Afi is a volcano on the island of Savai'i in the South Pacific nation of Samoa . Mata o le Afi translates from the Samoan language as Eye of the Fire or Source of the Fire . The most recent eruption of Mata o le Afi occurred from 30 October 1902 to 17 November 1902 . Other volcanoes on Savai'i include Mt Matavanu and Mauga Afi . In Samoan mythology the god of earthquakes is Mafui'e . Another mythical figure Ti'iti ' i tricked the earthquake god so that Samoans could have fire to cook their food .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Mata_o_le_Afi", "rank": 98, "score": 68090 }, { "content": "Title: Mount Pavlof Content: Pavlof Volcano is a stratovolcano of the Aleutian Range on the Alaska Peninsula . It has been one of the most active in the United States since 1980 , with eruptions recorded in 1980 , 1981 , 1983 , 1986 -- 1988 , 1996 -- 1997 , 2007 , 2013 , twice in 2014 and most recently in March 2016 . Basaltic andesite with SiO2 around 53 % is the most common lava type . The volcano is monitored by the Alaska Volcano Observatory - a joint program of the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , the Geophysical Institute of the University of Alaska Fairbanks ( UAFGI ) , and the State of Alaska Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys ( ADGGS ) . With a threat score of 95 , the threat from future eruptions is considered to be high ; much of this threat comes from the possibility of disruption of nearby air routes by large releases of ash . The mountain currently has basic real-time monitoring , but the USGS would like to improve instrumentation at the site . The mountain shares a name with the nearby Pavlof Sister , which last erupted in 1786 .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Mount_Pavlof", "rank": 99, "score": 67989 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano (Temples album) Content: Volcano is the second studio album by English psychedelic rock band Temples , released on 3 March 2017 by Heavenly Records . The album was recorded at their home studio , and is self-produced . Temples member James Bagshaw described the album as being `` a result of implementing a load of things that we did n't know about the first time around -LSB- on Sun Structures -RSB- '' .", "qid": "3000", "docid": "Volcano_(Temples_album)", "rank": 100, "score": 67949 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect", "rank": 1, "score": 182539 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Runaway_climate_change", "rank": 2, "score": 155263 }, { "content": "Title: Life on Venus Content: The speculation of life currently existing on Venus decreased significantly since the early 1960s , when spacecraft began studying Venus and it became clear that the conditions on Venus are extreme compared to those on Earth . The fact that Venus is located closer to the Sun than Earth , raising temperatures on the surface to nearly 735 K , the atmospheric pressure is 90 times that of Earth , and the extreme impact of the greenhouse effect , make water-based life as we know it unlikely on the surface of the planet . However , a few scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the lower-temperature , acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Life_on_Venus", "rank": 3, "score": 135409 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 4, "score": 134575 }, { "content": "Title: Terraforming of Venus Content: The terraforming of Venus is the hypothetical process of engineering the global environment of the planet Venus in such a way as to make it suitable for human habitation . Terraforming Venus was first seriously proposed by the astronomer Carl Sagan in 1961 , although fictional treatments , such as The Big Rain by Poul Anderson , preceded it . Adjustments to the existing environment of Venus to support human life would require at least three major changes to the planet . These three changes are closely interrelated , because Venus 's extreme temperature is due to the greenhouse effect caused by its dense carbon-dioxide atmosphere : Reducing Venus 's surface temperature of 462 C. Eliminating most of the planet 's dense 9.2 MPa carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide atmosphere , via removal or conversion to some other form . Addition of breathable oxygen to the atmosphere .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Terraforming_of_Venus", "rank": 5, "score": 132120 }, { "content": "Title: Venus de miles Content: Venus de Miles is an all-women 's bike ride in Colorado and Illinois . The event is organized by and benefits Greenhouse Scholars , a nonprofit organization that provides scholarship , mentorship , leadership training , and more to high-performing , under-resourced students in college .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_de_miles", "rank": 6, "score": 127433 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 7, "score": 126555 }, { "content": "Title: Venus Content: Venus is the second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellites . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4.6 , bright enough to cast shadows at night and , though rare , occasionally be visible in broad daylight . Because Venus orbits within Earth 's orbit it is an inferior planet and never appears to venture far from the Sun ; its maximum angular distance from the Sun ( elongation ) is 47.8 ° . Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth , or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System , with a mean surface temperature of 735 K , even though Mercury is closer to the Sun . Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid , preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light . It may have had water oceans in the past , but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect . The water has probably photodissociated , and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field . Venus 's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism . As one of the brightest objects in the sky , Venus has been a major fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed . It has been made sacred to gods of many cultures , and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the `` morning star '' and `` evening star '' . Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky , as early as the second millennium BC . As the closest planet to Earth , Venus has been a prime target for early interplanetary exploration . It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft ( Mariner 2 in 1962 ) , and the first to be successfully landed on ( by Venera 7 in 1970 ) . Venus 's thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light , and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991 . Plans have been proposed for rovers or more complex missions , but they are hindered by Venus 's hostile surface conditions .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus", "rank": 8, "score": 126402 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Venus Content: The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts . Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia . Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell . Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases . Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization . On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Venus", "rank": 9, "score": 122670 }, { "content": "Title: Venus and the Razorblades Content: Venus and the Razorblades were a short-lived punk band . The Los Angeles based new wave rock band was put together by Kim Fowley after he severed professional relations with The Runaways . Fowley sought to put together a band with a teenaged male singer and teenaged female musicians . Roni Lee ( guitarist and songwriter ) joined the band early and co-wrote `` I Wan na Be Where The Boys Are '' performed by The Runaways as well as Venus and the Razorblades . Roni Lee also wrote and co-wrote many of the Venus and the Razorblades songs . She also went on to play with Mars Bonfire and Steppenwolf . Singer/guitarist Dyan Diamond was only 14 when she auditioned for the band in 1976 . The recordings featured session players associated with Fowley projects such as guitarist Mars Bonfire , formerly of an early version of Steppenwolf ; and keyboardist Billy Bizeau , formerly of The Quick , as well as members of the band itself . The band put out a novelty single called `` Punk-A-Rama '' on the independent label Bomp ! Records trying to capitalize on the popularity of the punk rock genre of the late 1970s and then broke up . A compilation album called Songs from the Sunshine Jungle was released in 1978 on Visa Records ; it is extremely rare today . The band 's song `` Young and Wild '' was sometimes covered live by Van Halen when they were still a Los Angeles bar band . Fowley then tried to make guitarist Dyan Diamond into a big star , and got her a deal with MCA Records ; her 1978 album , In the Dark was a creative success but a commercial failure .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_and_the_Razorblades", "rank": 10, "score": 121042 }, { "content": "Title: Kombayashi–Ingersoll limit Content: In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in . For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter . The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Kombayashi–Ingersoll_limit", "rank": 11, "score": 116605 }, { "content": "Title: Venus snow Content: Venus snow is a brightening of the radar reflection from the surface of Venus at high elevations . The `` snow '' appears to be a mineral condensate of lead sulfide and bismuth sulfide precipitated from the atmosphere at altitudes above 2600 metres . The nature of the `` snow '' was initially unknown . In radar images , smooth surfaces such as lava plains generally appear dark , while rough surfaces such as impact debris appear bright . The composition of the rock also alters the radar return : conductive material , or material with a high dielectric constant , appears brighter . It was therefore initially difficult to determine whether the high-altitude areas of Venus were different from the lowlands in chemical composition or in texture . Possible explanations included loose soil , different rates of weathering at high and low elevations , and chemical deposition at high elevation . It could not be water ice , which can not exist in the extremely hot , dry conditions of the Venusian surface . Data from the radar mapper on the Pioneer Venus orbiter suggested an explanation in terms of chemical composition . It was hypothesized that the underlying rock contained iron pyrite or other metallic inclusions that would be very reflective . At the high temperatures found on the surface of Venus , these minerals would gradually evaporate . Faster weathering at high elevation might continually expose new material , causing the highlands to appear brighter than lowlands . High-resolution radar observations by the Magellan probe by 1995 began to favor the hypothesis that metallic compounds sublimate in lower , warmer altitudes and deposit in higher , cooler areas . Candidates included tellurium , pyrite , and other metal sulfides .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_snow", "rank": 12, "score": 114042 }, { "content": "Title: Surface features of Venus Content: The surface of Venus is dominated by geologic features that include volcanoes , large impact craters , and aeolian erosion and sedimentation landforms . Venus has a topography reflecting its single , strong crustal plate , with a unimodal elevation distribution ( over 90 % of the surface lies within an elevation of -1.0 and 2.5 km ) that preserves geologic structures for long periods of time . Studies of the Venusian surface are based on imaging , radar , and altimetry data collected from several exploratory space probes , particularly Magellan , since 1961 ( see Venus Exploration ) . Despite its similarities to Earth in size , mass , density , and possibly composition , Venus has a unique geology that is unlike Earth 's . Although much older than Earth 's , the surface of Venus is relatively young compared to other terrestrial planets ( < 500 million years old ) , possibly due to a global-scale resurfacing event that buried much of the previous rock record . Venus is believed to have approximately the same bulk elemental composition as Earth , due to the physical similarities , but the exact composition is unknown . The surface conditions on Venus are more extreme than on Earth , with temperatures ranging from 453 to 473 ° C and pressures of 95 bar . Venus lacks water , which makes crustal rock stronger and helps preserve surface features . The features observed provide evidence for the geological processes at work . Twenty feature types have been categorized thus far . These classes include local features , such as craters , coronae , and undae , as well as regional-scale features , such as planitiae , plana , and tesserae .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Surface_features_of_Venus", "rank": 13, "score": 113764 }, { "content": "Title: Kepler-186e Content: Kepler-186e ( also known by its Kepler Object of Interest designation KOI-571 .04 ) is a confirmed exoplanet orbiting the red dwarf star Kepler-186 , approximately 558 light years away from Earth in the constellation of Cygnus . It is near the optimistic habitable zone but probably not in it , possibly making it have a runaway greenhouse effect , like Venus . The exoplanet was found by using the transit method , in which the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of its star is measured . Four additional planets orbiting the star ( all modestly larger than Earth ) were also discovered .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Kepler-186e", "rank": 14, "score": 111105 }, { "content": "Title: Geodynamics of terrestrial exoplanets Content: The discovery of extrasolar Earth-sized planets has spurred inquiry regarding their potential for habitability . One of the generally agreed-upon ( Noack and Breuer and references within ) requirements for a life-sustaining planet is a mobile , fractured lithosphere cyclically recycled into a vigorously convecting mantle , commonly known as plate tectonics . Plate tectonics provide a means of geochemical regulation of atmospheric particulates , as well as sequestration of carbon . This prevents `` runaway greenhouse '' scenarios that can result in inhospitable surface temperatures and vaporization of liquid surface water . There is not a clear academic consensus on whether Earth-like exoplanets have plate tectonics , but it is widely thought that the likelihood of plate tectonics on an Earth-like exoplanet is a function of planetary radius , initial temperature upon coalescence , insolation , and presence or absence of liquid-phase surface water .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Geodynamics_of_terrestrial_exoplanets", "rank": 15, "score": 111091 }, { "content": "Title: Venus in fiction Content: Fictional representations of Venus have existed since the 19th century . Its impenetrable cloud cover gave science fiction writers free rein to speculate on conditions at its surface ; all the more so when early observations showed that not only was it very similar in size to Earth , it possessed a substantial atmosphere . Closer to the Sun than Earth , the planet was frequently depicted as warmer , but still habitable by humans . The genre reached its peak between the 1930s and 1950s , at a time when science had revealed some aspects of Venus , but not yet the harsh reality of its surface conditions .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_in_fiction", "rank": 16, "score": 110680 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 17, "score": 110609 }, { "content": "Title: HD 179949 b Content: HD 179949 b is an extrasolar planet discovered by the Anglo-Australian Planet Search at the Anglo-Australian Observatory , which orbits the star HD 179949 . The planet is a so-called `` hot Jupiter '' , a Jupiter-mass planet orbiting very close to its parent star . In this case , orbital distance is almost one-tenth that of Mercury from the Sun . One orbital revolution lasts only about 3 days . Its magnetic field induces a bright spot on its star at 30 degrees latitude , which rotates at 87 degrees inclination . If the planet orbited at 83-97 degrees , then its transit would be visible from Earth . The angle of inclination is therefore 83 degrees or less , but not much less ; and its mass is constrained to not much more than 0.923 ± 0.077 . The star is not tidally locked to the planet . Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects , and a Bond albedo of 0.1 , the temperature would be 1533 K . This is , like Tau Boötis b , hotter than the predicted temperature of HD 209458 b ( 1392K ) , and close to that of HD 149026 b , before they were measured . Searches for water in the planet 's atmosphere have been inconclusive , as have attempts to determine whether titanium and vanadium oxides are present . HD 179949 b is a candidate for `` near-infrared characterisation ... . with the VLTI Spectro-Imager '' .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "HD_179949_b", "rank": 18, "score": 110273 }, { "content": "Title: Roni Lee Content: Roni Lee ( born Rhonda Lee Ryckman , November 15 , 1956 in Los Angeles , California ) is an American guitarist , and singer-songwriter . She is most associated with her affiliation with Kim Fowley 's first mixed gender punk rock band Venus and the Razorblades as the female lead guitarist and vocalist . Her relationship with producer and creator Kim Fowley led to co-writing The Runaways hit `` I Wan na Be Where The Boys Are '' released on the Live In Japan album in 1977 winning the Recording Industry Association of Japan Gold Record . Roni Lee , Kim Fowley , and the members of the Runaways Joan Jett , Lita Ford are all part of a movement that led the way in the music industry for women in rock . The Woman 's International Music Network founded by Laura B. Whitmore gives credit to these pioneers , a genre that was once dominated mostly by men . After Venus and The Razorblades disbanded , Roni collaborated and performed with Randy California and Ed Cassidy ( Spirit ) as well as Mars Bonfire and Jerry Edmonton ( Steppenwolf ) from 1977 to 1978 . After spending time recording and performing on the East Coast , Midwest and Montreal , Canada , Roni formed her first power trio and moved to Seattle , Washington and signed a recording contract with Mushroom Records ( Canada ) but the company went bankrupt when vice president and creative director Shelly Siegel died in 1979 .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Roni_Lee", "rank": 19, "score": 110088 }, { "content": "Title: Ushas Mons Content: Ushas Mons is a 2-kilometer-high ( 1.25 mile ) volcano in the southern hemisphere of Venus at 25 degrees south latitude , 323 degrees east longitude . Its name is derived from vedic goddess of dawn Ushas The volcano is marked by numerous bright lava flows and a set of north-south trending fractures , many of which appear to have formed after the lavas were erupted onto the surface . In the central summit area , however , younger flows remain unfractured . An impact crater can be seen among the fractures in the upper center of the image . The association of faulting and volcanism is common on this type of volcano on Venus , and is believed to result from a large zone of hot material upwelling from the Venusian mantle , a phenomenon known on Earth as a `` hotspot . '' Category : Volcanoes of Venus", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Ushas_Mons", "rank": 20, "score": 110040 }, { "content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis", "rank": 21, "score": 106946 }, { "content": "Title: Venus (play) Content: Venus ( 1996 ) is a play by Suzan-Lori Parks . It chronicles the fictional life-story of Sarah `` Saartjie '' Baartman , beginning from her life as an attraction for 19th century British audiences as the Hottentot Venus and ending with her death . The work is not intended to be historically accurate , but rather uses the concept of Baartman 's career to explore colonization and objectification ; as Parks explained , `` most of it 's fabricated ... It 's questioning the history of history ... It embraces the unrecorded truth . '' It won 2 OBIE Awards in 1995-1996 .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_(play)", "rank": 22, "score": 105902 }, { "content": "Title: Onatah Corona Content: Onatah Corona is a feature on Venus adjacent to Ba ` het Corona . Both features are surrounded by a ring of ridges and troughs , which in places cut more radially-oriented fractures . The centers of the features also contain radial fractures as well as volcanic domes and flows . Coronae are thought to form due to the upwelling of hot material from deep in the interior of Venus . The two coronae may have formed at the same time over a single upwelling , or may indicate movement of the upwelling or the upper layers of the planet to the west over time .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Onatah_Corona", "rank": 23, "score": 105277 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 24, "score": 104394 }, { "content": "Title: The Merchants of Venus Content: `` The Merchants of Venus '' , also known by the title `` The Merchants of Venus Underground '' , is a science fiction novella by American writer Frederik Pohl published in 1972 as part of the collection The Gold at the Starbow 's End . It is a satire of runaway free market capitalism . It also features the first appearance of the Heechee . It was adapted as a graphic novel by Victoria Petersen and Neal McPheeters in 1986 , as the fourth title in the DC Science Fiction Graphic Novel series . An unrelated story by the same title by A.H. Phelps was published in Galaxy magazine , March 1954 . In it , an advertising man takes on the problem of getting colonists to go to Venus . This story was dramatized on the radio series X Minus One , which was affiliated with Galaxy .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "The_Merchants_of_Venus", "rank": 25, "score": 104214 }, { "content": "Title: HD 73256 b Content: HD 73256 b is an 1.87 MJ hot Jupiter orbiting at 0.037 AU taking 2.55 days to orbit around HD 73256 . Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects , and a Bond albedo of 0.1 , the temperature would be about 1300 K . This is close to 51 Pegasi b ; between the predicted temperatures of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b ( 1180-1392K ) , before they were measured . It is a candidate for `` near-infrared characterisation with the VLTI Spectro-Imager '' .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "HD_73256_b", "rank": 26, "score": 102093 }, { "content": "Title: Ba'het Corona Content: Bahet Corona is a feature on Venus about 230 km long and 150 km across . It is adjacent to Onatah Corona . Both features are surrounded by a ring of ridges and troughs , which in places cut more radially-oriented fractures . The centers of the features also contain radial fractures as well as volcanic domes and flows . Coronae are thought to form due to the upwelling of hot material from deep in the interior of Venus . The two coronae may have formed at the same time over a single upwelling , or may indicate movement of the upwelling or the upper layers of the planet to the west over time . A ` pancake ' dome , similar to low-relief domes see in the southern hemisphere , is located just to the southwest of Bahet .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Ba'het_Corona", "rank": 27, "score": 101672 }, { "content": "Title: Geology of Venus Content: Venus is a planet with striking geology . Of all the other planets in the Solar System , it is the one nearest to Earth and most like it in terms of mass , but has no magnetic field or recognizable plate tectonic system . Much of the ground surface is exposed volcanic bedrock , some with thin and patchy layers of soil covering , in marked contrast with Earth , the Moon , and Mars . Some impact craters are present , but Venus is similar to Earth in that there are much fewer craters than on the other rocky planets that are largely covered by them . This is due in part to the thickness of the Venusian atmosphere disrupting small impactors before they strike the ground , but the paucity of large craters may be due to volcanic re-surfacing , possibly of a catastrophic nature . Volcanism appears to be the dominant agent of geological change on Venus . Some of the volcanic landforms appear to be unique to the planet . There are shield and composite volcanoes similar to those found on Earth . Given that Venus has approximately the same size , density , and composition as Earth , it is plausible that volcanism may be continuing on the planet today , although convincing direct observations of a volcanic eruption have not yet occurred , leaving modern volcanism an open question . Most of the Venusian surface is relatively flat ; it is divided into three topographic units : lowlands , highlands , and plains . In the early days of radar observation the highlands drew comparison to the continents of Earth , modern research has shown that this is superficial and the absence of plate tectonics makes this comparison misleading . Tectonic features are present to a limited extent , including linear `` deformation belts '' composed of folds and faults . These may be caused by mantle convection . Many of the tectonic features such as tesserae ( large regions of highly deformed terrain , folded and fractured in two or three dimensions ) , and arachnoids ( for those features resembling a spider 's web ) are associated with volcanism . Eolian landforms are not widespread on the planet 's surface , but there is considerable evidence the planet 's atmosphere causes the chemical weathering of rock , especially at high elevations . There is only 20 ppm water vapor in the Venusian atmosphere , and no liquid erosion features ( aside from those of lava flows ) are visible in radar images of the surface . The atmosphere shows isotopic evidence of having been stripped of volatile elements by offgassing and solar wind erosion over time , implying the possibility that Venus may have had liquid water at some point in the distant past ; no direct evidence for this has been found . Much speculation about the geological history of Venus continues today . The surface of Venus is not easily accessible because of the extremely thick atmosphere ( some 90 times that of Earth 's ) and the 470 ° C surface temperature . Much of what is known about it stems from orbital radar observations , because the surface is permanently obscured in visible wavelengths by cloud cover . In addition , a number of landers have returned data from the surface , including images .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Geology_of_Venus", "rank": 28, "score": 101484 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal runaway Content: Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature , often leading to a destructive result . It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback . In other words , `` thermal runaway '' describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature , in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature . In chemistry ( and chemical engineering ) , it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise . In electrical engineering , thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation , although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too . Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering , notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled -LCB- Citation needed -RCB- . In astrophysics , runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions , and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars , the `` helium flash '' . There are also concerns regarding global warming that a global average increase of 3 -- 4 degrees Celsius above the preindustrial baseline could lead to a further unchecked increase in surface temperatures . For example , releases of methane , a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2 , from wetlands , melting permafrost and continental margin seabed clathrate deposits could be subject to positive feedback .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Thermal_runaway", "rank": 29, "score": 101443 }, { "content": "Title: Baltis Vallis Content: Baltis Vallis is a sinuous channel on Venus ranging from one to three kilometers wide and nearly 7,000 kilometers long , slightly longer than the Nile and the longest known channel of any kind in the solar system . It is thought that it once held a river of lava known as a lava channel . The lava must have had a very low viscosity , possibly due to a carbonatite composition . At the volcano Ol Doinyo Lengai in Tanzania , natrocarbonatite lava erupts at around 510 C , not far above Venus 's mean ambient temperature of 462 C. Analysis of cross-sectional profiles ( using brightness data from Magellan synthetic aperture radar images ) indicates that while Baltis Vallis does have levees , primarily in its first 1500 km , and intrachannel ridges , mainly in the segment 1500 to 3000 km from the source , the feature is primarily erosional , with a bottom surface 20 -- 100 m below the surrounding plains at 90 % of the sites studied . The average depths and widths of the channel are 46 ± 16 m and 2.2 ± 0.4 km , respectively . The channel is located in an area consisting entirely of plains and wrinkle ridges . The topography of the channel undulates , with some stretches travelling uphill , suggesting that various regions have uplifted and subsided since the channel formed . Both ends of the channel are obscured , however , so its original length is unknown . The channel was initially discovered by the Soviet Venera 15 and 16 orbiters which , in spite of their one-kilometer resolution , detected more than 1,000 km of the channel . These channel-like features are common on the plains of Venus . In some places they appear to have been formed by lava which may have melted or thermally eroded a path over the plains ' surface . Most are 1 to 3 kilometers ( 0.6 to 2 miles ) wide . They resemble terrestrial meandering rivers in some aspects , with meanders , cutoff bows and abandoned channel segments . However , Venus channels are not as tightly sinuous as terrestrial rivers . Most are partly buried by younger lava plains , making their sources difficult to identify . A few have vast radar-dark plains units associated with them , suggesting large flow volumes . These channels with large deposits appear to be older than other channel types , as they are crossed by fractures and wrinkle ridges , and are often buried by other volcanic materials . In addition , they appear to run both upslope and downslope , suggesting that the plains were warped by regional tectonism after channel formation .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Baltis_Vallis", "rank": 30, "score": 101375 }, { "content": "Title: Black Venus (2010 film) Content: Black Venus ( Vénus noire ) is a 2010 French drama film directed by Abdellatif Kechiche . It is based on the life of Sarah Baartman , a Khoikhoi woman who in the early 19th century was exhibited in Europe under the name `` Hottentot Venus '' . The film was nominated for the Golden Lion at the 67th Venice International Film Festival , where it was awarded the Equal Opportunity Award .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Black_Venus_(2010_film)", "rank": 31, "score": 98894 }, { "content": "Title: Outline of Venus Content: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Venus : Venus -- second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellite . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4.6 , bright enough to cast shadows . Because Venus orbits within Earth 's orbit it is an inferior planet . Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth , or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Outline_of_Venus", "rank": 32, "score": 97649 }, { "content": "Title: Cold trap (astronomy) Content: In astronomy , a cold trap is a close to the surface layer of the atmosphere that is substantially colder than both the deeper and higher layers . The temperature of the air drops with increasing height above the surface of the earth reaching a low point ( which for the earth resides at about 20 kilometers height ) . It is called a trap because it keeps ascending gases with high melting points in by freezing them to a solid which then drops back to the planet surface . The most important gas to be kept in that way , on the Earth , is water vapor , which without the presence of a cold trap in the atmosphere would gradually escape or dissociate into space , making life impossible . However , because of the cold trap water vapor condenses into droplets of liquid water or tiny ice crystals , forming clouds . The cold trap retains one-tenth of one percentof the water in the atmosphere in the form of a vapor at high altitudes . The cold trap is also a layer which above ultraviolet intensity is strong , since higher up the amount of water vapor is negligible . Oxygen screens out ultraviolet intensity . Some astronomers believe that the lack of a cold trap is why the planets Venus and Mars both lost most of their liquid water early in their histories .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Cold_trap_(astronomy)", "rank": 33, "score": 97383 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanology of Venus Content: The surface of Venus is dominated by volcanic features and has more volcanoes than any other planet in the Solar System . It has a surface that is 90 % basalt , and about 65 % of the planet consists of a mosaic of volcanic lava plains , indicating that volcanism played a major role in shaping its surface . There are more than 1000 volcanic structures and possible periodic resurfacing of Venus by floods of lava . The planet may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago , from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface . Venus has a carbon dioxide rich atmosphere , with a density that is 90 times greater than Earth . Even though there are over 1,600 major volcanoes on Venus , none are known to be erupting at present and most are probably long extinct . However , radar sounding by the Magellan probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic activity at Venus 's highest volcano Maat Mons , in the form of ash flows near the summit and on the northern flank . Although many lines of evidence suggest that Venus is likely to be volcanically active , present-day eruptions at Maat Mons have not been confirmed .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Volcanology_of_Venus", "rank": 34, "score": 97012 }, { "content": "Title: MV S Venus Content: The MV S Venus is a freighter of Panamanian registry , attacked by Somali pirates on January 1 , 2009 . It was successfully defended by defensive actions by members of Anti Piracy Maritime Security Solutions who used paint thinner , Molotov cocktails and a flare gun to set the attacking vessel ablaze . After receiving a distress call from the freighter , French naval frigate F792 Premier-Maître L'Her headed for the rescue . However , before her arrival , the pirates ceased their attack . After that , MV S. Venus reiterated its distress call because of another attack at about 40 kilometers from the position , and the frigate once again went to the rescue of the Panamanian cargo ship and found two small boats nearby , designated by the crew of the ship as the skiffs for assault pirates . The special force of the French navy ordered two skiffs carrying eight Somalis to stop . A visit on board the boat found six AK-47 assault rifles , one RPG ( Rocket Propelled Grenade ) rocket-launcher , ammunition , a grappling hook and two boarding ladders , and a GPS ( Global Position System ) among others , which were confiscated by the navy . The eight Somalis suspected of piracy were taken into custody by the French frigate to be handed over to the authorities in that country .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "MV_S_Venus", "rank": 35, "score": 96855 }, { "content": "Title: Cornell Mayer Content: Cornell Henry Mayer ( 10 December 1921 -- 19 November 2005 ) was a radio astronomer , who was the first to accurately measure the temperature of Venus by measuring the planet 's thermal radiation .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Cornell_Mayer", "rank": 36, "score": 96831 }, { "content": "Title: List of artificial objects on Venus Content: The following table is a partial list of artificial objects on the surface of the planet Venus . They have been abandoned after having served their purpose . The list does not include smaller objects such as parachutes or heatshields .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "List_of_artificial_objects_on_Venus", "rank": 37, "score": 94850 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Content: A greenhouse ( also called a glasshouse , or , if with sufficient heating , a hothouse ) is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material , such as glass , in which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown . These structures range in size from small sheds to industrial-sized buildings . A miniature greenhouse is known as a cold frame . The interior of a greenhouse exposed to sunlight becomes significantly warmer than the external ambient temperature , protecting its contents in cold weather . Many commercial glass greenhouses or hothouses are high tech production facilities for vegetables or flowers . The glass greenhouses are filled with equipment including screening installations , heating , cooling , lighting , and may be controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for plant growth . Different techniques are then used to evaluate optimality-degrees and comfort ratio of greenhouse micro-climate ( i.e. , air temperature , relative humidity and vapor pressure deficit ) in order to reduce production risk prior to cultivation of a specific crop .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Greenhouse", "rank": 38, "score": 94695 }, { "content": "Title: List of geological features on Venus Content: This is a list of geological features on Venus . Venus is the second planet from the Sun . Venus is classified as a terrestrial planet and it is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' owing to their similar size , gravity , and bulk composition ( Venus is both the closest planet to Earth and the planet closest in size to Earth ) . The surface of Venus is covered by a dense atmosphere and presents clear evidence of former violent volcanic activity . It has shield and composite volcanoes similar to those found on Earth .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "List_of_geological_features_on_Venus", "rank": 39, "score": 94400 }, { "content": "Title: Polytunnel Content: A polytunnel ( also known as a polyhouse , hoop greenhouse or hoophouse , or high tunnel ) is a tunnel made of polyethylene , usually semi-circular , square or elongated in shape . The interior heats up because incoming solar radiation from the sun warms plants , soil , and other things inside the building faster than heat can escape the structure . Air warmed by the heat from hot interior surfaces is retained in the building by the roof and wall . Temperature , humidity and ventilation can be controlled by equipment fixed in the polytunnel or by manual opening and closing of flaps . Polytunnels are mainly used in temperate regions in similar ways to glass greenhouses and row covers . Besides the passive solar heating that every polytunnel provides , every variation of auxiliary heating ( from hothouse heating through minimal heating to unheated houses ) is represented in current practice . The nesting of row covers and low tunnels inside high tunnels is also common .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Polytunnel", "rank": 40, "score": 94046 }, { "content": "Title: VENUS Content: VENUS - ( Victoria Experimental Network Under the Sea ) is one of two principal cabled sea floor observatories operated by Ocean Networks Canada at the University of Victoria , British Columbia , Canada . The VENUS cabled ocean observatory is designed to provide new ways of studying the ocean . Since its launch in 2006 , it has enabled scientists to run and monitor various ocean experiments out of the convenience of their desktops . The aim of VENUS is to study coastal oceans in two sites near Victoria and Vancouver , British Columbia . The first site of the VENUS seafloor network , operational since February 2006 , is located in Saanich Inlet at 100m . The second site is located in the deeper waters of the Strait of Georgia and links instrument arrays deployed at depths varying from 100 to 300 meters . VENUS uses Internet , telecommunication technology , and a network of about 50 kilometers of fiber optic cables at a maximum depth of 300 meters to create a permanent link to cameras and other monitoring instruments on the seafloor . The VENUS observatory has scores of sensors that measure such parameters as temperature , salinity , and pressure of the water 24 hours a day . The seafloor instruments provide oceanographers , marine biologists , and geologists with real-time ocean data . `` The VENUS observatory represents a step change for the world of marine science and oceanography , which will help improve the way marine scientists observe ocean life in the future , '' said Dr. Phil Hart , Director of Engineering at Global Marine . Ship-based ocean research methods provide a snapshot view only , whereas the VENUS observatory can be like a continuous film , which will allow more reliable long term observation . The data , including images and audio , are processed and made available to researchers and the public through the VENUS website . The goal of the project is to not only provide valuable information to advance research , but also to allow everyone from graduate school students to curious parents to log on and view the ocean up close . The facility is funded by the federal and provincial governments of Canada , as well as private industry . VENUS is designed to provide continuous observations for 20 -- 25 years .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "VENUS", "rank": 41, "score": 93431 }, { "content": "Title: Venus (mural) Content: Venus is a twelve-story-high mural painting by Knox Martin on the south side of Bayview Correctional Facility at 19th Street and Eleventh Avenue in Manhattan , New York City . Venus was commissioned by Doris Freedman of CityWalls ( later the Public Art Fund ) in 1970 . Knox Martin chose this wall for its unique location , next to Eleventh Avenue ( West Side Highway ) , and visible from the Verrazano -- Narrows Bridge , the Statue of Liberty , the New Jersey shore of the Hudson River , and the West Side Highway itself . Venus was restored in 1998 with the support of the Public Art Fund . A new weather-resistant acrylic paint developed in collaboration with the artist and donated by Golden Artist Colors was used , which will last at least 75 years . The prison is a facility of the New York State Department of Correctional Services . The Department made this statement in 2001 : In 1970 , prior to the rejuvenation of the district , Bayview 's entire south wall was decorated with a red and pink abstract painting , called `` Venus '' by artist Knox Martin . The mural , conspicuous for its size and beauty , has often been used on post cards . It is also conspicuous - in a culture that regards large , exposed surface as prime advertising space - for not being a billboard . Not surprisingly , advertisers call from time to time with proposals to lease the wall for commercial messages , but Bayview does n't want its beautiful Venus covered over with a beer or jeans ad . Besides , it 's state property . Marilyn Kushner of the Brooklyn Museum wrote : Traditionally the goddess of love and fertility , Venus represents woman , erotic and supple , but it also conveys Knox Martin 's love affair with New York . Venus is his love poem to the city where he has always lived , a place that is part of his being . The feminine , curvilinear shapes of the image are in direct contrast with the straight forms that intersect the composition . The overwhelming size of this enormous mural only intensifies the experience of female shapes , the linear aspects of the painted composition , and of the surrounding architecture . In an era when art was reaching out to the masses with pop culture , this huge mural was Knox Martin 's way of touching a public that would never venture into an art gallery . Today , Venus is almost entirely obscured by the neighboring building 100 Eleventh Avenue , completed in 2010 .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_(mural)", "rank": 42, "score": 93126 }, { "content": "Title: Isabella (crater) Content: Crater Isabella is the second largest impact crater on Venus . The feature is named in honor of the 15th Century queen of Spain , Isabella I of Castile . Located at 30 degrees south latitude , 204 degrees east longitude , the crater has two extensive flow-like structures extending to the south and to the southeast . The end of the southern flow partially surrounds a pre-existing 40 km circular volcanic shield . The southeastern flow shows a complex pattern of channels and flow lobes , and is overlain at its southeastern tip by deposits from a later 20 km diameter impact crater , Cohn . The extensive flows , unique to Venusian impact craters , are a continuing subject of study for a number of planetary scientists . It is thought that the flows may consist of ` impact melt , ' rock melted by the intense heat released in the impact explosion . An alternate hypothesis invokes ` debris flows , ' which may consist of clouds of hot gases and both melted and solid rock fragments that race across the landscape during the impact event . That type of emplacement process is similar to that which occurs in violent eruptions on Earth , such as the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption in the Philippines .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Isabella_(crater)", "rank": 43, "score": 92978 }, { "content": "Title: Venera 4 Content: Venera 4 ( Венера-4 meaning Venus 4 ) , also designated 1V ( V-67 ) s/n 310 was a probe in the Soviet Venera program for the exploration of Venus . It was the first successful probe to perform in-place analysis of the environment of another planet . It may also have been the first probe to land on another planet , with the fate of its predecessor Venera 3 being unclear . Venera 4 provided the first chemical analysis of the Venusian atmosphere , showing it to be primarily carbon dioxide with a few percent of nitrogen and below one percent of oxygen and water vapors . The station detected a weak magnetic field and no radiation field . The outer atmospheric layer contained very little hydrogen and no atomic oxygen . The probe sent the first direct measurements proving that Venus was extremely hot , that its atmosphere was far denser than expected , and that it had lost most of its water long ago .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venera_4", "rank": 44, "score": 92418 }, { "content": "Title: Geodynamics of Venus Content: NASA 's Magellan spacecraft mission discovered that Venus has a geologically young surface with a relatively uniform age of 500 ± 200 Ma ( million years ) . The age of Venus was revealed by the observation of over 900 impact craters on the surface of the planet . These impact craters are nearly uniformly distributed over the surface of Venus and less than 10 % have been modified by plains of volcanism or deformation . These observations indicate that a catastrophic resurfacing event took place on Venus around 500 Ma , and was followed by a dramatic decline in resurfacing rate . The radar images from the Magellan missions revealed that the terrestrial style of plate tectonics is not active on Venus and the surface appears to be immobile at the present time . Despite these surface observations , there are numerous surface features that indicate an actively convecting interior . The Soviet Venera landings revealed that the surface of Venus is essentially basaltic in composition based on geochemical measurements and morphology of volcanic flows . The surface of Venus is dominated by patterns of basaltic volcanism , and by compressional and extensional tectonic deformation , such as the highly deformed tesserae terrain and the pancake like volcano-tectonic features known as coronae . The planet 's surface can be broadly characterized by its low lying plains , which cover about 80 % of the surface , ` continental ' plateaus and volcanic swells . There is also an abundance of small and large shield volcanoes distributed over the planet 's surface . Based on its surface features , it appears that Venus is tectonically and convectively alive but has a lithosphere that is static .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Geodynamics_of_Venus", "rank": 45, "score": 92139 }, { "content": "Title: Helium flash Content: A helium flash is a very brief thermal runaway nuclear fusion of large quantities of helium into carbon through the triple-alpha process in the core of low mass stars ( between 0.8 solar masses and 2.0 ) during their red giant phase ( the Sun is predicted to experience a flash 1.2 billion years after it leaves the main sequence ) . A much rarer runaway helium fusion process can also occur on the surface of accreting white dwarf stars . Low mass stars do not produce enough gravitational pressure to initiate normal helium fusion . As the hydrogen in the core is exhausted , some of the helium left behind is instead compacted into degenerate matter , supported against gravitational collapse by quantum mechanical pressure rather than thermal pressure . This increases the density and temperature of the core until it reaches approximately 100 million kelvin , which is hot enough to cause helium fusion ( or `` helium burning '' ) in the core . However , a fundamental quality of degenerate matter is that changes in temperature do not produce a change of volume of the matter until the thermal pressure becomes so very high that it exceeds degeneracy pressure . In main sequence stars , thermal expansion regulates the core temperature , but in degenerate cores this does not occur . Helium fusion increases the temperature , which increases the fusion rate , which further increases the temperature in a runaway reaction . This produces a flash of very intense helium fusion that lasts only a few minutes , but briefly emits energy at a rate comparable to the entire Milky Way galaxy . In the case of normal low mass stars , the vast energy release causes much of the core to come out of degeneracy and causes it to thermally expand ( a processes requiring so much energy , it is roughly equal to the total energy released by the helium flash to begin with ) , and any left-over energy is absorbed into the star 's upper layers . Thus the helium flash is mostly undetectable to observation , and is described solely by astrophysical models . After the core 's expansion and cooling , the star 's surface rapidly cools and contracts ( in as little as 10,000 years ) until it is roughly 2 % of its former radius and luminosity . It is estimated that the electron-degenerate helium core weighs about 40 % of the star mass and that 6 % of the core is converted into carbon .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Helium_flash", "rank": 46, "score": 91619 }, { "content": "Title: Farewell Fantastic Venus Content: Farewell Fantastic Venus is a science fiction anthology edited by Brian Aldiss and Harry Harrison . It was first published in 1968 as a direct response to the information returned from the first space probes sent to Venus , especially the first atmospheric probe to return data , Venera 4 . The first data was not returned from the surface until Venera 7 successfully landed in 1970 . The book contains stories and novel excerpts from the time before Venus ' true nature became apparent , when the clouded planet could still be imagined as another Earth , albeit a hotter one . From that point on , few stories would be written which did not recognize Venus as a dry lifeless world with acid clouds and a temperature high enough to melt lead . Writers such as Larry Niven ( author of `` Becalmed in Hell '' ) did write about the `` new '' Venus , but there were to be few more transplanted jungle adventures , imagined world of oceans with monsters , or Venusians . Venus had been the best hope for extraterrestrial life , and now that hope was lost . Later , however , writers avoided this apparent impasse through using hard science fiction premises for future terraforming of Venus , or resorted to alternate world science fiction , where Venus had either been terraformed by aliens in the distant past to provide an earth-like biosphere , or had undergone different processes of planetary formation to arrive at an inhabitable alternative . Alternatively , science fantasy authors deliberately overlooked recent discoveries in favor of a setting they loved . The authors whose stories were included ranged from C.S. Lewis ( excerpt from Perelandra ) to Edgar Rice Burroughs ( excerpt from Pirates of Venus ) and from Olaf Stapledon ( excerpt from Last and First Men ) to Poul Anderson ( The Big Rain , Sister Planet ) . Essays and meditations from a variety of scientists and SF writers were also included in the collection .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Farewell_Fantastic_Venus", "rank": 47, "score": 91446 }, { "content": "Title: French frigate Vénus (1780) Content: The Vénus was a 32-gun frigate of the French Navy . She was launched in Saint-Malo in 1780 . Her main duties were escorting convoys between Île de Ré , Nantes and Brest . In this capacity , she captured a British privateer on 16 June . She was wrecked on 5 August 1781 near Glénan Islands , off Concarneau , when she ran aground due to a navigation error of the pilot . The crew was saved , but in spite of efforts to refloat her , she became a total loss . Her guns were found in 1978 , and are now on display in Concarneau .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "French_frigate_Vénus_(1780)", "rank": 48, "score": 91377 }, { "content": "Title: Cool tropics paradox Content: The cool tropics paradox refers to an apparent difference between modeled estimates of tropical temperatures during warm , ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and Eocene , and the colder temperatures which proxies suggested were present . The long-standing paradox was resolved when novel proxy derived temperatures showed significantly warmer tropics during past greenhouse climates . The low-gradient problem , i.e. the very warm polar regions with respect to present day , is still an issue for state-of-the-art climate models .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Cool_tropics_paradox", "rank": 49, "score": 91140 }, { "content": "Title: Venus Mars Project Content: Venus Mars Project is an American pop/rock duet from Boston , Massachusetts known for their mix of classic rock edge and modern pop . The band consists of two members : Jacyn Tremblay ( lead vocals ) and Peter Tentindo ( lead guitar , vocals ) . Jacyn is a singer/songwriter , formerly signed with Universal Motown Records as part of the Boston-based female pop/r & b vocal group Jada , and Peter is a professional guitarist , singer/songwriter , and teacher , formerly backing the lead singer of Survivor , Jimi Jamison . As of July 2015 , Venus Mars Project has four singles released on iTunes , Amazon , Google Play , and other music distribution services and online streaming channels including : Hands of Time ( 2013 ) , Jump In ( 2014 ) , Not Gon na Stop Me Now ( 2015 ) , and #LaLaLaLove ( 2015 ) . A notable show occurred in September 2015 , where the band opened for The Jacksons on their 50th Anniversary Tour at the North Shore Music Theatre in Beverly , Massachusetts . In November 2015 , Venus Mars Project reached the finals of the Mohegan Sun `` Locals Live '' competition , where 16 bands and musicians across New England competed with a full band at the Wolf Den in the Mohegan Sun casino . Venus Mars Project was nominated for a 2015 New England Music Award in the Best Pop Act category . The winner will be announced on Saturday April 9 , 2016 at the Blue Ocean Music Hall & Event Center in Salisbury Beach , MA . In August 2016 , Venus Mars Project opened for Starship featuring Mickey Thomas ( formerly Jefferson Airplane , formerly Jefferson Starship ) at the Cabot Theatre in Beverly , Massachusetts . Most recently , in February 2017 , Venus Mars Project opened for The Gin Blossoms at the Cabot Theatre in Beverly , Massachusetts .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_Mars_Project", "rank": 50, "score": 91080 }, { "content": "Title: Venus and Mars/Rock Show Content: `` Venus and Mars/Rock Show '' is a medley of two songs written by Paul and Linda McCartney and originally performed by Wings that make up the first two songs of the album Venus and Mars . The single was released in the United States on 27 October 1975 and in the United Kingdom on 28 November 1975 . The B-side was `` Magneto and Titanium Man '' , another track from the album . The single version is considerably shorter than the album version of the songs ; in the single `` Rock Show '' is cut by more than 3 minutes and `` Venus and Mars '' is cut by a few seconds . `` Venus and Mars/Rock Show '' peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the US , but did not chart on the UK singles chart . In the book The Rough Guide to the Beatles , Chris Ingham praised both songs , describing `` Venus and Mars '' as `` atmospheric '' and `` Rock Show '' as `` barnstorming '' .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_and_Mars/Rock_Show", "rank": 51, "score": 90684 }, { "content": "Title: Venus, Texas Content: Venus is a town in Johnson and Ellis counties in the U.S. state of Texas . The population was 2,960 in 2010 ( 2,895 in Johnson and 65 in Ellis County ) .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus,_Texas", "rank": 52, "score": 90093 }, { "content": "Title: Thirmida venusta Content: `` Thirmida '' venusta is a moth of the Notodontidae family . It is found in Ecuador .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Thirmida_venusta", "rank": 53, "score": 89969 }, { "content": "Title: Point Venus Content: Point Venus is peninsula on the north coast of Tahiti , the largest island in the Windward group of French Polynesia . It is in the commune of Mahina , approximately 8 km east of the capital Pape'ete . It lies at the northeast end of Matavai Bay .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Point_Venus", "rank": 54, "score": 89711 }, { "content": "Title: Venus, Romania Content: Venus is a summer resort in Romania , on the Black Sea coast , 3 km north of Mangalia . Category : Mangalia Venus", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus,_Romania", "rank": 55, "score": 89241 }, { "content": "Title: Mount Venus Content: Mount Venus ( or Cill an Véineas in Irish ) is a sacred megalithic site in Edmondstown , County Dublin , Ireland on the Mount Venus Road . It is a national heritage site . It has been described by Borlase as one of the most magnificent in the world . It encompasses a massive cap stone weighing in at 44 tons . It is partly collapsed on its supports and overgrown . The capstone lies against a single large upright megalith . When it was complete it would have been a 15 ft. high chamber entrance . Only one of the two great portal stones survives upright . The capstone has fallen and leans on this portal stone . The other portal stone ( 15 feet long ) lies next to the monument . A third dressed stone 4 metres long by 1 metre wide lies in front . Borlase believed this to be a distinct class of tomb - an earth-fast dolmen , so-called from the capstone 's contact with the ground at the back ( another example being Howth dolmen ) . Access to this megalith is through a gap in a hedge beside the DSPCA on a site which was once a golf course .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Mount_Venus", "rank": 56, "score": 89136 }, { "content": "Title: Belt of Venus Content: The Belt of Venus or Venus 's Girdle or Twilight Wedge is an atmospheric phenomenon seen shortly before sunrise or shortly after sunset . The observer is , or is very nearly , surrounded by a pinkish glow ( or anti-twilight arch ) that extends roughly 10 ° -- 20 ° above the horizon . Like alpenglow , backscattering of reddened sunlight also creates the Belt of Venus . Unlike the Belt of Venus , the direct illumination of clouds and aerosols that create the afterglow which characterizes alpenglow hover low in the atmosphere and create a red horizontal band visible just after sunset or before sunrise . Unlike alpenglow , the sunlight refracted in the fine dust particles that create the rosy pinkish arch of the Belt of Venus hover high in the atmosphere and perpetuate it long after sunset or long before sunrise . In a way , the Belt of Venus is a true alpenglow visible at twilight near the anti-solar point . Often , the glow is separated from the horizon by a dark layer , the Earth 's shadow or `` dark segment . '' The arch 's light pink color is due to backscattering of reddened light from the rising or setting Sun . A very similar effect can be seen during a total solar eclipse . The zodiacal light , which is caused by reflection of sunlight from the interplanetary dust in the solar system , is also a similar phenomenon . The name of the phenomenon alludes to the cestus , a girdle or breast-band , of the Ancient Greek goddess Aphrodite , customarily equated with the Roman goddess Venus .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Belt_of_Venus", "rank": 57, "score": 89122 }, { "content": "Title: Venus, Pennsylvania Content: Venus is an unincorporated community in Clarion and Venango counties , Pennsylvania , United States . The community is located on Pennsylvania Route 157 12.7 mi east-southeast of Oil City . Venus has a post office with ZIP code 16364 .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus,_Pennsylvania", "rank": 58, "score": 88936 }, { "content": "Title: Akatsuki (spacecraft) Content: , also known as the Venus Climate Orbiter ( VCO ) and Planet-C , is a Japanese ( JAXA ) space probe tasked to study the atmosphere of Venus . It was launched aboard an H-IIA 202 rocket on 20 May 2010 , and failed to enter orbit around Venus on 6 December 2010 . After the craft orbited the Sun for five years , engineers placed it into an alternative elliptical Venusian orbit on 7 December 2015 by firing its attitude control thrusters for 20 minutes . By using five different cameras , Akatsuki will study the stratification of the atmosphere , atmospheric dynamics , and cloud physics . Astronomers working on the mission reported detecting a possible gravity wave that occurred on the planet Venus in December 2015 .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Akatsuki_(spacecraft)", "rank": 59, "score": 88919 }, { "content": "Title: Venus, Florida Content: Venus is an unincorporated community in southeastern Highlands County , Florida , United States . Lake Placid is the nearest town to the north . Palmdale , another unincorporated community , is to the south . Hunting and fishing are popular recreations . The Venus Project has its research center located here , and is derived from the name of the community .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus,_Florida", "rank": 60, "score": 88911 }, { "content": "Title: Venus Glacier Content: Venus Glacier is a glacier on the east coast of Alexander Island , Antarctica , 10 nautical miles ( 18 km ) long and 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ) wide at its mouth flowing east into George VI Sound lying between Keystone Cliffs and Triton Point . The coast in this vicinity was first seen from the air by Lincoln Ellsworth on November 23 , 1935 and roughly mapped from photos obtained on that flight by W.L.G. Joerg . The glacier was first surveyed in 1949 by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey and named by the United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee for the planet Venus , the second planet of the Solar System .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_Glacier", "rank": 61, "score": 88774 }, { "content": "Title: Venus, California Content: Venus is an unincorporated community in San Bernardino County , California , United States . It is located approximately 31 miles ( 50 km ) northeast of Barstow , California . The Venus Deep Space Station , part of the Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex , is located there .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus,_California", "rank": 62, "score": 88484 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse millipede Content: The greenhouse millipede ( Oxidus gracilis ) , also known as the hothouse millipede , short-flange millipede , or garden millipede , is a species of millipede in the family Paradoxosomatidae that has been widely introduced around the world , and is sometimes a pest in greenhouses .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Greenhouse_millipede", "rank": 63, "score": 88215 }, { "content": "Title: Venus Theatre Content: The Venus Theatre is a major American regional theater in Laurel , Maryland . The theater was founded by Deborah Randall in 2001 . The theatrical company is currently the largest production company in Maryland focused primarily on the retelling and adaptation of classics . Past productions have won the Maryland Theatrical Association 's Best Drama Prize in 2002 and 2005 . The current musical director is Alan Scott . Recent productions include Shakespeare 's Measure for Measure and On Thin Ice . The theater 's annual `` retro-classic '' new works series for 2009 featured Chris Wind 's Not Such Stuff , Julia Homokay 's Homokay 's Medea , Vanda 's Why 'd Ya Make Me Wear This , Joe , and Jacob M. Appel 's Helen of Sparta .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_Theatre", "rank": 64, "score": 88128 }, { "content": "Title: Transit of Venus Content: A transit of Venus across the Sun takes place when the planet Venus passes directly between the Sun and a superior planet , becoming visible against ( and hence obscuring a small portion of ) the solar disk . During a transit , Venus can be seen from Earth as a small black disk moving across the face of the Sun . The duration of such transits is usually measured in hours ( the transit of 2012 lasted 6 hours and 40 minutes ) . A transit is similar to a solar eclipse by the Moon . While the diameter of Venus is more than 3 times that of the Moon , Venus appears smaller , and travels more slowly across the face of the Sun , because it is much farther away from Earth . Transits of Venus are among the rarest of predictable astronomical phenomena . They occur in a pattern that generally repeats every 243 years , with pairs of transits eight years apart separated by long gaps of 121.5 years and 105.5 years . The periodicity is a reflection of the fact that the orbital periods of Earth and Venus are close to 8:13 and 243:395 commensurabilities . The last transit of Venus was on 5 and 6 June 2012 , and was the last Venus transit of the 21st century ; the prior transit took place on 8 June 2004 . The previous pair of transits were in December 1874 and December 1882 . The next transits of Venus will be on 10 -- 11 December 2117 , and 8 December 2125 . Venus transits are historically of great scientific importance as they were used to gain the first realistic estimates of the size of the Solar System . Observations of the 1639 transit , combined with the principle of parallax , provided an estimate of the distance between the Sun and the Earth that was more accurate than any other up to that time . The 2012 transit provided scientists with a number of other research opportunities , particularly in the refinement of techniques to be used in the search for exoplanets .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Transit_of_Venus", "rank": 65, "score": 87906 }, { "content": "Title: Venus, West Virginia Content: Venus is an unincorporated community in McDowell County , West Virginia .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus,_West_Virginia", "rank": 66, "score": 87890 }, { "content": "Title: Venus (film) Content: Venus is a 2006 British comedy-drama film starring Peter O'Toole , Leslie Phillips , Vanessa Redgrave and Jodie Whittaker . It is directed by Roger Michell and written by Hanif Kureishi . The film premiered at the Telluride Film Festival and was put on limited release in the United States on 21 December 2006 .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_(film)", "rank": 67, "score": 87826 }, { "content": "Title: Venus, Nebraska Content: Venus is an unincorporated community in Knox County , Nebraska , in the United States .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus,_Nebraska", "rank": 68, "score": 87763 }, { "content": "Title: Venus, Missouri Content: Venus is an unincorporated community in Maries County , in the U.S. state of Missouri .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus,_Missouri", "rank": 69, "score": 87716 }, { "content": "Title: French frigate Vénus (1808) Content: The Vénus was a of the French Navy . She was captured in 1810 by the Royal Navy and taken into British service as HMS Nereide . She was broken up in 1816 .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "French_frigate_Vénus_(1808)", "rank": 70, "score": 87508 }, { "content": "Title: Venus (Belgian band) Content: Venus was a band created in 1997 by five artists hailing from Brussels , Belgium . The original goal of the band was to create an original sound that expressed different emotions through several instruments including guitar , violin , double bass , organ , percussion , synth , and a host of others . Also using the scenography talents of former member Patric Carpentier to create visual emotion through their live performances . They have had success with releases Beautiful Days and Wanda Wultz from their Capitol record label release in 2003 , Vertigone . The single Beautiful Days was also a track featured in the film Immortel , which is based on the popular futuristic and Ancient Egyptian styled Enki Bilal comic series . The band 's name is in reference to and inspired by the Velvet Underground track , Venus in furs .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_(Belgian_band)", "rank": 71, "score": 87494 }, { "content": "Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Anti-greenhouse_effect", "rank": 72, "score": 87376 }, { "content": "Title: Venus (Lady Gaga song) Content: `` Venus '' is a song recorded by American singer Lady Gaga for her third studio album , Artpop ( 2013 ) . It was written and produced by Gaga , along with other songwriters including : Paul `` DJ White Shadow '' Blair , Madeon , Dino Zisis , Nick Monson , and Sun Ra . The recording includes a sample from the French electropop duo Zombie Zombie 's cover of Sun Ra 's song `` Rocket Number 9 '' , from his studio album , Interstellar Low Ways ( 1966 ) ; Sun Ra received a co-writing credit on the track . Originally intended to be the second single from the album , it was released as the first promotional single from Artpop on October 28 , 2013 , to the iTunes Store , following the positive reception of `` Do What U Want '' , which was planned to be a promotional single only . `` Venus '' is a dance-pop song with four hooks , and references Sandro Botticelli 's painting The Birth of Venus . Gaga worked on the song with Madeon and was inspired by a number of things , chief among them were : Venus , the Roman goddess of love , the eponymous planet , as well as having sexual intercourse . Lyrically it also name-checks the planets in the solar system . Three accompanying artworks were designed for the single by Steven Klein , including one with a scorpion attached to Gaga 's head , a picture of a dead bat , and a third showing her standing naked with an open clam shell superimposed above her shoulder and covering her lower face . A music video was initially conceived for the song , but never materialized . The track was later used during a sequence in the music video for Artpops third single , `` G.U.Y. '' instead . Upon its release , `` Venus '' received mixed reviews from music critics . They called the song catchy , but had mixed feelings towards the lyrics , and preferred the previously released `` Do What U Want '' . It achieved moderate success on charts around the world , reaching the top of the charts in Hungary and Spain , and the top ten in France and Italy . The song debuted and peaked at number 32 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . Gaga performed the track on the tenth series of The X Factor ( UK ) , along with a suggestive performance of `` Do What U Want '' , which prompted complaints to the broadcaster and British media regulator , Ofcom . Other notable performances occurred at The Graham Norton Show , ArtRave promotional event , and Gaga 's ArtRave : The Artpop Ball tour in 2014 .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_(Lady_Gaga_song)", "rank": 73, "score": 87336 }, { "content": "Title: Hotbed Content: A hotbed is a biological term for an area of decaying organic matter that is warmer than its surroundings . The heat gradient is generated by the decomposition of organic substituents within the pile by microorganism metabolization . A hotbed covered with a small glass cover ( also called a hotbox ) is used as a small version of a hothouse ( heated greenhouse ) . Oftentimes , this bed is made of manure from animals such as horses . These animals pass undigested plant cellulose in their droppings , creating a good environment for microorganisms to come and break down the cellulose and create a hotbed . Some egg-laying animals , such as the brush turkey , make or use hotbeds to incubate their eggs . By extension , the term hotbed is used metaphorically to describe an environment that is ideal for the growth or development of something , especially of something undesirable .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Hotbed", "rank": 74, "score": 87270 }, { "content": "Title: Venus Lake Content: Venus Lake ( also called Lake Kechewaishke or Kechewaishke Lake ) is a small mesotrophic rural lake in Oneida County in northern Wisconsin in the United States , at the intersection of U.S. Route 45 and U.S. Route 8 , about 4 mi north of Pelican Lake and adjacent to the small settlement of Monico . The slightly smaller Mars Lake and the somewhat larger Neptune Lake are nearby , to the northwest . Venus Lake is 64 acre in area with a maximum depth of 21 ft. Venus Lake is used for fishing . Panfish species include Largemouth Bass and Northern Pike , and Walleye and Bluegill . Rusty Crayfish , a rapidly expanding invasive species , are present in the lake . There is no boat ramp .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_Lake", "rank": 75, "score": 87087 }, { "content": "Title: Alpha Regio Content: Alpha Regio is a region of the planet Venus extending for about 1500 kilometers centered at 22 ° S , 5 ° E. It was discovered and named by Dick Goldstein in 1964 . The name was approved by the International Astronomical Union 's Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature ( IAU/WGPSN ) between 1976 and 1979 . Maxwell Montes , Alpha Regio , and Beta Regio are the three exceptions to the rule that the surface features of Venus are to be named for females : women or goddesses . The surface of the region is what is known as Tessera , meaning a terrain that has been highly deformed and where the deformation strikes in multiple directions and is closely spaced . The term comes from the Greek word for `` tiled '' ( Russian investigators analyzing Venera 15 and Venera 16 imagery thought this terrain looked like a parquet floor ) . Like all tessera regions , it sits above the surrounding terrain at an elevation of 1 to 2 kilometers , and is heavily deformed by what appears to be contractional folding . Like most tessera units , the surrounding volcanic plains appear to have flowed around Alpha 's margins and thus are younger than Alpha . An infrared map prepared by the Venus Express orbiter shows that the rocks on the Alpha Regio plateau are lighter in colour and look old compared to the majority of the planet . On Earth , such light-coloured rocks are usually granite and form continents .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Alpha_Regio", "rank": 76, "score": 87060 }, { "content": "Title: Swedish frigate Venus (1783) Content: Venus was a Swedish frigate , designed by Fredrik Henrik af Chapman . Venus was captured by the Russians in 1789 in Oslofjord . The frigate retained the same name in Imperial Russian service until 1807 , when she was sold to the Kingdom of Naples .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Swedish_frigate_Venus_(1783)", "rank": 77, "score": 86962 }, { "content": "Title: French submarine Vénus (Q187) Content: Vénus ( Q187 ) was a of the French Navy , commissioned in 1936 , and scuttled at Toulon in November 1942 .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "French_submarine_Vénus_(Q187)", "rank": 78, "score": 86948 }, { "content": "Title: Irnini Mons Content: Irnini Mons is a volcanic structure on the planet Venus , and is named after the Assyro-Babylonian goddess of cedar-tree mountains . It has a diameter of 475 km , a height of 1.75 km , and is located in Venus ' northern hemisphere . More specifically , it is located in the central Eistla Regio region at in the V-20 quadrangle . Sappho Patera , a 225 km diameter wide , caldera-like , depression tops the summit of Irnini Mons . The primary structural features surrounding Irnini Mons are graben , seen as linear depressed sections of rock , radiating from the central magma chamber . Also , concentric , circular ridges and graben outline the Sappho Patera depression at the summit . The volcano is crossed by various rift zones , including the north-south trending Badb Linea rift , the Guor Linea rift extending to the northwest , and the Virtus Linea rift continuing to the southeast . The combination of volcanic-tectonic structures around Irnini Mons supports varying intensities of deformation and a multi-directional stress history . Although classified as a shield volcano , Irnini Mons contains many elements of the Venusian coronae , bringing speculation to its formation . If Irnini Mons was originally a corona , a shallow oval-shaped depression , it would support a thin lithosphere on Venus . On the other hand , it being a shield volcano supports the theory of a thicker lithosphere and Irnini Mons ' stress history could be summarized simply as a transition from predominantly compressive forces to extensional relaxation , resulting in the observed radiating graben and concentric ridges . Irnini Mons is a significant structural feature on Venus because the preservation of the geology allows for the analysis of Venus ' regional stress orientation in response to a pressurized magma chamber over time .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Irnini_Mons", "rank": 79, "score": 86946 }, { "content": "Title: USS Venus (AK-135) Content: USS Venus ( AK-135 ) was a in the service of the United States Navy in World War II . Originally liberty ship SS William Williams , named after William Williams , a signer of the Declaration of Independence , it was taken over by the Navy after being damaged in a torpedo attack and renamed after the planet Venus . It was the only ship of the Navy to bear this name .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "USS_Venus_(AK-135)", "rank": 80, "score": 86894 }, { "content": "Title: Venus Fashion Content: In 1984 , Daryle Scott created Venus Body Wear , an American clothing and swimsuit retailer , selling ladies ' leotards and exercise apparel via full-page ads in Cosmopolitan and other national magazines . A year later , the company expanded to include women 's swimwear and became known as Venus Swimwear . In 1999 , Venus acquired WinterSilks , a large importer of silk fashions . In 2000 , reflecting the expanded offerings , the company name changed to Venus . In November 2006 , Venus , Venus Manufacturing , and WinterSilks , were acquired 80 % by Golden Gate Capital , under their Catalog Holdings Group . The three companies fell under a new , united company name , Venus Holdings , LLC . In 2009 , Venus Holdings was acquired by the German catalog company Bon Prix , a subsidiary of Otto .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_Fashion", "rank": 81, "score": 86883 }, { "content": "Title: Venus Bay (New Zealand) Content: Venus Bay is located on Perseverance Harbour on New Zealand 's subantarctic Campbell Island . It was named for an 1874 French astronomical expedition to view the Transit of Venus , which set up camp at the site . As a result of the expedition , many of Campbell island 's lanforms have French names , including Mount Fizeau and Mount Dumas .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_Bay_(New_Zealand)", "rank": 82, "score": 86849 }, { "content": "Title: Mapping of Venus Content: The mapping of Venus refers to the process and results of human description of the geological features of the planet Venus . It involves surface radar images of Venus , construction of geological maps , and the identification of stratigraphic units , volumes of rock with a similar age . Satellite radar provides imagery of the surface morphology by using the physical properties of wave reflection . Long wavelength microwaves are used to penetrate the thick , cloudy atmosphere of Venus and reach to the surface . Different surface features reflect waves with different strengths of signal , producing images from which the maps are constructed . After collection of the images of the Venusian surface , scientists started to map and identify different geologic materials and units according to distinctive surface features . Different groups of scientists analysed different mapping areas , schemes and interpretation of features observed , to produce a classification of the units and comparison of their mapping .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Mapping_of_Venus", "rank": 83, "score": 86848 }, { "content": "Title: French frigate Vénus (1782) Content: Vénus was a 38-gun of the French Navy . In the summer of 1782 , Vénus operated as a transport between Rochefort and Île de Ré . She served in Martinique during the American War of Independence . From 1785 to 1788 , Vénus undertook a scientific expedition in the Indian Ocean , under Captain de Rossily . Vénus was wrecked in a storm on her way back to France , on 31 December 1788", "qid": "3003", "docid": "French_frigate_Vénus_(1782)", "rank": 84, "score": 86793 }, { "content": "Title: Venus, Chennai Content: Venus , is a small neighbourhood of Perambur and a commercial area in North Chennai , a metropolitan city in Tamil Nadu , India . The small area around erstwhile Venus Theatre is called Venus unofficially by the people around Perambur . The erstwhile Venus theatre is demolished and constructed a new mall namely Spectrum Mall which has a five screen multiplex called S2 Cinemas which is controlled by theater franchise SPI Cinemas . The mall is developed and promoted by Ganga Foundations .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus,_Chennai", "rank": 85, "score": 86694 }, { "content": "Title: Hottah (Mars) Content: Hottah is a rock outcrop on the surface of Aeolis Palus , between Peace Vallis and Aeolis Mons ( `` Mount Sharp '' ) , in Gale crater on the planet Mars . The outcrop was encountered by the Curiosity rover on the way from Bradbury Landing to Glenelg Intrique on September 14 , 2012 ( the 39th sol of the mission ) , and was named after Hottah Lake , the sixth largest lake in the Northwest Territories , Canada . The `` approximate '' site coordinates are : . The outcrop is a well-sorted gravel conglomerate , containing well-rounded , smooth , abraded pebbles . Occasional pebbles up to a few centimeters across are embedded in amongst a matrix of finer rounded particles , up to a centimeter across . It has been interpreted as a fluvial sediment , deposited by a vigorously flowing stream , probably between ankle and waist deep . This stream is part of an ancient alluvial fan , which descends from the steep terrain at the rim of Gale crater across its floor .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Hottah_(Mars)", "rank": 86, "score": 86598 }, { "content": "Title: Squier Venus Content: The Squier Venus ( commonly known as Fender Vista Venus ) is a signature series guitar released in 1997 and co-designed by Courtney Love in conjunction with Fender 's Squier brand , under the Vista series . At the time of its release , Love and Bonnie Raitt were the only two female musicians to have their own signature series of guitars . Its shape was based on Mercury , Stratocaster and Rickenbacker solidbody guitars . It was released in two configurations , six or twelve string ( the Venus XII ) . Colors available included black , sunburst and surf green . Surf green was named after paint code # 57 ( surf green ) from Chevrolet c. 1957 . Upon its original release , the Venus retailed for USD $ 699.99 and the Venus XII for $ 999.99 . It was discontinued at the end of 1998 .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Squier_Venus", "rank": 87, "score": 86590 }, { "content": "Title: Blonde Venus Content: Blonde Venus is a 1932 American Pre-Code drama film starring Marlene Dietrich , Herbert Marshall , and Cary Grant . The movie was produced and directed for Paramount Pictures by Josef von Sternberg from a screenplay by Jules Furthman and S. K. Lauren adapted from a story by Furthman and von Sternberg . The original story `` Mother Love '' was written by Dietrich herself . The musical score was by W. Franke Harling , John Leipold , Paul Marquardt and Oscar Potoker , with cinematography by Bert Glennon . Dietrich performs three musical numbers in this film , including the now-obscure `` You Little So-and-So '' ( music and lyrics by Sam Coslow and Leo Robin ) and `` I Could n't Be Annoyed '' ( music and lyrics by Leo Robin and Richard A. Whiting ) . The highlight is the infamous `` Hot Voodoo '' ( music by Ralph Rainger , lyrics by Sam Coslow ) , which is nearly 8 minutes in length and mostly instrumental , featuring jazz trumpet and drums . Dietrich sings the lyrics toward the end of this sequence , which takes place in a nightclub .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Blonde_Venus", "rank": 88, "score": 86543 }, { "content": "Title: Venus (typeface) Content: Venus or Venus-Grotesk is a sans-serif typeface released by the Bauer Type Foundry of Frankfurt am Main , Germany from 1907 onwards . It was very popular in the early-to-mid twentieth century , particularly in Germany ; it was also imported to other countries such as the United States . Like other `` grotesque '' typefaces of the period such as Akzidenz-Grotesk of the Berthold Type Foundry , Venus has a minimal , ` neutral ' design , with a monoline structure and an absence of flourishes . Walter Tracy however describes it as carrying the influence of Art Nouveau and Secessionist lettering in some of its capitals which have a high waistline , such as the ` R ' , ` G ' and ` E ' . The x-height is relatively low , suitable for body text , and the ` g ' single-storey . Compared to many later sans-serifs it has a more irregular design , with stroke terminals at a variety of angles rather than mostly exactly horizontal or vertical . A prominent use of it was Jan Tschichold 's second book , Eine Stunde Druckgestaltung , ( 1930 ) , which used it for body text . It was also used in other avant-garde printing of the period . Monotype 's Monotype Grotesque , created for their hot metal typesetting system , was reportedly loosely based on it . A number of digitisations have been released based on some styles of the family .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_(typeface)", "rank": 89, "score": 86488 }, { "content": "Title: Venus (comic book) Content: Venus is an American romance comic book published by Marvel Comics in the United States . Running for 19 issues from 1948 until 1952 it transformed over its run from its romance led stories to finish as a science fiction and horror anthology . It is noted for introducing the Marvel character Venus and an early incarnation of Loki who would later become the nemesis of Marvel character Thor . The final three issues were published through Atlas Comics .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_(comic_book)", "rank": 90, "score": 86414 }, { "content": "Title: Mars/Venus Content: Mars/Venus is the first and only album by duo Koffee Brown , released on March 6 , 2001 through Arista Records . The album , which featured production from Kay Gee and Darren Lighty , managed to chart in the top 40 on the U.S. Billboard 200 , peaking at 32 , though it found greater success on the Billboard 's Top R&B / Hip-Hop Albums , where it peaked at 7 . The album 's lead single `` After Party '' also found success on the U.S. charts , peaking at 44 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Despite finding some success , Koffee Brown disbanded shortly after the album 's release .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Mars/Venus", "rank": 91, "score": 86406 }, { "content": "Title: Venus (1932 film) Content: Venus ( Italian : Venere ) is a 1932 Italian film directed by Nicola Fausto Neroni and starring Ellen Meis , Maurizio D'Ancora and Evelina Paoli .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_(1932_film)", "rank": 92, "score": 86370 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway Baby Content: `` Runaway Baby '' is a song by American singer and songwriter Bruno Mars for his debut studio album Doo-Wops & Hooligans ( 2010 ) . It was written by Mars , Philip Lawrence , and Ari Levine , who produced the track under their alias The Smeezingtons , along with Brody Brown . `` Runaway Baby '' is a funk , soul , bubblegum R&B and pop rock record . Its lyrics detail a playboy who is willing to break every woman 's heart regardless of their feelings . Instrumentally , the track relies on finger snaps , police sirens , hand claps and raspy guitarlines . Upon its release , `` Runaway Baby '' received mixed reviews from music critics , who praised that it was different from the other recordings in the album , but was criticized for its explicit lyrical content , which include a comparison between Mars ' penis and a carrot . The song debuted and peaked at number 19 on the UK Singles Chart , after the The X Factor performance and it peaked at number 35 and 50 in New Zealand and on Billboard Hot 100 , respectively . It was and certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . The singer performed `` Runaway Baby '' at the 54th Annual Grammy Awards and at the Super Bowl XLVIII halftime show . The performances , which include an extra break with a James Brown dance and singing through a megaphone . Mars performed `` Runaway Baby '' on The Doo-Wops & Hooligans Tour ( 2010 -- 12 ) , the Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 -- 14 ) and on the 24K Magic World Tour ( 2017-18 ) .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Runaway_Baby", "rank": 93, "score": 86346 }, { "content": "Title: CuisinArt Resort and Spa Content: CuisinArt Resort and Spa is a five-star resort hotel in Rendezvous Beach , Anguilla . The resort is inspired by the Greek island of Mykonos . It contains wicker furniture and Haitian paintings on the walls . The formal evening restaurant of the hotel is Santorini and the informal Meditarraneo bar is by the pool . Its Venus Spa contains 16 treatment rooms and a heated Thalasso pool of seawater . The resort contains a notable hydroponic farm which is said to offer an opportunity for excellent practical training for students completing their degree or technical diploma program . It contains greenhouses covering some 18,000 square feet , manufactured by Agra Tech , Inc and two ponds which are used to grow bibb lettuce .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "CuisinArt_Resort_and_Spa", "rank": 94, "score": 86279 }, { "content": "Title: Microsoft Venus Content: Microsoft Venus was an aborted venture by Microsoft into the low-end personal computing market in the People 's Republic of China . The product , a set-top operating system designed to work with low-end televisions ( somewhat similar to MSN TV in the United States ) , was announced by then-Microsoft chairman Bill Gates on March 10 , 1999 in Shenzhen , and was to be made available by January 2000 ; it never made it out of Microsoft 's lab however , slowly dying less than a year after its announcement .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Microsoft_Venus", "rank": 95, "score": 86253 }, { "content": "Title: Planetary equilibrium temperature Content: The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Planetary_equilibrium_temperature", "rank": 96, "score": 86171 }, { "content": "Title: French corvette Vénus (1794) Content: Vénus was a corvette of the French Navy that the British captured in 1800 . French sources refer to her as a corvette of 28-guns , however in British service she was classified as a sloop . Renamed HMS Scout , she served briefly in the Channel before being wrecked in 1801 , a few days after taking a major prize .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "French_corvette_Vénus_(1794)", "rank": 97, "score": 85812 }, { "content": "Title: Guinevere Planitia Content: Guinevere Planitia is an expansive lowland region of Venus that lies east of Beta Regio and west of Eistla Regio ( quadrangle V-30 ) . These low-lying plains , particularly in the western portion , are characterized by apparent volcanic source vents and broad regions of bright , dark , and mottled deposits . They are the only break in an equatorially connected zone of highlands and tectonic zones . The types , numbers , and patterns of mapped tectonic features and small volcanic landforms in the region provide important detail in the interpretation and evolution of venusian landscape . By using Pioneer Venus , Goldstone , and Arecibo data , these regions have been interpreted as widespread superposed flows that originated from the source vents . Fracture zones and lineament belt segments that have been identified are said to represent the Beta-Eistla deformation zones of the region . Magellan SAR images have revealed that most of these surface units are composed of volcanic land forms . There is also Seymour crater that is associated with extensive crater outflow deposits .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Guinevere_Planitia", "rank": 98, "score": 85779 }, { "content": "Title: Venus (mythology) Content: Venus ( -LSB- ` vi : nəs -RSB- , Classical Latin : -LSB- ˈwɛnʊs -RSB- ) is the Roman goddess whose functions encompassed love , beauty , desire , sex , fertility , prosperity and victory . In Roman mythology , she was the mother of the Roman people through her son , Aeneas , who survived the fall of Troy and fled to Italy . Julius Caesar claimed her as his ancestor . Venus was central to many religious festivals , and was revered in Roman religion under numerous cult titles . The Romans adapted the myths and iconography of her Greek counterpart Aphrodite for Roman art and Latin literature . In the later classical tradition of the West , Venus becomes one of the most widely referenced deities of Greco-Roman mythology as the embodiment of love and sexuality .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Venus_(mythology)", "rank": 99, "score": 85772 }, { "content": "Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .", "qid": "3003", "docid": "Living_in_the_Hothouse", "rank": 100, "score": 85760 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Great conjunction Content: A Great Conjunction is a conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn . The last Great Conjunction took place on May 31 , 2000 , while the next one will be in late December 2020 . Great Conjunctions take place regularly , every 18 -- 20 years , as a result of the combined ~ 12-year orbital period of Jupiter around the Sun , and Saturn 's ~ 30-year orbital period . The 2000 conjunction fell within mere weeks after both had passed conjunction with the Sun , and it was very difficult to observe without visual aid because the two planets rose only 30 -- 45 minutes before sunrise , depending upon the location of the observer .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Great_conjunction", "rank": 1, "score": 155566 }, { "content": "Title: Mercury (planet) Content: Mercury is the smallest and innermost planet in the Solar System . Its orbital period around the Sun of 88 days is the shortest of all the planets in the Solar System . It is named after the Roman deity Mercury , the messenger to the gods . Like Venus , Mercury orbits the Sun within Earth 's orbit as an inferior planet , so it can only be seen visually in the morning or the evening sky , and never exceeds 28 ° away from the Sun . Also , like Venus and the Moon , the planet displays the complete range of phases as it moves around its orbit relative to Earth . Seen from Earth , this cycle of phases reoccurs approximately every 116 days , the so-called synodic period . Although Mercury can appear as a bright star-like object when viewed from Earth , its proximity to the Sun often makes it more difficult to see than Venus . Mercury is tidally or gravitationally locked with the Sun in a 3:2 resonance , and rotates in a way that is unique in the Solar System . As seen relative to the fixed stars , it rotates on its axis exactly three times for every two revolutions it makes around the Sun . As seen from the Sun , in a frame of reference that rotates with the orbital motion , it appears to rotate only once every two Mercurian years . An observer on Mercury would therefore see only one day every two years . Mercury 's axis has the smallest tilt of any of the Solar System 's planets ( about degree ) , and its orbital eccentricity is the largest of all known planets in the Solar System . At aphelion , Mercury is about 1.5 times as far from the Sun as it is at perihelion . Mercury 's surface appears heavily cratered and is similar in appearance to the Moon 's , indicating that it has been geologically inactive for billions of years . Having almost no atmosphere to retain heat , it has surface temperatures that vary diurnally more than on any other planet in the Solar System , ranging from 100 K at night to 700 K during the day across the equatorial regions . The polar regions are constantly below 180 K . The planet has no known natural satellites . Two spacecraft have visited Mercury : flew by in 1974 and 1975 ; and MESSENGER , launched in 2004 , orbited Mercury over 4,000 times in four years before exhausting its fuel and crashing into the planet 's surface on April 30 , 2015 .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Mercury_(planet)", "rank": 2, "score": 146728 }, { "content": "Title: Tidal heating Content: Tidal heating ( also known as tidal working or tidal flexing ) occurs through the tidal friction processes : orbital and rotational energy are dissipated as heat in either the surface ocean or interior of a planet or satellite . Io , a moon of Jupiter , is the most volcanically active body in the solar system , evidenced by active volcanos and no impact craters surviving on its surface . Io 's heating is a result of the tug between Jupiter and the other Galilean moons . The eccentricity of Io 's orbit ( a consequence of its participation in a Laplace resonance ) causes the height of Io 's tidal bulge to vary significantly ( by up to 100 m ) over the course of an orbit ; the friction from this tidal flexing then heats up its interior . A similar but weaker process is theorised to have melted the lower layers of the ice surrounding the rocky mantle of Jupiter 's next large moon , Europa . Saturn 's moon Enceladus is similarly thought to have a liquid water ocean beneath its icy crust . The water vapor geysers which eject material from Enceladus are thought to be powered by friction generated within this moon 's shifting ice crust . The total amount of tidal heating in a satellite that is spin-synchronous and has an eccentric orbit is given by : where , , and are respectively the satellite 's mean radius , mean orbital motion , and eccentricity . is the imaginary portion of the second order Love number which measures the efficiency of body dissipation within the satellite . This imaginary portion is a function of the satellite 's bulk shear modulus and viscosity . These in turn are dependent upon temperature and melting of the satellite 's interior .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Tidal_heating", "rank": 3, "score": 146554 }, { "content": "Title: 160-minute solar cycle Content: The 160-minute solar cycle was an apparent periodic oscillation in the solar surface which was observed in a number of early sets of data collected for helioseismology . The presence of a 160 minute cycle in the Sun is not substantiated by contemporary solar observations , and the historical signal is considered by mainstream scientists to occur as the redistribution of power from the diurnal cycle as a result of the observation window and atmospheric extinction .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "160-minute_solar_cycle", "rank": 4, "score": 143111 }, { "content": "Title: Magnetosphere of Jupiter Content: The magnetosphere of Jupiter is the cavity created in the solar wind by the planet 's magnetic field . Extending up to seven million kilometers in the Sun 's direction and almost to the orbit of Saturn in the opposite direction , Jupiter 's magnetosphere is the largest and most powerful of any planetary magnetosphere in the Solar System , and by volume the largest known continuous structure in the Solar System after the heliosphere . Wider and flatter than the Earth 's magnetosphere , Jupiter 's is stronger by an order of magnitude , while its magnetic moment is roughly 18,000 times larger . The existence of Jupiter 's magnetic field was first inferred from observations of radio emissions at the end of the 1950s and was directly observed by the Pioneer 10 spacecraft in 1973 . Jupiter 's internal magnetic field is generated by electrical currents in the planet 's outer core , which is composed of liquid metallic hydrogen . Volcanic eruptions on Jupiter 's moon Io eject large amounts of sulfur dioxide gas into space , forming a large torus around the planet . Jupiter 's magnetic field forces the torus to rotate with the same angular velocity and direction as the planet . The torus in turn loads the magnetic field with plasma , in the process stretching it into a pancake-like structure called a magnetodisk . In effect , Jupiter 's magnetosphere is shaped by Io 's plasma and its own rotation , rather than by the solar wind like Earth 's magnetosphere . Strong currents in the magnetosphere generate permanent aurorae around the planet 's poles and intense variable radio emissions , which means that Jupiter can be thought of as a very weak radio pulsar . Jupiter 's aurorae have been observed in almost all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum , including infrared , visible , ultraviolet and soft X-rays . The action of the magnetosphere traps and accelerates particles , producing intense belts of radiation similar to Earth 's Van Allen belts , but thousands of times stronger . The interaction of energetic particles with the surfaces of Jupiter 's largest moons markedly affects their chemical and physical properties . Those same particles also affect and are affected by the motions of the particles within Jupiter 's tenuous planetary ring system . Radiation belts present a significant hazard for spacecraft and potentially to human space travellers .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Magnetosphere_of_Jupiter", "rank": 5, "score": 138632 }, { "content": "Title: Jupiter Content: Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System . It is a giant planet with a mass one-thousandth that of the Sun , but two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined . Jupiter and Saturn are gas giants ; the other two giant planets , Uranus and Neptune are ice giants . Jupiter has been known to astronomers since antiquity . The Romans named it after their god Jupiter . When viewed from Earth , Jupiter can reach an apparent magnitude of − 2.94 , bright enough for its reflected light to cast shadows , and making it on average the third-brightest object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus . Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen with a quarter of its mass being helium , though helium comprises only about a tenth of the number of molecules . It may also have a rocky core of heavier elements , but like the other giant planets , Jupiter lacks a well-defined solid surface . Because of its rapid rotation , the planet 's shape is that of an oblate spheroid ( it has a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator ) . The outer atmosphere is visibly segregated into several bands at different latitudes , resulting in turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries . A prominent result is the Great Red Spot , a giant storm that is known to have existed since at least the 17th century when it was first seen by telescope . Surrounding Jupiter is a faint planetary ring system and a powerful magnetosphere . Jupiter has at least 67 moons , including the four large Galilean moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610 . Ganymede , the largest of these , has a diameter greater than that of the planet Mercury . Jupiter has been explored on several occasions by robotic spacecraft , most notably during the early Pioneer and Voyager flyby missions and later by the Galileo orbiter . In late February 2007 , Jupiter was visited by the New Horizons probe , which used Jupiter 's gravity to increase its speed and bend its trajectory en route to Pluto . The latest probe to visit the planet is Juno , which entered into orbit around Jupiter on July 4 , 2016 . Future targets for exploration in the Jupiter system include the probable ice-covered liquid ocean of its moon Europa .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Jupiter", "rank": 6, "score": 137100 }, { "content": "Title: 2015 BZ509 Content: 2015 BZ509 is a retrograde co-orbital asteroid of Jupiter . The orbit of 2015 BZ509 is retrograde , or in the opposite direction of most Solar System objects . As of February 2017 its period was 11.65 years and its orbit had an eccentricity of 0.38 and an inclination of 163 degrees . Its period is close to the 11.86-year period of Jupiter . During one Jovian year , Jupiter moves 360 ° around the sun whereas 2015 BZ509 moves 366.3 ° in the opposite direction . The eccentricity of its orbit allows 2015 BZ509 to alternately pass inside and outside of Jupiter 's orbit at its closest approaches of 176 million kilometers . Each time it passes near Jupiter its orbital elements , including its period , are slightly altered . Over thousands of years the angle between the position of the asteroid and its perihelion minus the angle between Jupiter and the asteroid 's perihelion tends to oscillate around zero with a period of about 660 years and an amplitude of about 125 ° , although sometimes this difference slips by a whole 360 ° . Perturbations from Jupiter maintain the stability of this orbit over millions of years . Simulations show that it has been in its co-orbital relation with Jupiter for at least a million years and will continue for at least another million years . It is somewhat of a mystery how this asteroid ( or comet ) got into this orbit , but it is thought that at some time in the distant past it was put into an orbit resembling its present orbit by an interaction with Saturn , and then its orbit was perturbed into the state it is in today . Likewise , in the far future it may eventually get close enough to Saturn to be expelled from its present co-orbital relation with Jupiter .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "2015_BZ509", "rank": 7, "score": 136365 }, { "content": "Title: Orbital period Content: The orbital period is the time taken for a given object to make one complete orbit around another object , and applies in astronomy to mostly either planets or asteroids orbiting the Sun , moons orbiting planets , exoplanets orbiting other stars , or binary stars . For objects in the Solar System , this is often referred to as the sidereal period , determined by one 360 ° revolution of two planetary bodies , e.g. the Earth orbiting the Sun . The name sidereal is added as it implies that the alignment returns to the same place as projected in the sky by the stars . When describing orbits of binary stars , the orbital period is usually referred to as just the period . For example , Jupiter has a sidereal period of 11.86 years while the main binary star Alpha Centauri AB has a period of about 79.91 years . Another important orbital period definition can refer to the repeated cycles for celestial bodies as observed from the Earth 's surface . An example is the so-called synodic period , applying to the elapsed time where planets return to the same kind of phenomena or location . For example , when any planet returns between its consecutive observed conjunctions with or oppositions to the Sun . For example , Jupiter has a synodic period of 398.8 days from Earth ; thus , Jupiter 's opposition occurs once roughly every 13 months . Periods in astronomy are conveniently expressed in various units of time , often in hours , days , or years . They can be also defined under different specific astronomical definitions that are mostly caused by small complex eternal gravitational influences by other celestial objects . Such variations also include the true placement of the centre of gravity between two astronomical bodies ( barycenter ) , perturbations by other planets or bodies , orbital resonance , general relativity , etc. . Most are investigated by detailed complex astronomical theories using celestial mechanics using precise positional observations of celestial objects via astrometry .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Orbital_period", "rank": 8, "score": 135660 }, { "content": "Title: Tidal heating of Io Content: Tidal heating ( also known as tidal working ) occurs through the tidal friction processes : orbital and rotational energy are dissipated as heat in the crust of the moons and planets involved . Io has a similar mass and size as the Moon , but Io is the most geologically active body in the Solar System . This is caused by the heating mechanism of Io . The major heating source of Earth and its moon is radioactive heating , but the heating source on Io is tidal heating . As Jupiter is very massive , the side of Io nearest to Jupiter has a slightly larger gravitational pull than the opposite side . This difference in gravitational forces cause distortion of Io 's shape . Differently from the Earth 's only moon , Jupiter has several moons ( i.e. Io , Europa , Ganymede and Callisto ) . As Io is the innermost moon of Jupiter , Jupiter pulls Io inward and other moons pull Io outward . This causes Io 's orbit to be elliptical and eccentric . The distance between Jupiter and Io changes all the time and the distortion of Io likewise changes all the time . The constant change in the shape of Io results in a large amount of friction in the moon and the friction-induced heating drives strong volcanic activities on the surface of Io . Although there is general agreement that the cause of the heat as manifested in Io 's many volcanoes is tidal heating from the pull of gravity from Jupiter and its moon Europa , the volcanoes are not in the positions predicted with tidal heating . They are shifted 30 to 60 degrees to the East . A study published in 2015 , explains the eastern shift by an ocean of molten rock under the surface . The movement of this magma would generate extra heat . Liquids especially if they are sticky ( or viscous ) can produce heat through friction . The team who wrote the paper , believe that the subsurface ocean is a mixture of molten and solid rock . When the molten rock flows , it may swirl and rub against the surrounding rock , thus generating heat . Other moons in the Solar System undergo tidal heating , and they too may have more heat generated by this process , including heat from the movement of water . This ability to generate heat in a subsurface ocean increases the chance of life on bodies like Europa and Enceladus .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Tidal_heating_of_Io", "rank": 9, "score": 134121 }, { "content": "Title: Outer planets Content: The outer planets are those planets in the Solar System beyond the asteroid belt , and hence refers to the gas giants , which are in order of their distance from the Sun : Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System . It has four very large satellites ( moons ) . Saturn is the second-largest planet , with a large and bright ring system . Uranus is the third-largest planet and the least massive of the four outer planets . It is tilted almost onto the plane of its orbit . Neptune is the fourth-largest planet , as smallest of the four outer planets , but third-most massive . It has one big retrograde moon and many small ones . The outer planets all have ring systems , although all but Saturn 's are faint when viewed from Earth . Another aspect common to the gas giants is their many natural satellites ( moons ) , two of which are larger than the planet Mercury ( Jupiter 's Ganymede and Saturn 's Titan ) . That pair and Io , Callisto , Europa , and Triton , are larger than Pluto and Eris . This region of space is also occupied by centaurs , various fields of trojans , and many comets . Pluto was considered to be an outer planet from its discovery in 1930 until its reclassification as a dwarf planet in 2006 ( see also : Kuiper belt ) .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Outer_planets", "rank": 10, "score": 134063 }, { "content": "Title: Chinese zodiac Content: The Chinese zodiac is a classification scheme that assigns an animal and its reputed attributes to each year in a repeating 12-year cycle . The 12-year cycle is an approximation to the 11.86-year orbital period of Jupiter , the largest planet of the solar system . It and its variations remain popular in several East Asian countries including China , Vietnam , Burma , Korea , Japan , Mongolia , Nepal , Bhutan , Sri Lanka , Cambodia , Laos and Thailand as well as the Buddhist calendar .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Chinese_zodiac", "rank": 11, "score": 131822 }, { "content": "Title: Kruger 60 Content: Kruger 60 ( DO Cephei ) is a binary star system located 13.15 light-years from the Sun . These red dwarf stars orbit each other every 44.6 years . The larger , primary star is designated component A , while the secondary , smaller star is labeled component B. Component A has about 27 % of the Sun 's mass and 35 % of the Sun 's radius . Component B has about 18 % of the Sun 's mass and 24 % of the Sun 's radius . Component B is a flare star and has been given the variable star designation `` DO Cephei '' . It is an irregular flare that typically doubles in brightness and then returns to normal over an 8-minute period . On average , the two stars are separated by 9.5 AUs , which is roughly the average distance of Saturn from the Sun . However , their eccentric mutual orbit causes their distance to vary between 5.5 AUs at periastron , to 13.5 at apastron . This system is orbiting through the Milky Way at a distance from the core that varies from 7 -- 9 kpc with an orbital eccentricity of 0.126 -- 0.130 . The closest approach to the Sun will occur in about 88,600 years when this system will come within 1.95 parsecs .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Kruger_60", "rank": 12, "score": 128268 }, { "content": "Title: Long period tide Content: Long-Period tides are gravitational tides , typically with amplitudes of a few centimeters or less and periods longer than one day , generated by changes in the Earth 's orientation relative to the Sun , Moon , and Jupiter . The distance between a reference point on the surface of the Earth relative to these objects can be expressed as an infinite combination of periods and , as the distance changes , so does the tidal forcing . An analysis of the changing distance by Pierre-Simon de Laplace in the 18th century shows that these periods at which gravity varies cluster into three species , the semi-diurnal and diurnal tide constituents which have periods of a day or less , and the long period tidal constituents ( see also tide ) . Long period tidal constituents with relatively strong forcing include the lunar fortnightly ( Mf ) and monthly ( Ms ) as well as the solar semiannual ( Ssa ) and annual ( Sa ) constituents . In addition to having periods longer than a day-long period tidal forcing is distinguished from that of the first and second species by being zonally symmetric . The long period tides are also distinguished by the way in which the oceans respond . In contrast to the first and second species , the long period tidal forcings occur sufficiently slowly that they do not excite surface gravity waves . This property of exciting surface gravity waves is responsible for the high amplitude semi-diurnal tides in the Bay of Fundy , for example . In contrast , the ocean responds to long period tidal forcing with a combination of an equilibrium tidal response along with a possible excitation of barotropic Rossby wave normal modes", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Long_period_tide", "rank": 13, "score": 127337 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle (calendar) Content: The solar cycle is a 28-year cycle of the Julian calendar with respect to the week . It occurs because leap years occur every 4 years and there are 7 possible days to start a leap year , making a 28-year sequence . This cycle also occurs in the Gregorian calendar , but it is interrupted by years such as 1800 , 1900 , 2100 , 2200 , 2300 and 2500 , which are divisible by four but which are common years . This interruption has the effect of skipping 16 years of the solar cycle between February 28 and March 1 . Because the Gregorian cycle of 400 years has exactly 146,097 days , i.e. exactly 20,871 weeks , one can say that the Gregorian so-called solar cycle lasts 400 years . Calendar years are usually marked by Dominical letters indicating the first Sunday in a new year , thus the term solar cycle can also refer to a repeating sequence of Dominical letters . Unless a year is not a leap year due to Gregorian exceptions , a sequence of calendars is reused every 28 years . The name solar cycle comes from Sunday , the traditional first day of the week .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_cycle_(calendar)", "rank": 14, "score": 127127 }, { "content": "Title: List of Solar System objects Content: The following is a list of Solar System objects by orbit , ordered by increasing distance from the Sun . Most named objects in this list have a diameter of 500 km or more . The Sun , a spectral class G2V main-sequence star The inner Solar System and the terrestrial planets Mercury Mercury-crosser asteroids Venus Venus-crosser asteroids , Venus 's quasi-satellite Earth Moon Near-Earth asteroids ( including 99942 Apophis ) Earth trojan Earth-crosser asteroids Earth 's quasi-satellites Mars Deimos Phobos Mars trojans Mars-crosser asteroids Asteroids in the asteroid belt , between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter Ceres , a dwarf planet Pallas Vesta Hygiea Asteroids number in the hundreds of thousands . For longer lists , see list of notable asteroids , list of asteroids , or list of objects by mass . Asteroid moons A number of smaller groups distinct from the asteroid belt The outer Solar System with the giant planets , their satellites , trojan asteroids and some minor planets Jupiter Rings of Jupiter Complete list of Jupiter 's natural satellites Io Europa Ganymede Callisto Jupiter trojans Jupiter-crossing minor planets Saturn Rings of Saturn Complete list of Saturn 's natural satellites Mimas Enceladus Tethys ( trojans : Telesto and Calypso ) Dione ( trojans : Helene and Polydeuces ) Rhea Rings of Rhea Titan Hyperion Iapetus Phoebe Saturn-crossing minor planets Uranus Rings of Uranus Complete list of Uranus 's natural satellites Miranda Ariel Umbriel Titania Oberon Uranus trojan ( 2011 QF99 ) Uranus-crossing minor planets Neptune Rings of Neptune Complete list of Neptune 's natural satellites Proteus Triton Nereid Neptune trojans Neptune-crossing minor planets Non-trojan minor planets Centaurs Damocloids Trans-Neptunian objects ( beyond the orbit of Neptune ) Kuiper-belt objects ( KBOs ) Plutinos Pluto , a dwarf planet Complete list of Pluto 's natural satellites Charon 90482 Orcus Vanth Twotinos Cubewanos ( classical objects ) , a dwarf planet Namaka Hi'iaka 50000 Quaoar Weywot 120347 Salacia 20000 Varuna , a dwarf planet Scattered-disc objects Eris , a dwarf planet Dysnomia Detached objects 90377 Sedna ( possibly inner Oort cloud ) ( possibly inner Oort cloud ) Oort cloud ( hypothetical ) Hills cloud/inner Oort cloud Outer Oort cloud The Solar System also contains : Comets ( icy bodies with eccentric orbits ) List of periodic comets List of non-periodic comets Small objects , including : Meteoroids Interplanetary dust Helium focusing cone , around the Sun Human-made objects orbiting the Sun , Mercury , Venus , Earth , Mars , and Saturn , including active artificial satellites and space junk Heliosphere , a bubble in space produced by the solar wind Heliosheath Heliopause Hydrogen wall , a pile up of hydrogen from the interstellar medium", "qid": "3004", "docid": "List_of_Solar_System_objects", "rank": 15, "score": 127005 }, { "content": "Title: Saturn Content: Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System , after Jupiter . It is a gas giant with an average radius about nine times that of Earth . Although it has only one-eighth the average density of Earth , with its larger volume Saturn is just over 95 times more massive . Saturn is named after the Roman god of agriculture ; its astronomical symbol represents the god 's sickle . Saturn 's interior is probably composed of a core of iron -- nickel and rock ( silicon and oxygen compounds ) . This core is surrounded by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen , an intermediate layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium , and finally outside the Frenkel line a gaseous outer layer . Saturn has a pale yellow hue due to ammonia crystals in its upper atmosphere . Electrical current within the metallic hydrogen layer is thought to give rise to Saturn 's planetary magnetic field , which is weaker than Earth 's , but has a magnetic moment 580 times that of Earth due to Saturn 's larger size . Saturn 's magnetic field strength is around one-twentieth of Jupiter 's . The outer atmosphere is generally bland and lacking in contrast , although long-lived features can appear . Wind speeds on Saturn can reach 1800 km/h , higher than on Jupiter , but not as high as those on Neptune . Saturn has a prominent ring system that consists of nine continuous main rings and three discontinuous arcs and that is composed mostly of ice particles with a smaller amount of rocky debris and dust . Sixty-two moons are known to orbit Saturn , of which fifty-three are officially named . This does not include the hundreds of moonlets comprising the rings . Titan , Saturn 's largest moon , and the second-largest in the Solar System , is larger than the planet Mercury , although less massive , and is the only moon in the Solar System to have a substantial atmosphere .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Saturn", "rank": 16, "score": 126878 }, { "content": "Title: Small Mahzor Content: A Small Mahzor ( Hebrew מחזור , -LSB- maχˈzor -RSB- , meaning `` cycle '' ) is a 19-year cycle in the lunisolar calendar system used by the Jewish people . It is similar to , but slightly different in usage with , the Greek Metonic cycle . Because a tropical year is 365.24219879 days , and a synodic month is 29.53058868 days , the difference between nineteen solar years and 235 lunar months is only about two hours . Thus by adding seven intercalary months in nineteen years , the solar years and the lunar years basically synchronize . Three ancient civilizations ( Babylonia , China and Israel ) used lunisolar calendars and knew of the rule of the intercalation from as early as 2000 BC , about the time of the biblical Tower of Babel , the confusion of language , and dispersion of nations . Whether or not the correlation indicates cause-and-effect relationship is an open question . The Greek astronomer Meton in the fifth century BC discovered the same principle , and the western civilization named the cycle after him . The west later applied the Metonic cycle on the solar Roman years ( Julian and Gregorian years ) in the Era of the Lord ( Anno Domini ) , a.k.a. the Common Era . The golden number is the remaining number of dividing the year in the Common Era by nineteen , plus one . The Babylonians and the Israelites used Nisan-years , and the Jews used Tishri-years , their years were lunar in nature , different in length , and the beginning of the Jewish cycle is by making the day of creation according to the Rabbinical Chronology ( 3761 BC ) Thus the Golden Number value in the Small Mahzor is different from that in the Metonic cycle , although the principles are the same .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Small_Mahzor", "rank": 17, "score": 126651 }, { "content": "Title: Magnetosphere of Saturn Content: The magnetosphere of Saturn is the cavity created in the flow of the solar wind by the planet 's internally generated magnetic field . Discovered in 1979 by the Pioneer 11 spacecraft , Saturn 's magnetosphere is the second largest of any planet in the Solar System after Jupiter . The magnetopause , the boundary between Saturn 's magnetosphere and the solar wind , is located at a distance of about 20 Saturn radii from the planet 's center , while its magnetotail stretches hundreds of radii behind it . Saturn 's magnetosphere is filled with plasmas originating from both the planet and its moons . The main source is the small moon Enceladus , which ejects as much as 1,000 kg/s of water vapor from the geysers on its south pole , a portion of which is ionized and forced to co-rotate with the Saturn 's magnetic field . This loads the field with as much as 100 kg of water group ions per second . This plasma gradually moves out from the inner magnetosphere via the interchange instability mechanism and then escapes through the magnetotail . The interaction between Saturn 's magnetosphere and the solar wind generates bright oval aurorae around the planet 's poles observed in visible , infrared and ultraviolet light . The aurorae are related to the powerful saturnian kilometric radiation ( SKR ) , which spans the frequency interval between 100 kHz to 1300 kHz and was once thought to modulate with a period equal to the planet 's rotation . However , later measurements showed that the periodicity of the SKR 's modulation varies by as much as 1 % , and so probably does not exactly coincide with Saturn 's true rotational period , which as of 2010 remains unknown . Inside the magnetosphere there are radiation belts , which house particles with energy as high as tens of megaelectronvolts . The energetic particles have significant influence on the surfaces of inner icy moons of Saturn . In 1980 -- 1981 the magnetosphere of Saturn was studied by the Voyager spacecraft . As of 2010 it is a subject of the ongoing investigation by Cassini mission , which arrived in 2004 .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Magnetosphere_of_Saturn", "rank": 18, "score": 126624 }, { "content": "Title: Samvatsara Content: Samvatsara is a Sanskrit term for `` year '' . In the Hindu calendar , there are 60 Samvatsaras , each of which has a name . Once all 60 samvatsaras are over , the cycle starts over again . On occasion , one will be skipped , as the count is based on the zodiac position of Jupiter , whose period around the Sun is slightly less than 12 years ( the full cycle of 60 covers five Jovian years ) . The sixty Samvatsaras are divided into 3 groups of 20 Samvatsaras each . The first 20 from Prabhava to Vyaya are assigned to Brahma . The next 20 from Sarvajit to Parabhava to Vishnu and the last 20 to Shiva .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Samvatsara", "rank": 19, "score": 126014 }, { "content": "Title: WASP-18b Content: WASP-18b is an extrasolar planet that is notable for having an orbital period of less than one day . It has a mass equal to 10 Jupiter masses , just below the boundary line between planets and brown dwarfs , about 13 Jupiter masses . Due to tidal deceleration , it is expected to spiral towards and eventually merge with its host star , WASP-18 , in less than a million years . The planet is approximately 3.1 million kilometres ( 1.9 million miles ) from its star , which is about 325 light-years from Earth . It was discovered by a team led by Coel Hellier , a professor of astrophysics at Keele University in England . Scientists at Keele and at the University of Maryland are working to understand whether the discovery of this planet so shortly before its expected demise ( with less than 0.1 % of its lifetime remaining ) was fortuitous , or whether tidal dissipation by WASP-18 is actually much less efficient than astrophysicists typically assume . Observations made over the next decade should yield a measurement of the rate at which WASP-18b 's orbit is decaying . The closest example of a similar situation in the Solar System is Mars ' moon Phobos . Phobos orbits Mars at a distance of only about 9,000 km , 40 times closer than the Moon is to the Earth , and is expected to be destroyed in about eleven million years .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "WASP-18b", "rank": 20, "score": 125867 }, { "content": "Title: Solar System Content: The Solar SystemCapitalization of the name varies . The International Astronomical Union , the authoritative body regarding astronomical nomenclature , specifies capitalizing the names of all individual astronomical objects , but uses mixed `` Solar System '' and `` solar system '' in their naming guidelines document . The name is commonly rendered in lower case ( `` solar system '' ) , as , for example , in the Oxford English Dictionary and Merriam-Webster 's 11th Collegiate Dictionary . is the gravitationally bound system comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit it , either directly or indirectly.The natural satellites ( moons ) orbiting the Solar System 's planets are an example of the latter . Of those objects that orbit the Sun directly , the largest eight are the planets , Historically , several other bodies were once considered planets , including , from its discovery in 1930 until 2006 , Pluto . See Former planets . with the remainder being significantly smaller objects , such as dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies . Of the objects that orbit the Sun indirectly , the moons , two are larger than the smallest planet , Mercury.The two moons larger than Mercury are Ganymede , which orbits Jupiter , and Titan , which orbits Saturn . Although bigger than Mercury , both moons have less than half the mass of Mercury . The Solar System formed 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a giant interstellar molecular cloud . The vast majority of the system 's mass is in the Sun , with the majority of the remaining mass contained in Jupiter . The four smaller inner planets , Mercury , Venus , Earth and Mars , are terrestrial planets , being primarily composed of rock and metal . The four outer planets are giant planets , being substantially more massive than the terrestrials . The two largest , Jupiter and Saturn , are gas giants , being composed mainly of hydrogen and helium ; the two outermost planets , Uranus and Neptune , are ice giants , being composed mostly of substances with relatively high melting points compared with hydrogen and helium , called volatiles , such as water , ammonia and methane . All planets have almost circular orbits that lie within a nearly flat disc called the ecliptic . The Solar System also contains smaller objects . The asteroid belt , which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter , mostly contains objects composed , like the terrestrial planets , of rock and metal . Beyond Neptune 's orbit lie the Kuiper belt and scattered disc , which are populations of trans-Neptunian objects composed mostly of ices , and beyond them a newly discovered population of sednoids . Within these populations are several dozen to possibly tens of thousands of objects large enough that they have been rounded by their own gravity . Such objects are categorized as dwarf planets . Identified dwarf planets include the asteroid Ceres and the trans-Neptunian objects Pluto and Eris . In addition to these two regions , various other small-body populations , including comets , centaurs and interplanetary dust clouds , freely travel between regions . Six of the planets , at least four of the dwarf planets , and many of the smaller bodies are orbited by natural satellites , See List of natural satellites of the Solar System for the full list of natural satellites of the eight planets and first five dwarf planets usually termed `` moons '' after the Moon . Each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other small objects . The solar wind , a stream of charged particles flowing outwards from the Sun , creates a bubble-like region in the interstellar medium known as the heliosphere . The heliopause is the point at which pressure from the solar wind is equal to the opposing pressure of the interstellar medium ; it extends out to the edge of the scattered disc . The Oort cloud , which is thought to be the source for long-period comets , may also exist at a distance roughly a thousand times further than the heliosphere . The Solar System is located in the Orion Arm , 26,000 light-years from the center of the Milky Way .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_System", "rank": 21, "score": 125266 }, { "content": "Title: Octaeteris Content: In astronomy , an octaeteris ( plural : octaeterides ) is the period of eight solar years after which the moon phase occurs on the same day of the year plus one or two days . This period is also in a very good synchronicity with five Venusian visibility cycles ( the Venusian synodic period ) and thirteen Venusian revolutions around the sun ( Venusian sidereal period ) . This means , that if Venus is visible beside the moon , after eight years the two will be again close together near the same date of the calendar . The octaeteris , also known as oktaeteris , was noted by Cleostratus in ancient Greece as a 2923.5 day cycle . The 8 year short lunisolar cycle was probably known to many ancient cultures . The mathematical proportions of the octaeteris cycles were noted in Classic Vernal rock art in northeastern Utah by J. Q. Jacobs in 1990 . The Three Kings panel also contains more accurate ratios , ratios related to other planets , and apparent astronomical symbolism . The octaeteris is the calendar used for the Olympic games , every four years and the Greek use 50 months of one Olympiad , four year cycle and 49 lunarmonths for the next Olympiad . This octaeteris calendar exist in the Antikythera Mechanism and is used for the Olympic dial of this ancient automaton , to determine the time of the Olympic games and other Greek festivities .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Octaeteris", "rank": 22, "score": 124290 }, { "content": "Title: HD 209458 b Content: HD 209458 b ( sometimes unofficially called Osiris ) is an exoplanet that orbits the solar analog HD 209458 in the constellation Pegasus , some 150 light-years from the Solar System . The radius of the planet 's orbit is 7 million kilometres , about 0.047 astronomical units , or one eighth the radius of Mercury 's orbit . This small radius results in a year that is 3.5 Earth days long and an estimated surface temperature of about 1,000 ° C ( about 1,800 ° F ) . Its mass is 220 times that of Earth ( 0.69 Jupiter masses ) and its volume is some 2.5 times greater than that of Jupiter . The high mass and volume of HD 209458 b indicate that it is a gas giant . HD 209458 b represents a number of milestones in extraplanetary research . It was the first of many categories : a transiting extrasolar planet the first planet detected through more than one method an extrasolar planet known to have an atmosphere an extrasolar planet observed to have an evaporating hydrogen atmosphere an extrasolar planet found to have an atmosphere containing oxygen and carbon one of the first two extrasolar planets to be directly observed spectroscopically the first extrasolar gas giant to have its superstorm measured the first planet to have its orbital speed measured , determining its mass directly . Based on the application of new , theoretical models , as of April 2007 , it is alleged to be the first extrasolar planet found to have water vapor in its atmosphere . In July , 2014 , NASA announced finding very dry atmospheres on HD 209458 b and two other exoplanets ( HD 189733 b and WASP-12b ) orbiting Sun-like stars .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "HD_209458_b", "rank": 23, "score": 123931 }, { "content": "Title: C/2014 G3 Content: C/2014 G3 is a faint comet discovered on 10 April 2014 by Pan-STARRS which will pass near Jupiter 's gravitational field on 8 March 2016 at distance of 0.76 AU . The comet had about a 405-year orbital period before entering the planetary region of the Solar System . The comet will only brighten to around apparent magnitude 18 in 2015 , and will require a large amateur telescope with a CCD camera to be detected . After this passage the comet will have a 391-year orbital period .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "C/2014_G3", "rank": 24, "score": 123331 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle Content: The solar cycle or solar magnetic activity cycle is the nearly periodic 11-year change in the Sun 's activity ( including changes in the levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material ) and appearance ( changes in the number and size of sunspots , flares , and other manifestations ) . They have been observed ( by changes in the sun 's appearance and by changes seen on Earth , such as auroras ) for centuries . The changes on the sun cause effects in space , in the atmosphere , and on Earth 's surface . While it is the dominant variable in solar activity , aperiodic fluctuations also occur .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_cycle", "rank": 25, "score": 122317 }, { "content": "Title: Solar-like oscillations Content: Solar-like oscillations are oscillations in distant stars that are excited in the same way as those in the Sun , namely by turbulent convection in its outer layers . Stars that show solar-like oscillations are called solar-like oscillators . The oscillations are standing pressure and mixed pressure-gravity modes that are excited over a range in frequency , with the amplitudes roughly following a bell-shaped distribution . Unlike opacity-driven oscillators , all the modes in the frequency range are excited , making the oscillations relatively easy to identify . The surface convection also damps the modes , and each is well-approximated in frequency space by a Lorentzian curve , the width of which corresponds to the lifetime of the mode : the faster it decays , the broader is the Lorentzian . All stars with surface convection zones are expected to show solar-like oscillations , including cool main-sequence stars ( up to surface temperatures of about 7000K ) , subgiants and red giants . Because of the small amplitudes of the oscillations , their study has advanced tremendously thanks to space-based missions ( mainly COROT and Kepler ) . Solar-like oscillations have been used , among other things , to precisely determine the masses and radii of planet-hosting stars and thus improve the measurements of the planets ' masses and radii . In red giants , mixed modes are observed , which are in part directly sensitive to the core properties of the star . These have been used to distinguish red giants burning helium in their cores from those that are still only burning hydrogen in a shell , to show that the cores of red giants are rotating more slowly than models predict and to constrain the internal magnetic fields of the cores", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar-like_oscillations", "rank": 26, "score": 122063 }, { "content": "Title: HD 88133 b Content: HD 88133 b is an extrasolar planet orbiting the star HD 88133 . It is probably less massive than Jupiter and even Saturn . It orbits the star in a very tight orbit , completing one revolution around the star in every three and half days or so . Despite the relatively large radius of the star ( about 2 times Solar ) , no transits have been detected .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "HD_88133_b", "rank": 27, "score": 121852 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 113 Content: Saros cycle 113 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events . This cycle contained only partial and annular eclipses . The cycle began on July 22 , 586 in the Northern Hemisphere and ended on August 28 , 1848 in the Southern Hemisphere .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_113", "rank": 28, "score": 121003 }, { "content": "Title: Titan Saturn System Mission Content: Titan Saturn System Mission ( TSSM ) was a joint NASA -- ESA proposal for an exploration of Saturn and its moons Titan and Enceladus , where many complex phenomena were revealed by Cassini . With an estimated NASA cost of $ 2.5 billion ( FY07 ) , TSSM was proposed to launch in 2020 , get gravity assists from Earth and Venus , and arrive at the Saturn system in 2029 . The 4-year prime mission would include a two-year Saturn tour , a 2-month Titan aero-sampling phase , and a 20-month Titan orbit phase . In 2009 , a mission to Jupiter and its moons was given priority over Titan Saturn System Mission , although TSSM will continue to be studied for a later launch date .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Titan_Saturn_System_Mission", "rank": 29, "score": 120910 }, { "content": "Title: HD 169830 b Content: HD 169830 b is an extrasolar planet three times the mass of Jupiter . Due to its high mass , it is most likely a gas giant planet , akin to Jupiter and Saturn in the Solar System . This planet at 0.8 AU is slightly farther out than Venus is in the Solar System , orbiting around its star every 262 days .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "HD_169830_b", "rank": 30, "score": 120589 }, { "content": "Title: Discovery and exploration of the Solar System Content: Discovery and exploration of the Solar System is observation , visitation , and increase in knowledge and understanding of Earth 's `` cosmic neighborhood '' . This includes the Sun , Earth and the Moon , the major planets including Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune , their satellites , as well as smaller bodies including comets , asteroids , and dust .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Discovery_and_exploration_of_the_Solar_System", "rank": 31, "score": 120560 }, { "content": "Title: HD 60532 b Content: HD 60532 b is an extrasolar planet located approximately 84 light-years away in the constellation of Puppis , orbiting the star HD 60532 . This planet has a true mass of 3.15 times more than Jupiter which orbits at 0.77 AU and takes 201.83 days to revolve in an eccentric orbit . This planet was discovered on September 22 , 2008 in La Silla Observatory using the HARPS spectrograph . On this same day , the second planet in this system , HD 60532 c , was discovered in a 1:3 orbital resonance .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "HD_60532_b", "rank": 32, "score": 120394 }, { "content": "Title: 2013 AZ60 Content: is a small Solar System body ( extended centaur ) from the scattered disk or inner Oort cloud . has the 8th-largest semi-major axis of a minor planet not detected outgassing like a comet ( , and have a larger semi-major axis ) . came to perihelion in November 2014 at a distance of 7.9 AU from the Sun ( inside of the orbit of Saturn ) . With an absolute magnitude ( H ) of 10.2 , has an estimated diameter of 40 km . Comet Hale -- Bopp , which is roughly the same size , was not discovered until it was 7.2 AU from the Sun and had started outgassing CO. . may be discovered to be cometary as it comes to perihelion . It comes to opposition at the start of April . After leaving the planetary region of the Solar System , will have a barycentric aphelion of 828 AU with an orbital period of 8500 years . In a 10 million year integration of the orbit , one of the 3-sigma clones is ejected from the Solar System .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "2013_AZ60", "rank": 33, "score": 119395 }, { "content": "Title: Rings of Jupiter Content: The planet Jupiter has a system of rings known as the rings of Jupiter or the Jovian ring system . It was the third ring system to be discovered in the Solar System , after those of Saturn and Uranus . It was first observed in 1979 by the Voyager 1 space probe and thoroughly investigated in the 1990s by the Galileo orbiter . It has also been observed by the Hubble Space Telescope and from Earth for the past 23 years . Ground-based observations of the rings require the largest available telescopes . The Jovian ring system is faint and consists mainly of dust . It has four main components : a thick inner torus of particles known as the `` halo ring '' ; a relatively bright , exceptionally thin `` main ring '' ; and two wide , thick and faint outer `` gossamer rings '' , named for the moons of whose material they are composed : Amalthea and Thebe . The main and halo rings consist of dust ejected from the moons Metis , Adrastea , and other unobserved parent bodies as the result of high-velocity impacts . High-resolution images obtained in February and March 2007 by the New Horizons spacecraft revealed a rich fine structure in the main ring . In visible and near-infrared light , the rings have a reddish color , except the halo ring , which is neutral or blue in color . The size of the dust in the rings varies , but the cross-sectional area is greatest for nonspherical particles of radius about 15 μm in all rings except the halo . The halo ring is probably dominated by submicrometre dust . The total mass of the ring system ( including unresolved parent bodies ) is poorly known , but is probably in the range of 1011 to 1016 kg . The age of the ring system is not known , but it may have existed since the formation of Jupiter . A ring could possibly exist in Himalia 's orbit . One possible explanation is that a small moon had crashed into Himalia and the force of the impact caused material to blast off Himalia .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Rings_of_Jupiter", "rank": 34, "score": 119209 }, { "content": "Title: HD 185269 b Content: HD 185269 b is a hot Jupiter extrasolar planet approximately 153 light years away in the constellation of Cygnus . The minimum mass is slightly less than Jupiter and the orbital period is about one week . Most hot Jupiters are thought to have undergone tidal circularization , making the eccentricity of HD 185269 b ( e = 0.3 ) unusual . Despite having a large transit probability , none have yet been detected by various photometric monitoring campaigns . The planet was discovered nearly simultaneously by Johnson et al. as part of a search for planets around subgiants , and by Moutou et al. as part of a search for planets around metal-rich stars ( the submission dates to the journals ApJ and Astronomy and Astrophysics were separated by only 9 days ) .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "HD_185269_b", "rank": 35, "score": 119067 }, { "content": "Title: Outline of Jupiter Content: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Jupiter : Jupiter -- fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System . It is a giant planet with a mass one-thousandth that of the Sun , but two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined . Jupiter is a gas giant , along with Saturn , with the other two giant planets , Uranus and Neptune , being ice giants . Jupiter was known to astronomers of ancient times . The Romans named it after their god Jupiter . When viewed from Earth , Jupiter can reach an apparent magnitude of − 2.94 , bright enough for its reflected light to cast shadows , and making it on average the third-brightest object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Outline_of_Jupiter", "rank": 36, "score": 119017 }, { "content": "Title: Solar rotation Content: Solar rotation varies with latitude because the Sun is composed of a gaseous plasma . The rate of rotation is observed to be fastest at the equator ( latitude φ = 0 ° ) , and to decrease as latitude increases . At the equator the solar rotation period is 24.47 days and almost 38 days at the poles . The differential rotation rate is usually described by the equation : where ω is the angular velocity in degrees per day , φ is the solar latitude and A , B , and C are constants . The values of A , B , and C differ depending on the techniques used to make the measurement , as well as the time period studied . A current set of accepted average values is : A = 14.713 ± 0.0491 ° / d B = -2.396 ± 0.188 ° / d C = -1.787 ± 0.253 ° / d", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_rotation", "rank": 37, "score": 118922 }, { "content": "Title: Outer Planet Flagship Mission Content: The Outer Planet Flagship Mission was a joint mission between NASA and ESA to send a probe to study the icy satellites of the outer Solar System . There were two primary candidate missions under study : Europa Jupiter System Mission ( EJSM ) and Titan Saturn System Mission ( TSSM ) . On February 18 , 2009 NASA announced that both missions can proceed forward , but the EJSM is to be the first , departing Earth in 2020 and arriving at Jupiter in 2026 . The Titan mission is to be launched later . The Europa mission concept has since changed , with the Europa Clipper mission to be launched by NASA , with a target launch date of 2022 , and a separate European mission Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer ( JUICE ) . The proposed Titan mission is not currently scheduled .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Outer_Planet_Flagship_Mission", "rank": 38, "score": 118479 }, { "content": "Title: HD 60532 c Content: HD 60532 c is an extrasolar planet located approximately 84 light-years away in the constellation of Puppis , orbiting the star HD 60532 . This planet has a true mass of 7.46 times more than Jupiter which orbits at 1.58 AU and takes 607 days to revolve in an eccentric orbit . This planet was discovered on September 22 , 2008 in La Silla Observatory using the HARPS spectrograph . On this same day , the second planet in this system , HD 60532 b , was discovered in a 3:1 orbital resonance .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "HD_60532_c", "rank": 39, "score": 118473 }, { "content": "Title: Outline of Saturn Content: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Saturn : Saturn -- sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System , after Jupiter . It is a gas giant with an average radius about nine times that of Earth . Although only one-eighth the average density of Earth , with its larger volume Saturn is just over 95 times more massive . Saturn is named after the Roman god of agriculture ; its astronomical symbol represents the god 's sickle .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Outline_of_Saturn", "rank": 40, "score": 118455 }, { "content": "Title: Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism Content: The Kelvin -- Helmholtz mechanism is an astronomical process that occurs when the surface of a star or a planet cools . The cooling causes the pressure to drop , and the star or planet shrinks as a result . This compression , in turn , heats the core of the star/planet . This mechanism is evident on Jupiter and Saturn and on brown dwarfs whose central temperatures are not high enough to undergo nuclear fusion . It is estimated that Jupiter radiates more energy through this mechanism than it receives from the Sun , but Saturn might not . The latter process causes Jupiter to shrink at a rate of two centimetres each year . The mechanism was originally proposed by Kelvin and Helmholtz in the late 19th century to explain the source of energy of the Sun . By the mid-19th century , conservation of energy had been accepted , and one consequence of this law of physics is that the Sun must have some energy source to continue to shine . Because nuclear reactions were unknown , the main candidate for the source of solar energy was gravitational contraction . However , it soon was recognized by Sir Arthur Eddington and others that the total amount of energy available through this mechanism only allowed the Sun to shine for millions of years rather than the billions of years that the geological and biological evidence suggested for the age of the Earth . ( Kelvin himself had argued that the Earth was millions , not billions , of years old . ) The true source of the Sun 's energy remained uncertain until the 1930s , when it was shown by Hans Bethe to be nuclear fusion .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Kelvin–Helmholtz_mechanism", "rank": 41, "score": 118233 }, { "content": "Title: Inex Content: The inex is an eclipse cycle of 10,571.95 days ( about 29 years minus 20 days ) . The cycle was first described in modern times by Crommelin in 1901 , but was named by George van den Bergh who studied it half a century later . It has been suggested that the cycle was known to Hipparchos . A new saros series often begins one inex after the last series started . It corresponds to : 358 lunations ( synodic months ) 388.50011 draconitic months 30.50011 eclipse years 383.67351 anomalistic months . The 30.5 eclipse years means that if there is a solar eclipse ( or lunar eclipse ) , then after one inex a New Moon ( resp . Full Moon ) will take place at the opposite node of the orbit of the Moon , and under these circumstances another eclipse can occur . Unlike the saros , the inex is not close to an integer number of anomalistic months so successive eclipses are not very similar in their appearance and characteristics . From the remainder of 0.67351 , being near , every third eclipse will have a similar position in the moon 's elliptical orbit and apparent diameter , so the quality of the solar eclipse ( total versus annular ) will repeat in these groupings of 3 cycles ( 87 years minus 2 months ) , called triads . Although the inex series lasts much longer than the saros , it is not unbroken : at the beginning and end of a series , eclipses may fail to occur . However once settled down , inex series are very stable and run for many thousands of years . An inex also is close to an integer number of days ( 10,571.95 ) so solar eclipses on average take place at about the same geographical longitude at successive events , although variations of the moon 's revolutionary speed at different points of the eclipse mask this relation . In addition sequential events occur at opposite geographical latitudes because the eclipses occur at opposite nodes . This is in contrast to the better known saros , which has a period of about days , so successive solar eclipses tend to take place about 120 ° in longitude apart on the globe ( although at the same node and hence at about the same geographical latitude ) . The significance of the inex cycle is not in the prediction , but in the organization of eclipses : any eclipse cycle , and indeed the interval between any two eclipses , can be expressed as a combination of saros and inex intervals . Also when a saros series has terminated , then often one inex after the last eclipse of that saros series , the first eclipse of a new saros series occurs . This incoming and exiting of saros series separated by an interval of 29 years suggested the name for this cycle .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Inex", "rank": 42, "score": 117911 }, { "content": "Title: Family Portrait (MESSENGER) Content: The Solar System Family Portrait is an image of the Solar System acquired by MESSENGER during November 2010 from approximately the orbit of Mercury . The mosaic is intended to be complementary to the Voyager Family Portrait acquired from the outer edge of the Solar System on February 14 , 1990 . The portrait was constructed using 34 individual frames acquired using the Mercury Dual Imaging System , targeting areas surrounding each planet . The first series of images were acquired on November 3 , 2010 , and the second on November 16 . Six planets are visible in the mosaic . From left to right : Venus , Earth , Jupiter , Mars , Mercury , and Saturn . Uranus and Neptune were too small to resolve at this distance ( 3.0-billion and 4.4-billion kilometers respectively ) . Careful effort was taken to avoid facing the camera toward the Sun due to the intense heat at close distance . Several moons are visible in the photo , including the Earth 's Moon , and all four Galilean moons : Callisto , Ganymede , Europa , and Io . Additionally , part of the Milky Way is visible between Neptune and Mars . Because MESSENGER does not follow the same orbital plane as the Earth , the cameras on the spacecraft had to point up and down from the ecliptic to capture all of the planets . This resulted in a curved mosaic .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Family_Portrait_(MESSENGER)", "rank": 43, "score": 117850 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 142 Content: Saros cycle 142 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , contains 72 events . 41 of these are total eclipses , the longest of which occurs on May 28 , 2291 and will last 6 minutes 34 seconds .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_142", "rank": 44, "score": 117776 }, { "content": "Title: Metonic cycle Content: For astronomy and calendar studies , the Metonic cycle or Enneadecaeteris ( from ἐννεακαιδεκαετηρίς , `` nineteen years '' ) is a period of very close to 19 years that is nearly a common multiple of the solar year and the synodic ( lunar ) month . The Greek astronomer Meton of Athens ( fifth century BC ) observed that a period of 19 years is almost exactly equal to 235 synodic months and , rounded to full days , counts 6,940 days . The difference between the two periods ( of 19 years and 235 synodic months ) is only a few hours , depending on the definition of the year . Considering a year to be of this 6,940-day cycle gives a year length of 365 + + days ( the unrounded cycle is much more accurate ) , which is about 11 days more than 12 synodic months . To keep a 12-month lunar year in pace with the solar year , an intercalary 13th month would have to be added on seven occasions during the nineteen-year period ( 235 = 19 × 12 + 7 ) . When Meton introduced the cycle around 432 BC , it was already known by Babylonian astronomers . A mechanical computation of the cycle is built into the Antikythera mechanism . The cycle was used in the Babylonian calendar , ancient Chinese calendar systems ( the ` Rule Cycle ' 章 ) and the medieval computus ( i.e. the calculation of the date of Easter ) . It regulates the 19-year cycle of intercalary months of the modern Hebrew calendar . The start of the Metonic cycle depends on which of these systems is being used ; for Easter , the first year of the current Metonic cycle is 2014 .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Metonic_cycle", "rank": 45, "score": 117601 }, { "content": "Title: HD 142415 b Content: HD 142415 b is an exoplanet with the semi-amplitude of 51.3 ± 2.3 m/s . This indicates the minimum mass of 1.69 Jupiter mass , an orbital period of 386.3 days , and the semi-major axis of 1.07 astronomical units based from its stellar mass . The wild , oval pathed wobble of the star used by Doppler spectrometer indicates that the orbit of the planet is highly eccentric at around 50 % . The planet was discovered in La Silla Observatory on 30 June 2003 by Mayor , who used the CORALIE spectrograph .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "HD_142415_b", "rank": 46, "score": 117329 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 3 Content: Solar cycle 3 was the third solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9.3 years , beginning in June 1775 and ending in September 1784 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 264.3 ( May 1778 ) , and the starting minimum was 12.0 . William Herschel began observing sunspots during this period .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_cycle_3", "rank": 47, "score": 116835 }, { "content": "Title: V391 Pegasi b Content: V391 Pegasi b , also known as HS 2201 +2610 b , is an extrasolar planet orbiting the star V391 Pegasi approximately 4570 light-years away in the constellation of Pegasus . The planet was discovered by means of variable star timing , which measured anomalies in variability of the star caused by a planet . It is the first planet to be detected with this method . It found to have mass of 3.2 times Jupiter , semi-major axis of 1.7 AU , and orbital period of 1170 days . The planet was discovered in March 2007 and published in September 2007 . Its survival indicates that planets at Earth-like distances can survive their star 's red-giant phase , though this is a much larger planet than Earth ( about the same size as Jupiter and Saturn ) .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "V391_Pegasi_b", "rank": 48, "score": 116665 }, { "content": "Title: WASP-19b Content: WASP-19b is an extrasolar planet , notable for possessing one of the shortest orbital periods of any known planetary body : days or approximately 18.932 hours . It has a mass close to that of Jupiter ( 1.15 Jupiter masses ) , but by comparison has a much larger radius ( 1.31 times that of Jupiter , or 0.13 Solar radii ) ; making it nearly the size of a low-mass star . It orbits the star WASP-19 in the Vela constellation . It is currently the shortest period hot Jupiter discovered as planets with shorter orbital periods have a rocky , metallic or degenerate matter composition . In 2013 , secondary eclipse and orbital phases were barely observed from the data gathered with ASTEP telescope , making it the first detection of such kind through ground-based observations . This was possible due to large size of the planet and its small semi-major axis . On 3 December 2013 , scientists working with the Hubble Space Telescope reported detecting water in the atmosphere of the exoplanet .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "WASP-19b", "rank": 49, "score": 116126 }, { "content": "Title: Solar maximum Content: -RSB- Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun . During solar maximum , large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun 's irradiance output grows by about 0.07 % . The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth 's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns . At solar maximum , the Sun 's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles . The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next , with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years . Large solar flares often occur during a maximum . For example , the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_maximum", "rank": 50, "score": 116023 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 145 Content: Solar saros 145 is an eclipse cycle with 77 solar eclipses repeating every 18 years , 11 days . It is currently a young cycle producing total eclipses less than 3 minutes in length . The longest duration eclipse in the cycle will be member 50 at 7 minutes and 12 seconds in length after which the durations of eclipses will decrease until the end of the cycle . In its central phase it will produce mainly total eclipses ( 41 of 43 central eclipses ) .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_145", "rank": 51, "score": 115456 }, { "content": "Title: TrES-3b Content: TrES-3b is an extrasolar planet orbiting the star GSC 03089-00929 . It has an orbital period of just 31 hours and is undergoing orbital decay due to tidal effects . It has nearly twice the mass of Jupiter . It is the third transiting planet found by the Trans-Atlantic Exoplanet Survey . It was discovered in the constellation Hercules about 10 degrees west of Vega , the brightest star in the summer skies . Its mass was confirmed via radial velocity measurements of the host star , which showed the presence of a planet mass companion with the same period as the transits . The planet 's home star is slightly smaller and cooler than the Sun . The orbital period is less than one and a third days , one of the shortest known .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "TrES-3b", "rank": 52, "score": 115345 }, { "content": "Title: Saros (astronomy) Content: The Saros ( -LSB- ˈsɛərɒs -RSB- ) is a period of approximately 223 synodic months ( approximately 6585.3211 days , or 18 years , 11 days , 8 hours ) , that can be used to predict eclipses of the Sun and Moon . One saros period after an eclipse , the Sun , Earth , and Moon return to approximately the same relative geometry , a near straight line , and a nearly identical eclipse will occur , in what is referred to as an eclipse cycle . A sar is one half of a saros . A series of eclipses that are separated by one saros is called a saros series .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Saros_(astronomy)", "rank": 53, "score": 115247 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 116 Content: Saros cycle 116 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 70 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_116", "rank": 54, "score": 115087 }, { "content": "Title: Hot Jupiter Content: Hot Jupiters ( also called roaster planets , epistellar jovians , pegasids or pegasean planets ) are a class of exoplanets that are inferred to be physically similar to Jupiter but that have very short orbital radii with semi-major axes from 0.015 to . The close proximity to their stars and high surface temperatures resulted in the moniker `` hot Jupiters '' . Hot Jupiters are the easiest extrasolar planets to detect via the radial-velocity method , because the oscillations they induce in their parent stars ' motion are relatively large and rapid compared to those of other known types of planets . One of the best-known hot Jupiters is 51 Pegasi b. Discovered in 1995 , it was the first extrasolar planet found orbiting a Sun-like star . 51 Pegasi b has an orbital period of about 4 days .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Hot_Jupiter", "rank": 55, "score": 115057 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 143 Content: Saros cycle 143 , repeating every 18 years and 11 days , containing 72 events . It consisted of 10 partial eclipses , 12 total eclipses , 4 hybrid events , 26 annular eclipses , and ends with 20 partial eclipses . The longest total eclipse of the series was in 1887 at 3 minutes and 50 seconds .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_143", "rank": 56, "score": 115053 }, { "content": "Title: 4348 Poulydamas Content: 4348 Poulydamas , provisional designation , is a large carbonaceous Jupiter Trojan from the Trojan camp , approximately 80 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by American astronomer Carolyn Shoemaker at the U.S. Palomar Observatory in California , on 11 September 1988 . The dark C-type asteroid orbits the Sun in the Trojan camp at a distance of 4.7 -- 5.8 AU once every 12 years ( 4,382 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.10 and an inclination of 8 ° with respect to the plane of the ecliptic . In December 1990 , astronomers Stefano Mottola and Mario Di Martino used photometric observations made with the 1.52-meter Loiano Telescope at the Observatory of Bologna , Italy , to build a light-curve for this asteroid . It gave a rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of magnitude . In October 2013 , observations at the Palomar Transient Factory gave a period of 9.9214 hours with an amplitude of 0.23 magnitude . In January 2015 and 2016 , astronomer Robert D. Stephens at the Center for Solar System Studies ( CS3 ) obtained two rotational light-curves that gave a period of and hours with a brightness variation of 0.19 and 0.27 , respectively . Based on the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari and the NEOWISE mission of the U.S. Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid has a very low albedo of 0.048 and 0.033 , while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link ( CALL ) assumes a somewhat higher albedo of 0.057 for the carbonaceous body . Accordingly , CALL calculates the asteroid 's diameter to be only 67 kilometers while the two space-based surveys gave a larger diameter of 82 and 88 kilometers , respectively . The minor planet was named after Poulydamas from Greek mythology , the closest counsellor and strategist of the Trojan prince Hector , after whom the minor planet 624 Hektor is named . Hector and Poulydamas were born on the same night . While the gods gave Hector the ability to perfectly master his arms , Poulydamas was given the present of better judgment . It was Poulydamas who urged to lock the gates of Troy against Achilles ( also see 588 Achilles ) , but Hector left the city and confronted Achilles nonetheless , which led to his doom and to the eventual downfall of Troy . Naming citation was published on 28 April 1991 .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "4348_Poulydamas", "rank": 57, "score": 114732 }, { "content": "Title: HD 38283 b Content: HD 38283 b is an extrasolar planet , orbiting the 7th magnitude F-type main-sequence star HD 38283 , 123 light years away in the constellation Mensa . It is a Saturn-like planet orbiting at Earth-like distance in the middle of its habitable zone . But its eccentricity is 0.41 , much higher than the Earth 's eccentricity of 0.017 . The planet 's distance ranges from about 0.60 AU ( closer to its star than Venus is to the Sun ) and 1.44 AU ( nearly as distant from its star as Mars is to the Sun ) . This planet takes 363.2 days to orbit the star , just two days shy of the Earth 's orbital period of 365.256366 days . Its mass is one-thirds that of Jupiter but its size and density are not known . Since inclination is not known , its actual mass is unknown , either slightly greater or much greater than its lower limit . This planet may have Earth-like moons with bodies of water and possibly life . But giving the planet 's high eccentricity , life on the moons may not evolve as well as those on Earth . From the surface of the moon , ones may see parent planet in the sky about half of the times with different phases just like the Moon seen from Earth , as well as other moons . If this planet has rings nearly as prominent as Saturn 's , then the rings can be seen surrounding the planet , making this scenery even more amazing . HD 38283 b was discovered on 11 April 2011 using the radial velocity technique using the Anglo-Australian Telescope ( AAT ) . This method uses to look for planets by watching the star periodically wobble caused by the gravitational tug of the orbiting planets .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "HD_38283_b", "rank": 58, "score": 114707 }, { "content": "Title: Grand tack hypothesis Content: In planetary astronomy , the grand tack hypothesis proposes that after its formation at 3.5 AU , Jupiter migrated inward to 1.5 AU , before reversing course due to capturing Saturn in an orbital resonance , eventually halting near its current orbit at 5.2 AU . The reversal of Jupiter 's migration is likened to the path of a sailboat changing directions ( tacking ) as it travels against the wind . The planetesimal disk is truncated at 1.0 AU by Jupiter 's migration , limiting the material available to form Mars . Jupiter twice crosses the asteroid belt , scattering asteroids outward then inward . The resulting asteroid belt has a small mass , a wide range of inclinations and eccentricities , and a population originating from both inside and outside Jupiter 's original orbit . Debris produced by collisions among planetesimals swept ahead of Jupiter may have driven an early generation of planets into the sun .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Grand_tack_hypothesis", "rank": 59, "score": 114668 }, { "content": "Title: 60P/Tsuchinshan Content: 60P/Tsuchinshan , also known as Tsuchinshan 2 , is a periodic comet in the solar system with an orbital period of 6.79 years . Tsuchinshan is the Wade-Giles transliteration corresponding to the pinyin Zĭjīn Shān , which is Mandarin Chinese for `` Purple Mountain '' . It was discovered at the Purple Mountain Observatory , Nanking , China on 11 January 1965 with a magnitude estimated as a very faint 15 . The elliptical orbit was computed to give a perihelion date of 9 February 1965 with an orbital period of 6.69 years . Revised calculations predicted the next perihelion would be on 28 November 1971 and Elizabeth Roemer of the University of Arizona successfully relocated the comet with the 154-cm reflector at Catalina . It was also observed in 1978 , 1985 , 1991-1992 , and 1998-1999 . The comet peaked at about apparent magnitude 16.3 in 2012 . On 29 December 2077 the comet will pass 0.068 AU from Mars .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "60P/Tsuchinshan", "rank": 60, "score": 114571 }, { "content": "Title: Synodic day Content: A synodic day is the period it takes for a planet to rotate once in relation to the body it is orbiting . For Earth , the synodic day is known as a solar day , and is about 24 hours long . The synodic day is distinguished from the sidereal day , which is one complete rotation in relation to distant stars . A synodic day may be `` sunrise to sunrise ' '' whereas a sidereal day can be from the rise of any star to the rise of the same star on the next day . These two quantities are not equal because of the body 's movement around its parent . Seen from Earth , the Sun appears to slowly move in front of a fixed sphere of stars along an imaginary line known as the ecliptic . In one synodic day this movement is a little less than one degree toward the east ( 360 degrees/year ) / ( 365.25 days/year ) , in a manner known as prograde motion . Although correct , neither term can be defined as the rising or setting of a celestial body because of variations due to the Earth 's tilt . See the equation of time .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Synodic_day", "rank": 61, "score": 114468 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 110 Content: Saros cycle 110 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 72 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_110", "rank": 62, "score": 114391 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 158 Content: Saros cycle 158 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 70 events , with 52 listed before 3000 AD .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_158", "rank": 63, "score": 114274 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 135 Content: Saros cycle 135 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_135", "rank": 64, "score": 114242 }, { "content": "Title: HD 30562 b Content: HD 30562 b is an extrasolar planet which orbits the F-type main sequence star HD 30562 , located approximately 86 light years away in the constellation Eridanus . This planet is unusual that it orbits in a very oval path like comets in the Solar System . The semimajor axis of the orbit is 2.30 AU and it ranges from 0.55 AU to 4.05 AU . It has minimum mass 1.29 times that of Jupiter . The orbital period of this planet is 38 months compared with 12 months for the Earth . This eccentric Jupiter was discovered on August 12 , 2009 by using the radial velocity method which was designed to study the wobble of stars cause by their planet 's gravity over the course of their orbit . Another study confirmed it in 2012 .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "HD_30562_b", "rank": 65, "score": 114210 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 130 Content: Saros cycle 130 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 73 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_130", "rank": 66, "score": 114101 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 134 Content: Saros cycle 134 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_134", "rank": 67, "score": 113830 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 117 Content: Saros cycle 117 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_117", "rank": 68, "score": 113778 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 115 Content: Saros cycle 115 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 72 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_115", "rank": 69, "score": 113559 }, { "content": "Title: Gas giant Content: A gas giant is a giant planet composed mainly of hydrogen and helium . Jupiter and Saturn are the gas giants of the Solar System . The term `` gas giant '' was originally synonymous with `` giant planet '' , but in the 1990s it became known that Uranus and Neptune are really a distinct class of giant planet , being composed mainly of heavier volatile substances ( which are referred to as `` ices '' ) . For this reason , Uranus and Neptune are now often classified in the separate category of ice giants . Jupiter and Saturn consist mostly of hydrogen and helium , with heavier elements making up between 3 and 13 percent of the mass . They are thought to consist of an outer layer of molecular hydrogen surrounding a layer of liquid metallic hydrogen , with probably a molten rocky core . The outermost portion of their hydrogen atmosphere is characterized by many layers of visible clouds that are mostly composed of water and ammonia . The layer of metallic hydrogen makes up the bulk of each planet , and is referred to as `` metallic '' because the very large pressure turns hydrogen into an electrical conductor . The gas giants ' cores are thought to consist of heavier elements at such high temperatures ( 20,000 K ) and pressures that their properties are poorly understood . The defining differences between a very low-mass brown dwarf and a gas giant ( estimated at about 13 Jupiter masses ) are debated . One school of thought is based on formation ; the other , on the physics of the interior . Part of the debate concerns whether `` brown dwarfs '' must , by definition , have experienced nuclear fusion at some point in their history .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Gas_giant", "rank": 70, "score": 113490 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 157 Content: Saros cycle 157 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 70 events , with 55 listed before 3000 AD .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_157", "rank": 71, "score": 113465 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 124 Content: Saros cycle 124 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 73 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_124", "rank": 72, "score": 113435 }, { "content": "Title: HD 47186 c Content: HD 47186 c is an extrasolar planet located approximately 123 light years away in the constellation of Canis Major , orbiting the star HD 47186 . This planet has a minimum mass of 0.35061 times that of Jupiter , or 1.1712 times that of Saturn . It takes 1353.6 days or 3.7059 years to revolve around the star in about the same eccentricity as the dwarf planet Pluto . This planet orbits at about the same distance from the star as the asteroid Vesta is from the Sun .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "HD_47186_c", "rank": 73, "score": 113395 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 132 Content: Saros cycle 132 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_132", "rank": 74, "score": 113370 }, { "content": "Title: Differential rotation Content: Differential rotation is seen when different parts of a rotating object move with different angular velocities ( rates of rotation ) at different latitudes and/or depths of the body and/or in time . This indicates that the object is not solid . In fluid objects , such as accretion disks , this leads to shearing . Galaxies and protostars usually show differential rotation ; examples in the Solar System include the Sun , Jupiter and Saturn . Around the year 1610 , Galileo Galilei observed sunspots and calculated the rotation of the Sun . In 1630 , Christoph Scheiner reported that the Sun had different rotational periods at the poles and at the equator , in good agreement with modern values .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Differential_rotation", "rank": 75, "score": 113250 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 122 Content: Saros cycle 122 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 70 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_122", "rank": 76, "score": 113249 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 128 Content: Saros cycle 128 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 73 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_128", "rank": 77, "score": 113195 }, { "content": "Title: 76P/West–Kohoutek–Ikemura Content: 76P/West -- Kohoutek -- Ikemura is a Jupiter-family periodic comet in the Solar System with a current orbital period of 6.48 years . The comet was initially spotted on a photographic plate by Richard M. West at the European Southern Observatory Sky Atlas Laboratory , Geneva in January 1975 , when it had a brightness of magnitude 12 . Inability to predict its movement from a single image meant the comet had to be presumed lost . In late February it was accidentally rediscovered by Lubos Kohoutek at the Hamburg Observatory , Germany and independently on 1 March by Toshihiko Ikemura in Shinshiro , Japan . After further observations the comets parabolic orbit was computed , which gave a perihelion date of 23 March 1975 and proved that all three sightings were of the same object , which was accordingly designated 76P/West -- Kohoutek -- Ikemura . Further calculations by Brian G. Marsden determined the comet 's elliptical orbit and revealed that it had passed only 0.012 AU from Jupiter on 22 March 1972 . This close approach had reduced its orbital frequency from some 30 years to the current 6.48 years and its perihelion distance from 4.78 AU to 1.60 AU . The comet has been observed at its successive returns in 1987 , 1993 , 2000 , 2006 and 2013 .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "76P/West–Kohoutek–Ikemura", "rank": 78, "score": 113158 }, { "content": "Title: HD 27894 b Content: HD 27894 b is a gas giant with a mass at least two thirds that of Jupiter , or twice that of Saturn . The distance from the planet to the star is one third compared that of Mercury from our Sun , and it takes almost exactly 18 days to complete one roughly circular orbit .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "HD_27894_b", "rank": 79, "score": 113129 }, { "content": "Title: Circadian clock Content: A circadian clock , or circadian oscillator , is a biochemical oscillator that oscillates with a stable phase relationship to solar time . Such a clock 's in vivo period , averaged over an earth year , is necessarily almost exactly 24 hours ( the earth 's current solar day ) . In most living things , internally synchronized circadian clocks make it possible for the organism to coordinate its biology and behavior with daily environmental changes corresponding with the day -- night cycle and derived diurnal behaviour patterns ( e.g. crepuscular feeding ) . The term circadian derives from the Latin circa ( about ) diem ( a day ) , since when taken away from external cues ( such as the day-night cycle ) , they do not run to exactly 24 hours . Clocks in humans in a lab in constant low light , for example , will average about 24.2 hours per day , rather than 24 hours exactly . The normal body clock oscillates with an endogenous period of exactly 24 hours , it entrains , when it receives sufficient daily corrective signals from the environment , primarily daylight and darkness . Circadian clocks are the central mechanisms that drive circadian rhythms . They consist of three major components : a central biochemical oscillator with a period of about 24 hours that keeps time ; a series of input pathways to this central oscillator to allow entrainment of the clock ; a series of output pathways tied to distinct phases of the oscillator that regulate overt rhythms in biochemistry , physiology , and behavior throughout an organism . The clock is reset as an organism senses environmental time cues of which the primary one is light . Circadian oscillators are ubiquitous in tissues of the body where they are synchronized by both endogenous and external signals to regulate transcriptional activity throughout the day in a tissue-specific manner . The circadian clock is intertwined with most cellular metabolic processes and it is affected by organism aging . The basic molecular mechanisms of the biological clock have been defined in vertebrate species , Drosophila melanogaster , plants , fungi , bacteria , and presumably also in Archaea . While a precise 24-hour circadian clock is found in many organisms , it is not universal . Organisms living in the high arctic or high antarctic do not experience solar time in all seasons , though most are believed to maintain a circadian rhythm close to 24 hours , such as bears during torpor . Much of the earth 's biomass resides in the dark biosphere , and while these organisms may exhibit rhythmic physiology , for these organisms the dominant rhythm is unlikely to be circadian . For east-west migratory organisms -- and especially should an organism circumnavigate the globe -- the absolute 24-hour phase might deviate over months , seasons , or years .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Circadian_clock", "rank": 80, "score": 112970 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipses on Saturn Content: Solar eclipses on Saturn occur when the natural satellites of Saturn pass in front of the Sun as seen from Saturn . For bodies which appear smaller in angular diameter than the Sun , the proper term would be a transit . For bodies which are larger than the apparent size of the Sun , the proper term would be an occultation . Seven of Saturn 's satellites -- Janus , Mimas , Enceladus , Tethys , Rhea , Dione and Titan -- are large enough and near enough to eclipse or occult the Sun , or in other words to cast an umbra on Saturn . Most of the more distant satellites , besides being tiny , have orbits that are strongly inclined to the plane of Saturn 's orbit , and would rarely be seen to transit . At this distance , the sun covers only about 3 arcminutes in the sky of Saturn . In comparison , the seven major moons of Saturn have angular diameters of 5 -- 10 ' ( Mimas ) , 5 -- 9 ' ( Enceladus ) , 10 -- 15 ' ( Tethys ) , 10 -- 12 ' ( Dione ) , 8 -- 11 ' ( Rhea ) , 14 -- 15 ' ( Titan ) , and 1 -- 2 ' ( Iapetus ) . Iapetus is Saturn 's third largest moon , but is too far away to completely eclipse the sun . Janus , a very close moon to Saturn , has an angular diameter of about 7 ' , meaning that it can fully cover the sun . Unlike Jupiter , Saturn has a moderate axial tilt of 26.7 degrees . This means that solar eclipses on Saturn are much more rare than solar eclipses on Jupiter . Category : Solar eclipses by planet Category : Saturn", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_eclipses_on_Saturn", "rank": 81, "score": 112919 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 114 Content: Saros cycle 114 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 72 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_114", "rank": 82, "score": 112872 }, { "content": "Title: Jumping-Jupiter scenario Content: The jumping-Jupiter scenario specifies an evolution of giant-planet migration described by the Nice model , in which an ice giant ( Uranus , Neptune , or an additional Neptune-mass planet ) is scattered inward by Saturn and outward by Jupiter , causing the step-wise separation of their orbits . The jumping-Jupiter scenario was proposed by Ramon Brasser , Alessandro Morbidelli , Rodney Gomes , Kleomenis Tsiganis , and Harold Levison after their studies revealed that the smooth divergent migration of Jupiter and Saturn resulted in an inner Solar System significantly different from the current Solar System . The sweeping of secular resonances through the inner Solar System during the migration excited the eccentricities of the terrestrial planets beyond current values and left an asteroid belt with an excessive ratio of high - to low-inclination objects . The step-wise separation of Jupiter and Saturn described in the jumping-Jupiter scenario can allow these resonances to quickly cross the inner Solar System without altering orbits excessively , although the terrestrial planets remain sensitive to its passage . The jumping-Jupiter scenario also results in a number of other differences with the original Nice model . The fraction of lunar impactors from the core of the asteroid belt during the Late Heavy Bombardment is significantly reduced , most of the Jupiter trojans are captured during Jupiter 's encounters with the ice giant , as are Jupiter 's irregular satellites . In the jumping-Jupiter scenario , the likelihood of preserving four giant planets on orbits resembling their current ones appears to increase if the early Solar System originally contained an additional ice giant , which was later ejected by Jupiter into interstellar space . However , this remains an atypical result , as is the preservation of the current orbits of the terrestrial planets .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Jumping-Jupiter_scenario", "rank": 83, "score": 112815 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 137 Content: Saros cycle 137 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 70 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_137", "rank": 84, "score": 112802 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanology of Io Content: Volcanology of Io , a moon of Jupiter , is the scientific study of lava flows , volcanic pits , and volcanism ( volcanic activity ) on the surface of Io . Its volcanic activity was discovered in 1979 by Voyager 1 imaging scientist Linda Morabito . Observations of Io by passing spacecraft ( the Voyagers , Galileo , Cassini , and New Horizons ) and Earth-based astronomers have revealed more than 150 active volcanoes . Up to 400 such volcanoes are predicted to exist based on these observations . Io 's volcanism makes the satellite one of only four known currently volcanically active worlds in the Solar System ( the other three being Earth , Saturn 's moon Enceladus , and Neptune 's moon Triton ) . First predicted shortly before the Voyager 1 flyby , the heat source for Io 's volcanism comes from tidal heating produced by its forced orbital eccentricity . This differs from Earth 's internal heating , which is derived primarily from radioactive isotope decay and primordial heat of accretion . Io 's eccentric orbit leads to a slight difference in Jupiter 's gravitational pull on the satellite between its closest and farthest points on its orbit , causing a varying tidal bulge . This variation in the shape of Io causes frictional heating in its interior . Without this tidal heating , Io might have been similar to the Moon , a world of similar size and mass , geologically dead and covered with numerous impact craters . Io 's volcanism has led to the formation of hundreds of volcanic centres and extensive lava formations , making it the most volcanically active body in the Solar System . Three different types of volcanic eruptions have been identified , differing in duration , intensity , lava effusion rate , and whether the eruption occurs within a volcanic pit ( known as a patera ) . Lava flows on Io , tens or hundreds of kilometres long , have primarily basaltic composition , similar to lavas seen on Earth at shield volcanoes such as Kīlauea in Hawaii . Although most of the lava on Io is made of basalt , a few lava flows consisting of sulfur and sulfur dioxide have been seen . In addition , eruption temperatures as high as 1600 K were detected , which can be explained by the eruption of high-temperature ultramafic silicate lavas . As a result of the presence of significant quantities of sulfurous materials in Io 's crust and on its surface , some eruptions propel sulfur , sulfur dioxide gas , and pyroclastic material up to 500 km into space , producing large , umbrella-shaped volcanic plumes . This material paints the surrounding terrain in red , black , and/or white , and provides material for Io 's patchy atmosphere and Jupiter 's extensive magnetosphere . Spacecraft that have flown by Io since 1979 have observed numerous surface changes as a result of Io 's volcanic activity .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Volcanology_of_Io", "rank": 85, "score": 112491 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 127 Content: Saros cycle 127 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 82 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_127", "rank": 86, "score": 112427 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 140 Content: Saros cycle 140 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_140", "rank": 87, "score": 112409 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 144 Content: Saros cycle 144 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 70 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_144", "rank": 88, "score": 112359 }, { "content": "Title: Invariable plane Content: The invariable plane of a planetary system , also called Laplace 's invariable plane , is the plane passing through its barycenter ( center of mass ) perpendicular to its angular momentum vector . In the Solar System , about 98 % of this effect is contributed by the orbital angular momenta of the four jovian planets ( Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune ) . The invariable plane is within 0.5 ° of the orbital plane of Jupiter , and may be regarded as the weighted average of all planetary orbital and rotational planes . This plane is sometimes called the `` Laplacian '' or `` Laplace plane '' or the `` invariable plane of Laplace '' , though it should not be confused with the Laplace plane , which is the plane about which orbital planes precess . Both derive from the work of ( and are at least sometimes named for ) the French astronomer Pierre Simon Laplace . The two are equivalent only in the case where all perturbers and resonances are far from the precessing body . The invariable plane is simply derived from the sum of angular momenta , and is `` invariable '' over the entire system , while the Laplace plane may be different for different orbiting objects within a system . Laplace called the invariable plane the plane of maximum areas , where the area is the product of the radius and its differential time change dR/dt , that is , its velocity , multiplied by the mass .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Invariable_plane", "rank": 89, "score": 112354 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 148 Content: Saros cycle 148 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 75 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_148", "rank": 90, "score": 112339 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 118 Content: Saros cycle 118 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 72 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_118", "rank": 91, "score": 112242 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 149 Content: Saros cycle 149 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_149", "rank": 92, "score": 112162 }, { "content": "Title: Great Year Content: The term Great Year has a variety of related meanings . It is defined by NASA as `` The period of one complete cycle of the equinoxes around the ecliptic , about 25,800 years ... also known as -LSB- a -RSB- Platonic Year . '' One complete cycle of the equinoxes here means one complete cycle of axial precession . Although Plato uses the term `` perfect year '' to describe the return of the celestial bodies ( planets ) and the diurnal rotation of the fixed stars ( circle of the Same ) to their original positions , there is no evidence he had any knowledge of axial precession . The cycle which Plato describes is one of planetary and astral conjunction , which can be postulated without any awareness of axial precession . In fact , Hipparchus is the first Greek credited with discovering axial precession roughly two hundred years after Plato 's death ( see below ) . Cicero followed Plato in defining the Great Year as a combination of solar , lunar and planetary cycles . ( 61 XX ) Nicholas Campion writes of `` periods of History , analogous to the solar year , known as ` Great Years ' '' . Plato 's description of the perfect year is found in his dialogue Timaeus The ` Great Year ' as defined by the historian Josephus is 600 years in length . ( Book 1 , Chapter 3 , Paragraph 9 ) In De Natura Deorum , Cicero wrote By extension , the term `` Great Year '' can also be used for any concept of eternal return in the world 's mythologies or philosophies . Otto Neugebauer wrote Macrobius in his commentary on Cicero 's Somnium Scipiones states that ` the philosophers ' reckon the Great Year as 15,000 years . ( p. 97 ) Censorinus wrote that Aristarchus of Samos reckoned a Great Year of 2484 years : it has been argued that this is a miscopying of 2434 , which represents 45 Exeligmos cycles . ( p. 96 ) ( p. 6 ) As noted above , the Platonic Year in origin would seem to have no connection with this concept ( as the precession of the equinox was unknown to Europe in Plato 's time ) . and two centuries after Plato , Hipparchus is credited with discovering the period of equinox precession , and the term `` Great Year '' eventually came to be applied to the period of that precession caused by the slow gyration of the Earth 's axis . It is argued that the confusion originates with the astronomer Ptolemy , who `` adopted the larger , erroneous , figure , with the result that henceforth the two versions of the Great Year -- the Platonic Great Year , defined by the planets , and the precessional , defined by the stars -- were to be increasingly confused . '' </blockquote> Ptolemy has been accused of committing scientific fraud by making up observations that would give the figure of 36,000 years even though the data available to him were good enough to get very near the true figure of 26,000 . Josephus refers to a ` Great Year ' of 600 years . ( ch .4 ) It has been suggested that he obtained this value from Berossos who reckoned time in intervals of 60 , 600 and 3600 years . Isaac Newton determined the cause of precession and established the rate of precession at 1 degree per 72 years , very close to the true value , thus demonstrating the magnitude of the error in the value of 1 degree per century . ( letter 17 ) Walter Cruttenden wrote of the Great Year", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Great_Year", "rank": 93, "score": 112141 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 119 Content: Saros cycle 119 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_119", "rank": 94, "score": 111968 }, { "content": "Title: Tritos Content: The tritos is an eclipse cycle of 3986.63 days . ( about 1 month short of 11 years ) It corresponds to : 135 synodic months 146.50144 draconic months 11.50144 eclipse years ( 23 eclipse seasons ) 144.68135 anomalistic months . The length of the tritos is equal to the length of the inex minus the length of the saros eclipse cycles . Therefore , eclipses that occur 1 tritos apart ( i.e. both eclipses belong to the same tritos series ) , belong to two different saros series with series numbers that differ by one . The pre-Columbian Maya used a calculation in their own observations of eclipse cycles in which a period of three tritoses was approximated by 11960 days , based on 46 periods of their tzolk ` in calendar ( i.e. 46 × 260 days ) . The number of anomalistic months in a tritos ( 144.68 ) , having a fraction near , means every third eclipse is in nearly the same position in the elliptical orbit , so eclipses will have similar timing and total versus annular quality . Solar and lunar eclipse event dates will repeat on this cycle for about 700 years .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Tritos", "rank": 95, "score": 111926 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 126 Content: Saros cycle 126 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 72 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_126", "rank": 96, "score": 111899 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 112 Content: Saros cycle 112 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 72 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_112", "rank": 97, "score": 111860 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 146 Content: Saros cycle 146 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 76 events .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_146", "rank": 98, "score": 111815 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 120 Content: Saros cycle 120 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events . The series started with a partial solar eclipse on May 27 , 933 AD , and transitioned into an annular eclipse on August 11 , 1059 . It was a hybrid event for 3 dates : May 8 , 1510 , through May 29 , 1546 , and are total eclipses from June 8 , 1564 through March 30 , 2033 . The series ends at member 71 as a partial eclipse on July 7 , 2195 . The longest duration of totality was 2 minutes , 50 seconds on March 9 , 1997 .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "Solar_Saros_120", "rank": 99, "score": 111794 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 TK7 Content: is a near-Earth asteroid and the first Earth trojan discovered ; it precedes Earth in its orbit around the Sun . Trojan objects are most easily conceived as orbiting at a Lagrangian point , a dynamically stable location ( where gravitational and centrifugal forces balance ) 60 degrees ahead of or behind a massive orbiting body , in a type of 1:1 orbital resonance . In reality , they oscillate ( librate ) around such a point . Such objects had previously been observed in the orbits of Mars , Jupiter , Neptune , and the Saturnian moons Tethys and Dione . has a diameter of about 300 m. Its path oscillates about the Sun -- Earth Lagrangian point ( 60 degrees ahead of Earth ) , shuttling between its closest approach to Earth and its closest approach to the point ( 180 degrees from Earth ) about every 400 years . The asteroid was discovered in October 2010 by the NEOWISE team of astronomers using NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE ) .", "qid": "3004", "docid": "2010_TK7", "rank": 100, "score": 111790 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years", "rank": 1, "score": 150315 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 2, "score": 141689 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 3, "score": 130839 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 4, "score": 130497 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 5, "score": 127445 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 6, "score": 123073 }, { "content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period", "rank": 7, "score": 122127 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 8, "score": 120504 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 9, "score": 120166 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 10, "score": 119258 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 11, "score": 118391 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 12, "score": 117977 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 13, "score": 117625 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 14, "score": 116447 }, { "content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event", "rank": 15, "score": 115879 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 16, "score": 115694 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 17, "score": 114609 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 18, "score": 114210 }, { "content": "Title: Subatlantic Content: The Subatlantic is the current climatic age of the Holocene epoch . It started at about 2,500 years BP and is still ongoing . Its average temperatures were slightly lower than during the preceding Subboreal and Atlantic . During its course the temperature underwent several oscillations which had a strong influence on fauna and flora and thus indirectly on the evolution of human civilizations . With intensifying industrialisation , human society started to stress the natural climatic cycles with increased greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Subatlantic", "rank": 19, "score": 113688 }, { "content": "Title: Recession of 1969–70 Content: The Recession of 1969 -- 1970 was a relatively mild recession in the United States . According to the National Bureau of Economic Research the recession lasted for 11 months , beginning in December 1969 and ending in November 1970 , following an economic slump which began in 1968 and by the end of 1969 had become serious , thus ending the second longest economic expansion in U.S. history which had begun in February 1961 ( only the 1990s saw a longer period of growth ) . At the end of the expansion inflation was rising , possibly a result of increased deficit spending during a period of full employment . This relatively mild recession coincided with an attempt to start closing the budget deficits of the Vietnam War ( fiscal tightening ) and the Federal Reserve raising interest rates ( monetary tightening ) . During this relatively mild recession , the Gross Domestic Product of the United States fell 0.6 percent . Though the recession ended in November 1970 , the unemployment rate did not peak until the next month . In December 1970 , the rate reached its height for the cycle of 6.1 percent .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Recession_of_1969–70", "rank": 20, "score": 113645 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 21, "score": 113479 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 22, "score": 113256 }, { "content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Global_dimming", "rank": 23, "score": 112585 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 24, "score": 112116 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 25, "score": 111213 }, { "content": "Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Carnian_Pluvial_Event", "rank": 26, "score": 111192 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 27, "score": 110284 }, { "content": "Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "1997–98_El_Niño_event", "rank": 28, "score": 110269 }, { "content": "Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme", "rank": 29, "score": 109817 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 30, "score": 109010 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 31, "score": 108989 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 32, "score": 108039 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.", "qid": "3005", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves", "rank": 33, "score": 107914 }, { "content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Simon_Tett", "rank": 34, "score": 107866 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 35, "score": 106500 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves", "rank": 36, "score": 106085 }, { "content": "Title: Theodor Landscheidt Content: Theodor Landscheidt ( Bremen , 1927 -- May 20 , 2004 ) was a German author , astrologer and amateur climatologist . In 1989 , Landscheidt forecast a period of sunspot minima after 1990 , accompanied by increased cold , with a stronger minimum and more intense cold which should peak in 2030 His work on solar cycles has been cited by global warming skeptics to argue that observed warming is not anthropogenic and will soon be reversed , based on an assumption that fluctuations in climate are controlled by solar activity . In 1983 he founded and financed the `` Schroeter Institute for Research in Cycles of Solar Activity '' in Lilienthal , near Bremen . The Institute later moved with him to Nova Scotia , Canada .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Theodor_Landscheidt", "rank": 37, "score": 104794 }, { "content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)", "rank": 38, "score": 104780 }, { "content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Little_Ice_Age", "rank": 39, "score": 104401 }, { "content": "Title: David Legates Content: David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university , and a former Delaware State Climatologist . Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale . Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "David_Legates", "rank": 40, "score": 103665 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 41, "score": 103445 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe", "rank": 42, "score": 103393 }, { "content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change", "rank": 43, "score": 102545 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 44, "score": 102456 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan", "rank": 45, "score": 102428 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy", "rank": 46, "score": 102148 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 47, "score": 101547 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 20 Content: Solar cycle 20 was the twentieth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.4 years , beginning in October 1964 and ending in March 1976 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 156.6 ( November 1968 ) , and the starting minimum was 14.3 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 20 to 21 , there were a total of 272 days with no sunspots . Comparison with other cycles shows that geomagnetic activity during the declining phase of cycle 20 ( 1973 -- 1975 ) was unusually high . Data from solar cycle 20 was used to build the K-1974 solar proton fluence model , used for planning space missions during solar cycle 21 .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Solar_cycle_20", "rank": 48, "score": 101295 }, { "content": "Title: Extreme weather events of 535–536 Content: The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the most severe and protracted short-term episodes of cooling in the Northern Hemisphere in the last 2000 years . The event is thought to have been caused by an extensive atmospheric dust veil , possibly resulting from a large volcanic eruption in the tropics , or debris from space impacting the Earth . Its effects were widespread , causing unseasonal weather , crop failures and famines worldwide .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Extreme_weather_events_of_535–536", "rank": 49, "score": 100704 }, { "content": "Title: Sixty Days and Counting Content: Sixty Days and Counting ( 2007 ) is the third book in the hard science fiction Science in the Capital trilogy by Kim Stanley Robinson . It directly follows the events of Fifty Degrees Below , beginning just after the election of character Phil Chase to the White House . It follows the previous novel 's deep freeze of the area surrounding Washington D.C. . Category :2007 American novels Category : Novels by Kim Stanley Robinson Category : Novels set in Washington , D.C. Category : Hard science fiction Category : Climate change novels", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Sixty_Days_and_Counting", "rank": 50, "score": 100429 }, { "content": "Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Neoglaciation", "rank": 51, "score": 100298 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 52, "score": 100053 }, { "content": "Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "European_Climate_Change_Programme", "rank": 53, "score": 99805 }, { "content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2", "rank": 54, "score": 99616 }, { "content": "Title: Milankovitch cycles Content: Milankovitch cycles describes the collective effects of changes in the Earth 's movements on its climate over thousands of years . The term is named after Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković . In the 1920s , he theorized that variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit resulted in cyclical variation in the solar radiation ( insolation ) reaching the Earth , and that this orbital forcing strongly influenced climatic patterns on Earth . The Earth 's orbit varies between nearly circular and mildly elliptical ( its eccentricity varies ) . When the orbit is more elongated , there is more variation in the distance between the Earth and the Sun , and in the amount of solar radiation , at different times in the year . In addition , the rotational tilt of the Earth ( its obliquity ) , which causes the seasons as the Earth revolves around the Sun , changes slightly . A greater tilt makes the seasons more extreme . Finally , the direction in the fixed stars pointed to by the Earth 's axis changes ( axial precession ) , while the Earth 's elliptical orbit around the Sun rotates ( apsidal precession ) . The combined effect of the two precessions is a cycle in which proximity to the Sun occurs during different astronomical seasons . If the Earth is closer to the Sun while the northern or southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun ( is in summer ) , then both effects work together to heat that hemisphere . If the Earth is further from the Sun during summer , the greater distance slightly reduces the heat of summer . Similar astronomical theories had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar , James Croll and others , but verification was difficult because there was no reliably dated evidence , and because it was unclear which periods were important . Now , materials on Earth that have been unchanged for millennia are being studied to indicate the history of Earth 's climate . A study of the chronology of Antarctic ice cores using oxygen-nitrogen ratios in air bubbles trapped in the ice , which appear to respond directly to the local insolation , concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis . Analysis of deep-ocean cores and a seminal paper by Hays , Imbrie , and Shackleton provide additional validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis through physical artifacts . However , there are still several observations that the hypothesis does not explain .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Milankovitch_cycles", "rank": 55, "score": 99596 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 56, "score": 99586 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Taylor (environmentalist) Content: Peter Taylor ( b. 24 Jan 1948 ) is a UK environmentalist with a long track record of public activism and scholarship on issues ranging from nuclear safety , ocean pollution , biodiversity strategies , renewable energy and climate change . His recent work on global warming has been questioned by environmentalists . His 2009 book Chill : a reassessment of global warming theory argued that most of the recent documented warming is caused by peaking natural cycles , that there is also a potential for global cooling and that adaptation not mitigation should be a priority . His views received widespread coverage in the media -- with front page on the Daily Express , and articles in the online versions of The Mail , The Times and an Al Jazeera video .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Peter_Taylor_(environmentalist)", "rank": 57, "score": 99507 }, { "content": "Title: 1980 United States heat wave Content: The 1980 United States Heat Wave was a period of intense heat and drought that wreaked havoc on much of the Midwestern United States and Southern Plains throughout the summer of 1980 . It is among the most devastating natural disasters in terms of deaths and destruction in U.S. history , claiming at least 1,700 lives and because of the massive drought , agricultural damage reached US$ 20.0 billion ( US$ 55.4 billion in 2007 dollars , adjusted for the GNP inflation index ) . It is among the billion-dollar weather disasters listed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "1980_United_States_heat_wave", "rank": 58, "score": 99477 }, { "content": "Title: 4.2 kiloyear event Content: The 4.2 kiloyear BP aridification event was one of the most severe climatic events of the Holocene period . Starting in about 2200 BC , it probably lasted the entire 22nd century BC . The drought may have initiated southeastward habitat tracking within the Indus Valley Civilization . The 4.2 kiloyear BP event has been hypothesised to have caused the collapse of the Old Kingdom in Egypt as well as the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia , and the Liangzhu culture in the lower Yangtze River area . However , this theory has been criticised by archaeologists , with political causes for the collapse of these polities thought to be more probable .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "4.2_kiloyear_event", "rank": 59, "score": 99299 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska", "rank": 60, "score": 99201 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 61, "score": 98992 }, { "content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years", "rank": 62, "score": 98755 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 63, "score": 98684 }, { "content": "Title: African humid period Content: The African humid period (AHP) is a climate period in Africa during the late Pleistocene and Holocene geologic epochs, when northern Africa was wetter than today. The covering of much of the Sahara desert by grasses, trees and lakes was caused by changes in Earth's orbit around the Sun; changes in vegetation and dust in the Sahara which strengthened the African monsoon; and increased greenhouse gases, which may imply that anthropogenic global warming could result in a shrinkage of the Sahara desert. During the preceding last glacial maximum, the Sahara contained extensive dune fields and was mostly uninhabited. It was much larger than today, but its lakes and rivers such as Lake Victoria and the White Nile were either dry or at low levels. The humid period began about 14,600–14,500 years ago at the end of Heinrich event 1, simultaneously to the Bølling-Allerød warming. Rivers and lakes such as Lake Chad formed or expanded, glaciers grew on Mount Kilimanjaro and the Sahara retreated. Two major dry fluctuations occurred; during the Younger Dryas and the short 8.2 kiloyear event. The African humid period ended 6,000–5,000 years ago during the Piora Oscillation cold period. While some evidence points to an end 5,500 years ago, in the Sahel, Arabia and East Africa the period appears to have taken place in several steps such as the 4.2 kiloyear event. The AHP led to a widespread settlement of the Sahara and the Arabian Deserts, and had a profound effect on African cultures, such as the birth of the Pharaonic civilization. They lived as hunter-gatherers until the agricultural revolution and domesticated cattle, goats and sheep. They left archeological sites and artifacts such as one of the oldest ships in the world, and rock paintings such as those in the Cave of Swimmers and in the Acacus Mountains. Earlier humid periods in Africa were postulated after the discovery of these rock paintings in now-inhospitable parts of the Sahara. When the period ended, humans gradually abandoned the desert in favour of regions with more secure water supplies, such as the Nile Valley and Mesopotamia, where they gave rise to early complex societies.", "qid": "3005", "docid": "African_humid_period", "rank": 64, "score": 98445 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 65, "score": 98406 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 66, "score": 98149 }, { "content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm", "rank": 67, "score": 98144 }, { "content": "Title: Holocene climatic optimum Content: The Holocene Climate Optimum ( HCO ) was a warm period during roughly the interval 9,000 to 5,000 years BP . This event has also been known by many other names , including : Hypsithermal , Altithermal , Climatic Optimum , Holocene Optimum , Holocene Thermal Maximum , and Holocene Megathermal . This warm period was followed by a gradual decline until about two millennia ago . For other temperature fluctuations see : Temperature record For other past climate fluctuation see : Paleoclimatology For the pollen zone and Blytt-Sernander period associated with the climate optimum , see : Atlantic ( period )", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Holocene_climatic_optimum", "rank": 68, "score": 97750 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents", "rank": 69, "score": 97660 }, { "content": "Title: Hirnantian Content: The Hirnantian is the seventh and final internationally recognized stage of the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era . It was of short duration , lasting about 1.9 million years , from to Ma ( million years ago ) . The early part of the Hirnantian was characterized by cold temperatures , major glaciation , and a severe drop in sea level . In the latter part of the Hirnantian , temperatures rose , the glaciers melted , and sea level returned to the same or to a slightly higher level than it had been prior to the glaciation . Most scientists believe that this climatic oscillation caused the major extinction event that took place during this time . In fact , the Hirnantian ( also known as the End Ordovician and the Ordovician-Silurian ) mass extinction event represents the second largest such event in geologic history . Approximately 85 % of marine ( sea-dwelling ) species died . Only the End Permian mass extinction was larger . Unlike many smaller extinction events , however , the long-term consequences of the End Ordovician event were relatively small . Following the climatic oscillation , the climate returned to its previous state , and the species that survived soon ( within two or three million years ) evolved into species very similar to the ones that existed before .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Hirnantian", "rank": 70, "score": 97624 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth", "rank": 71, "score": 97358 }, { "content": "Title: Roman Warm Period Content: The Roman Warm Period or the Roman climatic optimum has been proposed as a period of unusually warm weather in Europe and the North Atlantic that ran from approximately 250 BC to AD 400 .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Roman_Warm_Period", "rank": 72, "score": 96992 }, { "content": "Title: Dansgaard–Oeschger event Content: Dansgaard -- Oeschger events ( often abbreviated D -- O events ) are rapid climate fluctuations that occurred 25 times during the last glacial period . Some scientists say that the events occur quasi-periodically with a recurrence time being a multiple of 1,470 years , but this is debated . The comparable climate cyclicity during the Holocene is referred to as Bond events .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Dansgaard–Oeschger_event", "rank": 73, "score": 96649 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Peter_Doran", "rank": 74, "score": 96633 }, { "content": "Title: Solar maximum Content: -RSB- Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun . During solar maximum , large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun 's irradiance output grows by about 0.07 % . The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth 's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns . At solar maximum , the Sun 's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles . The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next , with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years . Large solar flares often occur during a maximum . For example , the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Solar_maximum", "rank": 75, "score": 96633 }, { "content": "Title: Climate pattern Content: A climate pattern is any recurring characteristic of the climate . Climate patterns can last tens of thousands of years , like the glacial and interglacial periods within ice ages , or repeat each year , like monsoons . A climate pattern may come in the form of a regular cycle , like the diurnal cycle or the seasonal cycle ; a quasi periodic event , like El Niño ; or a highly irregular event , such as a volcanic winter . The regular cycles are generally well understood and may be removed by normalization . For example , graphs which show trends of temperature change will usually have the effects of seasonal variation removed .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Climate_pattern", "rank": 76, "score": 96430 }, { "content": "Title: GEO-2000 Content: GEO-2000 is the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Global Environment Outlook 2000 . The UNEP launched the Global Environment Outlook in 1995 to assess environmental issues and to have them published . The first report was published in 1999 . As well as some of the more well known issues the report identified new threats such as : nitrogen 's harmful impact on ecosystems increased severity of natural disasters species invasion as a result of globalization increased environmental pressures caused by urbanization decline in the quality of governance in some countries new wars which impact on both the immediate environment and neighbouring states the impact of refugees on the natural environment", "qid": "3005", "docid": "GEO-2000", "rank": 77, "score": 95887 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 15 Content: Solar cycle 15 was the fifteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.1 years , beginning in July 1913 and ending in August 1923 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 175.7 ( August 1917 ) , and the starting minimum was 2.5 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 15 to 16 , there were a total of 534 days with no sunspots . A major geomagnetic storm during 13 -- 15 May 1921 caused damage in communication systems and aurora displays in much of the eastern United States . Geomagnetic storms in March 1918 , August 1919 , October 1919 , and March 1920 affected telegraph lines , while a solar flare on 13 May 1921 also affected rail signal and switching equipment , in what was known as the `` New York Railroad Storm . ''", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Solar_cycle_15", "rank": 78, "score": 95576 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 79, "score": 95253 }, { "content": "Title: Diurnal cycle Content: A diurnal cycle is any pattern that recurs every 24 hours as a result of one full rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun . In climatology , the diurnal cycle is one of the most basic forms of climate patterns . The most familiar such pattern is the diurnal temperature variation . Such a cycle may be approximately sinusoidal , or include components of a truncated sinusoid ( due to the sun 's rising and setting ) and thermal relaxation ( Newton cooling ) at night . Diurnal cycles of environmental conditions ( light or temperature ) can result in similar cycles in dependent biological processes , such as photosynthesis in plants , or clinical depression in humans . Plant responses to environmental cycles may even induce indirect cycles in rhizosphere microbial activities , including nitrogen fixation . A semi-diurnal cycle refers to a pattern that occurs about every twelve hours or about twice a day . Often these can be related to lunar tides , in which case the interval is closer to 12 hours and 25 minutes .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Diurnal_cycle", "rank": 80, "score": 95159 }, { "content": "Title: 2000 Southern United States heat wave Content: Aided by drought , a heat wave persisted in late Summer 2000 along the southern tier of the United States from July to early September of that year . Near the end of the period , daily , monthly , and even all-time record high temperatures were broken , with highs commonly peaking well over 100 degrees Fahrenheit . On September 4 , Houston hit 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) and Dallas peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) ; on September 5 , Corpus Christi peaked at 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) , San Antonio peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) while College Station and Austin reached 112 ° F ( 44.4 ° C ) . Damage totaled $ 4 billion , mainly due to wildfires and crop losses , and there were 140 deaths .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "2000_Southern_United_States_heat_wave", "rank": 81, "score": 95060 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal", "rank": 82, "score": 95041 }, { "content": "Title: Sixty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India Content: The Sixty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India , officially known as The Constitution ( Sixty-second Amendment ) Act , 1989 , extended the period of reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and representation of the Anglo-Indians in the Lok Sabha and the State Legislative Assemblies for another ten years , i.e. up to 26 January 2000 . Article 334 of the Constitution had originally required the reservation of seats to cease in 1960 , but this was extended to 1970 by the 8th Amendment . The period of reservation was extended to 1980 and 1990 by the 23rd and 45th Amendments respectively . The 62nd Amendment extended the period of reservation to 2000 . The period of reservation was further extended to 2010 and 2020 by the 79th and 95th Amendments respectively .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Sixty-second_Amendment_of_the_Constitution_of_India", "rank": 83, "score": 94950 }, { "content": "Title: Younger Dryas Content: The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Younger_Dryas", "rank": 84, "score": 94524 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 19 Content: Solar cycle 19 was the nineteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.5 years , beginning in April 1954 and ending in October 1964 . The International Geophysical Year occurred at the peak of this solar cycle . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 285.0 , in March 1958 ( the highest on record ) , and the starting minimum was 5.1 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 19 to 20 , there were a total of 227 days with no sunspots . This was the lowest number since 1850 .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Solar_cycle_19", "rank": 85, "score": 94490 }, { "content": "Title: Recession of 1960–61 Content: The Recession of 1960 -- 1961 was a recession in the United States . According to the National Bureau of Economic Research the recession lasted for 10 months , beginning in April 1960 and ending in February 1961 . The recession preceded the second longest economic expansion in U.S. history which lasted from February 1961 to the Recession of 1969 -- 70 in December 1969 ( only the 1990s saw a longer period of growth ) . The Federal Reserve began to tighten monetary policy in 1959 and eased off in 1960 . During this recession , the Gross Domestic Product of the United States fell 1.6 percent . Though the recession ended in November 1960 , the unemployment rate did not peak for several months . In May 1961 , the rate reached its height for the cycle of 7.1 percent .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Recession_of_1960–61", "rank": 86, "score": 94461 }, { "content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Abrupt_climate_change", "rank": 87, "score": 94455 }, { "content": "Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Climate_oscillation", "rank": 88, "score": 94442 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 89, "score": 94428 }, { "content": "Title: Late Glacial Content: The Late Glacial ( c. 13,000 -- 10,000 years ago ) , or Tardiglacial ( `` Late Glacial '' ) , is defined primarily by the beginning of the modern warm period , in which climates in the Northern Hemisphere warmed substantially , causing a process of accelerated deglaciation following the Last Glacial Maximum ( c. 25,000 -- 13,000 years ago ) . At this time , human populations , previously forced into refuge areas as a result of Last Glacial Maximum climatic conditions , gradually begin to repopulate the Northern Hemisphere 's Eurasian landmass and eventually populate North America via Beringia for the first time . Evidence for its occurrence stems from two main types of analysis . The first is the use of oxygen isotope stages ( OIS ) gathered from stratified deep-sea sediment cores . Samples are gathered and measured for change in isotope levels to determine temperature fluctuation for given periods of time . The second is a proxy measurement , the observation of certain reappearing fauna and flora fossils that can survive only in temperate climates , thus indicating warming trends for a given geographic area . Archaeological evidence of settlement and resettlement in certain areas by humans also serve as proxy measurements . Towards the end of OIS 2 in which the Late Glacial Maximum occurs , the deep-sea sediment cores indicate a gradually warming climate , and the reappearance of certain warm-weather flora and fauna remains throughout the Northern Hemisphere correlate with that trend . A period of relatively brief cold oscillation , referred to as the Younger Dryas , is detected during OIS 2 , as can be inferred from an increase in isotope weight .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Late_Glacial", "rank": 90, "score": 94365 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "rank": 91, "score": 94201 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 21 Content: Solar cycle 21 was the 21st solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.5 years , beginning in March 1976 and ending in September 1986 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 232.9 , in December 1979 , and the starting minimum was 17.8 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 21 to 22 , there were a total of 273 days with no sunspots . The largest solar flare of this cycle ( X15 ) occurred on July 11 , 1978 .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Solar_cycle_21", "rank": 92, "score": 94066 }, { "content": "Title: Programme for International Student Assessment (2000 to 2012) Content: The Programme for International Student Assessment has had several runs before the most recent one in 2012 . The first PISA assessment was carried out in 2000 . The results of each period of assessment take about one year and a half to be analysed . First results were published in November 2001 . The release of raw data and the publication of technical report and data handbook only took place in spring 2002 . The triennial repeats follow a similar schedule ; the process of seeing through a single PISA cycle , start-to-finish , always takes over four years . 470,000 15-year-old students representing 65 nations and territories participated in PISA 2009 . An additional 50,000 students representing nine nations were tested in 2010 . Every period of assessment focuses on one of the three competence fields of reading , math , science ; but the two others are tested as well . After nine years , a full cycle is completed : after 2000 , reading was again the main domain in 2009 .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Programme_for_International_Student_Assessment_(2000_to_2012)", "rank": 93, "score": 93629 }, { "content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Leipzig_Declaration", "rank": 94, "score": 93541 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 95, "score": 93504 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 96, "score": 93430 }, { "content": "Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Interglacial", "rank": 97, "score": 93322 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "World_Climate_Research_Programme", "rank": 98, "score": 93258 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 11 Content: Solar cycle 11 was the eleventh solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.8 years , beginning in March 1867 and ending in December 1878 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 234.0 ( August 1870 ) , and the starting minimum was 9.9 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 11 to 12 , there were a total of 1028 days with no sunspots ( the highest recorded of any cycle transit to date ) . Strong auroral displays were observed in October 1870 , February 1872 , and August 1872 .", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Solar_cycle_11", "rank": 99, "score": 93208 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "3005", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 100, "score": 93084 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Solar water disinfection Content: Solar water disinfection ( ` SoDis ' ) is a type of portable water purification that uses solar energy to make biologically-contaminated ( e.g. bacteria , viruses , protozoa and worms ) water safe to drink . Water contaminated with non-biological agents such as toxic chemicals or heavy metals require additional steps to make the water safe to drink . Solar water disinfection is usually accomplished using some mix of electricity generated by photovoltaic panels ( solar PV ) , heat ( solar thermal ) , and solar ultraviolet light collection . Solar disinfection using the effects of electricity generated by photovoltaics typically uses an electric current to deliver electrolytic processes which disinfect water , for example by generating oxidative free radicals which kill pathogens by damaging their chemical structure . A second approach uses stored solar electricity from a battery , and operates at night or at low light levels to power an ultraviolet lamp to perform secondary solar ultraviolet water disinfection . Solar thermal water disinfection uses heat from the Sun to heat water to 70 -- 100 ° C for a short period of time . A number of approaches exist here . Solar heat collectors can have lenses in front of them , or use reflectors . They may also use varying levels of insulation or glazing . In addition , some solar thermal water disinfection processes are batch-based , while others ( through-flow solar thermal disinfection ) operate almost continuously while the Sun shines . Water heated to temperatures below 100 ° C is generally referred to as Pasteurized water . The ultraviolet part of sunlight can also kill pathogens in water . The SODIS method uses a combination of UV light and increased temperature ( solar thermal ) for disinfecting water using only sunlight and PET plastic bottles . SODIS is a free and effective method for decentralized water treatment , usually applied at the household level and is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage . SODIS is already applied in numerous developing countries . Educational pamphlets on the method are available in many languages , each equivalent to the English-language version .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_water_disinfection", "rank": 1, "score": 102040 }, { "content": "Title: Solar water heating Content: Solar water heating ( SWH ) is the conversion of sunlight into heat for water heating using a solar thermal collector . A variety of configurations are available at varying cost to provide solutions in different climates and latitudes . SWHs are widely used for residential and some industrial applications . A sun-facing collector heats a working fluid that passes into a storage system for later use . SWH are active ( pumped ) and passive ( convection-driven ) . They use water only , or both water and a working fluid . They are heated directly or via light-concentrating mirrors . They operate independently or as hybrids with electric or gas heaters . In large-scale installations , mirrors may concentrate sunlight onto a smaller collector . The global solar thermal market is dominated by China , Europe , Japan and India , although Israel was one of the first countries to mandate installation of SWH in 1980 , leading to a flourishing industry .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_water_heating", "rank": 2, "score": 95902 }, { "content": "Title: Solarball Content: The solarball is a water purification device based on evaporation purification . It consists of a clear plastic sphere which users would fill with water and then wear on their heads . A solarball can produce three liters of clean water per day . Sunlight enters inside of the ball passing through transparent layer and evaporates dirty water , in the other side of the ball , water vapours condense and form clean water . It was invented by Jonathan Liow , an Australian student who is studying Industrial Design .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solarball", "rank": 3, "score": 94538 }, { "content": "Title: Solar hot water in Australia Content: Solar hot water is water heated using natural energy from the sun . Solar energy heats up large panels called thermal collectors . The energy is transferred through a fluid ( often water ) to a reservoir tank for storage and subsequent use . It is then used to heat water for commercial or domestic use and also as an energy input for heating and cooling devices and for industrial ` process heat ' applications . Solar hot water systems are motivated by the desire to reduce energy consumption more specifically , to reduce a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions . In the case of Victoria , for example , converting from electric to solar hot water could save 20 % of the state 's total greenhouse gas emissions . Despite an excellent solar resource , the penetration of solar water heaters in the Australian domestic market is only about 4 % or 5 % , with new dwellings accounting for most sales . During the 1950s , Australia 's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) carried out world leading research into flat plate solar water heaters . A solar water heater manufacturing industry was subsequently established in Australia and a large proportion of the manufactured product was exported . Four of the original companies are still in business and the manufacturing base has now expanded to 24 companies . Water heating is the largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions from the average Australian home , accounting for around 28 per cent of home energy use ( excluding the family car ) . The Australian government estimates that installing a climate friendly hot water system can save a family $ 300 to $ 700 off electricity bills each year .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_hot_water_in_Australia", "rank": 4, "score": 94124 }, { "content": "Title: Solar still Content: A solar still distills water , using the heat of the Sun to evaporate , cool then collect the water . There are many types of solar still , including large scale concentrated solar stills , and condensation traps ( better known as moisture traps amongst survivalists ) . In a solar still , impure water is contained outside the collector , where it is evaporated by sunlight shining through clear plastic or glass . The pure water vapor condenses on the cool inside surface and drips down , where it is collected and removed . Distillation replicates the way nature makes rain . The sun 's energy heats water to the point of evaporation . As the water evaporates , water vapor rises , condensing into water again as it cools and can then be collected . This process leaves behind impurities , such as salts and heavy metals , and eliminates microbiological organisms . The end result is pure distilled water .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_still", "rank": 5, "score": 92936 }, { "content": "Title: Active solar Content: Solar hot water systems use pumps or fans to circulate fluid ( often a mixture of water and glycol to prevent freezing during winter periods ) or air , through solar collectors , and are therefore classified under active solar technology . Some of the basic benefits of active systems is that controls ( usually electrical ) can be used to maximize their effectiveness . For example , a passive solar thermal array which does not rely on pumps and sensors will only start circulating when a certain amount of internal energy has built up in the system . Using sensors and pumps , a relatively small amount of energy ( i.e. that used to power a pump and controller ) can harvest a far larger amount of available thermal energy by switching on as soon as a useful temperature differential becomes present . Controls also allow a greater variety of choices for utilizing the energy that becomes available . For example , a solar thermal array could heat a swimming pool on a relatively cool morning where heating a domestic hot water cylinder was impractical due to the different stored water temperatures . Later in the day as the temperature rises the controls could be used to switch the solar heated water over to the cylinder instead . Disadvantages of active solar systems include that the external power sources can fail ( probably rendering them useless ) and that controls require maintenance . Most solar collectors are fixed in their array position mounting , but can have a higher performance if they track the path of the sun through the sky ( however it is unusual for thermal collectors to be mounted in this way ) . Solar trackers , used to orient solar arrays may be driven by either passive or active technology , and can have a significant gain in energy yield over the course of a year when compared to a fixed array . Again passive solar tracking would rely on the inherent thermo-dynamic properties of the materials used in the system rather than an external power source to generate its tracking movement . Active Solar Tracking would utilise sensors and motors track the path of the sun across the sky . This action can be caused by geographical and time data being programmed into the controls . However , some systems actually track the brightest point in the sky using light sensors , and manufacturers claim this can add a significant extra yield over and above geographical tracking .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Active_solar", "rank": 6, "score": 91559 }, { "content": "Title: Solar maximum Content: -RSB- Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun . During solar maximum , large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun 's irradiance output grows by about 0.07 % . The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth 's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns . At solar maximum , the Sun 's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles . The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next , with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years . Large solar flares often occur during a maximum . For example , the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_maximum", "rank": 7, "score": 90273 }, { "content": "Title: SolarWave Content: SolarWave is a Swedish company producing solar powered water purification systems . SolarWave was founded in 2009 by Bengt Skörelid and Thomas Larsson . The company has its headquarters in Gävle and is represented internationally by its subsidiaries SolarWave Tanzania Limited in Tanzania and SolarWave Uganda Limited in Uganda , as well as by resellers in several African countries . The company 's product portfolio comprises water purification systems , desalination systems and solar power sets . Based on ultraviolet and reverse osmosis technologies , SolarWave 's systems are suitable for use in remote and rural areas because it integrates solar power supply and requires no previous infrastructure . These systems also help serve private home owners needing small and reliable water treatment systems which are easy to operate and are environmentally friendly . SolarWave is also a part of the United Nations approved Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) project in Tanzania . The project provides safe drinking water to 10 remote villages in Tanzania and reduces CO2 emissions by replacing traditional water purification ; boiling of water using firewood , with SolarWave 's environmentally friendly technology .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "SolarWave", "rank": 8, "score": 89796 }, { "content": "Title: Water pyramid Content: A Water pyramid or WaterPyramid is a village-scale solar still , designed to distill water using solar energy for remote communities without easy access to clean , fresh water . It provides a means whereby communities can produce potable drinking water from saline , brackish or polluted water sources .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Water_pyramid", "rank": 9, "score": 88243 }, { "content": "Title: List of extrasolar candidates for liquid water Content: Extraterrestrial liquid water in the Solar System is likely uncommon , although it has been hypothesized to exist in some of its moons , and to have formerly existed on Mars and Venus . Extrasolar liquid water has not yet been found to exist . The following list contains candidates from the list of confirmed objects that meet the following criteria : Confirmed object orbiting within a circumstellar habitable zone of Earth mass or greater ( because smaller objects may not have the gravitational means to retain water ) but not a star Has been studied for more than a year Confirmed surface with strong evidence for it being either solid or liquid Water vapour detected in its atmosphere Gravitational , radio or differentation models that predict a wet stratum Most known extrasolar planetary systems appear to have very different compositions from the Solar System , though there is sampling bias arising from the detection methods . The goal of current searches is to find Earth-sized planets in the habitable zone of their planetary systems ( also called the Goldilocks zone ) . Planets with oceans could include Earth-sized moons of giant planets , though it remains speculative whether such ` moons ' really exist . The Kepler telescope might be sensitive enough to detect them . But there is evidence that rocky planets hosting water may be commonplace throughout the Milky Way .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "List_of_extrasolar_candidates_for_liquid_water", "rank": 10, "score": 87854 }, { "content": "Title: Vitamin D and respiratory tract infections Content: A link between vitamin D and respiratory tract infections has been hypothesised . According to the hypothesis , vitamin D deficiency may predispose to infection . Evidence supporting the hypothesis derives from some scientific studies and the observation that outbreaks of respiratory infections occur predominantly during months associated with lower exposure to the sun . Evidence against the hypothesis has also been reported . The Institute of Medicine concluded in a 2011 report that the existing data were `` not consistently supportive of a causal role '' for the vitamin in reducing the risk of infection .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Vitamin_D_and_respiratory_tract_infections", "rank": 11, "score": 87626 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle Content: The solar cycle or solar magnetic activity cycle is the nearly periodic 11-year change in the Sun 's activity ( including changes in the levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material ) and appearance ( changes in the number and size of sunspots , flares , and other manifestations ) . They have been observed ( by changes in the sun 's appearance and by changes seen on Earth , such as auroras ) for centuries . The changes on the sun cause effects in space , in the atmosphere , and on Earth 's surface . While it is the dominant variable in solar activity , aperiodic fluctuations also occur .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_cycle", "rank": 12, "score": 87366 }, { "content": "Title: F2 propagation Content: The E layer of the ionosphere is not the only layer that can reflect VHF television signals . Less frequently , the higher F2 layer can also propagate VHF signals several thousand miles beyond their intended area of reception . Solar activity has a cycle of approximately 11 years . During this period , sunspot activity rises to a peak and gradually falls again to a low level . When sunspot activity increases , the reflecting capabilities of the F1 layer surrounding earth enable high frequency short-wave communications . The highest-reflecting layer , the F2 layer , which is approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) above earth , receives ultraviolet radiation from the sun , causing ionisation of the gases within this layer . During the daytime when sunspot activity is at a maximum , the F2 layer can become intensely ionized due to radiation from the sun . When solar activity is sufficiently high , the MUF ( Maximum Usable Frequency ) rises , hence the ionisation density is sufficient to reflect signals well into the 30 -- 50 MHz VHF spectrum . Since the MUF progressively increases , F2 reception on lower frequencies can indicate potential low band 45-55 MHz VHF TV as well as VHF amateur radio paths . A rising MUF will initially affect the 27 MHz CB band , and the amateur 28 MHz 10 meters band before reaching 45-55 MHz TV and the 6 Meter amateur band . The F2 MUF generally increases at a slower rate compared to the Es MUF . Since the height of the F2 layer is some 200 miles ( 320 km ) , it follows that single-hop F2 signals will be received at thousands rather than hundreds of miles . A single-hop F2 signal will usually be around 2,000 miles ( 3,200 km ) minimum . A maximum F2 single-hop can reach up to approximately 3,000 miles ( 4,800 km ) . Multi-hop F2 propagation has enabled Band 1 VHF reception to over 11,000 miles ( 17,700 km ) . Since F2 reception is directly related to radiation from the Sun on both a daily basis and in relation to the sunspot cycle , it follows that for optimum reception the centre of the signal path will be roughly at midday . The F2 layer tends to predominantly propagate signals below 40 MHz , which includes the 27 MHz CB band , and 28 MHz 10-metre Amateur radio band . Less frequently , television and amateur signals in the 45 -- 55 MHz VHF band are also propagated over considerable distances . In North America , F2 is most likely to only affect VHF TV channel 2 , in Europe and middle east channel E2 and E3 ( and the now deprecated channel itA ) and in eastern Europe channel R1 . Television pictures propagated via F2 tend to suffer from characteristic ghosting and smearing . Picture degradation and signal strength attenuation increases with each subsequent F2 hop .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "F2_propagation", "rank": 13, "score": 86090 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Neighbourhoods Content: Toronto Solar Neighbourhoods Initiative ( `` Solar Neighbourhoods '' ) is a joint project of the Toronto Atmospheric Fund and Toronto Energy Efficiency Office , with support from the Toronto Environment Office and Toronto Hydro . Its goal is to encourage the installation of solar water heating systems in Toronto homes through financial incentives and other support to both homeowners and the local solar industry . Phase I ( 2008-2009 ) of the pilot project is targeting homes in Toronto 's Ward 30 . The program was developed based on a directive in Toronto 's `` Climate Change , Clean Air and Sustainable Energy Action Plan '' , which was approved by Toronto City Council in June 2007 .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_Neighbourhoods", "rank": 14, "score": 85721 }, { "content": "Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_activity_and_climate", "rank": 15, "score": 84855 }, { "content": "Title: Solar desalination Content: Solar desalination is a technique to desalinate water using solar energy . There are two basic methods of achieving desalination using this technique ; direct and indirect .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_desalination", "rank": 16, "score": 84621 }, { "content": "Title: Solar hot water in New Zealand Content: Solar hot water in New Zealand is increasingly used on both new and existing buildings . Solar thermal technologies had a sizable initial uptake in the pioneering days of the 1970s . By 2001 more than 40GWhr was produced from solar hot water technologies , equating to 0.1 % of the total electricity consumption in New Zealand . In 2006 the government announced an investment of $ 15.5 million over the first three and a half years of a five-year Solar Water Heating program to increase the number of solar hot water heating installations . As of 2006 there were about 35,000 solar hot water installations on domestic and commercial buildings . There are now eleven manufacturers and importers in the industry with most of the collector system being locally made .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_hot_water_in_New_Zealand", "rank": 17, "score": 84297 }, { "content": "Title: Solar humidification Content: The solar humidification -- dehumidification method ( HDH ) is a thermal water desalination method . It is based on evaporation of sea water or brackish water and consecutive condensation of the generated humid air , mostly at ambient pressure . This process mimics the natural water cycle , but over a much shorter time frame . The simplest configuration is implemented in the solar still , evaporating the sea water inside a glass covered box and condensing the water vapor on the lower side of the glass cover . More sophisticated designs separate the solar heat gain section from the evaporation-condensation chamber . An optimized design comprises separated evaporation and condensation sections . A significant part of the heat consumed for evaporation can be regained during condensation . An example for such an optimized thermal desalination cycle is the multiple-effect humidification ( MEH ) method of desalination . Solar humidification takes place in every greenhouse . Water evaporates from the surfaces of soil , water and plants because of thermal input . In this way the humidification process is naturally integrated within the architecture of the greenhouse . Several companies like Seawater greenhouse utilize this inherent feature of a greenhouse in order to conduct desalination inside the atmosphere of the facility . The integrated biotectural system , or IBTS Greenhouse mimics the natural process of cloud formation respectively desalination exactly .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_humidification", "rank": 18, "score": 83744 }, { "content": "Title: Solar (Spanish term) Content: In Spanish urban development a solar is a plot of land that meets minimum conditions to be built on and developed properly according to existing land use regulations . These conditions relate primarily to water supply and access to the electrical grid , disposal or purification of wastewater and road access . The specific characteristics required for such a plot to be considered a `` solar '' are set for each Spanish Autonomous Region based on these criteria . During the Spanish colonization of the Americas , the solar was one of the basic units into which cities were divided ; solares were assigned when a new settlement was founded .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_(Spanish_term)", "rank": 19, "score": 83253 }, { "content": "Title: Central solar heating Content: Central solar heating is the provision of central heating and hot water from solar energy by a system in which the water is heated centrally by arrays of solar thermal collectors ( central solar heating plants - CSHPs ) and distributed through district heating pipe networks ( or ` block heating ' systems in the case of smaller installations ) . For block systems , the solar collectors are typically mounted on the building roof tops . For district heating systems the collectors may instead be installed on the ground . Central solar heating can involve large-scale thermal storage , scaling from diurnal storage to seasonal thermal energy storage ( STES ) . Thermal storage increase the solar fraction - the ratio between solar energy gain to the total energy demand in the system - for solar thermal systems . Ideally , the aim for applying seasonal storage is to store solar energy collected in the summer time to the winter month . Compared to small solar heating systems ( solar combisystems ) , central solar heating systems have better price-performance ratios due to the lower installation price , the higher thermal efficiency and less maintenance . Central solar systems can also be used for solar cooling in the form of district cooling . In this case , the overall efficiency is high due to the high correlation between the energy demand and the solar radiation .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Central_solar_heating", "rank": 20, "score": 83067 }, { "content": "Title: VK Šibenik Content: Vaterpolski klub Solaris is a Croatian water polo club from town on the south of the country called Šibenik . Club offices are on address Prilaz tvornici BB .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "VK_Šibenik", "rank": 21, "score": 82806 }, { "content": "Title: Mukul Kundu Content: Mukul R. Kundu ( 10 February 1930 - 16 June 2010 ) , was an Indian solar physicist , known best as a pioneer of radio observations of the Sun . Early in his career , he showed that the Sun 's 10.7 centimetre radio flux is correlated with the level of ionisation in the Earth 's ionosphere . The 10.7 cm flux is now used as a standard proxy for the level of magnetic activity on the Sun . He served on the editorial board of the journal Solar Physics and was awarded the George Ellery Hale Prize in 2007 .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Mukul_Kundu", "rank": 22, "score": 82000 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Cup Content: The Solar Cup is an eco-boating competition in Temecula , California . Paid for by the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California and taking place on Lake Skinner , the competition revolves around high school teams constructing solar powered electric boats . Boats are built from identical kits of marine-caliber wood provided by the water district , and are generally 16 feet long , and weigh about 250 pounds . This competition is inspired by the Solar Splash competition at the university level . Solar Cup begins with sign up in December , and includes a boat-building event and several workshops focusing on technical aspects such as drive trains , electrical systems , solar power collection and steering systems . Teams are also required to meet deadlines for submitting illustrated reports on these systems . In 2007 the competition was split between `` veteran '' ( returning ) and `` rookie '' ( new ) teams . The competition is a scored event , divided up into several categories : Technical Reports , Workshops , Visual Displays , Qualifying Times , Endurance Distance , and Sprint Times . Combined , all of these categories add up for a 1000 maximum possible points . Overall , 41 teams competed in 2007 , and 36 teams competed in 2010 .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_Cup", "rank": 23, "score": 81860 }, { "content": "Title: SunCommon Content: SunCommon is a Vermont-based installer of residential solar power systems . It is headquartered in Waterbury , Vermont . The company originated with advocacy group Vermont Public Interest Research Group ( VPIRG ) , which in September 2010 started a program to install solar power and hot water systems for homeowners . The initiative 's success led VPIRG to spin it off into independent company SunCommon , which was incorporated as a benefit corporation in December 2011 . SunCommon was publicly launched in March 2012 after finding funding via private investment ; when it began operations , it had 32 employees and annual revenue of about $ 2 million . SunCommon installed its 1,000 th residential solar system in December 2014 , and by late 2016 had reached 2,000 installations , with a workforce of about 100 . Its 2015 revenue was about $ 22 million .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "SunCommon", "rank": 24, "score": 81235 }, { "content": "Title: Solar-powered desalination unit Content: A solar-powered desalination unit produces potable water from saline water through direct or indirect methods of desalination powered by sunlight . Countries such as Australia , Italy and Egypt have adopted this system as an alternative source of water for the population . Direct solar desalination produces distillate directly in the solar collector . An example would be a solar still which traps the Sun 's energy to obtain freshwater through the process of evaporation and condensation . Indirect solar desalination incorporates solar energy collection systems with conventional desalination systems such as multi-stage flash distillation , multiple effect evaporation , freeze separation or reverse osmosis to produce freshwater . The intermittent nature of sunlight and its variable intensity throughout the day makes predicting its efficiency difficult . However , incorporating a thermal energy storage system solves this problem and ensures constant performance even during non-sunlight hours and cloudy days , improving overall efficiency .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar-powered_desalination_unit", "rank": 25, "score": 81188 }, { "content": "Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_gain", "rank": 26, "score": 80724 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Dynamics Content: This article is about the company which manufactures solar hot-water systems , for the NASA observatory see Solar Dynamics Observatory . Solar Dynamics Barbados Ltd is one of the leading Barbados-based manufacturers of solar hot water systems in the Caribbean region . The company which has been in existence for over 33 years was established in 1972 by its current Managing Director James Husbands . The company claims to have installed over 30,000 solar hot water systems on homes and businesses mainly across the Caribbean region . Just after Barbados ' national independence from Britain , the prime minister Errol Barrow and government of Barbados gave staunch support to the solar energy sector of Barbados . This move by the government made Solar Dynamics one of the country 's priorities in terms of moving the island forward .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_Dynamics", "rank": 27, "score": 80679 }, { "content": "Title: Solar minimum Content: Solar minimum is the period of least solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the sun . During this time , sunspot and solar flare activity diminishes , and often does not occur for days at a time . The date of the minimum is described by a smoothed average over 12 months of sunspot activity , so identifying the date of the solar minimum usually can only happen 6 months after the minimum takes place . Solar minima are not generally correlated with changes in climate but recent studies have shown a correlation with regional weather patterns . Solar minimum is contrasted with the solar maximum , where there may be hundreds of sunspots .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_minimum", "rank": 28, "score": 80326 }, { "content": "Title: Concentrated solar still Content: A concentrated solar still is a system that uses the same quantity of solar heat input ( same solar collection area ) as a simple solar still but can produce a volume of freshwater that is many times greater . While a simple solar still is a way of distilling water by using the heat of the sun to drive evaporation from a water source and ambient air to cool a condenser film , a concentrated solar still uses a concentrated solar thermal collector to concentrate solar heat and deliver it to a multi-effect evaporation process for distillation , thus increasing the natural rate of evaporation . The concentrated solar still is capable of large-scale water production in areas with plentiful solar energy .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Concentrated_solar_still", "rank": 29, "score": 79627 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Lake Content: Solar Lake ( Birkat aš-Šams ) is a saline desert lake located on the edge of the Red Sea , about 18 km south of Eilat in the Sinai Peninsula , Taba , Egypt , close to its borders with Israel . A small lake of high salinity , it is the site of complex biochemical phenomena , linked to cycles of evaporation and of infiltration of waters . Solar Lake became isolated from the Red Sea as littoral sediments closed off an embayment between two rocky headlands . The saline waters of the Gulf of Aqaba that seep into Solar Lake are further concentrated by evaporation in the lake . It is believed that in addition to losses from evaporation , there is a crack system at the bottom of the lake Monohydrocalcite and other carbonates appear to be deposited in Solar Lake by the action of benthic cyanobacterial mats ( stromatolite ) , which may be 1 m thick . At night the top metre of surface water loses heat to the cold desert air but insulates the lower layer . The insulated lower layer continues to gain solar energy each day and to accumulate heavy brine from above . Solar Lake develops some of the highest temperature solar-heated waters of any lake : certain layers can reach as high as 60 ° C , temperatures matched only by some geothermal lakes . Due to the strong layering during certain times , the thermal gradients can be as high as 18 ºCm − 1 . In the summer , the lake turns over and becomes well-mixed thermally and in salinity . The residence time of water in the lake is believed to be 5.5 -- 6 months", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_Lake", "rank": 30, "score": 79333 }, { "content": "Title: Solar controller Content: A solar controller is an electronic device that controls the circulating pump in a solar hot water system to harvest as much heat as possible from the solar panels and protect the system from overheating . The basic job of the controller is to turn the circulating pump on when there is heat available in the panels , moving the working fluid through the panels to the heat exchanger at the thermal store . Heat is available whenever the temperature of the solar panel is greater than the temperature of the water in the heat exchanger . Overheat protection is achieved by turning the pump off when the store reaches its maximum temperature and sometimes cooling the store by turning the pump on when the store is hotter than the panels . Most commercial controllers display the temperature of the hot water in the store and provide general status information about the system , including overall energy production .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_controller", "rank": 31, "score": 79117 }, { "content": "Title: Blue Water High Content: Blue Water High is an Australian television drama series , broadcast by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation on ABC1 and on Austar/Foxtel Nickelodeon channel in Australia and on various channels in many other countries . Each season follows the lives of a young group of students at Solar Blue , a high-performance surf academy where several lucky 16-year-olds are selected for a 12-month-long surfing program on Sydney 's northern beaches ( Avalon , Sydney , and New South Wales in Australia ) . There are three series in Blue Water High . The first two series were screened in 2005 and 2006 and the producers did not intend to create a third and final series . However , due to popular demand by fans , they relented and made one more series with only Kate Bell returning in a main role . Series three ended with the closure of Solar Blue because of a lack of funding , indicating that the show would most likely not continue .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Blue_Water_High", "rank": 32, "score": 78758 }, { "content": "Title: Solar phenomena Content: Solar phenomena are the natural phenomena occurring within the magnetically heated outer atmospheres in the Sun . These phenomena take many forms , including solar wind , radio wave flux , energy bursts such as solar flares , coronal mass ejection or solar eruptions , coronal heating and sunspots . These phenomena are generated by a helical dynamo near the center of the Sun 's mass that generates strong magnetic fields and a chaotic dynamo near the surface that generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations . The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation . The collective effect of all solar variations within the Sun 's gravitational field is referred to as space weather . A major weather component is the solar wind , a stream of plasma released from the Sun 's upper atmosphere . It is responsible for the aurora , natural light displays in the sky in the Arctic and Antarctic . Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth , disrupting communications , as well as geomagnetic storms in Earth 's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere . Variations in solar intensity also affect Earth 's climate . These variations can explain events such as ice ages and the Great Oxygenation Event , while the Sun 's future expansion into a red giant will likely end life on Earth . Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the 8th century BCE . Babylonians inscribed and possibly predicted solar eclipses , while the earliest extant report of sunspots dates back to the Chinese Book of Changes , . The first extant description of the solar corona was in 968 , while the earliest sunspot drawing was in 1128 and a solar prominence was described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod . The invention of the telescope allowed major advances in understanding , allowing the first detailed observations in the 1600s . Solar spectroscopy began in the 1800s , from which properties of the solar atmosphere could be determined , while the creation of daguerreotypy led to the first solar photographs on 2 April 1845 . Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences , granulation and spectroscopy . Early in the 20th century , interest in astrophysics surged in America . A number of new observatories were built with solar telescopes around the world . The 1931 invention of the coronagraph allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_phenomena", "rank": 33, "score": 77762 }, { "content": "Title: Sun Ra and his Solar Arkestra Visits Planet Earth Content: Sun Ra and his Solar Arkestra Visits Planet Earth is a jazz album by the American musician Sun Ra and his Solar Arkestra . Recorded between late 1956 and 1958 , the album was originally released on Ra 's own Saturn label in 1966 , and has since been reissued on CD by Evidence in 1992 . In keeping with many Saturn releases , one side features cuts from the arkestra c. 1958 , whilst the other side comes from the 1956 sessions originally intended for Sound of Joy but still unreleased in 1966 .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Sun_Ra_and_his_Solar_Arkestra_Visits_Planet_Earth", "rank": 34, "score": 77567 }, { "content": "Title: Solar energy Content: Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating , photovoltaics , solar thermal energy , solar architecture , molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis . It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power . Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems , concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy . Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun , selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties , and designing spaces that naturally circulate air . The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of electricity . The United Nations Development Programme in its 2000 World Energy Assessment found that the annual potential of solar energy was 1,575 -- 49,837 exajoules ( EJ ) . This is several times larger than the total world energy consumption , which was 559.8 EJ in 2012 . In 2011 , the International Energy Agency said that `` the development of affordable , inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits . It will increase countries ' energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating global warming , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . These advantages are global . Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments ; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared '' .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_energy", "rank": 35, "score": 77426 }, { "content": "Title: Solar pond Content: A solar pond is a large scale solar thermal collector with an integrated arrangement for storage of heated water .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_pond", "rank": 36, "score": 77400 }, { "content": "Title: Solar-powered pump Content: A solar-powered pump is a pump running on electricity generated by photovoltaic panels or the radiated thermal energy available from collected sunlight as opposed to grid electricity or diesel run water pumps . The operation of solar powered pumps is more economical mainly due to the lower operation and maintenance costs and has less environmental impact than pumps powered by an internal combustion engine ( ICE ) . Solar pumps are useful where grid electricity is unavailable and alternative sources ( in particular wind ) do not provide sufficient energy .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar-powered_pump", "rank": 37, "score": 77288 }, { "content": "Title: Solar wind Magnetosphere Ionosphere Link Explorer Content: Solar wind Magnetosphere Ionosphere Link Explorer ( SMILE ) is a planned joint venture mission between the European Space Agency and the Chinese Academy of Sciences to study the interaction between Earth 's magnetosphere and the solar wind , while simultaneously monitoring the magnetosphere 's plasma environment . Launch is expected at the end of 2021 .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_wind_Magnetosphere_Ionosphere_Link_Explorer", "rank": 38, "score": 76981 }, { "content": "Title: Solar energy use in rural Africa Content: The use of solar energy in rural areas across sub-Saharan Africa has increased over the years . With many communities lacking access to basic necessities such as electricity , clean water , and effective irrigation systems ; the innovations in solar powered technologies have led to poverty alleviation projects that combine development strategies and environmental consciousness . Another use for solar energy that has gained momentum in rural African households ( as well as some urban areas ) is that of solar cooking . Historically , the high dependency on wood collection from depleting sources have resulted in serious environmental degradation and has been considered an extremely unsustainable practice when compared to the renewable attribute of solar powered cooking . There have also been recent links made between solar energy and increased food security in the region . African development projects , mostly in rural areas seem to be recognizing the real potential of renewable energy sources especially power derived from the sun .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_energy_use_in_rural_Africa", "rank": 39, "score": 76946 }, { "content": "Title: Solar core Content: The core of the Sun is considered to extend from the center to about 0.2 to 0.25 of solar radius . It is the hottest part of the Sun and of the Solar System . It has a density of 150 g/cm ³ ( 150 times the density of liquid water ) at the center , and a temperature of 15 million degrees Celsius . The core is made of hot , dense gas in the plasmic state ( ions and electrons ) , at a pressure estimated at 265 billion bar ( 3.84 trillion psi or 26.5 petapascals ( PPa ) ) at the center . Due to fusion , the composition of the solar plasma drops from 68-70 % hydrogen by mass at the outer core , to 33 % hydrogen at the core/Sun center . The core inside 0.20 of the solar radius , contains 34 % of the Sun 's mass , but only 0.8 % of the Sun 's volume . Inside 0.24 solar radius , the core generates 99 % of the fusion power of the Sun . There are two distinct reactions in which four hydrogen nuclei may eventually result in one helium nucleus : the proton-proton chain reaction -- which is responsible for most of the Sun 's released energy -- and the CNO cycle .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_core", "rank": 40, "score": 76686 }, { "content": "Title: Solar variability Content: Solar variability refers to changes in solar activity , such as : Solar variation , the change in the amount of radiation emitted by the Sun ( see Solar radiation ) see also solar cycle , specifically for the 11-year cyclic variation in solar activity Changes in the solar wind , i.e. , charged particles ( moving much slower than the speed of light ) Category : Solar phenomena", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_variability", "rank": 41, "score": 76166 }, { "content": "Title: Faint young Sun paradox Content: The faint young Sun paradox describes the apparent contradiction between observations of liquid water early in Earth 's history and the astrophysical expectation that the Sun 's output would be only 70 percent as intense during that epoch as it is during the modern epoch . The issue was raised by astronomers Carl Sagan and George Mullen in 1972 . Explanations of this paradox have taken into account greenhouse effects , astrophysical influences , or a combination of the two . The unresolved question is how a climate suitable for life was maintained on Earth over the long timescale despite the variable solar output and wide range of terrestrial conditions .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Faint_young_Sun_paradox", "rank": 42, "score": 76149 }, { "content": "Title: Solar physics Content: Solar physics is the branch of astrophysics that specializes in the study of the Sun . It deals with detailed measurements that are possible only for our closest star . It intersects with many disciplines of pure physics , astrophysics , and computer science , including fluid dynamics , plasma physics including magnetohydrodynamics , seismology , particle physics , atomic physics , nuclear physics , stellar evolution , space physics , spectroscopy , radiative transfer , applied optics , signal processing , computer vision , computational physics , stellar physics and solar astronomy . Because the Sun is uniquely situated for close-range observing ( other stars can not be resolved with anything like the spatial or temporal resolution that the Sun can ) , there is a split between the related discipline of observational astrophysics ( of distant stars ) and observational solar physics . The study of solar physics is also important as it is believed that changes in the solar atmosphere and solar activity can have a major impact on Earth 's climate . The Sun also provides a `` physical laboratory '' for the study of plasma physics .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_physics", "rank": 43, "score": 75850 }, { "content": "Title: Water on terrestrial planets of the Solar System Content: The origin and development of water on terrestrial planets , Venus , Earth , Mars , and the closely related Earth 's Moon , varies with each planetary body , with the exact origins remaining unclear . Additionally , the terrestrial dwarf planet , Ceres is known to have water ice on its surface .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Water_on_terrestrial_planets_of_the_Solar_System", "rank": 44, "score": 75730 }, { "content": "Title: Solar savings fraction Content: In discussing solar energy , the solar savings fraction or solar fraction ( f ) is the amount of energy provided by the solar technology divided by the total energy required . The solar savings fraction thus is zero for no solar energy utilization , to 1.0 for all energy provided by solar . The solar savings fraction of a particular system is dependent on many factors such as the load , the collection and storage sizes , the operation , and the climate . As an example , the same solar-thermal water heating system installed in a single-family house in Arizona might have f = 0.75 ( 75 % ) , while in a much colder and cloudier climate , like Pittsburgh , PA , might only have a solar fraction of f = 0.3 ( 30 % ) or so . Great care is thus needed in designing such systems , and in evaluating their economics . To increase the solar savings fraction , energy conservation measures should be employed first before expanding the size of the solar energy collection system . Doing so reduces the need for hot water or space heating , for example , and typically provides the best economic return on the total investment , including the solar energy system .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_savings_fraction", "rank": 45, "score": 74939 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Energy World Content: Solar Energy World is a solar energy company based out of Elkridge , Maryland that installs solar panels and solar hot water systems in Delmarva . The company installed the SunPower system that powers the first ZeroHouse 2.0 on the East Coast in 2012 . The original headquarters was located in Jessup , Maryland , but was moved to Elkridge in November 2010 .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_Energy_World", "rank": 46, "score": 74725 }, { "content": "Title: 1822 Waterman Content: 1822 Waterman , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 6.5 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 25 July 1950 , by Indiana University 's Indiana Asteroid Program at its Goethe Link Observatory near Brooklyn , Indiana , United States . Waterman is a S-type asteroid . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 2.5 AU once every 3 years and 2 months ( 1,168 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 1 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Watermans observation arc begins with its official discovery observation , as its first identification , , made at the German Sonneberg Observatory in 1943 , remained unused . In January 2013 , a rotational light-curve of Waterman was obtained from photometric observation taken at the U.S Etscorn Observatory in New Mexico . It gave a well-defined rotation period of 7.581 hours with a brightness variation of 0.51 magnitude . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Waterman measures between 6.06 and 6.52 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.264 and 0.325 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 7.46 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 13.1 . The asteroid was named in honor of American physicist Alan Tower Waterman ( 1892 -- 1967 ) , who was the first director of the U.S. National Science Foundation . He went to Washington to serve with OSRD ( 1941 -- 45 ) , ONR ( 1946 -- 51 ) , and NSF ( 1951 -- 63 ) , after being an academic physicist for 25 years . He was awarded the Karl Taylor Compton Gold Medal for distinguished statesmanship in science , the Public Welfare Medal and the Presidential Medal of Freedom . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "1822_Waterman", "rank": 47, "score": 74716 }, { "content": "Title: Levi Yissar Content: Levi Yissar was an Israeli engineer and entrepreneur . He built the first prototype Israeli solar water heater . In the 1950s there was a fuel and electricity shortage in the new Israeli state , and the government forbade heating water between 10 p.m. and 6 p.m. . As the situation worsened , Yissar proposed that instead of building more electrical generators , homes should switch to solar water heaters . He built a prototype in his home , and in 1953 he started NerYah Company , Israel 's first commercial manufacturer of solar water heaters . By 1967 around one in twenty households heated their water with the sun and 50,000 solar heaters had been sold . However , cheap oil from Iran and from oil fields captured in the Six-Day War made Israeli electricity cheaper and the demand for solar heaters to drop . Following the energy crisis in the 1970s , the Israeli Knesset passed a law requiring the installation of solar water heaters in all new homes ( except high towers with insufficient roof area ) . As a result , Israel is now the world leader in the use of solar energy per capita ( 3 % of the primary national energy consumption ) .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Levi_Yissar", "rank": 48, "score": 74705 }, { "content": "Title: Heliaster solaris Content: Heliaster solaris commonly known as 24-rayed Sunstar is a possibly extinct sea star which was known from the waters near Española Island in the Galápagos Islands .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Heliaster_solaris", "rank": 49, "score": 74669 }, { "content": "Title: Solar chemical Content: Solar chemical refers to a number of possible processes that harness solar energy by absorbing sunlight in a chemical reaction . The idea is conceptually similar to photosynthesis in plants , which converts solar energy into the chemical bonds of glucose molecules , but without using living organisms , which is why it is also called artificial photosynthesis . A promising approach is to use focused sunlight to provide the energy needed to split water into its constituent hydrogen and oxygen in the presence of a metallic catalyst such as zinc . This is normally done in a two-step process so that hydrogen and oxygen are not produced in the same chamber , which creates an explosion hazard . Another approach involves taking the hydrogen created in this process and combining it with carbon dioxide to create methane . The benefit of this approach is that there is an established infrastructure for transporting and burning methane for power generation , which is not true for hydrogen . One main drawback to both of these approaches is common to most methods of energy storage : adding an extra step between energy collection and electricity production drastically decreases the efficiency of the overall process . It is also possible to use solar light to directly drive industrial chemical reactions and applications , eliminating the need to burn fossil fuels for energy .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_chemical", "rank": 50, "score": 74598 }, { "content": "Title: Solar conjunction Content: Solar conjunction occurs when a planet or other solar system object is on the opposite side of the sun from the Earth . From an Earth reference , the sun will pass between the Earth and the object . Communication with any spacecraft in solar conjunction will be severely limited due to the sun 's interference on radio transmissions from the spacecraft . When in reference to Satellite Communications , solar conjunction occurs when the sun is directly in line with an orbiting Satellite and the terrestrial receiving station .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_conjunction", "rank": 51, "score": 74531 }, { "content": "Title: Solar power in Israel Content: Solar power in Israel refers to the use of solar energy in Israel , which began in the early days of the state . In the 1950s , Levi Yissar developed a solar water heater to address the energy shortages that plagued the new country . By 1967 around one in twenty households heated its water with the sun and 50,000 solar heaters had been sold . With the 1970s oil crisis , Harry Zvi Tabor , the father of Israel 's solar industry , developed the prototype of the solar water heater now used in over 90 % of Israeli homes . Israeli engineers have been at the cutting edge of solar energy technology and its solar companies work on projects around the world . However , even though Israeli engineers have been involved in both photovoltaic and concentrated solar power , the earliest Israeli companies which have become market leaders in their respective fields have all been involved in concentrated solar power . Some notable examples of this are BrightSource , Solel and Brenmiller Energy which all deal with utility scale projects . Additionally , Herzliya based SolarEdge has become a market leader in inverters for non-utility scale photovoltaic solar power . With an original lack of fossil fuel reserves and the country 's tenuous relations with its oil-rich neighbors , the search for a stable source of energy is a national priority . Starting in 2009 , Israel found natural gas reserves within their exclusive economic zone which may reduce urgency of solar development . Solar technology in Israel has advanced to the point where it is almost cost-competitive with fossil fuels . The high annual incidence of sunshine in the Negev Desert has spurred an internationally renowned solar research and development industry . At the end of 2008 , a feed-in tariff scheme was approved which has led to many residential and commercial solar energy power station projects . Israel 's goal is to produce ten percent of the country 's energy from renewable sources by 2020 .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_power_in_Israel", "rank": 52, "score": 74349 }, { "content": "Title: Circumstantial Evidence (album) Content: Circumstantial Evidence is the ninth album by American R&B group Shalamar , produced by L.A. Reid & Babyface , Jerry Peters , and Klymaxx founding member Bernadette Cooper . Released in 1987 on the SOLAR label . The line-up on this album is Delisa Davis , Micki Free and Sydney Justin , the latter having replaced Howard Hewett , who had left the group in 1986 to pursue a solo career . Circumstantial Evidence peaked at # 29 on the R&B chart but failed to register on the Billboard chart .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Circumstantial_Evidence_(album)", "rank": 53, "score": 74115 }, { "content": "Title: Sunlight Solar Energy Content: Sunlight Solar Energy is a national solar power company specializing in the design , finance , installation , and management of commercial and residential solar electric , solar hot water , solar pool , and radiant floor systems . Sunlight Solar was founded in 1988 by Paul Israel , a graduate of Temple University and co-founder of the Central Oregon Green and Solar Tour . The company opened its first location in Redmond , Oregon in 1997 and began installing solar for RV 's , solar hot water , and off-grid solar electric systems . In 2003 the company moved operations to Bend , Oregon where the office 's 3.6 Kilowatt photovoltaic system is monitored by Frank Vignola of the University of Oregon Solar Radiation Monitoring Lab which helped the Energy Trust of Oregon and Christopher Dymond of the Oregon Department of Energy calculate performance expectations for solar power production in Central Oregon . In 2004 a state solar incentive program encouraged the company 's expansion of operations to Milford , Connecticut . In 2006 they became a premier dealer for SunPower photovoltaic panels . In 2008 Sunlight Solar was awarded Sunpower 's `` Intelegant '' award for excellence . In 2008 Sunlight Solar won the Central Oregon Builder 's Association award for `` Sub-Contractor of the Year '' . In 2009 the company expanded to Waltham , Massachusetts . In 2010 the company opened an office in Portland , Oregon . In 2010 Sunlight Solar partnered with Habitat for Humanity to install 25 photovoltaic systems on new production high performance homes .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Sunlight_Solar_Energy", "rank": 54, "score": 74026 }, { "content": "Title: The Sekhmet Hypothesis Content: The Sekhmet Hypothesis was first published in book form in 1995 by Iain Spence . It suggested a possible link between the emergence of youth cultural symbols in relation to the 11-year solar cycles . The hypothesis was published again in 1997 in the journal Towards 2012 and covered in 1999 , in Sleazenation magazine .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "The_Sekhmet_Hypothesis", "rank": 55, "score": 73901 }, { "content": "Title: Water activity Content: Water activity or aw is the partial vapor pressure of water in a substance divided by the standard state partial vapor pressure of water . In the field of food science , the standard state is most often defined as the partial vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature . Using this particular definition , pure distilled water has a water activity of exactly one . As temperature increases , aw typically increases , except in some products with crystalline salt or sugar . Higher aw substances tend to support more microorganisms . Bacteria usually require at least 0.91 , and fungi at least 0.7 . See also fermentation . Water migrates from areas of high aw to areas of low aw . For example , if honey ( aw ≈ 0.6 ) is exposed to humid air ( aw ≈ 0.7 ) , the honey absorbs water from the air . If salami ( aw ≈ 0.87 ) is exposed to dry air ( aw ≈ 0.5 ) , the salami dries out , which could preserve it or spoil it .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Water_activity", "rank": 56, "score": 73418 }, { "content": "Title: Sundog Solar Content: Sundog Solar is a solar energy company based in Chatham , NY . Sundog installs photovoltaic and solar hot water systems on homes and businesses . The company also provides a spray foam insulation installation service .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Sundog_Solar", "rank": 57, "score": 73319 }, { "content": "Title: Water vapor Content: Water vapor , water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water . It is one state of water within the hydrosphere . Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice . Unlike other forms of water , water vapor is invisible . Under typical atmospheric conditions , water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation . It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds . Being a component of Earth 's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle , it is particularly abundant in Earth 's atmosphere where it is also a potent greenhouse gas along with other gases such as carbon dioxide and methane . Use of water vapor , as steam , has been important to humans for cooking and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution . Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent , present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet in the Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural satellites , comets and even large asteroids . Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems . Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Water_vapor", "rank": 58, "score": 73277 }, { "content": "Title: Solar combisystem Content: A solar combisystem provides both solar space heating and cooling as well as hot water from a common array of solar thermal collectors , usually backed up by an auxiliary non-solar heat source . Solar combisystems may range in size from those installed in individual properties to those serving several in a block heating scheme . Those serving larger groups of properties district heating tend to be called central solar heating schemes . A large number of different types of solar combisystems are produced - over 20 were identified in the first international survey , conducted as part of IEA SHC Task 14 in 1997 . The systems on the market in a particular country may be more restricted , however , as different systems have tended to evolve in different countries . Prior to the 1990s such systems tended to be custom-built for each property . Since then commercialised packages have developed and are now generally used . Depending on the size of the combisystem installed , the annual space heating contribution can range from 10 % to 60 % or more in ultra-low energy Passivhaus type buildings ; even up to 100 % where a large interseasonal thermal store or concentrating solar thermal heat is used . The remaining heat requirement is supplied by one or more auxiliary sources in order to maintain the heat supply once the solar heated water is exhausted . Such auxiliary heat sources may also use other renewable energy sources ( when a geothermal heat pump is used , the combisystem is called geosolar ) and , sometimes , rechargeable batteries . During 2001 , around 50 % of all the domestic solar collectors installed in Austria , Switzerland , Denmark , and Norway were to supply combisystems , while in Sweden it was greater . In Germany , where the total collector area installed ( 900,000 m2 ) was much larger than in the other countries , 25 % was for combisystem installations . Combisystems have also been installed in Canada since the mid-1980s . Some combisystems can incorporate solar thermal cooling in summer .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_combisystem", "rank": 59, "score": 73152 }, { "content": "Title: Solar power in Canada Content: Historically , the main applications of solar energy technologies in Canada have been non-electric active solar system applications for space heating , water heating and drying crops and lumber . In 2001 , there were more than 12,000 residential solar water heating systems and 300 commercial / industrial solar hot water systems in use . These systems presently comprise a small fraction of Canada 's energy use , but some government studies suggest they could make up as much as five per cent of the country 's energy needs by the year 2025 . Photovoltaic ( PV ) cells are increasingly used as standalone units , mostly as off-grid distributed electricity generation to power remote homes , telecommunications equipment , oil and pipeline monitoring stations and navigational devices . The Canadian PV market has grown quickly and Canadian companies make solar modules , controls , specialized water pumps , high efficiency refrigerators and solar lighting systems . Grid-connected solar PV systems have grown significantly in recent years , and reached over 1.8 GW of cumulative installed capacity by the end of 2014 . One of the most important uses for PV cells is in northern communities , many of which depend on high-cost diesel fuel to generate electricity . Since the 1970s , the federal government and industry has encouraged the development of solar technologies for these communities . Some of these efforts have focused on the use of hybrid systems that provide power 24 hours a day , using solar power when sunlight is available , in combination with another energy source .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_power_in_Canada", "rank": 60, "score": 73078 }, { "content": "Title: Mary Solari Content: Mary Magdalene Solari ( 1849 -- 1929 ) was an Italian-American artist well known for oil and watercolor paintings of figures and portraits .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Mary_Solari", "rank": 61, "score": 72937 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 2 Content: Solar cycle 2 was the second solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9 years , beginning in June 1766 and ending in June 1775 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 193.0 ( September 1769 ) , and the starting minimum was 18.6 . Sunspot observations by Alexander Wilson during this period established the Wilson effect .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_cycle_2", "rank": 62, "score": 72842 }, { "content": "Title: Stability of the Solar System Content: The stability of the Solar System is a subject of much inquiry in astronomy . Though the planets have been stable when historically observed , and will be in the short term , their weak gravitational effects on one another can add up in unpredictable ways . For this reason ( among others ) the Solar System is stated to be chaotic , and even the most precise long-term models for the orbital motion of the Solar System are not valid over more than a few tens of millions of years . The Solar System is stable in human terms , and far beyond , given that none of the planets will probably collide with each other or be ejected from the system in the next few billion years , and the Earth 's orbit will be relatively stable . Since Newton 's law of gravitation ( 1687 ) , mathematicians and astronomers ( such as Laplace , Lagrange , Gauss , Poincaré , Kolmogorov , Vladimir Arnold and Jürgen Moser ) have searched for evidence for the stability of the planetary motions , and this quest led to many mathematical developments , and several successive ` proofs ' of stability of the Solar System .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Stability_of_the_Solar_System", "rank": 63, "score": 72691 }, { "content": "Title: Solar transit Content: In astronomy , a solar transit is a movement of any object passing between the Sun and the Earth . This mainly includes the planets Mercury and Venus . A solar eclipse is also a solar transit of the Moon , but technically only if it does not cover the entire disc of the Sun ( an annular eclipse ) , as `` transit '' counts only objects that are smaller than what they are passing in front of . Solar transit is only one of several types of astronomical transit . Solar transit ( or a solar outage , sometimes solar fade , sun outage , or sun fade ) also occurs to communications satellites , which pass in front of the Sun for several minutes each day for several days straight for a period in the months around the equinoxes , the exact dates depending on where the satellite is in the sky relative to its earth station . Because the Sun also produces a great deal of microwave radiation in addition to sunlight , it overwhelms the microwave radio signals coming from the satellite 's transponders . This enormous electromagnetic interference causes interruptions in fixed satellite services that use satellite dishes , including TV networks and radio networks , as well as VSAT and DBS . Only downlinks from the satellite are affected , uplinks from the Earth are normally not , as the planet `` shades '' the Earth station when viewed from the satellite . Satellites in geosynchronous orbit are irregularly affected based on their inclination . Reception from satellites in other orbits are frequently but only momentarily affected by this , and by their nature the same signal is usually repeated or relayed on another satellite , if a tracking dish is used at all . Satellite radio and other services like GPS are not affected , as they use no receiving dish , and therefore do not concentrate the interference . ( GPS and certain satellite radio systems use non-geosynchronous satellites . ) Solar transit begins with only a brief degradation in signal quality for a few moments . At the same time each day , for the next several days , it gets longer and gets worse , until finally gradually improving after several more days . For digital satellite services , the cliff effect will eliminate reception entirely at a given threshold . Reception is typically lost for only a few minutes on the worst day , but the beam width of the dish can affect this . Signal strength also affects this , as does the bandwidth of the signal . If the power is concentrated into a narrower band , there is a higher signal-to-noise ratio . If the same signal is spread wider , the receiver also gets a wider swath of noise , degrading reception . The exact days and times of solar transit outages , for each satellite and for each receiving point ( Earth station ) on the Earth , are available at various websites . For broadcast networks , the network feed must be pre-recorded , replaced with local programming , fed via another satellite in a different orbital position , or fed via another method entirely during these times . In the Northern Hemisphere , solar transit is usually in early March and October . In the Southern Hemisphere , solar transit is usually in early September and April . The time of day varies mainly with the longitude of the satellite and receiving station , while the exact days vary mainly with the station 's latitude . Stations along the equator will experience solar transit right at the equinoxes , as that is where geostationary satellites are located directly over . Note that with large dishes , it would be possible for the feedhorn to be damaged , which is prevented by the parabolic dishes being done in a flat ( non-glossy ) finish that does not focus light or heat effectively . Non-parabolic dishes can not focus in this manner .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_transit", "rank": 64, "score": 72546 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Decathlon Content: The U.S. Department of Energy Solar Decathlon is an international collegiate competition made up of 10 contests that challenge student teams to design and build full-size , solar-powered houses . The winner of the competition is the team that best blends design excellence and smart energy production with innovation , market potential , and energy and water efficiency . The first Solar Decathlon was held in 2002 . The competition has since occurred biennially in 2005 , 2007 , 2009 , 2011 , 2013 and 2015 . The Solar Decathlon 2017 will be located in Denver , Colorado , adjacent to the 61st & Peña station on the University of Colorado A line commuter train connecting Denver International Airport to downtown Union Station . In addition to the competition , Solar Decathlon 2017 will also feature a sustainability expo , professional development and consumer workshops , middle-school education events , and a community festival . Open to the public and free of charge , the Solar Decathlon allows visitors to tour energy - and water-efficient houses , and gather ideas to save energy and conserve water in their own homes . The Solar Decathlon 2017 competition is presented by the U.S. Department of Energy and administered by Energetics , Incorporated , a subsidiary of VSE Corporation . Previous competitions were administered by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ( NREL ) . Since the first competition in 2002 , the Solar Decathlon has expanded internationally to include four additional worldwide competitions in Europe , China , Latin America and Caribbean , and the Middle East . Solar Decathlon Europe was established under a 2007 memorandum of understanding between the United States and Spain , which hosted competitions in 2010 and 2012 . France hosted in 2014 . The Solar Decathlon China was established with the signing of a memorandum of understanding between the U.S. Department of Energy , China 's National Energy Administration , Peking University and Applied Materials on January 20 , 2011 . The first Solar Decathlon China took place in August 2013 in the city of Datong . The next Solar Decathlon China will take place in summer 2017 and was formed through a memorandum of understanding among the United States Department of Energy , the People 's Republic of China , and the China Overseas Development Corporation . Solar Decathlon Latin America and Caribbean was established under a memorandum of understanding between the United States Department of Energy and the government of Colombia in 2014 . The first competition was held in Cali in December 2015 . Solar Decathlon Middle East , to be held in Dubai , United Arab Emirates , in 2018 , was formed by a memorandum of understanding between the United States Department of Energy and the Dubai Electricity and Water Authority in 2015 .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_Decathlon", "rank": 65, "score": 72489 }, { "content": "Title: Coronal radiative losses Content: In astronomy and in astrophysics , for radiative losses of the solar corona , it is meant the energy flux irradiated from the external atmosphere of the Sun ( traditionally divided into chromosphere , transition region and corona ) , and , in particular , the processes of production of the radiation coming from the solar corona and transition region , where the plasma is optically-thin . On the contrary , in the chromosphere , where the temperature decreases from the photospheric value of 6000 K to the minimum of 4400 K , the optical depth is about 1 , and the radiation is thermal . The corona extends much further than a solar radius from the photosphere and looks very complex and inhomogeneous in the X-rays images taken by satellites ( see the figure on the right taken by the XRT on board Hinode ) . The structure and dynamics of the corona are dominated by the solar magnetic field . There are strong evidences that even the heating mechanism , responsible for its high temperature of million degrees , is linked to the magnetic field of the Sun . The energy flux irradiated from the corona changes in active regions , in the quiet Sun and in coronal holes ; actually , part of the energy is irradiated outwards , but approximately the same amount of the energy flux is conducted back towards the chromosphere , through the steep transition region . In active regions the energy flux is about 107 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , in the quiet Sun it is roughly 8 105 -- 106 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , and in coronal holes 5 105 - 8 105 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , including the losses due to the solar wind . The required power is a small fraction of the total flux irradiated from the Sun , but this energy is enough to maintain the plasma at the temperature of million degrees , since the density is very low and the processes of radiation are different from those occurring in the photosphere , as it is shown in detail in the next section .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Coronal_radiative_losses", "rank": 66, "score": 72422 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Sports Content: Solar Sports is a Filipino 24-hour cable sports channel based in Shaw Boulevard , Mandaluyong City , and is owned by the Solar Entertainment Corporation . The channel was launched on January 1 , 1994 and is available for G Sat , Cablelink and contract for local cable operators .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_Sports", "rank": 67, "score": 72388 }, { "content": "Title: Other Planes of There Content: Other Planes of There is an album by the American Jazz musician Sun Ra and his Solar Arkestra . Recorded in 1964 , the album had been released by 1966 on Sun Ra 's own Saturn label . The record was reissued on compact disc by Evidence in 1992 . ` Granted , the selection is certainly not as abrasive and demanding as later efforts , although there is strident involvement from everyone within the dense arrangement . The brass and reed sections provide emphasis behind an off-kilter and loping waltz backdrop . All the more impressive is how well the material has held up over the decades . Even to seasoned ears , the music is pungent and uninhibited , making Other Planes of There a highly recommended collection . ' Lindsay Planer", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Other_Planes_of_There", "rank": 68, "score": 72306 }, { "content": "Title: Solarization (physics) Content: Solarization refers to a phenomenon in physics where a material undergoes a temporary change in colour after being subjected to high-energy electromagnetic radiation , such as ultraviolet light or X-rays . Clear glass and many plastics will turn amber , green or other colors when subjected to X-radiation , and glass may turn blue after long-term solar exposure in the desert . It is believed that solarization is caused by the formation of internal defects , called colour centers , which selectively absorb portions of the visible light spectrum . In glass , colour center absorption can often be reversed by heating the glass to high temperatures ( a process called thermal bleaching ) to restore the glass to its initial transparent state . Solarization may also permanently degrade a material 's physical or mechanical properties , and is one of the mechanisms involved in the breakdown of plastics within the environment . Category : Atomic , molecular , and optical physics Category : Chromism", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solarization_(physics)", "rank": 69, "score": 72248 }, { "content": "Title: Pier Solar and the Great Architects Content: Pier Solar and the Great Architects is a homebrew role-playing video game developed and published by WaterMelon for the Sega Genesis . The game was released worldwide on December 20 , 2010 . The game optionally utilizes the Sega CD expansion device to enhance its audio capabilities .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Pier_Solar_and_the_Great_Architects", "rank": 70, "score": 72176 }, { "content": "Title: Solaro (family) Content: The Solaro family was the most powerful medieval banking family in Asti , Italy . At the height of their power , they were owners of 24 castles within Asti 's communal territory . They were also present in Genoa in the 12th century and acquired holdings in Sestri Levante . Of the Casane Astigiane , they were the main Guelf supporters in Asti , in contrast to the ` De Castello '' union . Initially their commercial activity was centred primarily in the fairs of Provins , Troyes , in northern France and Flanders . By the 13th century , they were active in Bourgogne and Franche-Comté . In 1276 , their intervention was critical in the peace between Asti and Charles of Anjou and the family flourished under the Angevin period . The Solaro 's influence diminished with the return of the Ghibellines and the Visconti period .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solaro_(family)", "rank": 71, "score": 72016 }, { "content": "Title: Solar fuel Content: A solar fuel is a synthetic chemical fuel produced directly/indirectly from solar energy sunlight/solar heat through photochemical/photobiological ( i.e. , artificial photosynthesis , experimental as of 2013 ) , thermochemical , and electrochemical reaction . Light is used as an energy source , with solar energy being transduced to chemical energy , typically by reducing protons to hydrogen , or carbon dioxide to organic compounds . A solar fuel can be produced and stored for later usage , when sunlight is not available , making it an alternative to fossil fuels . Diverse photocatalysts are being developed to carry these reactions in a sustainable , environmentally friendly way .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_fuel", "rank": 72, "score": 71932 }, { "content": "Title: Evidence of water on Mars from Mars Odyssey Content: Evidence of water on Mars from Mars Odyssey is about observations by a Mars orbiter , named 2001 Mars Odyssey , supporting evidence for water on that planet .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Evidence_of_water_on_Mars_from_Mars_Odyssey", "rank": 73, "score": 71841 }, { "content": "Title: Solar observatory Content: A solar observatory is an observatory that specializes in monitoring the Sun . As such , they usually have one or more solar telescopes . The Einstein Tower was a solar observatory in the Albert Einstein Science Park in Potsdam , Germany . Solar observatories study phenomena associated with the Sun . The Sun , being the closest star to earth , allows a unique chance to study stellar physics with high-resolution . It was , until the 1990s , the only star whose surface had been resolved . General topics that interest a solar astronomer are its 11-year periodicity ( i.e. , the Solar Cycle ) , sunspots , magnetic field activity ( see solar dynamo ) , solar flares , coronal mass ejections , differential rotation , and plasma physics .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_observatory", "rank": 74, "score": 71792 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Peter_Thejll", "rank": 75, "score": 71680 }, { "content": "Title: SolarCoin Content: SolarCoin ( ** § ** ; ** SLR ** ) is a crypto-currency , launched in January 2014 and implemented to incentivize global solar electricity generation . The supply of SolarCoin is designed to last 40 years delivering incentives for generating 97,500 TWh of solar electricity . SolarCoin is backed by two forms of proof of work . One is the traditional cryptographic proof of work associated with digital currency . The other proof of work is a 3rd party verified meter reading representing 1 MWh of generated solar electricity . SolarCoin is equitably distributed using both of these proofs of work as a means to reward solar electricity production . SolarCoin can be claimed by individuals living in homes with Solar Energy panels on their roof or large solar electricity farms ( leased or financed ) .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "SolarCoin", "rank": 76, "score": 70995 }, { "content": "Title: HYDROSOL Content: HYDROSOL ( short for Solar hydrogen via water splitting in advanced monolithic reactors for future solar power plants ) is a series of European Union funded projects for the promotion of renewable energy . Its aim is the production of hydrogen using concentrated solar power with a specific thermochemical cycle .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "HYDROSOL", "rank": 77, "score": 70994 }, { "content": "Title: Solarisation Content: Solarisation ( or solarization ) is a phenomenon in photography in which the image recorded on a negative or on a photographic print is wholly or partially reversed in tone . Dark areas appear light or light areas appear dark . The term is synonymous with the Sabattier effect when referring to negatives . In short , the mechanism is due to halogen ions released within the halide grain by exposure diffusing to the grain surface in amounts sufficient to destroy the latent image .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solarisation", "rank": 78, "score": 70822 }, { "content": "Title: Solar (composition) Content: `` Solar '' ( -LSB- ˈsoʊlər -RSB- or -LSB- soʊˈlɑr -RSB- ) is a musical composition attributed to Miles Davis on the studio album Walkin ' ( 1954 ) , considered a modern jazz standard . The tune has been played and recorded by many musicians including his former bandmates/collaborators Lee Konitz , Bill Evans , Dave Holland , Keith Jarrett or Jack DeJohnette . A controversy exists over authorship of this composition ; one current consensus holds that Davis ' `` Solar '' is essentially an earlier song , `` Sonny '' , written by Chuck Wayne . Dutch drummer and composer Pierre Courbois composed a tune called `` RALOS '' on the Solar chords in 7/4 . The first two measures of this song adorn Miles Davis ' tombstone in Woodlawn Cemetery .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_(composition)", "rank": 79, "score": 70790 }, { "content": "Title: Neupert effect Content: The Neupert Effect refers to an empirical tendency for high-energy ( ` hard ' ) X-ray emission to coincide temporally with the rate of rise of lower-energy ( ` soft ' ) X-ray emission of a solar flare . Here ` hard ' and ` soft ' mean above and below an energy of about 10 keV to solar physicists , though in non-solar X-ray astronomy one typically sets this boundary at a lower energy . This effect gets its name from NASA solar physicist and spectroscopist Werner Neupert , who first documented a related correlation ( the integral form ) between microwave ( gyrosynchrotron ) and soft X-ray emissions in 1968 . The standard interpretation is that the accumulated energy injection associated with the acceleration of non-thermal electrons ( which produce the hard X-rays via non-thermal bremsstrahlung ) release energy in the lower solar atmosphere ( the chromosphere ) ; this energy then leads to thermal ( soft X-ray ) emission as the chromospheric plasma heats and expands into the corona . The effect is very common , but does not represent an exact relationship and is not observed in all solar flares .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Neupert_effect", "rank": 80, "score": 70754 }, { "content": "Title: Solar (novel) Content: Solar is a novel by author Ian McEwan , first published on 18 March 2010 by Jonathan Cape , an imprint of Random House . It is a satire about a jaded Nobel-winning physicist whose dysfunctional personal life and cynical ambition see him pursuing a solar-energy based solution for climate change .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_(novel)", "rank": 81, "score": 70684 }, { "content": "Title: Sunlabob Content: Sunlabob Renewable Energy is a Lao commercial company that provides sustainable renewable solutions to areas that are off the electrical grid . It was licensed in 2001 and its headquarters and base are in Vientiane , the capital of the Lao People 's Democratic Republic . The company operates as a profitable , full-service renewable energy provider selling hardware and providing commercially viable energy services . Besides Laos , Sunlabob also has operations in other parts of the world . In January 2008 , Sunlabob extended its activities to the Kingdom of Thailand through their franchise partner Samui Service Solarpower Ltd. . While the focus in the Lao PDR is more on rural electrification , the market in Thailand is more focused on promoting solar water heating and energy efficiency consulting , both for homes and businesses . In May 2009 after being approached by United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) , Afghanistan Small and Medium Enterprise Development ( ASMED ) , and ( Development Alternatives , Inc. ) DAI , Sunlabob carried out an assessment of the feasibility of the solar lamp project in Afghanistan , taking into account the local human , social and technical constraints . One of the aims was to evaluate whether the Sunlabob approach to financing and establishing franchised SME energy service hubs in small remote villages could be replicated in Afghanistan . In April 2009 , Sunlabob embarked on its first development in Africa . Together with its Ugandan franchise partner , TSSD , Sunlabob visited Ssazi village in Northern Uganda and introduced its Solar Lantern Programme . Sunlabob has partnered with private , public and non-governmental organizations such as engineering company Comin Khmere , the Laos Ministry of Energy and Mines , Electricite du Laos and Engineers Without Borders . It is the winner of the 2008 UNEP Sasakawa Prize and the European Parliament 's 2007 , 2008 and 2009 National Energy Globe Award . Sunlabob is located in Vientiane . In 2007 Sunlabob won an Ashden Award for their work with solar powered lighting . In 2010 , Sunlabob established Sunlabob International Pte Ltd and broadened its international presence in Singapore , principally to enhance marketing and business development operations . In 2012 , Sunlabob won a Best Practice in CSR Award at the World CSR Day held in India . List of awards/prizes : 2012 : Best practice in CSR Award 2010 : Winner Cleantech National Competition in Singapore 2010 : Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship Winner ( Asia Region ) 2009 : National Energy Globe Award 2009 : Asia Forum for Clean Energy Financing Finalist 2008 : UNEP Sasakawa Prize 2008 : Lighting Africa 2008 : National Energy Globe Award 2008 : Tech Awards Laureate 2007 : Ashden Award 2007 : National Energy Globe Award 2006 : World Challenge Finalist 2005 : Development Marketplace ( World Bank ) 2005 : DGS Solar Prize", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Sunlabob", "rank": 82, "score": 70648 }, { "content": "Title: Solar radiation management Content: Solar radiation management ( SRM ) projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming . Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active , their potential low financial cost , and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects . Solar radiation management projects could , for example , be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by mitigation and greenhouse gas removal techniques . They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere , and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_radiation_management", "rank": 83, "score": 70610 }, { "content": "Title: Solar (singer) Content: Kim Yong-sun ( Hangul : 김용선 , born February 21 , 1991 ) , better known by the mononym Solar ( Hangul : 솔라 ) , is a South Korean singer and actress , signed under Rainbow Bridge World . She is the leader and main vocalist of Mamamoo .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_(singer)", "rank": 84, "score": 70586 }, { "content": "Title: USS Solar (DE-221) Content: USS Solar ( DE-221 ) ( pronounced sō-lär ) , a of the United States Navy , was named in honor of Boatswain 's Mate First Class Adolfo Solar ( 1900 -- 1941 ) , who was killed in action during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 . Solar was laid down on 22 February 1943 , by the Philadelphia Navy Yard ; launched on 29 May 1943 , sponsored by Mrs. Regina Solar ; and commissioned at Philadelphia on 15 February 1944 , Lieutenant Commander Hadlai A. Hull , United States Naval Reserve , in command .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "USS_Solar_(DE-221)", "rank": 85, "score": 70576 }, { "content": "Title: Solar (Taeyang album) Content: Solar is the first full-length solo album by Korean singer Taeyang , member of Big Bang . The album was released in two forms : the `` Regular Edition '' and the `` Deluxe Edition '' which is limited to 30,000 copies worldwide . The lead-single was `` I Need a Girl '' featuring his bandmate G-Dragon . In Solar , Taeyang put much effort into enhancing his vocal skills as well as his composing , co-writing as many as four songs ( `` Solar '' , `` Where U At '' , `` Wedding Dress '' , and `` Take It Slow '' ) and writing lyrics for `` Take It Slow '' . Taeyang 's first international album , Solar International , is the first ever K-Pop music release to be sold worldwide on iTunes as both an audio and video album . The audio version ( complete with a digital booklet ) hit iTunes stores on August 19 , 2010 , while the video version ( bundled with bonus , behind the scenes documentaries ) arrived by September 10 , 2010 . The audio album combines both English and Korean hits from his past and present albums including `` I 'll Be There '' , `` Connection '' ( feat . BIG TONE ) , `` Wedding Dress '' and `` I Need a Girl ( feat . G-Dragon ) '' .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_(Taeyang_album)", "rank": 86, "score": 70308 }, { "content": "Title: Solarisation (disambiguation) Content: Solarisation may refer to : Solarisation , a photographic effect also known as the Sabatier effect Solarisation ( physics ) Soil solarization of enclosed soil or plant material by the sun 's heat and light .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solarisation_(disambiguation)", "rank": 87, "score": 70276 }, { "content": "Title: SunLink Content: SunLink Corporation is a privately owned company headquartered in Mill Valley , California which designs , manufactures and delivers renewable energy solutions including : tracker , fixed-tilt and roof photovoltaic mounting systems for commercial and utility-scale installations ; solar project installation and O&M services ; and project intelligence software that offers energy project analytics and remote energy asset controls ( SCADA ) . SunLink 's Warehouse and Training Center is located in San Leandro , California and its TechHub office is in San Luis Obispo , California . Product design , testing and some fabrication take place in California and almost all manufacturing is done in the United States . The company does R&D work in the areas of seismic and wind engineering . Partners include the Boundary Layer Laboratory at the University of Western Ontario and structural engineering firm Rutherford & Chekene SunLink also conducted extensive seismic testing for two of its roof mount systems at UC Berkeley 's Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center Shake Table Founded in 2004 , SunLink solutions have been installed at more than 2,200 commercial and utility-scale installations throughout the Americas", "qid": "3007", "docid": "SunLink", "rank": 88, "score": 70219 }, { "content": "Title: SOLAR (ISS) Content: SOLAR is an ESA science observatory on the Columbus Laboratory , which is part of the International Space Station . SOLAR was launched with Columbus on February 2008 aboard STS-122 . It was externally mounted to Columbus with the European Technology Exposure Facility ( EuTEF ) . SOLAR has three main space science instruments : SOVIM , SOLSPEC and SOL-ACES . Together they provide detailed measurements of the Sun 's spectral irradiance . The SOLAR platform and its instruments are controlled from the Belgian User Support and Operations Centre ( B.USOC ) , located at the Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy ( BISA ) in Uccle , Belgium . SOVIM ( Solar Variantions and Irradiance Monitor ) instrument is based on an earlier instrument ( SOVA ) which flew aboard the European Retrievable Carrier , launched on STS-46 in 1992 . It is designed to measure solar radiation with wavelengths from 200 nanometers - 100 micrometers . This covers near-ultraviolet , visible and infrared areas of the spectrum . SOLSPEC ( Solar Spectral irradiance measurements ) is designed to measure the solar spectral irradiance in the 165 - to 3000-nanometer range with high spectral resolution . SOL-ACES ( Auto-calibrating Extreme Ultraviolet and Ultraviolet spectrometers ) consists of four grazing incidence grating spectrometers . They are designed to measure the EUV/UV spectral regime ( 17 nanometers - 220 nanometers ) with moderate spectral resolution . The mission was originally planned for a 2003 launch , but was delayed following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster . Some other components are also planned to be mounted externally on Columbus on future missions , including the Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space ( ACES ) . Another name for SOLAR may be Solar Monitoring Observatory or SMO . In 2012 , the entire 450-tonne station was rotated so SOLAR could observe a full rotation of the Sun continuously . A Solar rotation takes about 24 -- 28 days depending on the latitude .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "SOLAR_(ISS)", "rank": 89, "score": 70163 }, { "content": "Title: Solvatten Content: SOLVATTEN is a combined portable water treatment and solar water heater system that has been designed for use at the household level in the developing world . The device uses natural UV radiation to treat water , and units are capable of rendering highly contaminated water drinkable ( as defined by the WHO safe drinking water standards . ) in a few hours , provided there is sufficient sunlight . SOLVATTEN incorporates three water treatment processes : filtration , pasteurisation and UV sterilisation . Under optimal conditions , the device can eliminate all pathogenic material in 10-litres of water within 2 hours , allowing for multiple batches of water to be treated in a given day . The device is typically used in situations where water resources are scarce and prone to contamination , but it has also been applied in disaster relief scenarios . The device and its inventor , Petra Wadström , have both achieved recognition through a series of national and international awards .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solvatten", "rank": 90, "score": 70093 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Entertainment Corporation Content: Solar Entertainment Corporation ( simply known as Solar or SEC ) is a Filipino media company founded and owned by the siblings of the Tieng family ( Wilson , William and Willy Tieng ) . Private stockholders , however , manage a minority share of the company . Solar Entertainment operates five free-to-air channels ( one through Solar 's subsidiary SBN and a blocktime agreement with RJTV , plus three digital-only channels ) and four cable channels . Solar also owns a film distribution company ( Solar Films ) .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_Entertainment_Corporation", "rank": 91, "score": 69785 }, { "content": "Title: Cannabis and psychosis Content: The relationship between cannabis use and psychosis has , in recent decades , become a focus of controversy . The National Institute of Mental Health has stated that `` research has found increasing evidence of a link between marijuana and schizophrenia symptoms . '' In a report issued in 2000 , the National Academy of Sciences noted that some researchers had proposed a link between cannabis use and schizophrenia , as well as between cannabis use and a unique type of psychosis . They observed that `` marijuana use alone -- without the influence of additional risk factors -- is unlikely to provoke a psychosis that persists longer than intoxication . '' Likewise , a number of reviews have concluded that cannabis use only results in a significant increase in risk of psychosis when coupled with additional risk factors , in particular , an underlying genetic vulnerability . There is evidence that the brains of people with psychosis who previously used cannabis differ from those of healthy individuals with respect to areas such as the cingulate and prefrontal cortex . Research has consistently found that people with psychosis have higher rates of cannabis use , and that there exists an association between cannabis use and schizophrenia and other forms of psychosis . Some studies have also concluded that cannabis use is associated with an earlier age at onset of schizophrenia . However , it is less clear whether this association is a result of the specific effects of cannabis use . Proposed mechanisms by which this possible link could occur include the effects of dronabinol , a pure isomer of THC , and its ability to induce `` acute psychotic states , '' which , in turn , have been called `` the early signs of schizophrenia and related disorders . '' Further complicating the establishment of causation , another cannabinoid found in cannabis , cannabidiol ( CBD ) , is thought to have antipsychotic properties . CBD has been shown to have anxiolytic properties and inhibit the psychotomimetic effects of THC , yet CBD content varies widely and has rarely been accounted for in epidemiological studies . It is believed that cannabis ' effects on the risk of schizophrenia is especially pronounced among those who begin using the drug early .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Cannabis_and_psychosis", "rank": 92, "score": 69731 }, { "content": "Title: SolarFest Content: The SolarFest Renewable Energy music festival began in Vermont in 1995 . The stated goals of the nonprofit Solarfest organization are to inspire the conservation of Earth 's limited resources , to promote renewable energy , and to support the creation of sustainable communities . Solar Energy is the sun 's rays ( solar radiation ) that reach the earth . This energy can be converted into other forms of energy , such as heat and electricity . In the 1830s , the British astronomer John Herschel used a solar thermal collector box ( a device that absorbs sunlight to collect heat ) to cook food during an expedition to Africa . Today , Solar energy can be converted to thermal ( or heat ) energy and used to : Heat water -- for use in homes , buildings , or swimming pools . Solar energy can also be used to heat spaces such has homes , buildings or arenas as is seen by SolarFest . The festival spans 3 days and runs on renewable energy -- primarily solar power , but with wind and biodiesel also incorporated . The New England Renewable Energy Festival has been coined ' a party with a purpose ' . For an entire weekend , the 80 - acre Forget-Me-Not Farm in Tinmouth , owned by Marshall and Melody Squier , becomes an outdoor campus ; a place to be entertained , educated and inspired .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "SolarFest", "rank": 93, "score": 69722 }, { "content": "Title: Water Temple Content: Water Temple may refer to : The Sunol Water Temple The Pulgas Water Temple A dungeon ( level ) in the video game The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time A building by Tadao Ando", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Water_Temple", "rank": 94, "score": 69686 }, { "content": "Title: Optical overheating protection Content: With all solar thermal collector systems there is a potential risk that the solar collector may reach an equilibrium or stagnation temperature higher than the maximum safe operating temperature . Various measures are taken for optical overheating protection . Stagnation temperatures are encountered under conditions of high radiation while no heat transfer fluid is flowing through the collector , for example during power failures , component failures , servicing , energy storage capacity limitations , or periods when little hot water is extracted from the system . More generally , stagnation conditions can be considered to be any situation under which the solar collector can not adequately dispatch the absorbed solar heat to the heat transfer fluid . Besides any damaging effects to the system , high stagnation temperatures also place constraints on collector materials . These materials must retain their important properties during and after exposure to the high stagnation temperatures . This implies that solar collectors are generally built from high temperature resistant materials . These materials are usually expensive , heavy , and have an overall high environmental impact . Polymeric materials offer a significant cost-reduction and environmental improvement potential for solar thermal collectors and may thus benefit a broader utilization of solar energy for various heating purposes . However , the long-term service temperature of plastics is limited . Thus , for potential applications of plastics in solar absorbers an appropriate design including overheating protection is essential . Feasible ways would be a reduction in optical gain ( for example , using thermotropic layers , or electrochromic devices ) or an increase in system losses , by dumping of the hot water excess . In this article an alternative method to decrease the optical gain is presented . The method is based on the geometry of prisms and the phenomenon of Total Internal Reflection .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Optical_overheating_protection", "rank": 95, "score": 69644 }, { "content": "Title: Solar thermal collector Content: A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight . A collector is a device for capturing solar radiation . Solar radiation is energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation from the infrared ( long ) to the ultraviolet ( short ) wavelengths . The quantity of solar energy striking the Earth 's surface ( solar constant ) averages about 1,000 watts per square meter under clear skies , depending upon weather conditions , location and orientation . The term `` solar collector '' commonly refers to solar hot water panels , but may refer to installations such as solar parabolic troughs and solar towers ; or basic installations such as solar air heaters . Concentrated solar power plants usually use the more complex collectors to generate electricity by heating a fluid to drive a turbine connected to an electrical generator . Simple collectors are typically used in residential and commercial buildings for space heating . The first solar thermal collector designed for building roofs was patented by William H. Goettl and called the `` Solar heat collector and radiator for building roof '' .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solar_thermal_collector", "rank": 96, "score": 69637 }, { "content": "Title: Achille Solari Content: Achille Solari ( Naples , October 9 , 1835 - 1884 ) was an Italian painter , mainly of landscapes of the region around Naples . He obtained a stipend from the province of Terra di Lavoro to study at the Institute of Fine Arts of Naples , and earned prizes and a stipend in Naples from his province . Paints in oil and watercolor . He exhibited in 1884 in Turin , and in London he exhibited a landscape . He has exhibited repeatedly at the Promotrice of Naples and others , watercolors and oils , of land and seascapes , including a Veduta di Santa Lucia in Naples . He painted in a style reminiscent of his rough contemporaries Giacinto Gigante and Gabriele Smargiassi .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Achille_Solari", "rank": 97, "score": 69594 }, { "content": "Title: Solaris (operating system) Content: Solaris is a Unix operating system originally developed by Sun Microsystems . It superseded their earlier SunOS in 1993 . Oracle Solaris , so named as of 2010 , has been owned by Oracle Corporation since the Sun acquisition by Oracle in January 2010 . Solaris is known for its scalability , especially on SPARC systems , and for originating many innovative features such as DTrace , ZFS and Time Slider . Solaris supports SPARC-based and x86-based workstations and servers from Oracle and other vendors , with efforts underway to port to additional platforms . Solaris is registered as compliant with the Single Unix Specification . Historically , Solaris was developed as proprietary software . In June 2005 , Sun Microsystems released most of the codebase under the CDDL license , and founded the OpenSolaris open source project . With OpenSolaris , Sun wanted to build a developer and user community around the software . After the acquisition of Sun Microsystems in January 2010 , Oracle decided to discontinue the OpenSolaris distribution and the development model . In August 2010 , Oracle discontinued providing public updates to the source code of the Solaris kernel , effectively turning Solaris 11 back into a closed source proprietary operating system . Following that , in 2011 the Solaris 11 kernel source code leaked to BitTorrent . However , through the Oracle Technology Network ( OTN ) , industry partners can still gain access to the in-development Solaris source code . Source code for the open source components of Solaris 11 is available for download from Oracle .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Solaris_(operating_system)", "rank": 98, "score": 69496 }, { "content": "Title: Water feature Content: In landscape architecture and garden design , a water feature is one or more items from a range of fountains , pools , ponds , cascades , waterfalls , and streams . Before the 18th century they were usually powered by gravity , though the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon are described by Strabo as supplied by an Archimedean screw . Other examples were supplied with water using hydraulic rams . Ancient water features were powered using gravitational forces , man power or animals to pump in the water . Since the 18th century , the majority of water features have been powered by pumps . In the past , the power source was sometimes a steam engine , but in modern features it is almost always powered by electricity . There is an increasing range of innovative designs as the market becomes more established and people become more aware of alternate installation methods , such as solar power . The advantages of using solar power include environmental benefits , no electrical lines in the garden , and free energy . Modern water features are typically self-contained , meaning that they do not require water to be plumbed in ; rather water is recycled from either a pond or a hidden reservoir , also known as a sump . The sump can either be contained within the water feature , or buried underground ( in the case of an outdoor water feature ) . A water feature may be indoor or outdoor and can be any size , from a desk top water fountain to a large indoor waterfall that covers an entire wall in a large commercial building , and can be made from any number of materials , including stone , granite , stainless steel , resin , iron , and glass . Most water features are electronically controlled , ranging from simple timer actuators to sophisticated computerized controls for synchronizing music to water and light animation . Water features often offer additional benefits to homeowners , such as increased curb appeal , home value , reduced noise pollution ( due to the sound of water overpowering outside noise ) , increased humidity in dry regions and improved air quality .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Water_feature", "rank": 99, "score": 69489 }, { "content": "Title: Evidence of water on Mars found by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Content: The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 's HiRISE instrument has taken many images that strongly suggest that Mars has had a rich history of water-related processes . Many features of Mars appear to be created by large amounts of water . That Mars once possessed large amounts of water was confirmed by isotope studies in a study published in March 2015 , by a team of scientists showing that the ice caps were highly enriched with deuterium , heavy hydrogen , by seven times as much as the Earth . This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times what is stored in today 's polar caps . The water for a time would have formed an ocean in the low-lying Mare Boreum . The amount of water could have covered the planet about 140 meters , but was probably in an ocean that in places would be almost 1 mile deep . A major discovery by HiRISE was finding evidence of hot springs . These may have contained life and may now contain well-preserved fossils of life .", "qid": "3007", "docid": "Evidence_of_water_on_Mars_found_by_Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter", "rank": 100, "score": 69468 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Annualized geo solar Content: Annualized geo-solar enables passive solar heating in even cold , foggy north temperate areas . It uses the ground under or around a building as thermal mass to heat and cool the building . After a designed , conductive thermal lag of 6 months the heat is returned to , or removed from , the inhabited spaces of the building . In hot climates , exposing the collector to the frigid night sky in winter can cool the building in summer . The six-month thermal lag is provided by about three meters ( ten feet ) of dirt . A six-meter-wide ( 20 ft ) buried skirt of insulation around the building keeps rain and snow melt out of the dirt , which is usually under the building . The dirt does radiant heating and cooling through the floor or walls . A thermal siphon moves the heat between the dirt and the solar collector . The solar collector may be a sheet-metal compartment in the roof , or a wide flat box on the side of a building or hill . The siphons may be made from plastic pipe and carry air . Using air prevents water leaks and water-caused corrosion . Plastic pipe does n't corrode in damp earth , as metal ducts can . AGS heating systems typically consist of : A very well-insulated , energy efficient , eco-friendly living space ; Heat captured in the summer months from a sun-warmed sub-roof or attic space , a sunspace or greenhouse , a ground-based , flat-plate , thermosyphon collector , or other solar-heat collection device ; Heat transported from the collection source into ( typically ) the earth mass under the living space ( for storage ) , this mass surrounded by a sub-surface perimeter `` cape '' or `` umbrella '' providing both insulation from easy heat-loss back up to the outdoors air and a barrier against moisture migration through that heat-storage mass ; A high-density floor whose thermal properties are designed to radiate heat back into the living space , but only after the proper sub-floor-insulation-regulated time-lag ; A control-scheme or system which activates ( often PV-powered ) fans and dampers , when the warm-season air is sensed to be hotter in the collection area ( s ) than in the storage mass , or allows the heat to be moved into the storage-zone by passive convection ( often using a solar chimney and thermally activated dampers . ) Usually it requires several years for the storage earth-mass to fully preheat from the local at-depth soil temperature ( which varies widely by region and site-orientation ) to an optimum Fall level at which it can provide up to 100 % of the heating requirements of the living space through the winter . This technology continues to evolve , with a range of variations ( including active-return devices ) being explored . The listserve where this innovation is most often discussed is `` Organic Architecture '' at Yahoo . This system is almost exclusively deployed in northern Europe . One system has been built at Drake Landing in North America . A more recent system is a Do-it-yourself energy-neutral home in progress in Collinsville , IL that will rely solely on Annualized Solar for conditioning .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Annualized_geo_solar", "rank": 1, "score": 179122 }, { "content": "Title: Solar maximum Content: -RSB- Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun . During solar maximum , large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun 's irradiance output grows by about 0.07 % . The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth 's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns . At solar maximum , the Sun 's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles . The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next , with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years . Large solar flares often occur during a maximum . For example , the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Solar_maximum", "rank": 2, "score": 165681 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 3, "score": 159515 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 4, "score": 158463 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 5, "score": 154170 }, { "content": "Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate", "rank": 6, "score": 152885 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic impacts on the oceans Content: Explosive volcanic eruptions affect the global climate mainly through injecting sulfur bearing gases into the stratosphere , which oxidize to form sulfate aerosols . Stratospheric sulfur aerosols spread around the globe by the atmospheric circulation , producing surface cooling by scattering solar radiation back to space . This cooling effect on the ocean surface usually lasts for several years as the lifetime of sulfate aerosols is about 2 -- 3 years . However , in the subsurface ocean the cooling signal may persist for a longer time and may have impacts on some decadal variabilities , such as the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation ( AMOC ) .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Volcanic_impacts_on_the_oceans", "rank": 7, "score": 149446 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 8, "score": 138073 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 9, "score": 136547 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 10, "score": 135009 }, { "content": "Title: Orbital effects on climate Content: There are various solar/celestial effects that exist which have an effect on Earth 's climate . These effects usually occur in cycles , and primarily include how Earth 's obliquity , the eccentricity of Earth 's orbit , and the precession of the equinoxes and solstices affect Earth 's climate . In addition to these effects , there are also other factors that have an effect on Earth 's climate . These other factors include how sun activity affects climate and how celestial phenomena , such as meteors , affect Earth 's climate . Some of these factors are n't yet well understood , for instance the ice ages occur on 100,000 year cycles , and it 's not completely understood why the various effects with this periodicity have such a strong effect on glaciation ( see the 100,000-year problem ) .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Orbital_effects_on_climate", "rank": 11, "score": 134135 }, { "content": "Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Marine_cloud_brightening", "rank": 12, "score": 133283 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle Content: The solar cycle or solar magnetic activity cycle is the nearly periodic 11-year change in the Sun 's activity ( including changes in the levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material ) and appearance ( changes in the number and size of sunspots , flares , and other manifestations ) . They have been observed ( by changes in the sun 's appearance and by changes seen on Earth , such as auroras ) for centuries . The changes on the sun cause effects in space , in the atmosphere , and on Earth 's surface . While it is the dominant variable in solar activity , aperiodic fluctuations also occur .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Solar_cycle", "rank": 13, "score": 132228 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 14, "score": 131877 }, { "content": "Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Solar_gain", "rank": 15, "score": 130952 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 16, "score": 130480 }, { "content": "Title: Solar phenomena Content: Solar phenomena are the natural phenomena occurring within the magnetically heated outer atmospheres in the Sun . These phenomena take many forms , including solar wind , radio wave flux , energy bursts such as solar flares , coronal mass ejection or solar eruptions , coronal heating and sunspots . These phenomena are generated by a helical dynamo near the center of the Sun 's mass that generates strong magnetic fields and a chaotic dynamo near the surface that generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations . The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation . The collective effect of all solar variations within the Sun 's gravitational field is referred to as space weather . A major weather component is the solar wind , a stream of plasma released from the Sun 's upper atmosphere . It is responsible for the aurora , natural light displays in the sky in the Arctic and Antarctic . Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth , disrupting communications , as well as geomagnetic storms in Earth 's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere . Variations in solar intensity also affect Earth 's climate . These variations can explain events such as ice ages and the Great Oxygenation Event , while the Sun 's future expansion into a red giant will likely end life on Earth . Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the 8th century BCE . Babylonians inscribed and possibly predicted solar eclipses , while the earliest extant report of sunspots dates back to the Chinese Book of Changes , . The first extant description of the solar corona was in 968 , while the earliest sunspot drawing was in 1128 and a solar prominence was described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod . The invention of the telescope allowed major advances in understanding , allowing the first detailed observations in the 1600s . Solar spectroscopy began in the 1800s , from which properties of the solar atmosphere could be determined , while the creation of daguerreotypy led to the first solar photographs on 2 April 1845 . Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences , granulation and spectroscopy . Early in the 20th century , interest in astrophysics surged in America . A number of new observatories were built with solar telescopes around the world . The 1931 invention of the coronagraph allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Solar_phenomena", "rank": 17, "score": 129158 }, { "content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period", "rank": 18, "score": 128754 }, { "content": "Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Solar_activity_and_climate", "rank": 19, "score": 128011 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 20, "score": 127809 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 21, "score": 127677 }, { "content": "Title: Solar radiation management Content: Solar radiation management ( SRM ) projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming . Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active , their potential low financial cost , and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects . Solar radiation management projects could , for example , be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by mitigation and greenhouse gas removal techniques . They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere , and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Solar_radiation_management", "rank": 22, "score": 126110 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature lag Content: Temperature lag is when change in temperature lags change in radiation ( heating or cooling ) . Meteorological examples include : Diurnal temperature variation -- e.g. , peak daily temperature typically occurs after noon Seasonal lag -- e.g. , peak annual temperature typically occurs after the summer solstice", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Temperature_lag", "rank": 23, "score": 124730 }, { "content": "Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Future_of_Earth", "rank": 24, "score": 124434 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 25, "score": 124095 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 26, "score": 123112 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 27, "score": 122928 }, { "content": "Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Climate_variability", "rank": 28, "score": 122755 }, { "content": "Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation", "rank": 29, "score": 122600 }, { "content": "Title: Solar minimum Content: Solar minimum is the period of least solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the sun . During this time , sunspot and solar flare activity diminishes , and often does not occur for days at a time . The date of the minimum is described by a smoothed average over 12 months of sunspot activity , so identifying the date of the solar minimum usually can only happen 6 months after the minimum takes place . Solar minima are not generally correlated with changes in climate but recent studies have shown a correlation with regional weather patterns . Solar minimum is contrasted with the solar maximum , where there may be hundreds of sunspots .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Solar_minimum", "rank": 30, "score": 122424 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment", "rank": 31, "score": 122087 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical rain belt Content: Rainfall and the tropical climate dominate the tropical rain belt , which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year , roughly following the solar equator . The tropical rain belt is an area of active rain that is positioned mostly around the tropics . According to the website Journey North , the reason the rain belt is situated near the tropics can be attributed to the fact that most of the sun 's radiation is directed toward the equator , which is located in the middle of the tropics . This solar radiation generates large amounts of heat near the equator providing tropical regions with higher temperatures than most other regions on Earth . With all this solar radiation , the air around the tropics begins to warm up . Because hot air is less dense than cold air , the hot air rises into the upper levels of the atmosphere and as a result , cold air filters down into the lower levels of the atmosphere . The dynamics that provide the tropics with the rain belt are founded on the principal that warmer air is able to retain more moisture than colder air . When the colder air replaces the warmer air in the lower atmosphere , the abundant moisture from the tropics loses the ability to be stored in the atmosphere . As a result , the excess moisture that can not be held by the colder air is then turned into thunderstorms and rain showers . These thunderstorms and rain showers are usually located along the equator , but they will extend out to the Tropic of Cancer , which is the 23.5 north latitude , as well as the Tropic of Capricorn , which is the 23.5 south latitude . It is largely a manifestation of the ITCH ( incorrect citation ) . The tropical rain belt lies in the southern hemisphere of the Indian ocean and western Pacific ocean roughly from October to March , and during this time the northern tropics experience a dry season in which precipitation is very rare , and days are typically hot and sunny throughout . From April to September , the rain belt lies in the northern hemisphere , and a wet season occurs there , while the southern tropics experience their dry season . The rain belt reaches roughly as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn in the western Pacific ocean . Its variation in the Western Hemisphere is minimal , roughly between the equator and the 15th parallel north latitude . Near these latitudes , there is one wet season and one dry season annually . On the equator , there are two wet and two dry seasons as the rain belt passes over twice a year , one moving north and one moving south . Between the tropics and the equator , locations may experience both a short wet and a long wet season . Local geography may substantially modify these climate patterns .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Tropical_rain_belt", "rank": 32, "score": 121914 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 33, "score": 121481 }, { "content": "Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics", "rank": 34, "score": 120571 }, { "content": "Title: Lead–lag effect Content: A lead -- lag effect , especially in economics , describes the situation where one ( leading ) variable is cross-correlated with the values of another ( lagging ) variable at later times . In nature and climate , bigger systems often display more pronounced lag effects . The Arctic Sea Ice minimum is on September 17 , three months after the peak in daylight ( sunshine ) hours in the northern hemisphere , according to NASA . For example , economists have found that in some circumstances there is a lead-lag effect between large-capitalization and small-capitalization stock-portfolio prices . ( A loosely related concept is that of lead-lag compensators in control theory , but this is not generally referred to specifically as a `` lead-lag effect . '' )", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Lead–lag_effect", "rank": 35, "score": 120531 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Climate_change_(general_concept)", "rank": 36, "score": 120333 }, { "content": "Title: Global Energy and Water Exchanges Content: The Global Energy and Water cycle Exchanges project (abbreviated GEWEX, formerly named the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment from 1990 to 2012) is an international research project and a core project of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP). In the beginning, the project intended to observe, comprehend and model the Earth's water cycle. The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives, studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed. Sunlight's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain, and dries out land masses after rain. Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes. GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere. If the Earth's climates were identical from year to year, then people could predict when, where and what crops to plant. However, instability created by solar variation, weather trends, and chaotic events creates weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales. Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities. GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data, and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future.", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Global_Energy_and_Water_Exchanges", "rank": 37, "score": 120005 }, { "content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Little_Ice_Age", "rank": 38, "score": 118570 }, { "content": "Title: Milankovitch cycles Content: Milankovitch cycles describes the collective effects of changes in the Earth 's movements on its climate over thousands of years . The term is named after Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković . In the 1920s , he theorized that variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit resulted in cyclical variation in the solar radiation ( insolation ) reaching the Earth , and that this orbital forcing strongly influenced climatic patterns on Earth . The Earth 's orbit varies between nearly circular and mildly elliptical ( its eccentricity varies ) . When the orbit is more elongated , there is more variation in the distance between the Earth and the Sun , and in the amount of solar radiation , at different times in the year . In addition , the rotational tilt of the Earth ( its obliquity ) , which causes the seasons as the Earth revolves around the Sun , changes slightly . A greater tilt makes the seasons more extreme . Finally , the direction in the fixed stars pointed to by the Earth 's axis changes ( axial precession ) , while the Earth 's elliptical orbit around the Sun rotates ( apsidal precession ) . The combined effect of the two precessions is a cycle in which proximity to the Sun occurs during different astronomical seasons . If the Earth is closer to the Sun while the northern or southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun ( is in summer ) , then both effects work together to heat that hemisphere . If the Earth is further from the Sun during summer , the greater distance slightly reduces the heat of summer . Similar astronomical theories had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar , James Croll and others , but verification was difficult because there was no reliably dated evidence , and because it was unclear which periods were important . Now , materials on Earth that have been unchanged for millennia are being studied to indicate the history of Earth 's climate . A study of the chronology of Antarctic ice cores using oxygen-nitrogen ratios in air bubbles trapped in the ice , which appear to respond directly to the local insolation , concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis . Analysis of deep-ocean cores and a seminal paper by Hays , Imbrie , and Shackleton provide additional validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis through physical artifacts . However , there are still several observations that the hypothesis does not explain .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Milankovitch_cycles", "rank": 39, "score": 117633 }, { "content": "Title: Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Content: The Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) is a research program of the World Climate Research Programme intended to observe , comprehend and model the Earth 's water cycle . The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives , studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed . Sunlight 's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain , and dries out land masses after rain . Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes . GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere . If the Earth 's climates were identical from year to year , then people could predict when , where and what crops to plant . However , instability created by solar variation , weather trends , and chaotic events create weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales . Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities . GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data , and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future . GEWEX is organized into several structures . As GEWEX was conceived projects were organized by participating factions , this task is now done by the International GEWEX Project Office ( IGPO ) . IGPO oversees major initiatives and coordinates between national projects in an effort to bring about communication of researchers . IGPO claims to support communication exchange between 2000 scientist and is the instrument for publication of major reports . The Scientific Steering Group organizes the projects and assigns them to panels , which oversee progress and provide critique . The Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Observations Project ( CEOP ) the ` Hydrology Project ' is a major instrument in GEWEX . This panel includes geographic study areas such as the Climate Prediction Program for the Americas operated by NOAA , but also examines several types of climate zones ( e.g. high altitude and semi-arid ) . Another panel , the GEWEX Radiation Panel oversees the coordinated use of satellites and ground based observation to better estimate energy and water fluxes . One recent result GEWEX 's Radiation panel has assessed data on rainfall for the last 25 years and determined that global rainfall is 2.61 mm/day with a small statistical variation . While the study period is short , after 25 years of measurement regional trends are beginning to appear . The GEWEX Modeling and Prediction Panel takes current models and analyzes the models when climate forcing phenomena occur ( global warming as an example of a ` climate forcing ' event ) . GEWEX is now the core project of WCRP .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Global_Energy_and_Water_Cycle_Experiment", "rank": 40, "score": 117337 }, { "content": "Title: F2 propagation Content: The E layer of the ionosphere is not the only layer that can reflect VHF television signals . Less frequently , the higher F2 layer can also propagate VHF signals several thousand miles beyond their intended area of reception . Solar activity has a cycle of approximately 11 years . During this period , sunspot activity rises to a peak and gradually falls again to a low level . When sunspot activity increases , the reflecting capabilities of the F1 layer surrounding earth enable high frequency short-wave communications . The highest-reflecting layer , the F2 layer , which is approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) above earth , receives ultraviolet radiation from the sun , causing ionisation of the gases within this layer . During the daytime when sunspot activity is at a maximum , the F2 layer can become intensely ionized due to radiation from the sun . When solar activity is sufficiently high , the MUF ( Maximum Usable Frequency ) rises , hence the ionisation density is sufficient to reflect signals well into the 30 -- 50 MHz VHF spectrum . Since the MUF progressively increases , F2 reception on lower frequencies can indicate potential low band 45-55 MHz VHF TV as well as VHF amateur radio paths . A rising MUF will initially affect the 27 MHz CB band , and the amateur 28 MHz 10 meters band before reaching 45-55 MHz TV and the 6 Meter amateur band . The F2 MUF generally increases at a slower rate compared to the Es MUF . Since the height of the F2 layer is some 200 miles ( 320 km ) , it follows that single-hop F2 signals will be received at thousands rather than hundreds of miles . A single-hop F2 signal will usually be around 2,000 miles ( 3,200 km ) minimum . A maximum F2 single-hop can reach up to approximately 3,000 miles ( 4,800 km ) . Multi-hop F2 propagation has enabled Band 1 VHF reception to over 11,000 miles ( 17,700 km ) . Since F2 reception is directly related to radiation from the Sun on both a daily basis and in relation to the sunspot cycle , it follows that for optimum reception the centre of the signal path will be roughly at midday . The F2 layer tends to predominantly propagate signals below 40 MHz , which includes the 27 MHz CB band , and 28 MHz 10-metre Amateur radio band . Less frequently , television and amateur signals in the 45 -- 55 MHz VHF band are also propagated over considerable distances . In North America , F2 is most likely to only affect VHF TV channel 2 , in Europe and middle east channel E2 and E3 ( and the now deprecated channel itA ) and in eastern Europe channel R1 . Television pictures propagated via F2 tend to suffer from characteristic ghosting and smearing . Picture degradation and signal strength attenuation increases with each subsequent F2 hop .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "F2_propagation", "rank": 41, "score": 117038 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Volcanic_winter", "rank": 42, "score": 116877 }, { "content": "Title: Ghrsst-pp Content: The Group for High Resolution SST ( GHRSST ) is a follow on activity form the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment ( GODAE ) high-resolution sea surface temperature pilot project ( GHRSST-PP ) provides a new generation of global high-resolution ( < 10 km ) SST data products to the operational oceanographic , meteorological , climate and general scientific community , in real time and delayed mode . See GHRSST for full details . Sea surface temperature ( SST ) measured from Earth Observation Satellites in considerable spatial detail and at high frequency , is increasingly required for use in the context of operational monitoring and forecasting of the ocean , for assimilation into coupled ocean-atmosphere model systems and for applications in short-term numerical weather prediction and longer term climate change detection . Currently there are many different SST data sets available derived from satellite systems . But , scientists and operational agencies alike are presented with a bewidering set of options in terms of SST product content , coverage , spatial resolution , timeliness , format and accuracy . The international GODAE steering committee realised that SST data products were not adequate for GODAE forecast systems and initiated the GODAE High Resolution SST Pilot Project ( GHRSST-PP ) . User Requirements were collected together to define the optimal SST data products that could be developed to suit the widest possible number of applications . In 2008 the GHRSST-PP Science Team agreed to close the Pilot Project as the GODAE project was completed . A follow on activity called the Group for High Resolution SST is now continuing the coordination of GHRSST activities .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Ghrsst-pp", "rank": 43, "score": 115029 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 44, "score": 114350 }, { "content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)", "rank": 45, "score": 113676 }, { "content": "Title: Season Content: A season is a division of the year marked by changes in weather , ecology and hours of daylight . Seasons result from the yearly orbit of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earth 's rotational axis relative to the plane of the orbit . In temperate and polar regions , the seasons are marked by changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth 's surface , variations of which may cause animals to go into hibernation or to migrate , and plants to be dormant . During May , June , and July , the northern hemisphere is exposed to more direct sunlight because the hemisphere faces the sun . The same is true of the southern hemisphere in November , December , and January . It is the tilt of the Earth that causes the Sun to be higher in the sky during the summer months which increases the solar flux . However , due to seasonal lag , June , July , and August are the hottest months in the northern hemisphere and December , January , and February are the hottest months in the southern hemisphere . In temperate and subpolar regions , four calendar-based seasons are generally recognized : spring , autumn or fall , and winter . Ecologists often use a six-season model for temperate climate regions : prevernal , vernal , estival , serotinal , autumnal , and hibernal . Many tropical regions have two seasons : the rainy , wet , or monsoon season and the dry season . Some have a third cool , mild , or harmattan season . Seasons often held special significance for agrarian societies , whose lives revolved around planting and harvest times , and the change of seasons was often attended by ritual . In some parts of the world , some other `` seasons '' capture the timing of important ecological events such as hurricane season , tornado season , and wildfire season . The most historically important of these are the three seasons -- flood , growth , and low water -- which were previously defined by the former annual flooding of the Nile in Egypt .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Season", "rank": 46, "score": 113569 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 47, "score": 113421 }, { "content": "Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Ian_Clark_(geologist)", "rank": 48, "score": 113027 }, { "content": "Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Climate_model", "rank": 49, "score": 112716 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 50, "score": 112674 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Peter_Thejll", "rank": 51, "score": 112429 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Global_cooling_(disambiguation)", "rank": 52, "score": 112346 }, { "content": "Title: Stefan Krauter Content: Stefan Krauter ( born 1963 in Göppingen , Germany ) is Professor and Entrepreneur in the area of Renewable Energies . His activities in research , teaching and business are directed to establish a global sustainable energy supply . He specialized in the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity - photovoltaics . He initiated and organized in Rio de Janeiro several congresses ( RIO 02/3/5 / 6/9/12 / 15 - World Climate & Energy Events ) and the Latin America Renewable Energy Fair ( LAREF ) , to sustain the vision of the UNCED Earth Summit of Rio 1992 in that area .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Stefan_Krauter", "rank": 53, "score": 111959 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 54, "score": 111832 }, { "content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Mesopause", "rank": 55, "score": 111812 }, { "content": "Title: Global Solar Energy Content: Global Solar Energy is a US-based manufacturer of CIGS solar cells , a thin-film based photovoltaic technology , with manufacturing operations in Tucson , Arizona , United States , and Berlin , Germany . In 2013 , it was bought by Chinese renewable energy company Hanergy .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Global_Solar_Energy", "rank": 56, "score": 111766 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 57, "score": 111443 }, { "content": "Title: Monthly Climatic Data for the World Content: Monthly Climatic Data for the World ( MCDW ) is a monthly publication of the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) division of the National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the United States . According to the website , each monthly issue `` contains monthly mean temperature , pressure , precipitation , vapor pressure , and sunshine for approximately 2,000 surface data collection stations worldwide and monthly mean upper air temperatures , dew point depressions , and wind velocities for approximately 500 observing sites . This is the final quality controlled copy and generally has a 4 - 6 month time lag . '' The issues are available for download in portable document format .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Monthly_Climatic_Data_for_the_World", "rank": 58, "score": 111354 }, { "content": "Title: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean Content: The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean ( SHEBA ) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean , where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time . The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models , which scientists use to study global climate change .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Surface_Heat_Budget_of_the_Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 59, "score": 111108 }, { "content": "Title: Lavoisier Group Content: The Lavoisier Group is an Australian organisation formed by politicians and dominated by retired industrial businesspeople and engineers . It does not accept the science of global warming and works to influence attitudes of policy makers and politicians . The organisation downplays the risk of the effects of global warming , rejects the scientific conclusion that human activity causes it , and opposes policies designed to curtail it . Some members regard climate change as a `` scam . '' The group was named after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier ( 1743-1794 ) , the father of modern chemistry who disproved the Phlogiston theory of combustion .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Lavoisier_Group", "rank": 60, "score": 110684 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans", "rank": 61, "score": 110669 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 62, "score": 110397 }, { "content": "Title: Earth Content: Earth ( from Eorðe -LSB- Γαῖα , Gaia -RSB- Terra ) , otherwise known as the World or the Globe , is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life . It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets . According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence , Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago . Earth 's gravity interacts with other objects in space , especially the Sun and the Moon , Earth 's only natural satellite . During one orbit around the Sun , Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times ; thus , an Earth year is about 365.26 days long . Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted , producing seasonal variations on the planet 's surface . The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides , stabilizes the Earth 's orientation on its axis , and gradually slows its rotation . Earth 's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years . About 71 % of Earth 's surface is covered with water , mostly by its oceans . The remaining 29 % is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes , rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere . The majority of Earth 's polar regions are covered in ice , including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack . Earth 's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core , a liquid outer core that generates the Earth 's magnetic field , and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics . Within the first billion years of Earth 's history , life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earth 's atmosphere and surface , leading to the proliferation of aerobic and anaerobic organisms . Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , physical properties , and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive . In the history of the Earth , biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion , occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events . Over 99 % of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct . Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely ; most species have not been described . Over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival . Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures ; politically , the world has about 200 sovereign states .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Earth", "rank": 63, "score": 110235 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 64, "score": 109682 }, { "content": "Title: Willie Soon Content: Wei-Hock `` Willie '' Soon ( born 1966 ) is an externally-funded part-time researcher of the Smithsonian at the Solar and Stellar Physics ( SSP ) Division of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics . Soon co-authored The Maunder Minimum and the Variable Sun -- Earth Connection with Steven H. Yaskell . The book treats historical and proxy records of climate change coinciding with the Maunder Minimum , a period from 1645 to about 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare . Soon disputes the current scientific understanding of climate change , and contends that most global warming is caused by solar variation rather than by human activity . He gained visibility in part due to strong scientific criticism of the methodology of a paper which he co-wrote . Climate scientists such as Gavin Schmidt of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies have strongly refuted Soon 's arguments , and the Smithsonian does not support his conclusions . He is nonetheless frequently cited by politicians opposed to climate-change legislation .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Willie_Soon", "rank": 65, "score": 109603 }, { "content": "Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Radiative_forcing", "rank": 66, "score": 109581 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Research Programme Content: The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "World_Climate_Research_Programme", "rank": 67, "score": 109529 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 68, "score": 109357 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect", "rank": 69, "score": 108655 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Global_temperature_record", "rank": 70, "score": 108038 }, { "content": "Title: Space sunshade Content: A space sunshade or sunshield is a parasol that diverts or otherwise reduces some of a star 's radiation , preventing them from hitting a spacecraft or planet and thereby reducing its insolation , which results in reduced heating . Light can be diverted by different methods . First proposed in 1989 , the original space sunshade concept involves putting a large occulting disc , or technology of equivalent purpose at the L1 gravitation point between the Earth and Sun . A sunshade is of particular interest as a climate engineering method for mitigating global warming through solar radiation management . Such shades could also be used to produce space solar power , acting as solar power satellites . Proposed shade designs include a single-piece shade and a shade made by a great number of small objects . Most such proposals contemplate a blocking element at the Sun-Earth L1 Lagrangian point . In 1989 James Early proposed a space-based sun-shade to divert sunlight at the planetary level . His design involved making a large glass ( 2000 km ) occulter from lunar material and placing at the L1 point . Issues included the large amount of material needed to make the disc and also the energy to launch it to its orbit .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Space_sunshade", "rank": 71, "score": 107867 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Peter_Doran", "rank": 72, "score": 107825 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 73, "score": 107817 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "rank": 74, "score": 107601 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 75, "score": 107557 }, { "content": "Title: Solar storm of 2012 Content: The solar storm of 2012 was an unusually large and strong coronal mass ejection ( CME ) event that occurred on July 23 that year . It missed the Earth with a margin of approximately nine days , as the Sun rotates around its own axis with a period of about 25 days . The region that produced the outburst was thus not pointed directly towards the Earth at that time . The strength of the eruption was comparable to the 1859 Carrington event that caused damage to electric equipment worldwide , which at that time consisted mostly of telegraph stations . The eruption tore through Earth 's orbit , hitting the STEREO-A spacecraft . The spacecraft is a solar observatory equipped to measure such activity , and because it was far away from the Earth and thus not exposed to the strong electrical currents that can be induced when a CME hits the Earth 's magnetosphere , it survived the encounter and provided researchers with valuable data . Based on the collected data , the eruption consisted of two separate ejections which were able to reach exceptionally high strength as the interplanetary medium around the Sun had been cleared by a smaller CME four days earlier . Had the CME hit the Earth , it is likely that it would have inflicted serious damage to electronic systems on a global scale . A 2013 study estimated that the economic cost to the United States would have been between $ 0.6 and 2.6 trillion USD . Ying D. Liu , professor at China 's State Key Laboratory of Space Weather , estimated that the recovery time from such a disaster would have been about four to ten years . The event occurred at a time of high sunspot activity during Solar cycle 24 .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Solar_storm_of_2012", "rank": 76, "score": 107455 }, { "content": "Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Climate_engineering", "rank": 77, "score": 107434 }, { "content": "Title: Theodor Landscheidt Content: Theodor Landscheidt ( Bremen , 1927 -- May 20 , 2004 ) was a German author , astrologer and amateur climatologist . In 1989 , Landscheidt forecast a period of sunspot minima after 1990 , accompanied by increased cold , with a stronger minimum and more intense cold which should peak in 2030 His work on solar cycles has been cited by global warming skeptics to argue that observed warming is not anthropogenic and will soon be reversed , based on an assumption that fluctuations in climate are controlled by solar activity . In 1983 he founded and financed the `` Schroeter Institute for Research in Cycles of Solar Activity '' in Lilienthal , near Bremen . The Institute later moved with him to Nova Scotia , Canada .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Theodor_Landscheidt", "rank": 78, "score": 107271 }, { "content": "Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Anti-greenhouse_effect", "rank": 79, "score": 107267 }, { "content": "Title: General circulation model Content: A general circulation model ( GCM ) is a type of climate model . It employs a mathematical model of the general circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean . It uses the Navier -- Stokes equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources ( radiation , latent heat ) . These equations are the basis for computer programs used to simulate the Earth 's atmosphere or oceans . Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs ( AGCM and OGCM ) are key components along with sea ice and land-surface components . GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting , understanding the climate and forecasting climate change . Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton , New Jersey . These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical , chemical and sometimes biological equations .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "General_circulation_model", "rank": 80, "score": 107090 }, { "content": "Title: 100,000-year problem Content: The 100,000-year problem ( `` 100 ky problem '' , `` 100 ka problem '' ) of the Milankovitch theory of orbital forcing refers to a discrepancy between the reconstructed geologic temperature record and the reconstructed amount of incoming solar radiation , or insolation over the past 800,000 years . Due to variations in the Earth 's orbit , the amount of insolation varies with periods of around 21,000 , 40,000 , 100,000 , and 400,000 years ( Milankovitch cycles ) . Variations in the amount of incident solar energy drive changes in the climate of the Earth , and are recognised as a key factor in the timing of initiation and termination of glaciations . While there is a Milankovitch cycle in the range of 100,000 years , related to Earth 's orbital eccentricity , its contribution to variation in insolation is much smaller than those of precession and obliquity . The 100,000-year-problem refers to the lack of an obvious explanation for the periodicity of ice ages at roughly 100,000 years for the past million years , but not before , when the dominant periodicity corresponded to 41,000 years . The unexplained transition between the two periodicity regimes is known as the mid-Pleistocene transition , dated to some 800,000 years ago . The related `` 400,000-year-problem '' refers to the absence of a 400,000-year periodicity due to orbital eccentricity in the geological temperature record over the past 1.2 million years .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "100,000-year_problem", "rank": 81, "score": 107078 }, { "content": "Title: Sunspot Content: Sunspots are temporary phenomena on the photosphere of the Sun that appear as dark spots compared with surrounding regions . They are areas of reduced surface temperature caused by concentrations of magnetic field flux that inhibit convection . Sunspots usually appear in pairs of opposite magnetic polarity . Their number varies according to the approximately 11-year solar cycle . Individual sunspots may endure anywhere from a few days to a few months , but eventually decay . Sunspots expand and contract as they move across the surface of the Sun with sizes ranging from 16 km to 160000 km in diameter . The larger variety are visible from Earth without the aid of a telescope . They may travel at relative speeds , or proper motions of a few hundred meters per second when they first emerge . Indicating intense magnetic activity , sunspots accompany secondary phenomena such as coronal loops ( prominences ) and reconnection events . Most solar flares and coronal mass ejections originate in magnetically active regions around visible sunspot groupings . Similar phenomena indirectly observed on stars other than the sun are commonly called starspots and both light and dark spots have been measured .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Sunspot", "rank": 82, "score": 106843 }, { "content": "Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Impact_winter", "rank": 83, "score": 106682 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 10 Content: Solar cycle 10 was the tenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.3 years , beginning in December 1855 and ending in March 1867 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 186.2 ( February 1860 ) , and the starting minimum was 6.0 . During the transit from solar cycle 10 to 11 , there were a total of 406 days with no sunspots . The first observations of solar flares , by Richard Carrington and Richard Hodgson ( independently ) , occurred during this cycle .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Solar_cycle_10", "rank": 84, "score": 106649 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 85, "score": 106523 }, { "content": "Title: Sunlight Content: Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun , in particular infrared , visible , and ultraviolet light . On Earth , sunlight is filtered through Earth 's atmosphere , and is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon . When the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds , it is experienced as sunshine , a combination of bright light and radiant heat . When it is blocked by clouds or reflects off other objects , it is experienced as diffused light . The World Meteorological Organization uses the term `` sunshine duration '' to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter . Other sources indicate an `` Average over the entire earth '' of `` 164 Watts per square meter over a 24 hour day '' . The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative health effects , as it is both a principal source of vitamin D3 and a mutagen . Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach Earth from the surface of the Sun . A photon starting at the center of the Sun and changing direction every time it encounters a charged particle would take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to get to the surface . Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis , the process used by plants and other autotrophic organisms to convert light energy , normally from the Sun , into chemical energy that can be used to fuel the organisms ' activities .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Sunlight", "rank": 86, "score": 106383 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 2 Content: Solar cycle 2 was the second solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9 years , beginning in June 1766 and ending in June 1775 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 193.0 ( September 1769 ) , and the starting minimum was 18.6 . Sunspot observations by Alexander Wilson during this period established the Wilson effect .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Solar_cycle_2", "rank": 87, "score": 106317 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 9 Content: Solar cycle 9 was the ninth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 12.4 years , beginning in July 1843 and ending in December 1855 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 219.9 ( February 1848 ) , and the starting minimum was 17.6 . During the solar cycle minimum transit from solar cycle 9 to solar cycle 10 , there were a total of 655 days with no sunspots . Solar cycle 9 began in 1843 , the year that Heinrich Schwabe discovered the sunspot cycle . During this cycle , Edward Sabine , Rudolf Wolf , and other scientists recognized that solar disturbances affected the Earth 's magnetic environment , so that solar cycles are identical to the Earth 's geomagnetic cycles . Wolf also introduced the Wolf number during this period . The phenomenon now known as geomagnetically induced current was seen for the first time during this cycle -- it became apparent on the emerging electric telegraph network . Francis Ronalds , Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory and Sabine 's colleague , received data from telegraph operators on the movements of their magnetic needles for comparison with his own photo-recordings of atmospheric electricity and geomagnetic intensity variations but had insufficient resources to study the causes of the unexpected currents in detail . Geomagnetic activity during solar cycle 9 followed a double-peaked distribution , with more magnetic storms during the rising ( 1847 -- 48 ) and falling ( 1851 -- 54 ) parts of the cycle .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Solar_cycle_9", "rank": 88, "score": 106199 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 89, "score": 106168 }, { "content": "Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "The_Cloud_Mystery", "rank": 90, "score": 105462 }, { "content": "Title: Milutin Milanković Content: Milutin Milanković ( Милутин Миланковић , pronounced -LSB- milǔtin milǎːnkɔʋitɕ -RSB- 28 May 1879 -- 12 December 1958 ) was a Serbian mathematician , astronomer , climatologist , geophysicist , civil engineer , doctor of technology , university professor and popularizer of science . Milanković gave two fundamental contributions to global science . The first contribution is the `` Canon of the Earth 's Insolation '' , which characterizes the climates of all the planets of the Solar system . The second contribution is the explanation of Earth 's long-term climate changes caused by changes in the position of the Earth in comparison to the Sun , now known as Milankovitch cycles . This explained the ice ages occurring in the geological past of the Earth , as well as the climate changes on the Earth which can be expected in the future . He founded planetary climatology by calculating temperatures of the upper layers of the Earth 's atmosphere as well as the temperature conditions on planets of the inner Solar system , Mercury , Venus , Mars , and the Moon , as well as the depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets . He demonstrated the interrelatedness of celestial mechanics and the Earth sciences , and enabled consistent transition from celestial mechanics to the Earth sciences and transformation of descriptive sciences into exact ones .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Milutin_Milanković", "rank": 91, "score": 105317 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program Content: The Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program ( TOGA ) was a ten-year study ( 1985-1994 ) of the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) aimed specifically at the prediction of climate phenomena on time scales of months to years . TOGA emphasized the tropical oceans and their relationship to the global atmosphere . Underlying TOGA is the premise that the dynamic adjustment of the ocean in the tropics is far more rapid than at higher latitudes . Thus disturbances emanating from the western Pacific Ocean ( such as El Niño ) may propagate across the basin on time scales of weeks compared to years for corresponding basin-wide propagation at higher latitudes . The significance of shorter dynamic times scales near the equator is that they are similar to those of highly energetic atmospheric modes . This similarity allows the formation of coupled modes between the ocean and the atmosphere . TOGA was instrumental in developing a comprehensive observing system for the equatorial Pacific Ocean and laid important groundwork for ENSO prediction , data assimilation and understanding of air-sea interaction .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Tropical_Ocean_Global_Atmosphere_program", "rank": 92, "score": 105112 }, { "content": "Title: Seasonal lag Content: Seasonal lag is the phenomenon whereby the date of maximum average air temperature at a geographical location on a planet is delayed until some time after the date of maximum insolation . This also applies to the minimum temperature being delayed until some time after the date of minimum insolation . An analogous temperature lag phenomenon occurs in diurnal temperature variation , where maximum daily temperature occurs after noon ( maximum insolation ) .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Seasonal_lag", "rank": 93, "score": 104830 }, { "content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Global_dimming", "rank": 94, "score": 104493 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 19 Content: Solar cycle 19 was the nineteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.5 years , beginning in April 1954 and ending in October 1964 . The International Geophysical Year occurred at the peak of this solar cycle . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 285.0 , in March 1958 ( the highest on record ) , and the starting minimum was 5.1 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 19 to 20 , there were a total of 227 days with no sunspots . This was the lowest number since 1850 .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Solar_cycle_19", "rank": 95, "score": 104440 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 96, "score": 104332 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.", "qid": "3008", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves", "rank": 97, "score": 104143 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves", "rank": 98, "score": 104097 }, { "content": "Title: Solar core Content: The core of the Sun is considered to extend from the center to about 0.2 to 0.25 of solar radius . It is the hottest part of the Sun and of the Solar System . It has a density of 150 g/cm ³ ( 150 times the density of liquid water ) at the center , and a temperature of 15 million degrees Celsius . The core is made of hot , dense gas in the plasmic state ( ions and electrons ) , at a pressure estimated at 265 billion bar ( 3.84 trillion psi or 26.5 petapascals ( PPa ) ) at the center . Due to fusion , the composition of the solar plasma drops from 68-70 % hydrogen by mass at the outer core , to 33 % hydrogen at the core/Sun center . The core inside 0.20 of the solar radius , contains 34 % of the Sun 's mass , but only 0.8 % of the Sun 's volume . Inside 0.24 solar radius , the core generates 99 % of the fusion power of the Sun . There are two distinct reactions in which four hydrogen nuclei may eventually result in one helium nucleus : the proton-proton chain reaction -- which is responsible for most of the Sun 's released energy -- and the CNO cycle .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Solar_core", "rank": 99, "score": 103905 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "3008", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 100, "score": 103747 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 1, "score": 147764 }, { "content": "Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_activity_and_climate", "rank": 2, "score": 146183 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 3, "score": 133236 }, { "content": "Title: Solar maximum Content: -RSB- Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun . During solar maximum , large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun 's irradiance output grows by about 0.07 % . The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth 's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns . At solar maximum , the Sun 's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles . The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next , with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years . Large solar flares often occur during a maximum . For example , the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_maximum", "rank": 4, "score": 127039 }, { "content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Little_Ice_Age", "rank": 5, "score": 124067 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Global_temperature_record", "rank": 6, "score": 123449 }, { "content": "Title: Theodor Landscheidt Content: Theodor Landscheidt ( Bremen , 1927 -- May 20 , 2004 ) was a German author , astrologer and amateur climatologist . In 1989 , Landscheidt forecast a period of sunspot minima after 1990 , accompanied by increased cold , with a stronger minimum and more intense cold which should peak in 2030 His work on solar cycles has been cited by global warming skeptics to argue that observed warming is not anthropogenic and will soon be reversed , based on an assumption that fluctuations in climate are controlled by solar activity . In 1983 he founded and financed the `` Schroeter Institute for Research in Cycles of Solar Activity '' in Lilienthal , near Bremen . The Institute later moved with him to Nova Scotia , Canada .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Theodor_Landscheidt", "rank": 7, "score": 122351 }, { "content": "Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_gain", "rank": 8, "score": 121955 }, { "content": "Title: Solar phenomena Content: Solar phenomena are the natural phenomena occurring within the magnetically heated outer atmospheres in the Sun . These phenomena take many forms , including solar wind , radio wave flux , energy bursts such as solar flares , coronal mass ejection or solar eruptions , coronal heating and sunspots . These phenomena are generated by a helical dynamo near the center of the Sun 's mass that generates strong magnetic fields and a chaotic dynamo near the surface that generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations . The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation . The collective effect of all solar variations within the Sun 's gravitational field is referred to as space weather . A major weather component is the solar wind , a stream of plasma released from the Sun 's upper atmosphere . It is responsible for the aurora , natural light displays in the sky in the Arctic and Antarctic . Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth , disrupting communications , as well as geomagnetic storms in Earth 's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere . Variations in solar intensity also affect Earth 's climate . These variations can explain events such as ice ages and the Great Oxygenation Event , while the Sun 's future expansion into a red giant will likely end life on Earth . Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the 8th century BCE . Babylonians inscribed and possibly predicted solar eclipses , while the earliest extant report of sunspots dates back to the Chinese Book of Changes , . The first extant description of the solar corona was in 968 , while the earliest sunspot drawing was in 1128 and a solar prominence was described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod . The invention of the telescope allowed major advances in understanding , allowing the first detailed observations in the 1600s . Solar spectroscopy began in the 1800s , from which properties of the solar atmosphere could be determined , while the creation of daguerreotypy led to the first solar photographs on 2 April 1845 . Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences , granulation and spectroscopy . Early in the 20th century , interest in astrophysics surged in America . A number of new observatories were built with solar telescopes around the world . The 1931 invention of the coronagraph allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_phenomena", "rank": 9, "score": 120718 }, { "content": "Title: Solar minimum Content: Solar minimum is the period of least solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the sun . During this time , sunspot and solar flare activity diminishes , and often does not occur for days at a time . The date of the minimum is described by a smoothed average over 12 months of sunspot activity , so identifying the date of the solar minimum usually can only happen 6 months after the minimum takes place . Solar minima are not generally correlated with changes in climate but recent studies have shown a correlation with regional weather patterns . Solar minimum is contrasted with the solar maximum , where there may be hundreds of sunspots .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_minimum", "rank": 10, "score": 117264 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 11, "score": 116220 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 12, "score": 114413 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 13, "score": 114173 }, { "content": "Title: Spörer Minimum Content: The Spörer Minimum is a hypothesized 90-year span of low solar activity , from about 1460 until 1550 , which was identified and named by John A. Eddy in a landmark 1976 paper published in Science titled `` The Maunder Minimum '' . It occurred before sunspots had been directly observed and was discovered instead by analysis of the proportion of carbon-14 in tree rings , which is strongly correlated with solar activity . It is named for the German astronomer Gustav Spörer .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Spörer_Minimum", "rank": 14, "score": 113640 }, { "content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period", "rank": 15, "score": 113366 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 15 Content: Solar cycle 15 was the fifteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.1 years , beginning in July 1913 and ending in August 1923 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 175.7 ( August 1917 ) , and the starting minimum was 2.5 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 15 to 16 , there were a total of 534 days with no sunspots . A major geomagnetic storm during 13 -- 15 May 1921 caused damage in communication systems and aurora displays in much of the eastern United States . Geomagnetic storms in March 1918 , August 1919 , October 1919 , and March 1920 affected telegraph lines , while a solar flare on 13 May 1921 also affected rail signal and switching equipment , in what was known as the `` New York Railroad Storm . ''", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_15", "rank": 16, "score": 113058 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 20 Content: Solar cycle 20 was the twentieth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.4 years , beginning in October 1964 and ending in March 1976 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 156.6 ( November 1968 ) , and the starting minimum was 14.3 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 20 to 21 , there were a total of 272 days with no sunspots . Comparison with other cycles shows that geomagnetic activity during the declining phase of cycle 20 ( 1973 -- 1975 ) was unusually high . Data from solar cycle 20 was used to build the K-1974 solar proton fluence model , used for planning space missions during solar cycle 21 .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_20", "rank": 17, "score": 112262 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 2 Content: Solar cycle 2 was the second solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9 years , beginning in June 1766 and ending in June 1775 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 193.0 ( September 1769 ) , and the starting minimum was 18.6 . Sunspot observations by Alexander Wilson during this period established the Wilson effect .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_2", "rank": 18, "score": 111504 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 8 Content: Solar cycle 8 was the eighth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9.7 years , beginning in November 1833 and ending in July 1843 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 244.9 ( March 1837 ) , and the starting minimum was 12.2 . Solar cycle # 8 ended in 1843 , the year that Heinrich Schwabe discovered the sunspot cycle .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_8", "rank": 19, "score": 111493 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 19 Content: Solar cycle 19 was the nineteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.5 years , beginning in April 1954 and ending in October 1964 . The International Geophysical Year occurred at the peak of this solar cycle . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 285.0 , in March 1958 ( the highest on record ) , and the starting minimum was 5.1 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 19 to 20 , there were a total of 227 days with no sunspots . This was the lowest number since 1850 .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_19", "rank": 20, "score": 109990 }, { "content": "Title: Modern Maximum Content: The Modern Maximum refers to the period of relatively high solar activity which began with Solar Cycle 15 in 1914 . It reached a maximum in Cycle 19 during the late 1950s and may have ended with Cycle 23 in 2000 as Cycle 24 is recording , at best , very muted solar activity . This period is a natural example of solar variation , and one of many that are known from proxy records of past solar variability . The Modern Maximum reached a double peak once in the 1950s and again during the 1990s . The value of the maximum , and even to some extent its existence , depends somewhat on the method of counting sunspot numbers .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Modern_Maximum", "rank": 21, "score": 109705 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 22, "score": 109556 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 23, "score": 109274 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of May 11, 1975 Content: A partial solar eclipse occurred on May 11 , 1975 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon 's shadow misses the Earth .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_May_11,_1975", "rank": 24, "score": 108863 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Peter_Thejll", "rank": 25, "score": 108090 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of November 3, 1975 Content: A partial solar eclipse occurred on November 3 , 1975 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon 's shadow misses the Earth .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_November_3,_1975", "rank": 26, "score": 107865 }, { "content": "Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Ian_Clark_(geologist)", "rank": 27, "score": 107779 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 3 Content: Solar cycle 3 was the third solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9.3 years , beginning in June 1775 and ending in September 1784 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 264.3 ( May 1778 ) , and the starting minimum was 12.0 . William Herschel began observing sunspots during this period .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_3", "rank": 28, "score": 107310 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 29, "score": 107273 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 12 Content: Solar cycle 12 was the twelfth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.3 years , beginning in December 1878 and ending in March 1890 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 124.4 ( December 1883 ) , and the starting minimum was 3.7 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 12 to 13 , there were a total of 736 days with no sunspots . A very bright blood-red aurora display happened over New York on 16 April 1882 , while significant communication disturbances occurred . A geomagnetic storm later in that year produced the aurora of November 17 , 1882 .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_12", "rank": 30, "score": 107138 }, { "content": "Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate", "rank": 31, "score": 106936 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 1 Content: Solar cycle 1 was the first solar cycle since extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.3 years , beginning in February 1755 and ending in June 1766 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 144.1 ( June 1761 ) , and the starting minimum was 14.0 . Cycle # 1 was discovered by Johann Rudolph Wolf who , inspired by the discovery of the solar cycle by Heinrich Schwabe in 1843 , collected all available sunspot observations going back to the first telescopic observations by Galileo . He was able to improve Schwabe 's estimate of the mean length of the cycle from about a decade to 11.11 years . However , he could not find enough observations before 1755 to reliably identify cycles , hence the 1755 -- 1766 cycle is conventionally numbered as cycle # 1 . Wolf published his results in 1852 .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_1", "rank": 32, "score": 106590 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 17 Content: Solar cycle 17 was the seventeenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.4 years , beginning in September 1933 and ending in February 1944 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 198.6 ( April 1937 ) , and the starting minimum was 5.8 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 17 to 18 , there were a total of 269 days with no sunspots . A great aurora display was seen all over Europe on 25 January 1938 , as far south as Portugal and Sicily , frightening many people . Some thought that the red glow indicated large fires , while others linked it to the Fátima prophecies . An aurora was visible over New York on 3 April 1940 .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_17", "rank": 33, "score": 106011 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 6 Content: Solar cycle 6 was the sixth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 12.8 years , beginning in August 1810 and ending in May 1823 ( thus falling within the Dalton Minimum ) . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 81.2 , in May 1816 ( the lowest of any cycle to date , as a result of being part of the Dalton Minimum ) , and the starting minimum was 0.0 .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_6", "rank": 34, "score": 105986 }, { "content": "Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Climate_variability", "rank": 35, "score": 105884 }, { "content": "Title: Willie Soon Content: Wei-Hock `` Willie '' Soon ( born 1966 ) is an externally-funded part-time researcher of the Smithsonian at the Solar and Stellar Physics ( SSP ) Division of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics . Soon co-authored The Maunder Minimum and the Variable Sun -- Earth Connection with Steven H. Yaskell . The book treats historical and proxy records of climate change coinciding with the Maunder Minimum , a period from 1645 to about 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare . Soon disputes the current scientific understanding of climate change , and contends that most global warming is caused by solar variation rather than by human activity . He gained visibility in part due to strong scientific criticism of the methodology of a paper which he co-wrote . Climate scientists such as Gavin Schmidt of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies have strongly refuted Soon 's arguments , and the Smithsonian does not support his conclusions . He is nonetheless frequently cited by politicians opposed to climate-change legislation .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Willie_Soon", "rank": 36, "score": 105858 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 10 Content: Solar cycle 10 was the tenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.3 years , beginning in December 1855 and ending in March 1867 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 186.2 ( February 1860 ) , and the starting minimum was 6.0 . During the transit from solar cycle 10 to 11 , there were a total of 406 days with no sunspots . The first observations of solar flares , by Richard Carrington and Richard Hodgson ( independently ) , occurred during this cycle .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_10", "rank": 37, "score": 105838 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 16 Content: Solar cycle 16 was the sixteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.1 years , beginning in August 1923 and ending in September 1933 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 130.2 ( April 1928 ) , and the starting minimum was 9.4 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 16 to 17 , there were a total of 568 days with no sunspots . Newspaper reports during this period note effects on telegraph systems , but also ( in March 1924 , January 1926 , October 1926 , and October 1927 ) on radio transmission .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_16", "rank": 38, "score": 105728 }, { "content": "Title: Mukul Kundu Content: Mukul R. Kundu ( 10 February 1930 - 16 June 2010 ) , was an Indian solar physicist , known best as a pioneer of radio observations of the Sun . Early in his career , he showed that the Sun 's 10.7 centimetre radio flux is correlated with the level of ionisation in the Earth 's ionosphere . The 10.7 cm flux is now used as a standard proxy for the level of magnetic activity on the Sun . He served on the editorial board of the journal Solar Physics and was awarded the George Ellery Hale Prize in 2007 .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Mukul_Kundu", "rank": 39, "score": 105717 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 21 Content: Solar cycle 21 was the 21st solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.5 years , beginning in March 1976 and ending in September 1986 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 232.9 , in December 1979 , and the starting minimum was 17.8 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 21 to 22 , there were a total of 273 days with no sunspots . The largest solar flare of this cycle ( X15 ) occurred on July 11 , 1978 .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_21", "rank": 40, "score": 105681 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 41, "score": 105614 }, { "content": "Title: Solar radiation management Content: Solar radiation management ( SRM ) projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming . Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active , their potential low financial cost , and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects . Solar radiation management projects could , for example , be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by mitigation and greenhouse gas removal techniques . They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere , and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_radiation_management", "rank": 42, "score": 105536 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Hawaii Content: Hawaii Governor Linda Lingle has approved a number of energy-related bills to address climate change and promote local renewable energy production . The governor 's energy bill-signing streak started in late April 2008 with the approval of House Bill 2502 , which allows solar energy facilities to be located on less-productive agricultural lands , followed in late May by the approval of HB 3179 , which makes it easier for biofuel producers to lease state lands . In the same time frame , the governor approved SB 2034 , SB 3190 , and HB 2168 , which authorize special purpose revenue bonds to help finance a 2.7-megawatt wave energy facility off the coast of Maui , a solar energy facility on Oahu , and hydrogen generation and conversion facilities at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority , located on the island of Hawaii . Senate Bill 644 , approved on June 26 , 2008 prohibits the issuing of building permits for new homes without solar water heaters as of 2010 . The bill excludes homes located in areas with poor solar energy resources , homes using other renewable energy sources , and homes employing on-demand gas-fired water heaters . The bill also eliminates solar thermal energy tax credits for those homes . On June 6 , 2008 the governor approved SB 988 , which allows the Hawaii Public Utility Commission to establish a rebate for solar photovoltaic electric systems , and HB 2550 , which encourages net metering for residential and small commercial customers . On July 1 , 2008 the governor approved the final three energy bills , including HB 2863 , which provides streamlined permitting for new renewable energy facilities of at least 200 megawatts in capacity . HB 2505 creates a full-time renewable energy facilitator to help the state expedite those permits , while a third bill , HB 2261 , will provide loans of up to $ 1.5 million and up to 85 % of the cost of renewable energy projects at farms and aquaculture facilities .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Hawaii", "rank": 43, "score": 105380 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 14 Content: Solar cycle 14 was the fourteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.5 years , beginning in January 1902 and ending in July 1913 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 107.1 , in February 1906 ( the lowest since the Dalton Minimum ) , and the starting minimum was 4.5 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 14 to 15 , there were a total of 1023 days with no sunspots ( the second highest recorded of any cycle to date ) . Geomagnetic storms in November 1903 , March 1905 , and September 1909 affected telegraph lines .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_14", "rank": 44, "score": 105134 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 9 Content: Solar cycle 9 was the ninth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 12.4 years , beginning in July 1843 and ending in December 1855 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 219.9 ( February 1848 ) , and the starting minimum was 17.6 . During the solar cycle minimum transit from solar cycle 9 to solar cycle 10 , there were a total of 655 days with no sunspots . Solar cycle 9 began in 1843 , the year that Heinrich Schwabe discovered the sunspot cycle . During this cycle , Edward Sabine , Rudolf Wolf , and other scientists recognized that solar disturbances affected the Earth 's magnetic environment , so that solar cycles are identical to the Earth 's geomagnetic cycles . Wolf also introduced the Wolf number during this period . The phenomenon now known as geomagnetically induced current was seen for the first time during this cycle -- it became apparent on the emerging electric telegraph network . Francis Ronalds , Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory and Sabine 's colleague , received data from telegraph operators on the movements of their magnetic needles for comparison with his own photo-recordings of atmospheric electricity and geomagnetic intensity variations but had insufficient resources to study the causes of the unexpected currents in detail . Geomagnetic activity during solar cycle 9 followed a double-peaked distribution , with more magnetic storms during the rising ( 1847 -- 48 ) and falling ( 1851 -- 54 ) parts of the cycle .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_9", "rank": 45, "score": 105012 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 11 Content: Solar cycle 11 was the eleventh solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.8 years , beginning in March 1867 and ending in December 1878 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 234.0 ( August 1870 ) , and the starting minimum was 9.9 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 11 to 12 , there were a total of 1028 days with no sunspots ( the highest recorded of any cycle transit to date ) . Strong auroral displays were observed in October 1870 , February 1872 , and August 1872 .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_11", "rank": 46, "score": 105003 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 5 Content: Solar cycle 5 was the fifth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 12.3 years , beginning in April 1798 and ending in August 1810 ( thus falling within the Dalton Minimum ) . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 82.0 , in February 1805 ( the second-lowest of any cycle to date , as a result of being part of the Dalton Minimum ) , and the starting minimum was 5.3 .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_5", "rank": 47, "score": 104608 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 7 Content: Solar cycle 7 was the seventh solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.5 years , beginning in May 1823 and ending in November 1833 ( thus overlapping the Dalton Minimum ) . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 119.2 ( November 1829 ) , and the starting minimum was 0.2 .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_7", "rank": 48, "score": 104434 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 49, "score": 104176 }, { "content": "Title: Early anthropocene Content: The Early Anthropocene Hypothesis ( sometimes called Early Anthropogenic ) was proposed by William Ruddiman . It posits that the Anthropocene era , as some scientists call the most recent period in Earth 's history when the activities of the human race first began to have a significant global impact on Earth 's climate and ecosystems , did not begin in the eighteenth century with advent of coal-burning factories and power plants of the industrial era , as was commonly assumed , but dates back to 8,000 years ago , triggered by intense farming activities after agriculture became widespread . It was at that time that atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations stopped following the periodic pattern of rises and falls that had accurately characterized their past long-term behavior , a pattern that is explained by natural variations in Earth 's orbit known as Milankovitch cycles .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Early_anthropocene", "rank": 50, "score": 103866 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of April 29, 1976 Content: An annular solar eclipse occurred on April 29 , 1976 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is smaller than the Sun 's , blocking most of the Sun 's light and causing the Sun to look like an annulus ( ring ) . An annular eclipse appears as a partial eclipse over a region of the Earth thousands of kilometres wide . Totality was visible from North Africa , Turkey , Middle East , central Asia , India , China .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_April_29,_1976", "rank": 51, "score": 103641 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle Content: The solar cycle or solar magnetic activity cycle is the nearly periodic 11-year change in the Sun 's activity ( including changes in the levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material ) and appearance ( changes in the number and size of sunspots , flares , and other manifestations ) . They have been observed ( by changes in the sun 's appearance and by changes seen on Earth , such as auroras ) for centuries . The changes on the sun cause effects in space , in the atmosphere , and on Earth 's surface . While it is the dominant variable in solar activity , aperiodic fluctuations also occur .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle", "rank": 52, "score": 103580 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 53, "score": 103483 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 54, "score": 103196 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 55, "score": 103054 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 56, "score": 102717 }, { "content": "Title: James Hays Content: James D. Hays is a professor of Earth and environmental sciences at Columbia University 's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory . Hays founded and led the CLIMAP project , which collected sea floor sediment data to study surface sea temperatures and paleoclimatological conditions 18,000 years ago . Hays is probably best known as a co-author of the 1976 paper in Science , `` Variations in the Earth 's orbit : Pacemaker of the ice ages . '' Using ocean sediment cores , the Science paper verified the theories of Milutin Milanković that oscillations in climate can be correlated with Earth 's orbital variations of eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession around the Sun ( see Milankovitch cycles ) .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "James_Hays", "rank": 57, "score": 102711 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 18 Content: Solar cycle 18 was the eighteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.2 years , beginning in February 1944 and ending in April 1954 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 218.7 ( May 1947 ) , and the starting minimum was 12.9 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 18 to 19 , there were a total of 446 days with no sunspots . Cycle 18 was characterized by `` giant '' sunspots . The recording of the 10.7 cm ( 2800 MHz ) solar radio flux began partway during this cycle , and values of the solar flux during this cycle turned out to be particularly high .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_18", "rank": 58, "score": 102117 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 13 Content: Solar cycle 13 was the thirteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.8 years , beginning in March 1890 and ending in January 1902 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 146.5 ( January 1894 ) , and the starting minimum was 8.3 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 13 to 14 , there were a total of 934 days with no sunspots . There were a number of intense solar proton events during solar cycle 13 , as well as geomagnetic storms such as e.g. in September 1898 which affected telegraph lines .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_13", "rank": 59, "score": 102111 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Climate_change_(general_concept)", "rank": 60, "score": 101981 }, { "content": "Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "The_Cloud_Mystery", "rank": 61, "score": 101924 }, { "content": "Title: Friends of Science Content: Friends of Science ( FoS ) is a Canadian non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary , Alberta . The organization takes a position that humans are largely not responsible for the currently observed global warming , contrary to the established scientific position on the subject . Rather , they propose that `` the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change , '' not human activity . They argued against the Kyoto Protocol . The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year . They are considered by many to promote climate change denial . They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry . Madhav Khandekar , Chris de Freitas , Tim Patterson and Sallie Baliunas act as advisers to the Friends of Science with their work cited in Friends ' publications . Douglas Leahey has been president since December , 2009 .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Friends_of_Science", "rank": 62, "score": 101855 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 4 Content: Solar cycle 4 was the fourth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 13.6 years , beginning in September 1784 and ending in April 1798 ( thus overlapping the Dalton Minimum ) . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 235.3 ( in February 1788 ) , and the starting minimum was 15.9 . There are some recent speculations that cycle 4 , the longest solar cycle since 1755 , was actually two cycles , based on the appearance of new sunspots at high solar latitudes in 1793-1796 and a reconstruction of the sunspot butterfly diagram for cycles 3 and 4 , although total sunspot numbers only show a single-peaked distribution .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_4", "rank": 63, "score": 101809 }, { "content": "Title: Solar storm of 2012 Content: The solar storm of 2012 was an unusually large and strong coronal mass ejection ( CME ) event that occurred on July 23 that year . It missed the Earth with a margin of approximately nine days , as the Sun rotates around its own axis with a period of about 25 days . The region that produced the outburst was thus not pointed directly towards the Earth at that time . The strength of the eruption was comparable to the 1859 Carrington event that caused damage to electric equipment worldwide , which at that time consisted mostly of telegraph stations . The eruption tore through Earth 's orbit , hitting the STEREO-A spacecraft . The spacecraft is a solar observatory equipped to measure such activity , and because it was far away from the Earth and thus not exposed to the strong electrical currents that can be induced when a CME hits the Earth 's magnetosphere , it survived the encounter and provided researchers with valuable data . Based on the collected data , the eruption consisted of two separate ejections which were able to reach exceptionally high strength as the interplanetary medium around the Sun had been cleared by a smaller CME four days earlier . Had the CME hit the Earth , it is likely that it would have inflicted serious damage to electronic systems on a global scale . A 2013 study estimated that the economic cost to the United States would have been between $ 0.6 and 2.6 trillion USD . Ying D. Liu , professor at China 's State Key Laboratory of Space Weather , estimated that the recovery time from such a disaster would have been about four to ten years . The event occurred at a time of high sunspot activity during Solar cycle 24 .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_storm_of_2012", "rank": 64, "score": 101531 }, { "content": "Title: IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme Content: The International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme ( IEA SHC ) is one of over 40 multilateral Technology Collaboration Programmes ( also known as TCPs ) of the International Energy Agency . It was one of the first of such programmes , founded in 1977 . Its current mission is to `` advance international collaborative efforts for solar energy to reach the goal set in the vision of contributing 50 % of the low temperature heating and cooling demand by 2030 . '' . Its international solar collector statistics Solar Heat Worldwide serve as a reference document for governments , financial institutions , consulting firms and non-profit organizations .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "IEA_Solar_Heating_and_Cooling_Programme", "rank": 65, "score": 101522 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of October 23, 1976 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on October 23 , 1976 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . This total solar eclipse began at sunrise in Tanzania near the border with Burundi , with the path of totality passing just north of the large Tanzanian city of Dar es Salaam . It then crossed the Indian Ocean before making landfall in southeastern Australia . The largest city that saw totality was Melbourne . After leaving the Australian mainland , the path of totality left the Earth 's surface just north of the north island of New Zealand .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_October_23,_1976", "rank": 66, "score": 101322 }, { "content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change", "rank": 67, "score": 100967 }, { "content": "Title: Solar variability Content: Solar variability refers to changes in solar activity , such as : Solar variation , the change in the amount of radiation emitted by the Sun ( see Solar radiation ) see also solar cycle , specifically for the 11-year cyclic variation in solar activity Changes in the solar wind , i.e. , charged particles ( moving much slower than the speed of light ) Category : Solar phenomena", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_variability", "rank": 68, "score": 100708 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 22 Content: Solar cycle 22 was the 22nd solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9.9 years , beginning in September 1986 and ending in August 1996 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 212.5 ( November 1989 ) , and the starting minimum was 13.5 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 22 to 23 , there were a total of 309 days with no sunspots .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_22", "rank": 69, "score": 100521 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 23 Content: Solar cycle 23 was the 23rd solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 12.3 years , beginning in August 1996 and ending in December 2008 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 180.3 ( November 2001 ) , and the starting minimum was 11.2 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 23 to 24 , there were a total of 817 days with no sunspots .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_cycle_23", "rank": 70, "score": 99745 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 71, "score": 99615 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.", "qid": "3009", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves", "rank": 72, "score": 99547 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves", "rank": 73, "score": 99271 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of June 20, 1974 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on June 20 , 1974 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_June_20,_1974", "rank": 74, "score": 99016 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of April 6, 1875 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on April 6 , 1875 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . Totality was visible on the southern tip of Africa , across the Indian ocean , and across southeastern Asia .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_April_6,_1875", "rank": 75, "score": 98745 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 76, "score": 98403 }, { "content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years", "rank": 77, "score": 98317 }, { "content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming", "rank": 78, "score": 98199 }, { "content": "Title: The Dying Sun Content: The Dying Sun is a science fiction novel by Gary Blackwood , published in 1989 . Set in the mid-21st century , the book depicts a world where the sun 's light is actually diminishing over time , cooling the Earth ( as opposed to global warming ) , which causes a mass migration from the U.S. to Mexico . The large influx from the north causes overpopulation and a wave of violence in the south , and James and Robert , two friends , decide to go north to escape the crime-ridden south . The novel is a 1990 Friends of American Writers Best Young Adult Novel .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "The_Dying_Sun", "rank": 79, "score": 97909 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 80, "score": 97834 }, { "content": "Title: Hurricane Katrina and global warming Content: The tremendous destruction caused by recent Atlantic Ocean tropical cyclones , such as Hurricanes Katrina , Wilma , and Sandy caused a substantial upsurge in interest in the subject of global warming by news media and the wider public , and concerns that global climatic change may have played a significant role in those events . Time Magazine , for example , published an article titled , `` Is Global Warming Fueling Katrina ? '' -- however , the article itself addressed hurricanes in general , rather than Katrina specifically , and was inconclusive . Shortly after the hurricane , former Boston Globe reporter Ross Gelbspan wrote an op-ed piece for the Globe titled , `` Katrina 's Real Name '' , declaring that the hurricane 's `` real name is global warming . '' Gelbspan went on to assert : `` Although Katrina began as a relatively small hurricane that glanced off south Florida , it was supercharged with extraordinary intensity by the relatively blistering sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico . '' Gelbspan did not single out Katrina from other recent storms in that regard ; in the article he went on to attribute other major weather events over the preceding year to global warming , including a blizzard in Los Angeles , high winds in Scandinavia , wildfires in Spain , and a drought centered in Missouri . Britain 's then deputy prime minister , John Prescott , has linked Katrina with global warming , and statements made shortly after the hurricane by Germany 's environment minister , Jürgen Trittin , indicate he believes that global warming is responsible for an increase in the frequency of destructive natural events . Kerry Emanuel had recently published a paper in the journal Nature that found a good correlation between hurricane intensity and sea surface temperatures . Some journalists have claimed Emanuel 's paper concludes that the recent increase in intense Atlantic storms is due to global warming , but Emanuel stated that `` it would be absurd to attribute the Katrina disaster to global warming '' . The Internet blog RealClimate has written that `` there is no way to prove that Katrina either was , or was not , affected by global warming '' .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Hurricane_Katrina_and_global_warming", "rank": 81, "score": 97282 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 82, "score": 96898 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of November 13, 2012 Content: A total solar eclipse took place on 13 -- 15 November 2012 ( UTC ) . Because it crossed the International Date Line it began in local time on November 14 west of the date line over northern Australia , and ended in local time on November 13 east of the date line near the west coast of South America . Its greatest magnitude was 1.0500 , occurring only 12 hours before perigee , with greatest eclipse totality lasting just over four minutes . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_November_13,_2012", "rank": 83, "score": 96873 }, { "content": "Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "The_Chilling_Stars", "rank": 84, "score": 96831 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 85, "score": 96756 }, { "content": "Title: SolarCity Linz Content: The solarCity is an energy-saving living district in Linz-Pichling , Austria , which provides living space for about 4,000 people . The houses were built using a low-energy design . The idea and motivation for providing energy efficient living arrangements stems from the fact that fossil fuels contribute to global warming and that their use should therefore be avoided . Planning of the project began in 1992 . Since 1999 , 1,300 apartments were gradually built during a 6-year period . The total cost of the project amounted to 190 million euros . Nearly two-thirds of which was used for the residential building , and only a third of the total cost was due to infrastructure .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "SolarCity_Linz", "rank": 86, "score": 96726 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 87, "score": 96642 }, { "content": "Title: Solar (novel) Content: Solar is a novel by author Ian McEwan , first published on 18 March 2010 by Jonathan Cape , an imprint of Random House . It is a satire about a jaded Nobel-winning physicist whose dysfunctional personal life and cynical ambition see him pursuing a solar-energy based solution for climate change .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_(novel)", "rank": 88, "score": 96381 }, { "content": "Title: 1816 Content: This year was known as the ` Year Without a Summer ' because of low temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere , the result of the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption in Indonesia in 1815 . The sulfur from this eruption reflected the sun 's rays and caused severe global cooling , catastrophic in some locations .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "1816", "rank": 89, "score": 96161 }, { "content": "Title: Mikhail Budyko Content: Mikhail Ivanovich Budyko ( 20 January 1920 -- 10 December 2001 ) was a Russian climatologist and one of the founders of physical climatology . He pioneered studies on global climate and calculated temperature of Earth considering simple physical model of equilibrium in which the incoming solar radiation absorbed by the Earth 's system is balanced by the energy re-radiated to space as thermal energy . Ethnically Belarussian , Budyko earned his M.Sc . in 1942 from the Division of Physics of the Leningrad Polytechnic Institute . As a researcher at the Leningrad Geophysical Observatory , he received his doctorate in physical and mathematical sciences in 1951 . Budyko served as deputy director of the Geophysical Observatory until 1954 , as director until 1972 , and as head of the Division for Physical Climatology at the observatory from 1972 until 1975 . In that year he was appointed director of the Division for Climate Change Research at the State Hydrological Institute in St. Petersburg . Budyko 's groundbreaking book , Heat Balance of the Earth 's Surface , published in 1956 , transformed climatology from a qualitative into a quantitative physical science . These new physical methods based on heat balance were quickly adopted by climatologists around the world . In 1963 , Budyko directed the compilation of an atlas illustrating the components of the Earth 's heat balance . He was the first researcher to discuss the role of humans in Pleistocene megafauna extinction .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Mikhail_Budyko", "rank": 90, "score": 95874 }, { "content": "Title: Milankovitch cycles Content: Milankovitch cycles describes the collective effects of changes in the Earth 's movements on its climate over thousands of years . The term is named after Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković . In the 1920s , he theorized that variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit resulted in cyclical variation in the solar radiation ( insolation ) reaching the Earth , and that this orbital forcing strongly influenced climatic patterns on Earth . The Earth 's orbit varies between nearly circular and mildly elliptical ( its eccentricity varies ) . When the orbit is more elongated , there is more variation in the distance between the Earth and the Sun , and in the amount of solar radiation , at different times in the year . In addition , the rotational tilt of the Earth ( its obliquity ) , which causes the seasons as the Earth revolves around the Sun , changes slightly . A greater tilt makes the seasons more extreme . Finally , the direction in the fixed stars pointed to by the Earth 's axis changes ( axial precession ) , while the Earth 's elliptical orbit around the Sun rotates ( apsidal precession ) . The combined effect of the two precessions is a cycle in which proximity to the Sun occurs during different astronomical seasons . If the Earth is closer to the Sun while the northern or southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun ( is in summer ) , then both effects work together to heat that hemisphere . If the Earth is further from the Sun during summer , the greater distance slightly reduces the heat of summer . Similar astronomical theories had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar , James Croll and others , but verification was difficult because there was no reliably dated evidence , and because it was unclear which periods were important . Now , materials on Earth that have been unchanged for millennia are being studied to indicate the history of Earth 's climate . A study of the chronology of Antarctic ice cores using oxygen-nitrogen ratios in air bubbles trapped in the ice , which appear to respond directly to the local insolation , concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis . Analysis of deep-ocean cores and a seminal paper by Hays , Imbrie , and Shackleton provide additional validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis through physical artifacts . However , there are still several observations that the hypothesis does not explain .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Milankovitch_cycles", "rank": 91, "score": 95829 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 92, "score": 95695 }, { "content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm", "rank": 93, "score": 95667 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 94, "score": 95421 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of December 13, 1974 Content: A partial solar eclipse occurred on December 13 , 1974 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon 's shadow misses the Earth .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_December_13,_1974", "rank": 95, "score": 95219 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Hypercane", "rank": 96, "score": 95095 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of April 17, 1912 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on April 17 , 1912 . It is a hybrid event , starting and ending as an annular eclipse , with only a small portion of totality . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . Totality was visible over the sea between Spain and France , with annularity continued northeast across Europe and Asia . This eclipse occurred two days after the RMS Titanic sank in the northwestern Atlantic ocean under the darkness of new moon .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_April_17,_1912", "rank": 97, "score": 95044 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Volcanic_winter", "rank": 98, "score": 94930 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of June 30, 1954 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on June 30 , 1954 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . Totality began at sunrise over the United States over Nebraska , South Dakota , Minnesota , and Wisconsin , and crossed into Canada , across southern Greenland , Iceland and Faroe Islands , then into Europe , across Norway , Sweden , and eastern Europe . It ended before sunset over Iran , Afghanistan , Pakistan , and ending in northwestern India .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_June_30,_1954", "rank": 99, "score": 94836 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of June 8, 1937 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on June 8 , 1937 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . The path of totality crossed the pacific ocean starting in Micronesia , and ending at sunset in western South America .", "qid": "3009", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_June_8,_1937", "rank": 100, "score": 94673 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 2 Content: Solar cycle 2 was the second solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9 years , beginning in June 1766 and ending in June 1775 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 193.0 ( September 1769 ) , and the starting minimum was 18.6 . Sunspot observations by Alexander Wilson during this period established the Wilson effect .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_2", "rank": 1, "score": 146015 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 21 Content: Solar cycle 21 was the 21st solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.5 years , beginning in March 1976 and ending in September 1986 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 232.9 , in December 1979 , and the starting minimum was 17.8 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 21 to 22 , there were a total of 273 days with no sunspots . The largest solar flare of this cycle ( X15 ) occurred on July 11 , 1978 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_21", "rank": 2, "score": 142519 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle (calendar) Content: The solar cycle is a 28-year cycle of the Julian calendar with respect to the week . It occurs because leap years occur every 4 years and there are 7 possible days to start a leap year , making a 28-year sequence . This cycle also occurs in the Gregorian calendar , but it is interrupted by years such as 1800 , 1900 , 2100 , 2200 , 2300 and 2500 , which are divisible by four but which are common years . This interruption has the effect of skipping 16 years of the solar cycle between February 28 and March 1 . Because the Gregorian cycle of 400 years has exactly 146,097 days , i.e. exactly 20,871 weeks , one can say that the Gregorian so-called solar cycle lasts 400 years . Calendar years are usually marked by Dominical letters indicating the first Sunday in a new year , thus the term solar cycle can also refer to a repeating sequence of Dominical letters . Unless a year is not a leap year due to Gregorian exceptions , a sequence of calendars is reused every 28 years . The name solar cycle comes from Sunday , the traditional first day of the week .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_(calendar)", "rank": 3, "score": 140628 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 113 Content: Saros cycle 113 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events . This cycle contained only partial and annular eclipses . The cycle began on July 22 , 586 in the Northern Hemisphere and ended on August 28 , 1848 in the Southern Hemisphere .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_113", "rank": 4, "score": 139795 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 20 Content: Solar cycle 20 was the twentieth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.4 years , beginning in October 1964 and ending in March 1976 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 156.6 ( November 1968 ) , and the starting minimum was 14.3 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 20 to 21 , there were a total of 272 days with no sunspots . Comparison with other cycles shows that geomagnetic activity during the declining phase of cycle 20 ( 1973 -- 1975 ) was unusually high . Data from solar cycle 20 was used to build the K-1974 solar proton fluence model , used for planning space missions during solar cycle 21 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_20", "rank": 5, "score": 138689 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 22 Content: Solar cycle 22 was the 22nd solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9.9 years , beginning in September 1986 and ending in August 1996 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 212.5 ( November 1989 ) , and the starting minimum was 13.5 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 22 to 23 , there were a total of 309 days with no sunspots .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_22", "rank": 6, "score": 137806 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 1 Content: Solar cycle 1 was the first solar cycle since extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.3 years , beginning in February 1755 and ending in June 1766 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 144.1 ( June 1761 ) , and the starting minimum was 14.0 . Cycle # 1 was discovered by Johann Rudolph Wolf who , inspired by the discovery of the solar cycle by Heinrich Schwabe in 1843 , collected all available sunspot observations going back to the first telescopic observations by Galileo . He was able to improve Schwabe 's estimate of the mean length of the cycle from about a decade to 11.11 years . However , he could not find enough observations before 1755 to reliably identify cycles , hence the 1755 -- 1766 cycle is conventionally numbered as cycle # 1 . Wolf published his results in 1852 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_1", "rank": 7, "score": 136834 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 8 Content: Solar cycle 8 was the eighth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9.7 years , beginning in November 1833 and ending in July 1843 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 244.9 ( March 1837 ) , and the starting minimum was 12.2 . Solar cycle # 8 ended in 1843 , the year that Heinrich Schwabe discovered the sunspot cycle .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_8", "rank": 8, "score": 136341 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 10 Content: Solar cycle 10 was the tenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.3 years , beginning in December 1855 and ending in March 1867 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 186.2 ( February 1860 ) , and the starting minimum was 6.0 . During the transit from solar cycle 10 to 11 , there were a total of 406 days with no sunspots . The first observations of solar flares , by Richard Carrington and Richard Hodgson ( independently ) , occurred during this cycle .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_10", "rank": 9, "score": 135559 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 23 Content: Solar cycle 23 was the 23rd solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 12.3 years , beginning in August 1996 and ending in December 2008 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 180.3 ( November 2001 ) , and the starting minimum was 11.2 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 23 to 24 , there were a total of 817 days with no sunspots .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_23", "rank": 10, "score": 134808 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 3 Content: Solar cycle 3 was the third solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9.3 years , beginning in June 1775 and ending in September 1784 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 264.3 ( May 1778 ) , and the starting minimum was 12.0 . William Herschel began observing sunspots during this period .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_3", "rank": 11, "score": 134290 }, { "content": "Title: Small Mahzor Content: A Small Mahzor ( Hebrew מחזור , -LSB- maχˈzor -RSB- , meaning `` cycle '' ) is a 19-year cycle in the lunisolar calendar system used by the Jewish people . It is similar to , but slightly different in usage with , the Greek Metonic cycle . Because a tropical year is 365.24219879 days , and a synodic month is 29.53058868 days , the difference between nineteen solar years and 235 lunar months is only about two hours . Thus by adding seven intercalary months in nineteen years , the solar years and the lunar years basically synchronize . Three ancient civilizations ( Babylonia , China and Israel ) used lunisolar calendars and knew of the rule of the intercalation from as early as 2000 BC , about the time of the biblical Tower of Babel , the confusion of language , and dispersion of nations . Whether or not the correlation indicates cause-and-effect relationship is an open question . The Greek astronomer Meton in the fifth century BC discovered the same principle , and the western civilization named the cycle after him . The west later applied the Metonic cycle on the solar Roman years ( Julian and Gregorian years ) in the Era of the Lord ( Anno Domini ) , a.k.a. the Common Era . The golden number is the remaining number of dividing the year in the Common Era by nineteen , plus one . The Babylonians and the Israelites used Nisan-years , and the Jews used Tishri-years , their years were lunar in nature , different in length , and the beginning of the Jewish cycle is by making the day of creation according to the Rabbinical Chronology ( 3761 BC ) Thus the Golden Number value in the Small Mahzor is different from that in the Metonic cycle , although the principles are the same .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Small_Mahzor", "rank": 12, "score": 133828 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of May 29, 1919 Content: A total solar eclipse occurred on May 29 , 1919 . With a maximum duration of totality of 6 minutes 51 seconds , it was one of the longest solar eclipses of the 20th century . It was visible throughout most of South America and Africa as a partial eclipse . Totality occurred through a narrow path across central Brazil after sunrise , across the Atlantic Ocean and into south central Africa ending near sunset in eastern Africa .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_May_29,_1919", "rank": 13, "score": 133297 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 142 Content: Saros cycle 142 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , contains 72 events . 41 of these are total eclipses , the longest of which occurs on May 28 , 2291 and will last 6 minutes 34 seconds .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_142", "rank": 14, "score": 133170 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 19 Content: Solar cycle 19 was the nineteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.5 years , beginning in April 1954 and ending in October 1964 . The International Geophysical Year occurred at the peak of this solar cycle . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 285.0 , in March 1958 ( the highest on record ) , and the starting minimum was 5.1 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 19 to 20 , there were a total of 227 days with no sunspots . This was the lowest number since 1850 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_19", "rank": 15, "score": 132466 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 7 Content: Solar cycle 7 was the seventh solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.5 years , beginning in May 1823 and ending in November 1833 ( thus overlapping the Dalton Minimum ) . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 119.2 ( November 1829 ) , and the starting minimum was 0.2 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_7", "rank": 16, "score": 131018 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 15 Content: Solar cycle 15 was the fifteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.1 years , beginning in July 1913 and ending in August 1923 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 175.7 ( August 1917 ) , and the starting minimum was 2.5 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 15 to 16 , there were a total of 534 days with no sunspots . A major geomagnetic storm during 13 -- 15 May 1921 caused damage in communication systems and aurora displays in much of the eastern United States . Geomagnetic storms in March 1918 , August 1919 , October 1919 , and March 1920 affected telegraph lines , while a solar flare on 13 May 1921 also affected rail signal and switching equipment , in what was known as the `` New York Railroad Storm . ''", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_15", "rank": 17, "score": 130828 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 145 Content: Solar saros 145 is an eclipse cycle with 77 solar eclipses repeating every 18 years , 11 days . It is currently a young cycle producing total eclipses less than 3 minutes in length . The longest duration eclipse in the cycle will be member 50 at 7 minutes and 12 seconds in length after which the durations of eclipses will decrease until the end of the cycle . In its central phase it will produce mainly total eclipses ( 41 of 43 central eclipses ) .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_145", "rank": 18, "score": 130738 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 16 Content: Solar cycle 16 was the sixteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.1 years , beginning in August 1923 and ending in September 1933 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 130.2 ( April 1928 ) , and the starting minimum was 9.4 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 16 to 17 , there were a total of 568 days with no sunspots . Newspaper reports during this period note effects on telegraph systems , but also ( in March 1924 , January 1926 , October 1926 , and October 1927 ) on radio transmission .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_16", "rank": 19, "score": 130374 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 143 Content: Saros cycle 143 , repeating every 18 years and 11 days , containing 72 events . It consisted of 10 partial eclipses , 12 total eclipses , 4 hybrid events , 26 annular eclipses , and ends with 20 partial eclipses . The longest total eclipse of the series was in 1887 at 3 minutes and 50 seconds .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_143", "rank": 20, "score": 129946 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 111 Content: Saros cycle 111 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 79 events . The first eclipse of the series was on August 30 , 528 which began in the Northern Hemisphere , it had annular eclipses from April 15 , 907 to August 1 , 1087 , after it had hybrid eclipses from August 11 , 1105 to December 31 , 1339 , from January 10 , 1358 to July 12 1646 , it only had total eclipses , the longest duration was on June 9,1592 which lasted 6 minutes and 11 seconds . The rest of the series had partial eclipses , the last eclipse of the series was on January 5 , 1935 which took place in the Southern Hemisphere .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_111", "rank": 21, "score": 129736 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 11 Content: Solar cycle 11 was the eleventh solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.8 years , beginning in March 1867 and ending in December 1878 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 234.0 ( August 1870 ) , and the starting minimum was 9.9 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 11 to 12 , there were a total of 1028 days with no sunspots ( the highest recorded of any cycle transit to date ) . Strong auroral displays were observed in October 1870 , February 1872 , and August 1872 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_11", "rank": 22, "score": 129644 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 9 Content: Solar cycle 9 was the ninth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 12.4 years , beginning in July 1843 and ending in December 1855 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 219.9 ( February 1848 ) , and the starting minimum was 17.6 . During the solar cycle minimum transit from solar cycle 9 to solar cycle 10 , there were a total of 655 days with no sunspots . Solar cycle 9 began in 1843 , the year that Heinrich Schwabe discovered the sunspot cycle . During this cycle , Edward Sabine , Rudolf Wolf , and other scientists recognized that solar disturbances affected the Earth 's magnetic environment , so that solar cycles are identical to the Earth 's geomagnetic cycles . Wolf also introduced the Wolf number during this period . The phenomenon now known as geomagnetically induced current was seen for the first time during this cycle -- it became apparent on the emerging electric telegraph network . Francis Ronalds , Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory and Sabine 's colleague , received data from telegraph operators on the movements of their magnetic needles for comparison with his own photo-recordings of atmospheric electricity and geomagnetic intensity variations but had insufficient resources to study the causes of the unexpected currents in detail . Geomagnetic activity during solar cycle 9 followed a double-peaked distribution , with more magnetic storms during the rising ( 1847 -- 48 ) and falling ( 1851 -- 54 ) parts of the cycle .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_9", "rank": 23, "score": 129368 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 4 Content: Solar cycle 4 was the fourth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 13.6 years , beginning in September 1784 and ending in April 1798 ( thus overlapping the Dalton Minimum ) . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 235.3 ( in February 1788 ) , and the starting minimum was 15.9 . There are some recent speculations that cycle 4 , the longest solar cycle since 1755 , was actually two cycles , based on the appearance of new sunspots at high solar latitudes in 1793-1796 and a reconstruction of the sunspot butterfly diagram for cycles 3 and 4 , although total sunspot numbers only show a single-peaked distribution .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_4", "rank": 24, "score": 128899 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 6 Content: Solar cycle 6 was the sixth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 12.8 years , beginning in August 1810 and ending in May 1823 ( thus falling within the Dalton Minimum ) . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 81.2 , in May 1816 ( the lowest of any cycle to date , as a result of being part of the Dalton Minimum ) , and the starting minimum was 0.0 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_6", "rank": 25, "score": 128695 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 120 Content: Saros cycle 120 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events . The series started with a partial solar eclipse on May 27 , 933 AD , and transitioned into an annular eclipse on August 11 , 1059 . It was a hybrid event for 3 dates : May 8 , 1510 , through May 29 , 1546 , and are total eclipses from June 8 , 1564 through March 30 , 2033 . The series ends at member 71 as a partial eclipse on July 7 , 2195 . The longest duration of totality was 2 minutes , 50 seconds on March 9 , 1997 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_120", "rank": 26, "score": 128407 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 17 Content: Solar cycle 17 was the seventeenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.4 years , beginning in September 1933 and ending in February 1944 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 198.6 ( April 1937 ) , and the starting minimum was 5.8 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 17 to 18 , there were a total of 269 days with no sunspots . A great aurora display was seen all over Europe on 25 January 1938 , as far south as Portugal and Sicily , frightening many people . Some thought that the red glow indicated large fires , while others linked it to the Fátima prophecies . An aurora was visible over New York on 3 April 1940 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_17", "rank": 27, "score": 128384 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 139 Content: Solar Saros 139 repeats every 18 years , 11 days . Saros 139 contains 71 events of which 16 will be partial eclipses , 12 will be hybrid and 43 will be total . The first total eclipse occurred on December 21 , 1843 over southern Asia and lasted 1 minute and 43 seconds . The last total eclipse will occur on March 26 , 2601 over Antarctica and the southern ocean lasting 35 seconds . This series is currently producing total eclipses over 4 minutes long , with each one gradually increasing in length . It will continue to do so until July 16 , 2186 when it will produce the longest total eclipse calculated for the ten millennia from 3999 BCE to 6000 CE . The last eclipse to occur was a total eclipse on March 29 , 2006 , lasting 4 minutes 7 seconds and passing over portions of Africa and western Asia . The next eclipse will occur on April 8 , 2024 , lasting 4 minutes 28 seconds over central North America , entering in Mexico , crossing the United States , and leaving in eastern Canada .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_139", "rank": 28, "score": 128160 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 12 Content: Solar cycle 12 was the twelfth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.3 years , beginning in December 1878 and ending in March 1890 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 124.4 ( December 1883 ) , and the starting minimum was 3.7 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 12 to 13 , there were a total of 736 days with no sunspots . A very bright blood-red aurora display happened over New York on 16 April 1882 , while significant communication disturbances occurred . A geomagnetic storm later in that year produced the aurora of November 17 , 1882 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_12", "rank": 29, "score": 128005 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 5 Content: Solar cycle 5 was the fifth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 12.3 years , beginning in April 1798 and ending in August 1810 ( thus falling within the Dalton Minimum ) . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 82.0 , in February 1805 ( the second-lowest of any cycle to date , as a result of being part of the Dalton Minimum ) , and the starting minimum was 5.3 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_5", "rank": 30, "score": 127851 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 137 Content: Saros cycle 137 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 70 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_137", "rank": 31, "score": 127839 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 18 Content: Solar cycle 18 was the eighteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.2 years , beginning in February 1944 and ending in April 1954 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 218.7 ( May 1947 ) , and the starting minimum was 12.9 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 18 to 19 , there were a total of 446 days with no sunspots . Cycle 18 was characterized by `` giant '' sunspots . The recording of the 10.7 cm ( 2800 MHz ) solar radio flux began partway during this cycle , and values of the solar flux during this cycle turned out to be particularly high .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_18", "rank": 32, "score": 127625 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 14 Content: Solar cycle 14 was the fourteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.5 years , beginning in January 1902 and ending in July 1913 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 107.1 , in February 1906 ( the lowest since the Dalton Minimum ) , and the starting minimum was 4.5 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 14 to 15 , there were a total of 1023 days with no sunspots ( the second highest recorded of any cycle to date ) . Geomagnetic storms in November 1903 , March 1905 , and September 1909 affected telegraph lines .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_14", "rank": 33, "score": 127476 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle Content: The solar cycle or solar magnetic activity cycle is the nearly periodic 11-year change in the Sun 's activity ( including changes in the levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material ) and appearance ( changes in the number and size of sunspots , flares , and other manifestations ) . They have been observed ( by changes in the sun 's appearance and by changes seen on Earth , such as auroras ) for centuries . The changes on the sun cause effects in space , in the atmosphere , and on Earth 's surface . While it is the dominant variable in solar activity , aperiodic fluctuations also occur .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle", "rank": 34, "score": 127200 }, { "content": "Title: Octaeteris Content: In astronomy , an octaeteris ( plural : octaeterides ) is the period of eight solar years after which the moon phase occurs on the same day of the year plus one or two days . This period is also in a very good synchronicity with five Venusian visibility cycles ( the Venusian synodic period ) and thirteen Venusian revolutions around the sun ( Venusian sidereal period ) . This means , that if Venus is visible beside the moon , after eight years the two will be again close together near the same date of the calendar . The octaeteris , also known as oktaeteris , was noted by Cleostratus in ancient Greece as a 2923.5 day cycle . The 8 year short lunisolar cycle was probably known to many ancient cultures . The mathematical proportions of the octaeteris cycles were noted in Classic Vernal rock art in northeastern Utah by J. Q. Jacobs in 1990 . The Three Kings panel also contains more accurate ratios , ratios related to other planets , and apparent astronomical symbolism . The octaeteris is the calendar used for the Olympic games , every four years and the Greek use 50 months of one Olympiad , four year cycle and 49 lunarmonths for the next Olympiad . This octaeteris calendar exist in the Antikythera Mechanism and is used for the Olympic dial of this ancient automaton , to determine the time of the Olympic games and other Greek festivities .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Octaeteris", "rank": 35, "score": 126687 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 121 Content: Saros cycle 121 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , contains 71 solar eclipse events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_121", "rank": 36, "score": 126683 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 157 Content: Saros cycle 157 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 70 events , with 55 listed before 3000 AD .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_157", "rank": 37, "score": 126664 }, { "content": "Title: List of years in South Africa Content:", "qid": "3011", "docid": "List_of_years_in_South_Africa", "rank": 38, "score": 126658 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 130 Content: Saros cycle 130 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 73 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_130", "rank": 39, "score": 126400 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 13 Content: Solar cycle 13 was the thirteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.8 years , beginning in March 1890 and ending in January 1902 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 146.5 ( January 1894 ) , and the starting minimum was 8.3 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 13 to 14 , there were a total of 934 days with no sunspots . There were a number of intense solar proton events during solar cycle 13 , as well as geomagnetic storms such as e.g. in September 1898 which affected telegraph lines .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_cycle_13", "rank": 40, "score": 126227 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 158 Content: Saros cycle 158 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 70 events , with 52 listed before 3000 AD .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_158", "rank": 41, "score": 126143 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 162 Content: Saros cycle 162 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , starts in 2257 , contains 42 events before 3000 AD , with its last event in 3501 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_162", "rank": 42, "score": 125694 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 110 Content: Saros cycle 110 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 72 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_110", "rank": 43, "score": 125285 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 141 Content: Saros cycle 141 repeats every 18 years , 11 days and contains 70 events . The series started with a partial solar eclipse on May 19 , 1613 . It contains annular eclipses from August 4 , 1739 through October 14 , 2460 . There are no total eclipses in this series . The series ends at member 70 as a partial eclipse on June 13 , 2857 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_141", "rank": 44, "score": 125219 }, { "content": "Title: 1148 Rarahu Content: 1148 Rarahu is a main belt asteroid orbiting the Sun . Approximately 33 kilometers in diameter , it makes a revolution around the Sun once every 5 years . It completes one rotation once every 6 hours . It was discovered by Alexander Nikolaevich Deutsch on July 5 , 1929 . On July 28 , it was independently discovered by Cyril V. Jackson and H.E. Wood in Johannesburg , South Africa . Rarahu is the Tahitian name for a girl , taken from the novel Le mariage de Loti ( Loti 's Marriage ) by Louis Marie Julien Viaud , a.k.a. Pierre Loti.The asteroid 's provisional name was 1929 NA .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "1148_Rarahu", "rank": 45, "score": 125128 }, { "content": "Title: 1165 Imprinetta Content: 1165 Imprinetta is a main belt asteroid orbiting the Sun . Approximately 49 kilometers in diameter , it makes a revolution around the Sun once every 6 years . It completes one rotation once every 8 hours . It was discovered by Hendrik van Gent at Johannesburg , South Africa on April 24 , 1930 . Its provisional designation was 1930 HM .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "1165_Imprinetta", "rank": 46, "score": 125020 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 134 Content: Saros cycle 134 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_134", "rank": 47, "score": 124631 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 135 Content: Saros cycle 135 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_135", "rank": 48, "score": 124570 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 115 Content: Saros cycle 115 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 72 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_115", "rank": 49, "score": 124536 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 116 Content: Saros cycle 116 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 70 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_116", "rank": 50, "score": 124511 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 160 Content: Saros cycle 160 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 46 events before 3000 AD .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_160", "rank": 51, "score": 124262 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 144 Content: Saros cycle 144 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 70 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_144", "rank": 52, "score": 124245 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 127 Content: Saros cycle 127 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 82 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_127", "rank": 53, "score": 124227 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 117 Content: Saros cycle 117 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_117", "rank": 54, "score": 124202 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 124 Content: Saros cycle 124 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 73 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_124", "rank": 55, "score": 124170 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 114 Content: Saros cycle 114 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 72 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_114", "rank": 56, "score": 124140 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 122 Content: Saros cycle 122 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 70 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_122", "rank": 57, "score": 124079 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 132 Content: Saros cycle 132 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_132", "rank": 58, "score": 124014 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 140 Content: Saros cycle 140 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_140", "rank": 59, "score": 123973 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 128 Content: Saros cycle 128 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 73 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_128", "rank": 60, "score": 123891 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 148 Content: Saros cycle 148 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 75 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_148", "rank": 61, "score": 123656 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 161 Content: Saros cycle 161 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 46 events before 3000 AD .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_161", "rank": 62, "score": 123598 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 112 Content: Saros cycle 112 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 72 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_112", "rank": 63, "score": 123591 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 118 Content: Saros cycle 118 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 72 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_118", "rank": 64, "score": 123410 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 150 Content: Saros cycle 150 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_150", "rank": 65, "score": 123349 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 138 Content: Saros cycle 138 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 70 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_138", "rank": 66, "score": 123143 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 146 Content: Saros cycle 146 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 76 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_146", "rank": 67, "score": 123015 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 126 Content: Saros cycle 126 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 72 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_126", "rank": 68, "score": 122854 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 149 Content: Saros cycle 149 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_149", "rank": 69, "score": 122670 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 119 Content: Saros cycle 119 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 71 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_119", "rank": 70, "score": 122519 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 125 Content: Saros cycle 125 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 73 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_125", "rank": 71, "score": 122489 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 123 Content: Saros cycle 123 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 70 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_123", "rank": 72, "score": 122484 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 129 Content: Saros cycle 129 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 80 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_129", "rank": 73, "score": 122333 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 159 Content: Saros cycle 159 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 49 events before 3000 AD .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_159", "rank": 74, "score": 122261 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 147 Content: Saros cycle 147 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 80 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_147", "rank": 75, "score": 122057 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of March 14, 1801 Content: A partial solar eclipse occurred on March 14 , 1801 just days before autumn ( or fall ) . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon 's shadow misses the Earth . It was the first of four partial eclipses that took place that year , each two in two months , the next on was on April 13 covered a part of the Northern Hemisphere . It was the last three of solar saros 107 , the next two were on March 25 , 1819 and April 5 , 1837 . The eclipse was visible in Southern Ocean and Antarctica particularly the middle part of the north and around the South Pole . The eclipse started at sunrise just close to the South Pole , the planet 's southernmost point and finished at sunset not far from the Cape Colony , at the time a Dutch possession occupied by the French as part of the Napoleonic Wars ( now divided into Southern and Northern Cape which are part of South Africa ) . It showed about up to 25-30 % obscurity in Antarctica . The greatest eclipse was hundreds of miles ( or kilometers ) offshore Antarctic Peninsula at 61.2 S , 40.6 EW at 15:45:35 UTC ( 6:13 PM local time ) . The subsolar marking was in Brazil inside the Amazon Rainforest around the Amazon River .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_March_14,_1801", "rank": 76, "score": 121974 }, { "content": "Title: South African Solar Challenge Content: The South African Solar Challenge is an alternative fuel vehicle auto racing challenge in South Africa , with classes for hybrid vehicles , electric vehicles , solar vehicles , and biofuel-powered vehicles . The first challenge was run in 2008 , and it will run every two years thereafter . The race distance is over 4100 km . The challenge route may change from year to year , but it is planned to run from Johannesburg to Cape Town to Durban and finish in Pretoria .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "South_African_Solar_Challenge", "rank": 77, "score": 121858 }, { "content": "Title: 1133 Lugduna Content: 1133 Lugduna is a main belt asteroid orbiting the Sun . It makes a revolution around the Sun once every 3.23 years . It was discovered by H. Van Gent on September 13 , 1929 , in Johannesburg , South Africa . Lugdunum Batavorum is the Latin name for the city of Katwijk , 10 kilometers to the west of Leiden , The Netherlands . It was named by the discoverer and the orbit computer , G. Pels . Its provisional designation was 1929 RC1 . Measurements of the lightcurve made in 2011 give a rotation period of 5.477 ± 0.001 hours . It has a diameter of 8.5 km and a Tholen classification of S.", "qid": "3011", "docid": "1133_Lugduna", "rank": 78, "score": 121555 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 131 Content: Saros cycle 131 , repeating every 18 years , 11 days , containing 70 events .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_131", "rank": 79, "score": 121548 }, { "content": "Title: 160-minute solar cycle Content: The 160-minute solar cycle was an apparent periodic oscillation in the solar surface which was observed in a number of early sets of data collected for helioseismology . The presence of a 160 minute cycle in the Sun is not substantiated by contemporary solar observations , and the historical signal is considered by mainstream scientists to occur as the redistribution of power from the diurnal cycle as a result of the observation window and atmospheric extinction .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "160-minute_solar_cycle", "rank": 80, "score": 121004 }, { "content": "Title: 58P/Jackson–Neujmin Content: 58P/Jackson -- Neujmin is a periodic comet in the Solar System with a current orbital period of 8.19 years . The comet was discovered on a photographic plate on 20 September 1936 by Cyril Jackson of the Union Observatory , South Africa , who described it as faint and diffuse , with a brightness of magnitude 12 . On the following day Grigory N. Neujmin of the Simeis Observatory , in Crimea , Russia discovered it independently . Fernand Rigaux of the Royal Observatory in Uccle , Belgium then also found it on an earlier photographic plate exposed on 9 September 1936 . The predicted 1945 apparition was not observed due to uncertainty about its position and appearance date and even Elizabeth Roemer was unable to find it in 1953 . 1961 was again very difficult but Charles Kowal managed to relocate it in September , 1970 . The 1995 appearance was more favourable and brightness reached a magnitude of 10 . It was last observed in September , 2009 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "58P/Jackson–Neujmin", "rank": 81, "score": 120756 }, { "content": "Title: 2865 Laurel Content: 2865 Laurel , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 15 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered by English-born South African astronomer Cyril Jackson at Johannesburg Observatory on 31 July 1935 . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.4 -- 2.7 AU once every 4 years and 1 month ( 1,497 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 14 ° with respect to the ecliptic . No precoveries were taken and the asteroid 's observation arc begins with its discovery observation in 1935 . A rotational light-curve for this asteroid was obtained from photometric observations by French amateur astronomer Pierre Antonini in September 2005 . It gave a longer than average rotation period of hours with a brightness variation of 0.15 in magnitude . According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , the asteroid measures between 14.7 and 25.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.09 and 0.22 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link agrees with IRAS and derives an albedo of 0.24 and a diameter 14.8 kilometers . The minor planet was named after English-born comedian Stan Laurel ( 1890 -- 1965 ) . Together with Oliver Hardy ( 1892 -- 1957 ) , who was honored with the main-belt asteroid 2866 Hardy , they formed the first great comedy duo in Classical Hollywood cinema . Naming citation was published on 1 September 1993 , based on a suggestion by Gareth V. Williams and others .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "2865_Laurel", "rank": 82, "score": 120737 }, { "content": "Title: 66P/du Toit Content: 66P/du Toit is a periodic comet in the Solar System with a current orbital period of 14.78 years . It will next come to perihelion on 2018 May 19 at roughly apparent magnitude 12 . It was discovered by Daniel du Toit at the Boyden Observatory , South Africa on 16 May 1944 , who estimated its brightness at magnitude 10 . Other observers estimated magnitude 11 and 12.5 . Its next return date was calculated to have a perihelion date of 10 April 1959 but it was not discovered . The 1974 return was found almost accidentally with a perihelion date of 1 April 1974 and a brightness of magnitude 18-19 . The 1989 appearance was again missed . The 2003 appearance had a perihelion date of 27 August 2003 and a brightness of magnitude 20 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "66P/du_Toit", "rank": 83, "score": 120471 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Saros 133 Content: Solar Saros 133 is one of the saros series of solar eclipse cycles . It began on July 13 , 1219 with a partial eclipse occurring in northern Yukon at , about 100 km east of Canada 's present-day Vuntut National Park . The final eclipse in the series will be on September 5 , 2499 . The period separating each of the 72 eclipses in the series is approximately 6585.3 days ( 18 years , 11 days ) ; that period was first called a saros by astronomer Edmond Halley .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_Saros_133", "rank": 84, "score": 119987 }, { "content": "Title: 1731 Smuts Content: 1731 Smuts , provisional designation , is a carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 54 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 9 August 1948 , by South African astronomer Ernest Johnson at Johannesburg Observatory in South Africa . The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.8 -- 3.6 AU once every 5 years and 8 months ( 2,060 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.13 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . First identified as in Heidelberg , Smutss first used observation was taken one month later in November 1926 , extending the body 's observation arc by 22 years prior to its official discovery observation . In March 2008 , a rotational light-curve of Smuts was obtained from photometric observations by French amateur astronomer René Roy . It gave a rotation period of 12.5 hours with a brightness variation of 0.8 magnitude . According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Smuts measures between 54.71 and 57.49 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.053 and 0.059 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.0385 and a diameter of 53.83 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 10.5 . This minor planet was named after prominent South African and British Commonwealth statesman , Field Marshal and philosopher , Jan Smuts ( 1870 -- 1950 ) , under whom the discoverer of the asteroid fought in both World Wars . Smuts captured German South-West Africa in World War I and 0.0385 the only man to sign both of the peace treaties ending the First and Second World Wars . He served as prime minister of South Africa from 1919 until 1924 and again from 1939 until 1948 . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "1731_Smuts", "rank": 85, "score": 119546 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of January 15, 2010 Content: The solar eclipse of January 15 , 2010 was an annular eclipse of the Sun with a magnitude of 0.9190 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is smaller than the Sun 's , blocking most of the Sun 's light and causing the Sun to look like an annulus ( ring ) . An annular eclipse appears as a partial eclipse over a region of the Earth thousands of kilometres wide . It was the longest annular solar eclipse of the millennium , and the longest until December 23 , 3043 , with a maximum length of 11 minutes , 7.8 seconds . This is about 4 minutes longer than total solar eclipses could ever get . ( The solar eclipse of January 4 , 1992 , was longer , at 11 minutes , 41 seconds , occurring in the middle of the Pacific Ocean . ) The eclipse was visible as only a partial eclipse in much of Africa , Eastern Europe , the Middle East and Asia . It was seen as an annular eclipse within a narrow stretch of 300 km width across Central Africa , Maldives , South Kerala ( India ) , South Tamil Nadu ( India ) , Sri Lanka and parts of Bangladesh , Burma and China .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_January_15,_2010", "rank": 86, "score": 119042 }, { "content": "Title: Inex Content: The inex is an eclipse cycle of 10,571.95 days ( about 29 years minus 20 days ) . The cycle was first described in modern times by Crommelin in 1901 , but was named by George van den Bergh who studied it half a century later . It has been suggested that the cycle was known to Hipparchos . A new saros series often begins one inex after the last series started . It corresponds to : 358 lunations ( synodic months ) 388.50011 draconitic months 30.50011 eclipse years 383.67351 anomalistic months . The 30.5 eclipse years means that if there is a solar eclipse ( or lunar eclipse ) , then after one inex a New Moon ( resp . Full Moon ) will take place at the opposite node of the orbit of the Moon , and under these circumstances another eclipse can occur . Unlike the saros , the inex is not close to an integer number of anomalistic months so successive eclipses are not very similar in their appearance and characteristics . From the remainder of 0.67351 , being near , every third eclipse will have a similar position in the moon 's elliptical orbit and apparent diameter , so the quality of the solar eclipse ( total versus annular ) will repeat in these groupings of 3 cycles ( 87 years minus 2 months ) , called triads . Although the inex series lasts much longer than the saros , it is not unbroken : at the beginning and end of a series , eclipses may fail to occur . However once settled down , inex series are very stable and run for many thousands of years . An inex also is close to an integer number of days ( 10,571.95 ) so solar eclipses on average take place at about the same geographical longitude at successive events , although variations of the moon 's revolutionary speed at different points of the eclipse mask this relation . In addition sequential events occur at opposite geographical latitudes because the eclipses occur at opposite nodes . This is in contrast to the better known saros , which has a period of about days , so successive solar eclipses tend to take place about 120 ° in longitude apart on the globe ( although at the same node and hence at about the same geographical latitude ) . The significance of the inex cycle is not in the prediction , but in the organization of eclipses : any eclipse cycle , and indeed the interval between any two eclipses , can be expressed as a combination of saros and inex intervals . Also when a saros series has terminated , then often one inex after the last eclipse of that saros series , the first eclipse of a new saros series occurs . This incoming and exiting of saros series separated by an interval of 29 years suggested the name for this cycle .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Inex", "rank": 87, "score": 118923 }, { "content": "Title: Solar eclipse of April 19, 2004 Content: A partial solar eclipse took place on Monday , 19 April 2004 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon 's shadow misses the Earth . It was largely visible over the south Atlantic Ocean and north shores of Antarctica , most prominently the Antarctic Peninsula . The eclipse was deep enough to be seen from a large portion of southern Africa , with over 50 % totality at Cape Town , South Africa at approximately 4:10 PM . However , the eclipse remained visible to cities such as Harare , Maseru , Durban , and Bloemfontein , although to a much lesser extent . The greatest eclipse of the Sun took place over a nigh inaccessible strip of ocean off the Antarctic coast ; the maximum point displayed 73.5 % totality , as compared to Cape Town 's 51 % totality .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_eclipse_of_April_19,_2004", "rank": 88, "score": 118695 }, { "content": "Title: 1196 Sheba Content: 1196 Sheba , provisional designation , is a metallic asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 25 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 21 May 1931 by astronomer Cyril Jackson at Johannesburg Observatory , South Africa . Sheba is a metallic X-type asteroid and orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2 -- 3.1 AU once every 4 years and 4 months ( 1,581 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 18 ° with respect to the ecliptic . It was first identified as at Heidelberg Observatory in 1912 . The body 's observation arc , however , begins at Johannesburg , four months after its official discovery observation . This minor planet was named after the biblical Queen of Sheba , who visited King Solomon . Naming citation was first published by Paul Herget in The Names of the Minor Planets in 1955 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "1196_Sheba", "rank": 89, "score": 118643 }, { "content": "Title: 1925 Franklin-Adams Content: 1925 Franklin-Adams , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 9 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 9 September 1934 , by Dutch astronomer Hendrik van Gent at the Leiden Southern Station , annex to the Johannesburg Observatory in South Africa . The stony S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1 -- 3.0 AU once every 4 years and 1 month ( 1,488 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 8 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The body 's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Johannesburg . It is named after English amateur astronomer John Franklin-Adams ( 1843 -- 1912 ) , who created one of the earliest detailed , photographic atlases of the complete night sky ( the Franklin-Adams plates or charts ) . He later donated his 25-cm Franklin-Adams Star Camera ( Franklin-Adams photographic refractor ) to the Johannesburg Observatory , which lead to the discovery of Proxima Centauri .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "1925_Franklin-Adams", "rank": 90, "score": 116671 }, { "content": "Title: List of solar cycles Content: The following is a list of solar cycles ( sometimes called sunspot cycles ) , tracked since 1755 . The source data are the revised International Sunspot Numbers ( ISN v2 .0 ) , as available at SILSO . The smoothing was done using the traditional SIDC smoothing formula . Other smoothing formulas exist , and they usually give slightly different values for the amplitude and timings of the solar cycles . An example is the Meeus smoothing formula , with related solar cycles characteristics available in this STCE news item . In table underneath , the number of spotless days is the number between the maximum of the previous solar cycle and the maximum of the new solar cycle . As an example , there were 817 spotless days during the transit from solar cycle 23 to solar cycle 24 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "List_of_solar_cycles", "rank": 91, "score": 116606 }, { "content": "Title: Solar maximum Content: -RSB- Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun . During solar maximum , large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun 's irradiance output grows by about 0.07 % . The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth 's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns . At solar maximum , the Sun 's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles . The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next , with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years . Large solar flares often occur during a maximum . For example , the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Solar_maximum", "rank": 92, "score": 115880 }, { "content": "Title: Callippic cycle Content: For astronomy and calendar studies , the Callippic cycle ( or Calippic ) is a particular approximate common multiple of the year ( specifically the tropical year ) and the synodic month , that was proposed by Callippus during 330 BC . It is a period of 76 years , as an improvement of the 19-year Metonic cycle . A century before Callippus , Meton had discovered the cycle in which 19 years equals 235 lunations . If we assume a year is about days , 19 years total about 6940 days , which exceeds 235 lunations by almost a third of a day , and 19 tropical years by four tenths of a day . It implicitly gave the solar year a duration of = 365 + = 365 + + days = 365 d 6 h 18 min 56 s. Callippus accepted the 19-year cycle , but held that the duration of the year was more closely days ( = 365 d 6 h ) , so he multiplied the 19-year cycle by 4 to obtain an integer number of days , and then omitted 1 day from the last 19-year cycle . Thus , he computed a cycle of 76 years that consists of 940 lunations and 27,759 days , which has been named the Callippic cycle after him . Although the cycle 's error has been computed as one full day in 553 years , or 4.95 parts per million , in actuality 27,759 days in 76 years has a mean year of exactly days , which relative to the mean northward equinoctial year is about 11 minutes too long per year , in other words the cycle drifts another day late per years , which is considerably worse than the drift of the unrounded Metonic cycle . If the Callippic cycle is considered as closer to its unrounded length of days ( based on 940 lunations ) then its accuracy is essentially the same as the unrounded Metonic cycle ( within a few seconds per year ) . If it is considered as 940 lunations less one day then the Callippic mean year will be shortened by of a day ( 18 minutes 57 seconds ) , making it grossly too short , and it will also grossly drift ahead with respect to the mean lunar cycle at the rate of of a day ( 1 minute 31 seconds ) per lunar month . If the cycle length is truncated to 27,758 days then the mean year is 365 days 5 hours 41 minutes 3 seconds , or almost 8 minutes too brief per year , and it will drift ahead of the mean lunar cycle by about day ( 1 minute 9 seconds ) per lunar month . Altogether , the purported accuracy of this cycle is not impressive , but it is of historical interest . The first year of the first Callippic cycle began at the summer solstice of 330 BC ( 28 June in the proleptic Julian calendar ) , and was subsequently used by later astronomers . In Ptolemy 's Almagest , for example , he cites ( Almagest VII 3 , H25 ) observations by Timocharis during the 47th year of the first Callippic cycle ( 283 BC ) , when on the eighth of Anthesterion , the Pleiades star cluster was occulted by the Moon . The Callippic calendar originally used the names of months from the Attic calendar . Later astronomers , such as Hipparchus , preferred other calendars , including the ancient Egyptian calendar . Also Hipparchus invented his own Hipparchic calendar cycle as an improvement upon the Callippic cycle . Ptolemy 's Almagest provided some conversions between the Callippic and Egyptian calendars , such as that Anthesterion 8 , 47th year of the first Callippic period was equivalent to day 29 of the month of Athyr , during year 465 of Nabonassar . However , the original , complete form of the Callippic calendar is no longer known .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Callippic_cycle", "rank": 93, "score": 114716 }, { "content": "Title: 1627 Ivar Content: 1627 Ivar , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid and near-Earth object of the Amor group , approximately 9 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 25 September 1929 , by Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung at Leiden Southern Station , annex to the Johannesburg Observatory in South Africa . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.1 -- 2.6 AU once every 2 years and 6 months ( 929 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.40 and an inclination of 8 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Ivars observation arc begins with its official discovery observation in 1929 , as no precoveries were taken , and no prior identifications were made . It has an Earth minimum orbit intersection distance of 0.1124 AU . The eccentric Amor asteroid is also a Mars-crosser . In 2074 , it will pass Earth at 0.141 AU , closer than it actually approached Mars in 1975 ( 0.150 AU ) . A large number of rotational light-curves of Ivar have been obtained from photometric observations since 1985 ( see infobox ) . They give a well-defined rotation period between 4.795 and 4.80 hours with a brightness variation between 0.27 and 1.16 magnitude , indicative of its non-spheroidal shape ( also see 3D-model image ) . Future photometric observations will show whether the YORP effect will slowly change the body 's spin rate ( as seen with 1862 Apollo ) . In 1985 , the body was observed with radar from the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico at a distance of 0.20 AU . The measured radar cross-section was 7.5 square kilometers . According to the EXPLORENEOs survey carried out by the Spitzer Space Telescope , thermal infrared observations by the Keck Observatory , and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , and thermal modeling by Alan Harris , Ivar measures between 8.37 and 10.2 kilometers in diameter , and it surface has an albedo between 0.09 and 0.15 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopts an albedo of 0.151 and a diameter of 9.12 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 12.87 . This minor planet was named by the discoverer in honor of his late brother Ivar Hertzsprung . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "1627_Ivar", "rank": 94, "score": 114615 }, { "content": "Title: Sun-synchronous orbit Content: A Sun-synchronous orbit ( SSO , also called a heliosynchronous orbit ) is a geocentric orbit that combines altitude and inclination in such a way that the satellite passes over any given point of the planet 's surface at the same local solar time . Such an orbit can place a satellite in constant sunlight and is useful for imaging , spy , and weather satellites . More technically , it is an orbit arranged in such a way that it precesses once a year . The surface illumination angle will be nearly the same every time that the satellite is overhead . This consistent lighting is a useful characteristic for satellites that image the Earth 's surface in visible or infrared wavelengths ( e.g. weather and spy satellites ) and for other remote sensing satellites ( e.g. those carrying ocean and atmospheric remote sensing instruments that require sunlight ) . For example , a satellite in sun-synchronous orbit might ascend across the equator twelve times a day each time at approximately 15:00 mean local time . This is achieved by having the osculating orbital plane precess ( rotate ) approximately one degree each day with respect to the celestial sphere , eastward , to keep pace with the Earth 's movement around the Sun . The uniformity of Sun angle is achieved by tuning the inclination to the altitude of the orbit ( see Technical details ) such that the extra mass near the equator causes the orbital plane of the spacecraft to precess with the desired rate : the plane of the orbit is not fixed in space relative to the distant stars , but rotates slowly about the Earth 's axis . Typical sun-synchronous orbits are about 600 -- 800 km in altitude , with periods in the 96 -- 100 minute range , and inclinations of around 98 ° ( i.e. slightly retrograde compared to the direction of Earth 's rotation : 0 ° represents an equatorial orbit and 90 ° represents a polar orbit ) . Special cases of the sun-synchronous orbit are the noon/midnight orbit , where the local mean solar time of passage for equatorial longitudes is around noon or midnight , and the dawn/dusk orbit , where the local mean solar time of passage for equatorial longitudes is around sunrise or sunset , so that the satellite rides the terminator between day and night . Riding the terminator is useful for active radar satellites as the satellites ' solar panels can always see the Sun , without being shadowed by the Earth . It is also useful for some satellites with passive instruments that need to limit the Sun 's influence on the measurements , as it is possible to always point the instruments towards the night side of the Earth . The dawn/dusk orbit has been used for solar observing scientific satellites such as Yohkoh , TRACE , Hinode and PROBA2 , affording them a nearly continuous view of the Sun . Sun-synchronous orbits can happen around other oblate planets , such as Mars . A satellite around the almost spherical Venus , for example , will need an outside push to be in a sun-synchronous orbit .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "Sun-synchronous_orbit", "rank": 95, "score": 114174 }, { "content": "Title: 1116 Catriona Content: 1116 Catriona is a main-belt asteroid orbiting the Sun at a distance of 2.25 to 3.59 AU . It was discovered by Cyril Jackson on April 5 , 1929 , at Johannesburg Union Observatory , South Africa . Its provisional designation was 1929 GD . The relatively bright asteroid is approximately 39 kilometers in diameter and completes one revolution once every 5.00 years . It was probably named after Catriona , the 1893-novel by Robert Louis Balfour Stevenson ( 1850 -- 1894 ) , Scottish poet , novelist , and travel writer .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "1116_Catriona", "rank": 96, "score": 114126 }, { "content": "Title: 1609 Brenda Content: 1609 Brenda , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 28 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 10 July 1951 , by South African astronomer Ernest Johnson at the Johannesburg Observatory in South Africa . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 3.2 AU once every 4 years and 2 months ( 1,518 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.25 and an inclination of 19 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Brenda was first identified as at Simeiz Observatory in 1925 . Its observation arc begins 17 years prior to its official discovery observation , with its identification , also made at Simeiz . American astronomer Richard P. Binzel obtained the first rotational light-curve of Brenda in June 1984 . It gave a rotation period of 19.46 hours with a brightness variation of 0.16 magnitude . In June 2006 , a period of with an amplitude of 0.26 magniutde was derived from photometric observations made by French amateur astronomer René Roy . According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Brenda measures between 26.27 and 29.64 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.115 and 0.133 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.1078 and a diameter of 29.59 kilometers using an absolute magnitude of 10.68 . This minor planet was named by the discoverer for his granddaughter , Brenda . Ernest Johnson is also known for the discovery of the periodic comet 48P/Johnson , using the Franklin-Adams Star Camera . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "1609_Brenda", "rank": 97, "score": 113828 }, { "content": "Title: 79P/du Toit–Hartley Content: 79P/du Toit -- Hartley or du Toit 2 is a periodic comet , now divided into two parts , in the Solar System with an orbital period of 5.06 years . It was originally discovered by Daniel du Toit at the Boyden Observatory , Bloemfontein , South Africa ( then administered by Harvard College ) on 9 April 1945 with a brightness of apparent magnitude 10 . Uncertainties in the calculation of the orbit meant the comet was lost until rediscovered by Malcolm Hartley of the UK Schmidt Telescope Unit , Siding Spring , Australia in 1982 , when it was found to have broken into two parts , probably in 1976 . Both parts had a brightness of magnitude 17 . Observed in 1987 , it was missed in 1992 but rediscovered by astronomers at Los Molinos Observatory , Uruguay on 4 March 2003 at magnitude 17 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "79P/du_Toit–Hartley", "rank": 98, "score": 113339 }, { "content": "Title: 1607 Mavis Content: 1607 Mavis , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 12 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 3 September 1950 , by South African astronomer Ernest Johnson at Johannesburg Observatory in South Africa . Mavis is a stony S-type asteroid that orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.8 -- 3.3 AU once every 4 years and 1 month ( 1,487 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.31 and an inclination of 9 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The asteroid 's observation arc begins with its official discovery observations , as the two previous identifications , and , made at Heidelberg and Simeiz in 1903 and 1934 , respectively , remained unused . In September 2007 , Australian astronomers Collin Bembrick and Julian Oeya independently obtained a rotational light-curve of Mavis . The well-defined light-curves gave a rotation period of 6.1339 and 6.1508 hours with a brightness variation of 0.50 and 0.53 magnitude , respectively . According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Mavis measures between 11.57 and 14.91 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.189 and 0.31 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.3320 and a diameter of 12.10 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.4 . This minor planet was named in honor of the Mavis Bruwer , wife of astronomer Jacobus Albertus Bruwer , who was an astronomer at Johannesburg Observatory , and after whom 1811 Bruwer was named . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "1607_Mavis", "rank": 99, "score": 112247 }, { "content": "Title: 1394 Algoa Content: 1394 Algoa , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 14 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 12 June 1936 , by English-born South-African astronomer Cyril Jackson at Union Observatory in Johannesburg , South Africa . The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3 -- 2.6 AU once every 3 years and 10 months ( 1,391 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.08 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Prior to its discovery observation in 1936 , Algoa was identified as and at Lowell Observatory and Uccle Observatory , respectively . These observations , however , remained unused to extend the body 's observation arc . In 2012 , two rotational light-curves of Algoa were obtained at the U.S. Etscorn Observatory , New Mexico , and at the Riverland Dingo Observatory , Australia . They gave a well-defined , concurring rotation period of 2.768 hours with a brightness variation of 0.20 and 0.21 magnitude , respectively . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 , and calculates a diameter of 14.2 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.6 . The minor planet is named after the historical Algoa Bay , located approximately 700 kilometers east of the Cape of Good Hope , South Africa . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .", "qid": "3011", "docid": "1394_Algoa", "rank": 100, "score": 111843 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Climate of Antarctica Content: The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Climate_of_Antarctica", "rank": 1, "score": 188895 }, { "content": "Title: Ice cap climate Content: An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Ice_cap_climate", "rank": 2, "score": 182040 }, { "content": "Title: Dome A Content: Dome A or Dome Argus is the loftiest ice dome on the Antarctic Plateau , located 1200 km inland . It is thought to be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth ; scientists believe that temperatures can sometimes even drop below -102 ° C in the winter . It is the highest ice feature in Antarctica , consisting of an ice dome or eminence of 4093 m elevation above sea level . It is located near the center of East Antarctica , approximately midway between the enormous head of Lambert Glacier and the geographic South Pole , within the Australian claim .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Dome_A", "rank": 3, "score": 177861 }, { "content": "Title: West Antarctica Content: West Antarctica , or Lesser Antarctica , one of the two major regions of Antarctica , is the part of that continent that lies within the Western Hemisphere , and includes the Antarctic Peninsula . It is separated from East Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains and is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . It lies between the Ross Sea ( partly covered by the Ross Ice Shelf ) , and the Weddell Sea ( largely covered by the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf ) . It may be considered a giant peninsula stretching from the South Pole towards the tip of South America . West Antarctica is largely covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , but there have been signs that climate change is having some effect and that this ice sheet may have started to shrink slightly . The coasts of the Antarctic Peninsula are the only parts of West Antarctica that become ( in summer ) ice-free . These constitute the Marielandia Antarctic tundra and have the warmest climate in Antarctica . The rocks are clad in mosses and lichens that can cope with the intense cold of winter and the short growing-season .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "West_Antarctica", "rank": 4, "score": 166484 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica Content: Antarctica ( UK English -LSB- ænˈtɑːktɪkə -RSB- or -LSB- ænˈtɑːtɪkə -RSB- , US English -LSB- æntˈɑːrktɪkə -RSB- ) is Earth 's southernmost continent . It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere , almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle , and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean . At 14000000 km2 , it is the fifth-largest continent . For comparison , Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia . About 98 % of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness , which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula . Antarctica , on average , is the coldest , driest , and windiest continent , and has the highest average elevation of all the continents . Antarctica is a desert , with annual precipitation of only 200 mm ( 8 in ) along the coast and far less inland . The temperature in Antarctica has reached − 89.2 ° C ( − 128.6 ° F ) , though the average for the third quarter ( the coldest part of the year ) is − 63 ° C ( − 81 ° F ) . Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent . Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae , bacteria , fungi , plants , protista , and certain animals , such as mites , nematodes , penguins , seals and tardigrades . Vegetation , where it occurs , is tundra . Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ( `` Southern Land '' ) date back to antiquity , Antarctica is noted as the last region on Earth in recorded history to be discovered and colonised by humans , being only first sighted in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny , who sighted the Fimbul ice shelf . The continent , however , remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment , lack of easily accessible resources , and isolation . In 1895 , the first confirmed landing was conducted by a team of Norwegians . Antarctica is a de facto condominium , governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status . Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 , and thirty-eight have signed it since then . The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining , prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal , supports scientific research , and protects the continent 's ecozone . Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Antarctica", "rank": 5, "score": 165014 }, { "content": "Title: East Antarctic Ice Sheet Content: The East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) is one of two large ice sheets in Antarctica , and the largest on the entire planet . The EAIS lies between 45 ° west and 168 ° east longitudinally . The EAIS is considerably larger in area and mass than the West Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) . It is separated from the WAIS by the Transantarctic Mountains . The EAIS rests upon a large land mass , contrary to that of the WAIS , which rests mainly on bedrock below sea level . The EAIS is also home to the thickest ice on the frozen white continent , at 15,700 ft ( 4,800 m ) . More well known , however , is that the EAIS is home to the geographic South Pole as well as of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet", "rank": 6, "score": 164015 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Antarctic_sea_ice", "rank": 7, "score": 160720 }, { "content": "Title: Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica Content: The Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica is a research program consisting of two overland traverses of East Antarctica : the first from the Norwegian Troll Station to the South Pole in the 2007/2008 season ; and a return traverse via a different route in 2008/2009 . The main research focus of the program is climate change , the stated goals being to : Investigate climate variability in Dronning Maud Land of East Antarctica on time scales of years to a thousand years . Establish spatial and temporal variability in snow accumulation over this area of Antarctica to understand its impact on sea level . Investigate the impact of atmospheric and oceanic variability on the chemical composition of firn and ice in the region . Revisit areas and sites first explored by traverses in the 1960s , for detection of possible changes and to establish benchmark data sets for future research efforts . The program is part of Trans-Antarctic Scientific Traverse Expeditions -- Ice Divide of East Antarctica ( TASTE-IDEA ) , and the International Partners in Ice Coring Sciences ( IPICS ) , both of which have ISCU-WMO endorsement for the International Polar Year 2007-2009 .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Norwegian-U.S._Scientific_Traverse_of_East_Antarctica", "rank": 8, "score": 159850 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet", "rank": 9, "score": 158163 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica: A Year on Ice Content: Antarctica : A Year on Ice is the first feature film by New Zealand filmmaker Anthony B. Powell . This documentary is set in Antarctica , specifically in the Ross Island region , which is home to two research bases : United States ' McMurdo Station and New Zealand 's Scott Base . It chronicles a year of time spent living and working at these remote stations ; the summer season ( October to February ) when the sun shines 24 hours a day and the long dark winter ( February to October ) where the sun goes down for four long months and darkness envelopes the environment . The film focuses on the everyday workers that keep the stations and the equipment running so the scientists can complete their work . Interviewees include a helicopter pilot , fireman , firehouse dispatcher , cook , mechanic , storekeeper , storeman , finance person , administrative person , and operations manager . Extensive use of time-lapse photography is used to document the changing seasons and the Antarctic landscapes . Powell had to invent many of his own camera systems to survive the extreme conditions of the deep Antarctic winter . Powell 's previous work includes footage for Discovery , National Geographic , and was featured in BBC 's Frozen Planet . The film also touches upon topics such as ` T3 Syndrome , ' a term that describes what happens to people during the winter , when the T3 hormone in the brain is reassigned to the muscles of the body in an effort to protect it against the extreme cold . The film also describes how the community works and plays together including the annual New Year 's party `` Ice Stock '' . The film 's post-production was completed at Park Road Post Production in Wellington , New Zealand .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Antarctica:_A_Year_on_Ice", "rank": 10, "score": 156459 }, { "content": "Title: East Antarctica Content: East Antarctica , also called Greater Antarctica , constitutes the majority ( two-thirds ) of the Antarctic continent , lying on the Indian Ocean side of the continent , separated from West Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains . It lies almost entirely within the Eastern Hemisphere and its name has been accepted for more than a century . It is generally higher than West Antarctica and includes the Gamburtsev Mountain Range in the centre . Apart from small areas of the coast , East Antarctica is permanently covered by ice . The only terrestrial plant life is lichens , mosses and algae clinging to rocks , and there are a limited range of invertebrates including nematodes , springtails , mites and midges . The coasts are the breeding ground for various seabirds and penguins , and the leopard seal , Weddell seal , elephant seal , crabeater seal and Ross seal breed on the surrounding pack ice in summer .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "East_Antarctica", "rank": 11, "score": 156184 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 12, "score": 153602 }, { "content": "Title: Getz Ice Shelf Content: The Getz Ice Shelf is the largest Antarctic ice shelf along the SE Pacific-Antarctic coastline , over 300 mi long and from 20 to wide , bordering the Hobbs and Bakutis Coasts of Marie Byrd Land between the McDonald Heights and Martin Peninsula . Several large islands are partially or wholly embedded in the ice shelf , pinning the calving front . Summer temperature and salinity measurements from 1994 to 2010 show the shelf is subject to more changeable oceanic forcing than other Antarctic shelves . Beneath cold surface waters , the thermocline was ∼ 200 m shallower in 2007 than in 2000 , indicative of shifting access of deep water to the continental shelf and ice shelf base . The calculated area-average basal melt rates was between 1.1 and 4.1 m of ice per year , making Getz the largest source of meltwater to the Southern Ocean . The ice shelf westward of Siple Island was discovered by the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) in December 1940 . The portion eastward of Siple Island was first delineated from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump , 1946 -- 47 . The entire feature was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy air photos of 1962 -- 65 . It was named by the USAS ( 1939 -- 41 ) for George F. Getz of Chicago , Illinois , who helped furnish the seaplane for the expedition .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Getz_Ice_Shelf", "rank": 13, "score": 152815 }, { "content": "Title: Getman Ice Piedmont Content: Getman Ice Piedmont is an ice piedmont between Reichle Mesa and Three Slice Nunatak at the east end of Joerg Peninsula , Bowman Coast , Antarctica . It drains north-northeastwards into Hondius Inlet . The feature was explored from the ground and photographed from the air by the United States Antarctic Service , 1939 -- 41 , the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition , 1947 -- 48 , and was surveyed by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey , 1946 -- 48 . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1977 for Commander Robert T. Getman of the United States Coast Guard , an Executive Officer on USCGC Southwind during U.S. Navy Operation Deep Freeze , 1969 .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Getman_Ice_Piedmont", "rank": 14, "score": 151623 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal", "rank": 15, "score": 151013 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment", "rank": 16, "score": 150864 }, { "content": "Title: Lowest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The lowest natural temperature ever directly recorded at ground level on Earth is − 89.2 C , which was at the Soviet Vostok Station in Antarctica by ground measurements . A 2009 study estimated that under exceptional climate conditions similar to those recorded at Vostin 1983 , temperatures higher on the plateau around Dome Argus could potentially drop lower than − 95 C. On August 10 , 2010 , satellite observations measured a surface temperature of − 93.2 C at 81.8 ° S 59.3 ° E , along a ridge between Dome Argus and Dome Fuji , at 3,900 m elevation . The result was reported at the 46th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco , in December 2013 ; it is a provisional figure , and may be subject to revision . The value may not be listed as the record coldest temperature as it was measured by remote sensing satellites and not by ground-based thermometers , unlike the 1983 record . The temperature announced reflects that of the ice surface , while the Vostok readings measured the air above the ice , and so the two are not directly comparable . However , it is most likely that the real temperature on the site was lower than that recorded at Vostok .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Lowest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth", "rank": 17, "score": 149912 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of the Arctic Content: The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer . The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Climate_of_the_Arctic", "rank": 18, "score": 148641 }, { "content": "Title: Eismitte Content: Eismitte , in English also called Mid-Ice , was the site of an Arctic expedition in the interior of Greenland that took place from July 1930 through August 1931 , and claimed the life of noted German scientist Alfred Wegener . The name `` Eismitte '' means Ice-Center in German , and the campsite was located 402 km from the coast at an estimated altitude of 3,000 meters ( 9,843 feet ) . The coldest temperature recorded during the expedition was − 64.9 ° C ( − 85 ° F ) , while the warmest temperature noted was − 2.8 ° C ( 27 ° F ) . For the 12-month period beginning September 1 , 1930 and ending August 31 , 1931 , the warmest month , July , had a mean monthly temperature of − 12.2 ° C ( 10 ° F ) , while the coldest month , February , averaged − 47.2 ° C ( − 53 ° F ) . Over the same period a total of 110 millimeters ( 4.33 inches ) of water-equivalent precipitation was recorded , with most of it , rather surprisingly , being received in winter . At the latitude of the camp , the sun does not set between May 13 and July 30 each year , and does not rise between November 23 and January 20 .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Eismitte", "rank": 19, "score": 141776 }, { "content": "Title: North Ice Content: North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "North_Ice", "rank": 20, "score": 141233 }, { "content": "Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Polar_High", "rank": 21, "score": 140477 }, { "content": "Title: East Antarctic Shield Content: The East Antarctic Shield or Craton is a cratonic rock body that covers 10.2 million square kilometers or roughly 73 % of the continent of Antarctica . The shield is almost entirely buried by the East Antarctic Ice Sheet that has an average thickness of 2200 meters but reaches up to 4700 meters in some locations . East Antarctica is separated from West Antarctica by the 100 -- 300 kilometer wide Transantarctic Mountains , which span nearly 3,500 kilometers from the Weddell Sea to the Ross Sea . The East Antarctic Shield is then divided into an extensive central craton ( Mawson craton ) that occupies most of the continental interior and various other marginal cratons that are exposed along the coast .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "East_Antarctic_Shield", "rank": 22, "score": 139393 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 23, "score": 139253 }, { "content": "Title: Polar climate Content: The polar climate regions are characterized by a lack of warm summers . Every month in a polar climate has an average temperature of less than 10 C. Regions with polar climate cover more than 20 % of the Earth . The sun shines for long hours in the summer , and for many fewer hours in the winter . A polar climate results in treeless tundra , glaciers , or a permanent or semi-permanent layer of ice . It has cool summers and very cold winters .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Polar_climate", "rank": 24, "score": 138936 }, { "content": "Title: Grace Rocks Content: The Grace Rocks are prominent rock outcrops situated at the south side of the mouth of Apfel Glacier at its junction with Scott Glacier , Antarctica . They were mapped from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump , 1946 -- 47 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Lieutenant Philip J. Grace , U.S. Navy , a pilot with U.S. Navy Operation Windmill , 1947 -- 48 , who assisted in operations which resulted in the establishment of astronomical control stations from Wilhelm II Coast to Budd Coast .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Grace_Rocks", "rank": 25, "score": 138144 }, { "content": "Title: Lake Vostok Content: Lake Vostok ( Озеро Восток , Ozero Vostok , lit . `` Lake East '' ) is the largest of Antarctica 's almost 400 known subglacial lakes . Lake Vostok is located at the southern Pole of Cold , beneath Russia 's Vostok Station under the surface of the central East Antarctic Ice Sheet , which is at 3488 m above mean sea level . The surface of this fresh water lake is approximately 4000 m under the surface of the ice , which places it at approximately 500 m below sea level . Measuring 250 km long by 50 km wide at its widest point , and covering an area of 12500 km2 and an average depth of 432 m , it has an estimated volume of 5400 km3 . The lake is divided into two deep basins by a ridge . The liquid water over the ridge is about 200 m , compared to roughly 400 m deep in the northern basin and 800 m deep in the southern . The lake is named after Vostok Station , which in turn is named after the Vostok , a sloop-of-war ship , which means `` East '' in Russian . The existence of a subglacial lake in the Vostok region was first suggested by Russian geographer Andrey Kapitsa based on seismic soundings made during the Soviet Antarctic Expeditions in 1959 and 1964 to measure the thickness of the ice sheet . The continued research by Russian and British scientists led by 1993 to the final confirmation of the existence of the lake by J. P. Ridley using ERS-1 laser altimetry . The overlying ice provides a continuous paleoclimatic record of 400,000 years , although the lake water itself may have been isolated for 15 to 25 million years . On 5 February 2012 , a team of Russian scientists completed the longest ever ice core of 3768 m and pierced the ice shield to the surface of the lake . The first core of freshly frozen lake ice was obtained on 10 January 2013 at a depth of 3406 m. However , as soon as the ice was pierced , water from the underlying lake gushed up the borehole , mixing it with the Freon and kerosene used to keep the borehole from freezing . A new borehole was drilled and an allegedly pristine water sample was obtained in January 2015 . The Russian team plans to eventually lower a probe into the lake to collect water samples and sediments from the bottom . It is hypothesized that unusual forms of life could be found in the lake 's liquid layer , a fossil water reserve . Lake Vostok contains an environment sealed off below the ice for millions of years , in conditions which could resemble those of the ice-covered ocean of Jupiter 's moon Europa , and Saturn 's moon Enceladus .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Lake_Vostok", "rank": 26, "score": 137581 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Peter_Doran", "rank": 27, "score": 136995 }, { "content": "Title: Polar mesospheric summer echoes Content: Polar mesospheric summer echoes ( PMSE ) is the phenomenon of anomalous radar echoes found between 80-90 km in altitude from May through early August in the Arctic , and from November through to February in the Antarctic . These strong radar echoes are associated with the extremely cold temperatures that occur above continental Antarctica during the summer . Rocket and radar measurements indicate that a partial reflection from a multitude of ion layers and constructive interference causes at least some of the PMSE . Generally PMSE exhibits dramatic variations in height and intensity as well as large variations in Doppler shift . PMSE exhibit strong signal power enhancements of scattering cross section at VHF radar frequencies in the range 50 MHz to 250 MHz , at times even to over 1 GHz , that occur in summer at high latitudes . The peak PMSE height is slightly below the summer mesopause temperature minimum at 88 km , and above the noctilucent cloud ( NLC ) and/or polar mesospheric cloud ( PMC ) layer at 83 -- 84 km . The usual instrument for observing PMSE is the a VHF Mesosphere-Stratosphere-Troposphere ( MST ) radar , although LIDARs and sounding rockets have also been used . PMSE is believed to be caused by structural irregularities in the ionospheric electron density at lower altitudes . The exact cause of PMSE is not yet known , although theorists have proposed steep electron density gradients , heavy positive ions , dressed aerosols , gravity waves and turbulence as possible explanations . PMSE occurs in both the Arctic and Antarctic regions , and is sometimes accompanied by noctilucent clouds .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Polar_mesospheric_summer_echoes", "rank": 28, "score": 136344 }, { "content": "Title: Rowe Point Content: Rowe Point is a sharp , low ice-free point at the northeast extremity of Ivanov Beach on the southeast coast of Barclay Bay in western Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands , Antarctica . The point is named after Captain Henry Rowe , Master of the British sealing vessel Grace that operated out of the bay of New Plymouth , Livingston Island in 1821-22 .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Rowe_Point", "rank": 29, "score": 135442 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Runway Content: The Ice Runway is the principal runway for the US Antarctic Program during the summer Antarctic field season due to its proximity to McMurdo Station . The other two runways in the area are the snow runway at Williams Field ( NZWD ) and the compacted snow runway at Phoenix Airfield ( NZFX ) , which replaced Pegasus Field ( NZPG ) in 2017 . This runway is capable of handling wheeled aircraft , that have included to date : Lockheed C-5 Galaxy , Lockheed C-141 Starlifter , Boeing C-17 Globemaster III , Lockheed C-130 Hercules and Lockheed P-3 Orion . In the summer season of 2009/2010 the RNZAF trialled a modified Boeing 757 operationally . The intention is to use the Boeing 757 for passenger transport thereby freeing up capacity for C17 cargo space . The annual sea-ice runway for wheeled aircraft is constructed at the start of each season and is used until early December when the sea ice begins to break up . Subsequently flight operations are moved back to Williams Field . Pilots landing C-17 Globemaster III cargo aircraft on the sea ice runway report that the surface is stable , not unlike landing on concrete . However , the similarity with land bases ends when the jet aircraft rolls to a stop . The nearly 450,000 pound ( = 201 tons ) weight of the plane , including cargo and passengers , causes it to sink into the ice , albeit only a matter of inches . A laser light is trained on the aircraft to measure the settlement rate . The $ 200 million aircraft is moved to a new location on the six-foot-thick ice as a safety measure if the 10-inch red line is reached , according to the News Tribune in Tacoma , Washington .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Ice_Runway", "rank": 30, "score": 134538 }, { "content": "Title: Ice pier Content: An ice pier is a man-made structure used to assist the unloading of ships in Antarctica . It is constructed by pumping seawater into a contained area and allowing the water to freeze . By repeating this procedure several times , additional layers are built up . The final structure is many metres in thickness , and strong enough to support container trucks . Operation Deep Freeze personnel constructed the first floating ice pier at Antarctica 's southernmost sea port at McMurdo Station in 1973 . Ice piers have been in use each summer season since , at McMurdo 's natural harbor at Winter Quarters Bay located at . The harbor is positioned on the southern tip of Ross Island . Historically , two supply ships , a freighter and a tanker , arrive at the ice pier each summer , after an icebreaker opens a ship channel through pack ice . The ice pier 's key function is to provide a platform for freight trucks to come alongside a supply ship to receive or offload cargo . Steel cables attached to shoreline hold the dock in a fixed position . Port officials distribute freight arriving at the dock to McMurdo Station , nearby Scott Base , and to field camps as far away as the South Pole . Imports include virtually any materials needed to support personnel living and working in Antarctica . Exports range from items such as scientific ice core samples and human waste collected from field camps to broken equipment and recyclables for return to the United States for processing . Ice piers typically have a lifespan of three to five years . Once an ice pier is no longer usable , icebreakers tow the pier to sea to be cast adrift .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Ice_pier", "rank": 31, "score": 134255 }, { "content": "Title: Polar desert Content: Polar deserts are areas with annual precipitation less than 250 mm and a mean temperature of less than 10 C during the warmest months . Polar deserts on Earth cover nearly 5,000,000 km2 and consist primarily of hard bedrock or gravel plains . Polar deserts are one of two polar biomes : polar deserts and Arctic tundra . These biomes are located at the poles of the earth , specifically , the Arctic , northernmost North America , Europe , and Asia , and Antarctica . Polar deserts are located in the Arctic and Antarctic . Unlike the tundra that can support plant and animal life in the summer , polar deserts are barren with permanent layers of ice . However , there is evidence of life in this seemingly inhospitable environment.The thick ice contains sediments of organic and inorganic substances which create a habitable environment for microbial organisms . These organisms are closely related to cyanobacteria which have a variety of functions , particularly , fixing carbon dioxide from the melting water . Temperature changes in polar deserts frequently cross the freezing point of water . This `` freeze-thaw '' alternation forms patterned textures on the ground , as much as 5 m in diameter ( as seen in the picture on the right ) . Most of the interior of Antarctica is polar desert , despite the thick ice cover . Conversely , the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica , although they have had no ice for thousands of years due to katabatic wind , are not necessarily polar desert . Polar deserts are relatively common during ice ages , as ice ages tend to be dry . Climate scientists have voiced concerns about the effects of global warming to the ice poles in these polar biomes .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Polar_desert", "rank": 32, "score": 134095 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic oasis Content: An Antarctic oasis is a large area naturally free of snow and ice in the otherwise ice-covered continent of Antarctica .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Antarctic_oasis", "rank": 33, "score": 133974 }, { "content": "Title: Velchev Rock Content: Velchev Rock is a small nunatak rising to 208 m on the southwest end of Balkan Snowfield just north of Contell Glacier on eastern Livingston Island of the South Shetland Islands , Western Antarctica . It is located 1,000 m east of Atlantic Club Peak and 1,220 m southeast of Sinemorets Hill , and projects slightly above the ice sheet with approximately 0.3 hectares of rocky ground exposed on its northern slope in the summer . It was named for Krum A. Velchev , a meteorologist at the St. Kliment Ohridski Base during the summer seasons of 1993-94 , 1994 -- 95 and 1995-96 . Category : Nunataks of Antarctica", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Velchev_Rock", "rank": 34, "score": 133910 }, { "content": "Title: Permafrost Content: In geology , permafrost is ground , including rock or ( cryotic ) soil , at or below the freezing point of water 0 C for two or more years . Most permafrost is located in high latitudes ( in and around the Arctic and Antarctic regions ) , but alpine permafrost may exist at high altitudes in much lower latitudes . Ground ice is not always present , as may be in the case of nonporous bedrock , but it frequently occurs and it may be in amounts exceeding the potential hydraulic saturation of the ground material . Permafrost accounts for 0.022 % of total water on earth and exists in 24 % of exposed land in the Northern Hemisphere . It also occurs subsea on the continental shelves of the continents surrounding the Arctic Ocean , portions of which were exposed during the last glacial period , with global weather implications . A global temperature rise of 1.5 C-change above current levels would be enough to start the thawing of permafrost in Siberia , according to one group of scientists .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Permafrost", "rank": 35, "score": 133681 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-curtain effect Content: The zero-curtain effect occurs in cold ( particularly periglacial ) environments where the phase transition of water to ice is slowed down due to latent heat release . The effect is notably found in arctic and alpine permafrost sediments , and occurs where the air temperature falls below 0 ° C ( the freezing point of water ) followed by a rapid drop in soil temperature . Because of this effect , the lowering of temperature in moist , cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate . The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes , and latent heat is released . This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen , at which point temperatures can continue to fall . Therefore , for as long as water is available to the system ( for example , through cryosuction/capillary action ) the temperature of the sediment will remain at a constant temperature .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Zero-curtain_effect", "rank": 36, "score": 133671 }, { "content": "Title: Frost line Content: The frost line -- also known as frost depth or freezing depth -- is most commonly the depth to which the groundwater in soil is expected to freeze . The frost depth depends on the climatic conditions of an area , the heat transfer properties of the soil and adjacent materials , and on nearby heat sources . For example , snow cover and asphalt insulate the ground and homes can heat the ground ( see also heat island ) . The line varies by latitude , it is deeper closer to the poles . Per Federal Highway Administration Publication Number FHWA-HRT-08-057 , the maximum frost depth observed in the contiguous United States ranges from zero to about eight feet ( 2.4 m ) . Below that depth , the temperature varies , but is always above 0 ° C. Alternatively , in Arctic and Antarctic locations the freezing depth is so deep that it becomes year-round permafrost , and the term `` thaw depth '' is used instead . Finally , in tropical regions , frost line may refer to the vertical geographic elevation below which frost does not occur . Frost front refers to the varying position of the frost line during seasonal periods of freezing and thawing .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Frost_line", "rank": 37, "score": 133307 }, { "content": "Title: Wildlife of Antarctica Content: The wildlife of Antarctica are extremophiles , having to adapt to the dryness , low temperatures , and high exposure common in Antarctica . The extreme weather of the interior contrasts to the relatively mild conditions on the Antarctic Peninsula and the subantarctic islands , which have warmer temperatures and more liquid water . Much of the ocean around the mainland is covered by sea ice . The oceans themselves are a more stable environment for life , both in the water column and on the seabed . There is relatively little diversity in Antarctica compared to much of the rest of the world . Terrestrial life is concentrated in areas near the coast . Flying birds nest on the milder shores of the Peninsula and the subantarctic islands . Eight species of penguins inhabit Antarctica and its offshore islands . They share these areas with seven pinniped species . The Southern Ocean around Antarctica is home to 10 cetaceans , many of them migratory . There are very few terrestrial invertebrates on the mainland , although the species that do live there have high population densities . High densities of invertebrates also live in the ocean , with Antarctic krill forming dense and widespread swarms during the summer . Benthic animal communities also exist around the continent . Over 1000 fungi species have been found on and around Antarctica . Larger species are restricted to the subantarctic islands , and the majority of species discovered have been terrestrial . Plants are similarly restricted mostly to the subantarctic islands , and the western edge of the Peninsula . Some mosses and lichens however can be found even in the dry interior . Many algae are found around Antarctica , especially phytoplankton , which form the basis of many of Antarctica 's food webs . Human activity has caused introduced species to gain a foothold in the area , threatening the native wildlife . A history of overfishing and hunting has left many species with greatly reduced numbers . Pollution , habitat destruction , and climate change pose great risks to the environment . The Antarctic Treaty System is a global treaty designed to preserve Antarctica as a place of research , and measures from this system are used to regulate human activity in Antarctica .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Wildlife_of_Antarctica", "rank": 38, "score": 133077 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 39, "score": 133063 }, { "content": "Title: Notothenioidei Content: Notothenioidei is one of 18 suborders from the order Perciformes and includes Antarctic fish and sub-Antarctic fish . Notothenioids are distributed mainly throughout the Southern Ocean around the coasts of New Zealand , South America , and Antarctica . The main seawater temperatures between − 2 and 4 ° C ( 28 and 39 ° F ) , but some the subpolar species inhabit waters that may be as warm as 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) around New Zealand and South America . Seawater temperatures below the freezing point of fresh water ( 0 ° C or 32 ° F ) are possible due to the dissolved salts . Notothenioids have a depth range of about 0 -- 1,500 m ( 0 -- 4,921 ft ) . Comparison studies between sub-Antarctic and Antarctic notothenioids have revealed different ecological processes and genetic differences between the two groups of fish , like loss of hemoglobin and changes in buoyancy .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Notothenioidei", "rank": 40, "score": 132712 }, { "content": "Title: Degree of frost Content: A degree of frost is a non-standard unit of measure for air temperature meaning degrees below melting point ( also known as `` freezing point '' ) of water ( 0 degrees Celsius or 32 degrees Fahrenheit ) . `` Degree '' in this case can refer to degree Celsius or Fahrenheit . When based on Celsius , 0 degrees of frost is the same as 0 ° C , and any other value is simply the negative of the Celsius temperature . When based on Fahrenheit , the conversion is a bit more complicated , as 0 degrees of frost is equal to 32 ° F. Conversion formulas : T -LSB- degrees of frost -RSB- = 32 ° F - T -LSB- ° F -RSB- T -LSB- ° F -RSB- = 32 ° F - T ( degrees of frost ) The term `` degrees of frost '' was widely used in accounts of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration in the early 20th century . The term appears frequently in Ernest Shackleton 's books South and Heart of the Antarctic , Apsley Cherry-Garrard 's account of his Antarctic adventures in The Worst Journey in the World ( wherein he recorded 109.5 ( Fahrenheit ) degrees of frost , -- 77.5 ° F or -- 60.8 ° C ) , as well as Admiral Richard E. Byrd 's book Alone .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Degree_of_frost", "rank": 41, "score": 131937 }, { "content": "Title: Yukimarimo Content: Yukimarimo are balls of fine frost formed at low temperatures on the Antarctic plateau during weak wind conditions . Yukimarimo were discovered in 1995 at Dome F by the 36th Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition ( JARE-36 ) at temperatures of -- 59 to -- 72 ° C. Electrostatic attraction between ice crystals explains the formation of yukimarimo at these low temperatures .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Yukimarimo", "rank": 42, "score": 131831 }, { "content": "Title: Amictic lake Content: Amictic lakes are `` perennially sealed off by ice from most of the annual seasonal variations in temperature . '' Amictic lakes exhibit inverse cold water stratification whereby water temperature increases with depth below the ice surface 0 ° C ( less-dense ) up to a theoretical maximum of 4 ° C ( at which the density of water is highest ) . Hutchinson -- Löffler ( 1956 ) classified amictic and other types of lakes based on physical/thermal processes . These processes are influenced by solar radiation and wind . They are strongly tied with seasonality and thus associated with latitude and altitude . Amictic lakes occur in Arctic , Antarctic , and alpine regions and due to permanent ice-cover , these physical/thermal influences have a limited effect on circulation in the water column . For this reason , amictic lakes are commonly referred to as lakes that never mix . `` Mixing '' in this context , however , refers to homogenization of the water column and so the term `` amictic '' is not meant to imply that the lake water is stagnant . With the rare exception of lakes near the edges of the permanent icecaps in Greenland and Antarctica , amictic lakes do experience melting around the lake 's perimeter during summer , resulting in a `` moat '' of water surrounding a thick pan of ice that remains in the centre of the lake . This melting occurs as a result of heat absorbed by water and sediments below the ice , particularly in the shallow-water areas , when snow does not cover the ice , and also by heat flow and meltwater runoff from the surrounding land . Mixing below the ice occurs due to density currents generated by heat from direct solar radiation and from meltwater runoff which may differ in density from the lake water due to both temperature and suspended sediment content , depending on its source and flow path . Despite these processes , the effects of wind at the lake surface are highly reduced due to the ice cover , and so vertical mixing of the water column may be incomplete . This may result in anoxic conditions , which has implications for biogeochemical processes within the lake .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Amictic_lake", "rank": 43, "score": 131091 }, { "content": "Title: Stefan Ice Piedmont Content: Stefan Ice Piedmont is a small ice piedmont at the northwest extremity of Pernik Peninsula , Loubet Coast in Graham Land , overlying the coast between Cape Rey and Holdfast Point . Mapped from air photos taken by Falkland Islands and Dependencies Aerial Survey Expedition ( FIDASE ) ( 1956 -- 57 ) . Named by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) for Josef Stefan ( 1835 -- 1893 ) , Austrian physicist who in 1889 pioneered the theory of heat flow in a freezing ice layer ( see Stefan problem ) and first used it to calculate rates of sea ice growth in the Arctic .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Stefan_Ice_Piedmont", "rank": 44, "score": 131079 }, { "content": "Title: Ackley Point Content: Ackley Point is an ice-covered point 1 mi southeast of Cone Hill on the east side of Hut Point Peninsula , Ross Island . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in 2000 after Stephen F. Ackley , Snow and Ice Division , U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory ( CRREL ) , Hanover , New Hampshire , a United States Antarctic Program ( USAP ) sea ice specialist who worked in McMurdo Sound and diverse parts of the Southern Ocean for more than 25 years , dating from the 1976 -- 77 austral season . Category : Headlands of Ross Island", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Ackley_Point", "rank": 45, "score": 130930 }, { "content": "Title: Icing (nautical) Content: Icing on ships is a serious hazard where cold temperatures ( below about -10 C ) combined with high wind speed ( typically force 8 or above on the Beaufort scale ) result in spray blown off the sea freezing immediately on contact with the ship . If not frequently knocked off , the ice can soon build up on the ship 's superstructure to a sufficient weight to cause the ship to capsize . It is typically a problem in Arctic and Antarctic seas , but can also occur in other seas such as the Gulf of Saint Lawrence , the Sea of Japan , the Baltic Sea , and very rarely , the North Sea .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Icing_(nautical)", "rank": 46, "score": 130708 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Plateau Content: The Antarctic Plateau , or Polar Plateau , is a large area of East Antarctica which extends over a diameter of about 1000 km , and includes the region of the geographic South Pole and the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station . This huge continental plateau is at an average elevation of about 3000 m high .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Antarctic_Plateau", "rank": 47, "score": 130685 }, { "content": "Title: List of Antarctic churches Content: There exist a number of Antarctic churches , including both Christian churches on Antarctica proper and those that were built south of the Antarctic Convergence . According to the 6th article of the Antarctic Treaty , Antarctica is defined politically as all land and ice shelves south of the 60th parallel , while the nearest natural boundary is the Antarctic Convergence . There are eight churches on Antarctica proper , with another two located south of the Antarctic Convergence . The southernmost of these religious buildings is the Chapel of Our Lady of the Snows , a Catholic chapel carved out of the ice surrounding the Belgrano II Base , at Bertrab Nunatak . While there are currently only a few freestanding structures dedicated solely to Christian religions , most research stations have small meeting rooms that are dual-purposed partially for religious services . These rooms are also commonly used by adherents of other world religions . The Chapel of the Snows also hosts services for other faith groups such as Latter Day Saints , Baha'i , and Buddhism . These religious structures serve the entire population of Antarctica , which varies from approximately 4,400 in summer to 1,100 in winter . This population is spread across approximately 40 year-round stations and a range of summer-only stations , camps , and refuges .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "List_of_Antarctic_churches", "rank": 48, "score": 130653 }, { "content": "Title: South Ice Content: South Ice was a British support base 560 km from the South Pole at 82 ° 05 'S , 30 ° 00 ' W in Edith Ronne Land , Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year , established by Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition , where three men overwintered during the Antarctic winter of 1957 . In the same winter , men overwintered for the first time at the South Pole . The name of the station contrasts to North Ice which was a British research station in Greenland .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "South_Ice", "rank": 49, "score": 130584 }, { "content": "Title: Diamond dust Content: Diamond dust is a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals . This meteorological phenomenon is also referred to simply as ice crystals and is reported in the METAR code as IC . Diamond dust generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies , so it is sometimes referred to as clear-sky precipitation . It is most commonly observed in Antarctica and the Arctic , but it can occur anywhere with a temperature well below freezing . In polar regions diamond dust may continue for several days without interruption .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Diamond_dust", "rank": 50, "score": 130258 }, { "content": "Title: Pole of Inaccessibility (Antarctic research station) Content: The Pole of Inaccessibility Research Station is a defunct Soviet research station in Kemp Land , Antarctica , at the southern pole of inaccessibility ( the point in Antarctica furthest from any ocean ) as it was defined in 1958 when the station was established . Later definitions give other locations , all relatively near this point . It performed meteorological observations from 14 December 1958 to 26 December 1958 . The Pole of Inaccessibility has the world 's coldest year-round average temperature of -58.2 ° C. It is 878 km from the South Pole , and approximately 600 km from Sovetskaya . The surface elevation is 3,800 m . It was reached on 14 December 1958 by an 18-man traversing party of the 3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition . Its WMO ID is 89550 .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Pole_of_Inaccessibility_(Antarctic_research_station)", "rank": 51, "score": 129316 }, { "content": "Title: 90 Degrees East Content: 90 Degrees East , also known as 90 ° E Lake , is a lake in Antarctica . With a surface area of about 2000 km2 , it is the second-largest known subglacial lake in Antarctica , after Lake Vostok . 90 Degrees East was discovered in January 2006 , along with Sovetskaya . It is named after the 90th meridian east , on which it lies .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "90_Degrees_East", "rank": 52, "score": 128945 }, { "content": "Title: Grace Rock Content: Grace Rock is a rock in Bransfield Strait , Antarctica lying 0.93 nmi off the southeast coast of Nelson Island in the South Shetland Islands . It was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1961 after the British sealing vessel Grace ( Captain H. Rowe ) from Plymouth , which visited the South Shetland Islands in 1821 -- 22 .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Grace_Rock", "rank": 53, "score": 128733 }, { "content": "Title: Jacobel Glacier Content: Jacobel Glacier is a glacier about 30 mi long draining to the Sulzberger Ice Shelf , Antarctica , south of Hershey Ridge . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Robert W. Jacobel , holder of the Grace A. Whittier Chair of Physics at St. Olaf College , Northfield , Minnesota . An Antarctic researcher from the 1980s onwards , his research interests include the combination of ground based radar and ice core studies in West Antarctica .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Jacobel_Glacier", "rank": 54, "score": 128729 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic microorganism Content: Antarctica is one of the most physically and chemically extreme terrestrial environments to be inhabited by microorganisms . Nonetheless , on February 6 , 2013 , scientists reported that bacteria were found living in the cold and dark in a lake buried a half-mile deep ( 0.5 mi ) under the ice in Antarctica . This finding was later confirmed by scientists on August 20 , 2014 .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Antarctic_microorganism", "rank": 55, "score": 128591 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Convergence Content: The Antarctic Convergence is a curve continuously encircling Antarctica , varying in latitude seasonally , where cold , northward-flowing Antarctic waters meet the relatively warmer waters of the subantarctic . Antarctic waters predominantly sink beneath subantarctic waters , while associated zones of mixing and upwelling create a zone very high in marine productivity , especially for Antarctic krill . This line , like the Arctic tree line , is a natural boundary rather than an artificial one like a line of latitude . It not only separates two hydrological regions , but also separates areas of distinctive marine life associations and of different climates . There is no Arctic equivalent , due to the amount of land surrounding the northern polar region .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Antarctic_Convergence", "rank": 56, "score": 128543 }, { "content": "Title: Ralph von Frese Content: Ralph R. B. von Frese is an American geophysicist at the Ohio State University who identified the Wilkes Land mass concentration in Antarctica in collaboration with Laramie Potts . In 1969 , Frese graduated B.A. cum laude from Park College in physics , mathematics , and German . He earned M.Sc . degrees in physics ( 1973 ) and geophysics ( 1978 ) and a Ph.D. in geophysics ( 1980 ) from Purdue University . He has taught at OSU since 1982 . He and Potts used gravity measurements by NASA 's GRACE satellites to identify a 200-mile ( 300 km ) wide mass concentration . This mass anomaly is centered within a larger ring-like structure visible in radar images of the land surface beneath the Antarctic ice cap . This combination led these researchers to speculate that it may have resulted from a large impact event .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Ralph_von_Frese", "rank": 57, "score": 128494 }, { "content": "Title: Snow Content: Snow pertains to frozen crystalline water throughout its life cycle , starting when it precipitates from clouds and accumulates on surfaces , then metamorphoses in place , and ultimately melts , slides or sublimates away . Snowstorms organize and develop by feeding on sources of atmospheric moisture and cold air . Snowflakes nucleate around particles in the atmosphere by attracting supercooled water droplets , which freeze in hexagonal-shaped crystals . Snowflakes take on a variety of shapes , basic among these are platelets , needles , columns and rime . As snow accumulates into a snowpack , it may blow into drifts . Over time , accumulated snow metamorphoses , by sintering , sublimation and freeze-thaw . Where the climate is cold enough for year-to-year accumulation , a glacier may form . Otherwise , snow typically melts seasonally , causing runoff into streams and rivers and recharging groundwater . Major snow-prone areas include the polar regions , the upper half of the Northern Hemisphere and mountainous regions worldwide with sufficient moisture and cold temperatures . In the Southern Hemisphere , snow is confined primarily to mountainous areas , apart from Antarctica . Snow affects such human activities as transportation : creating the need for keeping roadways , wings , and windows clear ; agriculture : providing water to crops and safeguarding livestock ; such sports as skiing , snowboarding , snowmachine travel ; and warfare : impairing target acquisition , degrading the performance of combatants and materiel , and impeding mobility . Snow affects ecosystems , as well , by providing an insulating layer during winter under which plants and animals are able to survive the cold .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Snow", "rank": 58, "score": 128247 }, { "content": "Title: Pine Island Glacier Content: Pine Island Glacier ( PIG ) is a large ice stream glacier , and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica , responsible for about 25 % of Antarctica 's ice loss . The glacier ice streams flow west-northwest along the south side of the Hudson Mountains into Pine Island Bay , Amundsen Sea , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and United States Navy ( USN ) air photos , 1960 -- 66 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in association with Pine Island Bay . The area drained by Pine Island Glacier comprises about 10 % of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Satellite measurements have shown that the Pine Island Glacier Basin has a greater net contribution of ice to the sea than any other ice drainage basin in the world and this has increased due to recent acceleration of the ice stream . The ice stream is extremely remote , with the nearest continually occupied research station at Rothera , nearly 1300 km away . The area is not claimed by any nations and the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any new claims while it is in force .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Pine_Island_Glacier", "rank": 59, "score": 127797 }, { "content": "Title: January 2016 East Asia cold wave Content: In late January 2016 , a cold wave struck much of East Asia , parts of mainland Southeast Asia and parts of northern South Asia , bringing record cold temperatures and snowfall to many regions . Sleet was reported in Okinawa for the first time on record , and many other regions saw their coldest temperatures in decades . Snowfall and frigid weather stranded thousands of people across four countries . At least 85 people in Taiwan died from hypothermia and cardiac arrest following a sudden drop in temperature during the weekend of January 22 -- 24 . The cold claimed a further fourteen lives in Thailand , and snowstorms resulted in six deaths across Japan . This event was driven by a fast Arctic warming that occurred within the troposphere , forcing the Arctic Oscillation to change phase rapidly from positive ( in late December ) to negative ( in late January ) , facilitating the atmospheric blocking and associated Siberian high buildup .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "January_2016_East_Asia_cold_wave", "rank": 60, "score": 127277 }, { "content": "Title: SWEAT (hypothesis) Content: SWEAT stands for southwestern United States and East Antarctica , which theorizes that the Southwestern United States was at one time connected to East Antarctica . A hypothesis for a late Precambrian fit of western North America with the Australia-Antarctic shield region permits the extension of many features through Antarctica and into other parts of Gondwana , specifically , the Grenville orogen may extend around the coast of East Antarctica into India and Australia . The ophiolitic belt of the latter may extend into East Antarctica . The Wopmay orogen of northwest Canada may extend through eastern Australia into Antarctica and thence beneath the ice to connect with the Yavapai-Mazatzal orogens of the southwestern United States . Counterparts of the Precambrian-Paleozoic sedimentary rocks along the U.S. Cordilleran miogeocline may be present in the Transantarctic Mountains . Orogenic belt boundaries provide useful piercing points for Precambrian continental reconstructions . The model implies that Gondwana and Laurentia drifted away from each other on one margin and collided some 300 million years later on their opposite margins to form the Appalachians .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "SWEAT_(hypothesis)", "rank": 61, "score": 127237 }, { "content": "Title: Shackleton Ice Shelf Content: Shackleton Ice Shelf is an extensive ice shelf fronting the coast of East Antarctica for about 384 km ( 95E to 105E ) , projecting seaward about 145 km in the western portion and 64 km in the east . It occupies an area of 33,820 km ² . It is part of Mawson Sea and separates the Queen Mary Coast to the west from the Knox Coast of Wilkes Land to the east . The existence of this ice shelf was first made known by the USEE under Charles Wilkes who mapped a portion of it from the Vincennes in February 1840 . It was explored by the Australian Antarctic Expedition under Douglas Mawson ( 1911 -- 14 ) who named it for Sir Ernest Shackleton . The extent of the ice shelf was mapped in greater detail in 1955 , using aerial photography obtained by US Navy Operation Highjump , 1946-47 . Further mapping by the Soviet Expedition of 1956 showed the portion eastward of Scott Glacier to be a part of this ice shelf .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Shackleton_Ice_Shelf", "rank": 62, "score": 127182 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Bottom Water Content: The Antarctic bottom water ( AABW ) is a type of water mass in the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica with temperatures ranging from − 0.8 to 2 ° C ( 35 ° F ) , salinities from 34.6 to 34.7 psu . Being the densest water mass of the oceans , AABW is found to occupy the depth range below 4000 m of all ocean basins that have a connection to the Southern Ocean at that level . The major significance of Antarctic bottom water is that it is the coldest bottom water , giving it a significant influence on the movement of the world 's oceans . Antarctic bottom water also has a high oxygen content relative to the rest of the oceans ' deep waters . This is due to the oxidation of deteriorating organic content in the rest of the deep oceans . Antarctic bottom water has thus been considered the ventilation of the deep ocean .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Antarctic_Bottom_Water", "rank": 63, "score": 127085 }, { "content": "Title: 2001 Eastern North America heat wave Content: A rather cool and uneventful summer along the East Coast of the United States ( with a more average heat pattern occurring in the Midwest/Great Lakes regions ) changed abruptly when a ridge of high pressure centered off the coast of South Carolina strengthened in late July . It began in early August for areas of the Midwest and western Great Lakes before spreading eastward and intensifying . It waned in most areas by the middle of the month , and although fairly short in duration compared with some other continental heat waves , it was very intense at its peak . The high humidity and high temperatures led to major heat wave that overtook the major Northeast Megalopolis . Temperatures in Central Park , New York City reached a peak of 103 F . The temperature reached 105 F in Newark , New Jersey . Meanwhile , in Ontario and Quebec , extreme temperatures were also reported daily during the first week of August . Ottawa recorded its second-hottest day ever when the mercury approached 37 C on August 9 and at the Toronto Airport it hit 38 C on the same day , the hottest day there since 1955 with four straight days topping 35 C. Numerous records were shattered during the heatwave . Even in Nova Scotia , surrounded by the relatively cool waters of the Atlantic Ocean , temperatures still broke 35 C in some locations . Glace Bay , which has a sub-Arctic climate reached a record-breaking 35.5 C on August 10 . At least four New Yorkers died of hyperthermia . Chicago had at least 21 deaths .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "2001_Eastern_North_America_heat_wave", "rank": 64, "score": 127049 }, { "content": "Title: Vostok Station Content: Vostok Station ( -LSB- : ru : Восток , Ста́нция Восто́к , translit = Stántsiya Vostók -RSB- , -LSB- ˈstant͡sɨjə vɐˈstok -RSB- , literally `` Station East '' ) is a Russian ( formerly Soviet ) research station in inland Princess Elizabeth Land , Antarctica . Founded by the Soviet Union in 1957 , the station lies at the southern Pole of Cold , with the lowest reliably measured natural temperature on Earth of − 89.2 C. Research includes ice core drilling and magnetometry . Vostok ( Russian for `` east '' ) was named after Vostok , the lead ship of the First Russian Antarctic Expedition captained by Fabian von Bellingshausen ( the second ship Mirny captained by Mikhail Lazarev became the namesake for Mirny Station ) .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Vostok_Station", "rank": 65, "score": 126824 }, { "content": "Title: Early 2012 European cold wave Content: The Early 2012 European cold wave was a deadly cold wave that started on January 27 , 2012 and brought snow and freezing temperatures to much of the European continent . There were more than 824 reported deaths . Particularly low temperatures hit several Eastern and Northern European countries , reaching as low as -42.7 C in Finland . The heaviest snow was recorded in the Balkan region . The cold weather was a result of an extensive area of very high pressure located in over the north east of the continent in northern Russia , which circulated cold air from the east .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Early_2012_European_cold_wave", "rank": 66, "score": 126797 }, { "content": "Title: Alaskozetes antarcticus Content: Alaskozetes antarcticus is a species of non-parasitic mite , known for its ability to survive in subzero temperatures . This animal 's name derives from its habitat : Alasko , meaning `` from Alaska '' , and antarcticus , in connection with frigid conditions in which the mite lives . Scientists are unclear as to how Alaskozetes antacticus has been able to adapt to an environment so different from those of other arthropods . Whereas most arthropod species inhabit hot , moist environments , A. antarcticus survives in freezing conditions with almost no humidity . There are three subspecies : Alaskozetes antarcticus antarcticus , Alaskozetes antarcticus grandjeani , and Alaskozetes antarcticus intermedius .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Alaskozetes_antarcticus", "rank": 67, "score": 126556 }, { "content": "Title: Cosgrove Ice Shelf Content: Cosgrove Ice Shelf is a 35 mi long by 25 mi wide ice shelf , occupying the inner ( east ) part of the embayment between King Peninsula and Canisteo Peninsula , Antarctica . It was mapped from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump , 1946 -- 47 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Lieutenant Jerome R. Cosgrove , U.S. Navy Reserve , assistant communications officer on the staff of the Commander , U.S. Navy Support Force , Antarctica , during U.S. Navy Operation Deep Freeze , 1967 and 1968 .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Cosgrove_Ice_Shelf", "rank": 68, "score": 126375 }, { "content": "Title: McMurdo Dry Valleys Content: The McMurdo Dry Valleys are a row of snow-free valleys in Antarctica located within Victoria Land west of McMurdo Sound . The Dry Valleys experience extremely low humidity and surrounding mountains prevent the flow of ice from nearby glaciers . The rocks here are granites and gneisses , and glacial tills dot this bedrock landscape , with loose gravel covering the ground . The region is one of the world 's most extreme deserts , and includes many features including Lake Vida , a saline lake , and the Onyx River , a meltwater stream and Antarctica 's longest river . Although no living organisms have been found in the permafrost here , endolithic photosynthetic bacteria have been found living in the relatively moist interior of rocks and anaerobic bacteria , with a metabolism based on iron and sulfur , live under the Taylor Glacier .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "McMurdo_Dry_Valleys", "rank": 69, "score": 126327 }, { "content": "Title: Faddey Bay Content: The Faddey Bay ( Залив Фаддея ; Zaliv Faddeya ) is a gulf in the Laptev Sea on the eastern coast of the Taymyr Peninsula . It measures about 47 km from its innermost point in the southwest , the delta of the Pregradnaya River , to its broadest opening to the sea in the northeast . Its average width is 21 km . Owing to its extreme northerly location , the climate in the area of the Faddey Bay is exceptionally severe , with prolonged , bitter winters . This gulf is covered by ice most of the year , sometimes remaining frozen even in the brief summer period . The Faddey Islands lie to the north of the bay , right off its mouth . Both islands and the strait were named by Boris Vilkitsky 's 1913 expedition after Russian explorer Faddey Bellingshausen , the discoverer of Antarctica .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Faddey_Bay", "rank": 70, "score": 126182 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 71, "score": 126039 }, { "content": "Title: Anchor ice Content: Anchor ice is defined by the World Meteorological Organization as `` submerged ice attached or anchored to the bottom , irrespective of the nature of its formation '' . It may also be called bottom-fast ice . Anchor ice is most commonly observed in fast-flowing rivers during periods of extreme cold , at the mouths of rivers flowing into very cold seawater , in the shallow sub or intertidal during or after storms when the air temperature is below the freezing point of the water , and the subtidal in the Antarctic along ice shelves or near floating glacier tongues , and in shallow lakes .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Anchor_ice", "rank": 72, "score": 125983 }, { "content": "Title: Geography of Antarctica Content: The geography of Antarctica is dominated by its south polar location and , thus , by ice . The Antarctic continent , located in the Earth 's southern hemisphere , is centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle . It is washed by the Southern ( or Antarctic ) Ocean or , depending on definition , the southern Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans . It has an area of more than 14 million km ² . Some 98 % of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , the world 's largest ice sheet and also its largest reservoir of fresh water . Averaging at least 1.6 km thick , the ice is so massive that it has depressed the continental bedrock in some areas more than 2.5 km below sea level ; subglacial lakes of liquid water also occur ( e.g. , Lake Vostok ) . Ice shelves and rises populate the ice sheet on the periphery .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Geography_of_Antarctica", "rank": 73, "score": 125982 }, { "content": "Title: Channichthyidae Content: The crocodile icefish or white-blooded fish ( Channichthyidae ) comprise a family of notothenioid fish found in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica and southern South America , where water temperatures remain relatively stable ( generally ranging from -1.8 to +2.0 ° C ) . Sixteen species of crocodile icefish are currently recognized .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Channichthyidae", "rank": 74, "score": 125751 }, { "content": "Title: Eastern Dallmann Bay Antarctic Specially Protected Area Content: The Eastern Dallmann Bay Antarctic Specially Protected Area is a marine Antarctic Specially Protected Area ( ASPA 153 ) lying at the eastern end of Dallmann Bay , adjacent to the north-western and northern coasts of Brabant Island in the Palmer Archipelago of Antarctica . With an area of about 676 km2 it covers shallow marine waters that are suitable for bottom trawling for demersal fish and other benthic organisms for scientific research . The area contains important habitat for juvenile fish , especially Black Rockcod and Blackfin Icefish . The fish collected from the site are used in studies of their physiological and biochemical adaptations to low temperatures .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Eastern_Dallmann_Bay_Antarctic_Specially_Protected_Area", "rank": 75, "score": 125391 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Content: The Antarctic ( US English -LSB- æntˈɑrktɪk -RSB- , UK English -LSB- ænˈtɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- æntˈɑrtɪk -RSB- and -LSB- ænˈtɑrtɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ænˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region , specifically the region around the Earth 's South Pole , opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole . The Antarctic comprises in the strict sense the continent of Antarctica and the island territories located on the Antarctic Plate . In a broader sense the Antarctic region include the ice shelves , waters , and island territories in the Southern Ocean situated south of the Antarctic Convergence , a zone approximately 32 to wide varying in latitude seasonally . The region covers some 20 % of the Southern Hemisphere , of which 5.5 % ( 14 million km2 ) is the surface area of the Antarctic continent itself . All of the land and ice shelves south of 60 ° S latitude are administrated under the Antarctic Treaty System . In a biogeographic sense , the Antarctic ecozone is one of eight ecozones of the Earth 's land surface .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Antarctic", "rank": 76, "score": 125366 }, { "content": "Title: New College Valley Content: New College Valley lies south of Cape Bird , on ice-free slopes above Caughley Beach on Ross Island , Antarctica . It faces north-west and carries meltwater from the Cape Bird ice cap during the summer . It is protected as Antarctic Specially Protected Area ( ASPA ) No. 116 because it contains some of the richest stands of mosses , with associated microflora and fauna , in the Ross Sea region .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "New_College_Valley", "rank": 77, "score": 125309 }, { "content": "Title: Tim Naish Content: Tim Naish is a New Zealand glaciologist . He is the Director of the Antarctic Research Centre , Victoria University of Wellington , New Zealand . He has written about the collapse of Antarctica 's Larsen B ice shelf . In 2002 , between January 31 and March 7 the Larsen B ice shelf collapsed and broke up . Tim Naish warned that the ice shelf of Weddell Sea is imperiled , and if the temperature rises by 3 ° C , the ice shelves of Antarctica will become thinner . `` These are dramatic changes '' -- said Tim Naish . In 2009 , Professor Naish was awarded a New Zealand Antarctic Medal ( NZAM ) for services to Antarctic climate science .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Tim_Naish", "rank": 78, "score": 125268 }, { "content": "Title: 300 Club Content: The 300 Club is the name given to those who have endured a range of temperature of 300 ° Fahrenheit ( 166 ° C ) within a very short time . The practice originated at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica . Participants in the 300 Club wait for a day when the temperature drops to − 100 ° F ( -73 ° C ) for more than a few minutes , generally in the winter . Those taking part first warm up in a sauna heated to 200 ° F ( 93 ° C ) for as long as 10 minutes . Then they run naked in the snow to the Geographic South Pole , running around it in the − 100 ° F weather . After this , they usually warm themselves back in the sauna again , often with the aid of alcoholic beverages . There are several patches made to commemorate the occasion that are entitled to be worn by those who have joined the 300 Club .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "300_Club", "rank": 79, "score": 125233 }, { "content": "Title: Kolyma Content: Kolyma ( Колыма́ , -LSB- kəlɨˈma -RSB- ) is a region located in the Russian Far East . It is bounded by the East Siberian Sea and the Arctic Ocean in the north and the Sea of Okhotsk to the south . The region gets its name from the Kolyma River and mountain range , parts of which were not discovered until 1926 . Today the region consists roughly of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug and the Magadan Oblast . The area , part of which is within the Arctic Circle , has a subarctic climate with very cold winters lasting up to six months of the year . Permafrost and tundra cover a large part of the region . Average winter temperatures range from − 19 ° C to − 38 ° C ( even lower in the interior ) , and average summer temperatures , from +3 ° C to +16 ° C . There are rich reserves of gold , silver , tin , tungsten , mercury , copper , antimony , coal , oil , and peat . Twenty-nine zones of possible oil and gas accumulation have been identified in the Sea of Okhotsk shelf . Total reserves are estimated at 3.5 billion tons of equivalent fuel , including 1.2 billion tons of oil and 1.5 billion m3 of gas . The principal town Magadan has nearly 100,000 inhabitants and is the largest port in north-eastern Russia . It has a large fishing fleet and remains open year-round thanks to icebreakers . Magadan is served by the nearby Sokol Airport . There are many public and private farming enterprises . Gold mines , pasta and sausage factories , fishing companies , and a distillery form the city 's industrial base .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Kolyma", "rank": 80, "score": 125093 }, { "content": "Title: Research stations in Antarctica Content: A number of governments maintain permanent research stations in Antarctica and these bases are widely distributed . Unlike the bases set up in the Arctic ( see Drifting ice station ) , the research stations of the Antarctic are constructed either on rock or on ice that is ( for practical purposes ) fixed in place . Many of the stations are staffed around the year . A total of 30 countries ( as of October 2006 ) , all signatories to the Antarctic Treaty , operate seasonal ( summer ) and year-round research stations on the continent . The population of people performing and supporting scientific research on the continent and nearby islands varies from approximately 4,000 during the summer season to 1,000 during winter ( June ) . In addition to these permanent stations , approximately 30 field camps are established each summer to support specific projects .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Research_stations_in_Antarctica", "rank": 81, "score": 124913 }, { "content": "Title: Frost (temperature) Content: Frost or freezing occurs when the temperature of air falls below the freezing point of water ( 0 ° C , 32 ° F , 273.15 K ) . This is usually measured at the height of 1.2 m above the ground surface . There is a rather subjective scale to show several degrees of frost severity : slight frost : 0 to moderate frost : − 3.6 to − 6.5 ° C ( 25.6 to 20.3 ° F ) severe frost : − 6.6 to − 11.5 ° C ( 20.2 to 11.3 ° F ) very severe frost : below -11.5 C Frost is not necessary to get ground frost or hoar frost ; they can form even if air temperature is above freezing point if the surfaces have been chilled by heat emission during a cold night .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Frost_(temperature)", "rank": 82, "score": 124842 }, { "content": "Title: Demographics of Antarctica Content: Antarctica has no permanent residents , although it contains research stations and field camps that are staffed seasonally or year-round , and former whaling settlements . The largest station , McMurdo Station , has a summer population of about 1,000 people and a winter population of about 200 . Approximately 29 nations , all signatory to the Antarctic Treaty , send personnel to perform seasonal ( summer ) or year-round research on the continent and in its surrounding oceans . The population of persons doing and supporting scientific research on the continent and its nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude ( the region covered by the Antarctic Treaty ) varies from approximately 4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter ; in addition , approximately 1,000 personnel including ship 's crew and scientists doing onboard research are present in the waters of the treaty region . At least ten children have been born in West Antarctica . The first was Emilio Marcos Palma , born on 7 January 1978 to Argentine parents at Esperanza , Hope Bay , near the tip of the Antarctic peninsula . In 1984 , Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Base , becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica . Soon after , a girl , Gisella , was born at the same station . In 2001 , National Geographic reported that eight children had been born at Esperanza alone .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Demographics_of_Antarctica", "rank": 83, "score": 124834 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical Storm Grace (2009) Content: Tropical Storm Grace holds the record for being the farthest northeast forming tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin . The seventh named storm of the slightly below average 2009 Atlantic hurricane season , Grace formed from an extratropical cyclone over the Azores on October 4 . It strengthened to attain peak sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km/h ) and developed an eye-like feature , although cold sea surface temperatures inhibited the development of thunderstorm activity near the center . The storm lost its tropical characteristics on October 6 , though the remnants merged with a separate system near the British Isles . Grace had only minor effects on land , although while it was passing through the Azores , islands close to the storm 's center recorded winds of up to 44 mph ( 71 km/h ) and moderate rainfall . Although not solely related to the cyclone , heavy rainfall in Portugal led to some street flooding . The remnants also impacted parts of Ireland and the United Kingdom , where rainfall approaching 2 in ( 51 mm ) and tropical storm-force winds were recorded . However , no damage occurred .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Tropical_Storm_Grace_(2009)", "rank": 84, "score": 124724 }, { "content": "Title: Hamilton Ice Piedmont Content: Hamilton Ice Piedmont is an ice piedmont , 8 nmi wide , to the east of Wyatt Hill , Bear Peninsula , on the Walgreen Coast of Marie Byrd Land , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from surveys and U.S. Navy aerial photographs , 1959 -- 66 , and was named in 1977 by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Robert Hamilton , a meteorologist at the University of California , Davis , who was United States Antarctic Research Program Station Scientific Leader at South Pole Station , winter party 1975 .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Hamilton_Ice_Piedmont", "rank": 85, "score": 124538 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 86, "score": 124492 }, { "content": "Title: Swinburne Ice Shelf Content: Swinburne Ice Shelf , is an ice shelf just north of Edward VII Peninsula and the Alexandra Mountains in the southern part of Sulzberger Bay , Antarctica . The ice shelf is 20 miles long and 5 miles wide and extends from Fisher Island to White Islands . It was photographed from aircraft and mapped by the Byrd Antarctic Expedition ( ByrdAE ) , 1928-30 . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for Captain H.W Swinburne , Jr. , Deputy Commander and Chief of Staff , U.S. Naval Support Force , Antarctica , during Operation Deep Freeze 1970 and 1971 .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Swinburne_Ice_Shelf", "rank": 87, "score": 124050 }, { "content": "Title: Ice shelf Content: An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters . In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica . Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss . Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf . The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica . The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Ice_shelf", "rank": 88, "score": 124025 }, { "content": "Title: Laramie Potts Content: Laramie Potts is an American scientist at Ohio State University who identified the Wilkes Land mass concentration in Antarctica in collaboration with Ralph von Frese . He is from South Africa . He currently ( December 2010 ) teaches geomatics ( surveying ) at the New Jersey Institute of Technology . Potts is a Post-Doctoral Researcher in Civil and Environmental Engineering and Geodetic Science . He and von Frese used gravity measurements by NASA 's GRACE satellites to identify a 200-mile ( 300 km ) wide mass concentration . This mass anomaly is centered within a larger ring-like structure visible in radar images of the land surface beneath the Antarctic ice cap . This combination led these researchers to speculate that it may be the result of a large impact event .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Laramie_Potts", "rank": 89, "score": 123908 }, { "content": "Title: Ice sheet Content: An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2 , thus also known as continental glacier . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland ; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America , the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America . Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers . Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap . An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery . Although the surface is cold , the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat . In places , melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly . This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet -- these are ice streams . The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms . The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a small ice cap ( maybe several ) in the early Oligocene , but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene , when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica . The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene , but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation . This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Ice_sheet", "rank": 90, "score": 123841 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Antarctica", "rank": 91, "score": 123813 }, { "content": "Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Ice_age", "rank": 92, "score": 123763 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Plate Content: The Antarctic Plate is a tectonic plate containing the continent of Antarctica and extending outward under the surrounding oceans . After breakup from Gondwana ( the southern part of the supercontinent Pangea ) , the Antarctic plate began moving the continent of Antarctica south to its present isolated location causing the continent to develop a much colder climate . The Antarctic Plate is bounded almost entirely by extensional mid-ocean ridge systems . The adjoining plates are the Nazca Plate , the South American Plate , the African Plate , the Indo-Australian Plate , the Pacific Plate , and , across a transform boundary , the Scotia Plate . The Antarctic plate has an area of about 60,900,000 km2 . It is the Earth 's fifth largest plate . The Antarctic plate 's movement is estimated to be at least 1 cm per year towards the Atlantic Ocean .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Antarctic_Plate", "rank": 93, "score": 123529 }, { "content": "Title: Mount Kendrick Content: Mount Kendrick is a massive ice-covered mountain , 3,610 m high , surmounting the east side of the Nilsen Plateau at the head of Bartlett Glacier , in the Queen Maud Mountains of Antarctica . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Captain H.E. Kendrick , Operations Officer on the staff of the Commander , U.S. Naval Support Force , Antarctica , in U.S. Navy Operation Deep Freeze 1967 .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Mount_Kendrick", "rank": 94, "score": 123441 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Ice Marathon & 100k ultra race Content: The Antarctic Ice Marathon was established by Richard Donovan / Polar Running Adventures to enable marathon runners to complete a marathon on all seven continents . It also enables athletes to complete the marathon grand slam - a marathon on all seven continents and the North Pole . Runnings of the Antarctic Ice Marathon and 100 km race have taken place at 80 ° south just a few hundred miles from the South Pole at the foot of the Ellsworth Mountains . Participants are flown from Punta Arenas , Chile to the race location in the interior of the Antarctic and experience anything from subzero temperatures to 24 hours of daylight while there .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Antarctic_Ice_Marathon_&_100k_ultra_race", "rank": 95, "score": 123289 }, { "content": "Title: McCann Point Content: McCann Point is a point marking the east side of the mouth of Beaver Glacier , Antarctica , where the latter enters the Ross Ice Shelf . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for K.A. McCann , Master of the during U.S. Navy Operation Deep Freeze 1965 .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "McCann_Point", "rank": 96, "score": 123194 }, { "content": "Title: Extreme points of Antarctica Content: The tallest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson rising 4,892 metres ( 16,050 feet ) above sea level . The lowest point in Antarctica is within the Bentley Subglacial Trench , which reaches 2,555 metres below sea level . This is also the lowest place on Earth not covered by ocean ( although it is covered by ice ) . The lowest accessible point in Antarctica is the shore of Deep Lake , Vestfold Hills , which is 50 m beneath sea level . The point on land farthest from any coastline on the Antarctic Continent is located at . This is also known as the South Pole of inaccessibility . Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth . The Geographical South Pole lies on the Polar Plateau at . It is here that the southernmost human habitation on Earth is located : Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station ( U.S. Administered Base ) . Vostok Station is the most isolated research base on the continent ( located at ) , and it is situated over the southernmost lake in the world , Lake Vostok , a subglacial lake 4,000 metres ( 13,000 feet ) under the surface of the ice where the station sits . Formerly administrated by the Soviets , it is now operated by Russia . The southernmost volcano on the planet -- Mount Erebus -- is in Antarctica on the world 's southernmost island reachable from the sea : Ross Island . The southernmost island is Berkner Island . It is embedded in the ice shelf , fully covered by ice and fully below sea level . The Ross Sea is the southernmost sea in the world , with its southernmost extremity ( Gould Coast ) at the foot of the Horlick Mountains approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the Geographic South Pole . However , this area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf . The southernmost open sea is also part of Ross Sea , namely Bay of Whales at 78 ° 30 'S , at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf . The northernmost extremity of the Antarctic mainland ( without nearshore islands ) is Prime Head , at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula at . The Antarctic Peninsula is the largest contiguous part of the continent projecting north of the Antarctic Circle and thus has many of the continent 's research bases . Prime Head is 609 mi ( 980 km ) from Cape Horn . The northernmost research base on the mainland is Esperanza Base .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Extreme_points_of_Antarctica", "rank": 97, "score": 122928 }, { "content": "Title: Hughes Ice Piedmont Content: Hughes Ice Piedmont is the ice piedmont between Cordini Glacier and Smith Inlet on the east coast of Palmer Land , Antarctica . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Terence J. Hughes , a United States Antarctic Research Program glaciologist at Deception Island and McMurdo Sound during 1970 -- 71 , and at Deception Island , 1973 -- 74 .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Hughes_Ice_Piedmont", "rank": 98, "score": 122577 }, { "content": "Title: Far Eastern Party Content: The Far Eastern Party was a sledging component of the 1911 -- 14 Australasian Antarctic Expedition , which investigated the previously unexplored coastal regions of Antarctica west of Cape Adare . Led by expedition commander Douglas Mawson , the party aimed to explore the area far to the east of their main base in Adélie Land , pushing about 500 mi towards Victoria Land . Accompanying Mawson were Belgrave Edward Sutton Ninnis , a lieutenant in the Royal Fusiliers , and the Swiss ski expert Xavier Mertz ; the party used sledge dogs to increase their speed across the ice . Initially they made good progress , crossing two huge glaciers on their route south-east . On 14 December 1912 , with the party more than 311 mi from the safety of the main base at Cape Denison , Ninnis and the sledge he was walking beside broke through the snow lid of a crevasse and were lost . Their supplies now severely compromised , Mawson and Mertz turned back west , gradually shooting the remaining sledge dogs for food to supplement their scarce rations . As they crossed the first glacier on their return journey Mertz became sick , making progress difficult . After almost a week of making very little headway Mertz died , leaving Mawson to carry on alone . For almost a month he pulled his sledge across the Antarctic , crossing the second glacier , despite an illness that increasingly weakened him . Mawson reached the comparative safety of Aladdin 's Cave -- a food depot 5.5 mi from the main base -- on 1 February 1913 , only to be trapped there for a week while a blizzard raged outside . As a result , he missed the ship back to Australia ; the SY Aurora had sailed on 8 February , just hours before his return to Cape Denison , after waiting for more than three weeks . With a relief party , Mawson remained at Cape Denison until the Aurora returned the following summer in December 1913 . The causes of Mertz 's death and Mawson 's related illness remain uncertain ; a 1969 study suggested hypervitaminosis A , presumably caused by the men eating the livers of their Greenland Huskies , which are now known to be unusually high in vitamin A . While this is considered the most likely theory , dissenting opinions suggest prolonged cold exposure or psychological stresses . In 1976 explorer and mountaineer Sir Edmund Hillary described Mawson 's month-long journey as `` probably the greatest story of lone survival in Polar exploration '' .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "Far_Eastern_Party", "rank": 99, "score": 122442 }, { "content": "Title: O'Leary Peak (Antarctica) Content: O'Leary Peak is a partly snow-covered peak ( 1,040 m ) , the northernmost summit along the east wall of Erickson Glacier , where the latter enters the Ross Ice Shelf , Antarctica . The topographical feature was first discovered and photographed by the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) , 1939-41 . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for Paul V. O'Leary , builder , U.S. Navy Reserve , a member of the U.S. Naval Support Force , Antarctica , who lost his life by accidental poisoning on November 28 , 1959 . The peak lies situated on the Dufek Coast , a portion of the Ross Dependency lying between the Shackleton Coast and the Amundsen Coast .", "qid": "3017", "docid": "O'Leary_Peak_(Antarctica)", "rank": 100, "score": 122285 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect", "rank": 1, "score": 155525 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Climate_change_feedback", "rank": 2, "score": 148388 }, { "content": "Title: Testing effect Content: The testing effect is the finding that long-term memory is increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information through testing with proper feedback . The effect is also sometimes referred to as retrieval practice , practice testing , or test-enhanced learning . It is useful for people to test their knowledge of the to-be-remembered material during the studying process , instead of solely studying or reading the material . For example , a student can use flashcards to self-test and receive feedback as they study . The testing effect provides the largest benefit to long-term memory when the tested material is difficult enough to require effort , the retrieval success is high , and feedback with correct answers is given after testing .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Testing_effect", "rank": 3, "score": 134594 }, { "content": "Title: Positive feedback Content: Positive feedback is a process that occurs in a feedback loop in which the effects of a small disturbance on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the perturbation . That is , A produces more of B which in turn produces more of A . In contrast , a system in which the results of a change act to reduce or counteract it has negative feedback . Both concepts play an important role in science and engineering , including biology , chemistry , and cybernetics . Mathematically , positive feedback is defined as a positive loop gain around a closed loop of cause and effect . That is , positive feedback is in phase with the input , in the sense that it adds to make the input larger . Positive feedback tends to cause system instability . When the loop gain is positive and above 1 , there will typically be exponential growth , increasing oscillations , chaotic behavior or other divergences from equilibrium . System parameters will typically accelerate towards extreme values , which may damage or destroy the system , or may end with the system latched into a new stable state . Positive feedback may be controlled by signals in the system being filtered , damped , or limited , or it can be cancelled or reduced by adding negative feedback . Positive feedback is used in digital electronics to force voltages away from intermediate voltages into ' 0 ' and ' 1 ' states . On the other hand , thermal runaway is a positive feedback that can destroy semiconductor junctions . Positive feedback in chemical reactions can increase the rate of reactions , and in some cases can lead to explosions . Positive feedback in mechanical design causes tipping-point , or ` over-centre ' , mechanisms to snap into position , for example in switches and locking pliers . Out of control , it can cause bridges to collapse . Positive feedback in economic systems can cause boom-then-bust cycles . A familiar example of positive feedback is the loud squealing or howling sound produced by audio feedback in public address systems : the microphone picks up sound from its own loudspeakers , amplifies it , and sends it through the speakers again .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Positive_feedback", "rank": 4, "score": 131577 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback", "rank": 5, "score": 121555 }, { "content": "Title: Audio feedback Content: Audio feedback ( also known as acoustic feedback , simply as feedback , or the Larsen effect ) is a special kind of positive feedback which occurs when a sound loop exists between an audio input ( for example , a microphone or guitar pickup ) and an audio output ( for example , a loudspeaker ) . In this example , a signal received by the microphone is amplified and passed out of the loudspeaker . The sound from the loudspeaker can then be received by the microphone again , amplified further , and then passed out through the loudspeaker again . The frequency of the resulting sound is determined by resonance frequencies in the microphone , amplifier , and loudspeaker , the acoustics of the room , the directional pick-up and emission patterns of the microphone and loudspeaker , and the distance between them . For small PA systems the sound is readily recognized as a loud squeal or screech . Feedback is almost always considered undesirable when it occurs with a singer 's or public speaker 's microphone at an event using a sound reinforcement system or PA system . Audio engineers use highly directional cardioid microphones and various electronic devices , such as equalizers and , since the 1990s , automatic feedback detection devices to prevent these unwanted squeals or screeching sounds , which detract from the audience 's enjoyment of the event . On the other hand , since the 1960s , electric guitar players in rock music bands using loud guitar amplifiers , speaker cabinets and distortion effects have intentionally created guitar feedback to create a sustained sound . The sound of guitar feedback is considered to be desirable musical effect in heavy metal music , hardcore punk and grunge . Jimi Hendrix was an innovator in the intentional use of guitar feedback in his guitar solos to create unique sound effects not possible with more traditional playing techniques . The principles of audio feedback were first discovered by Danish scientist Søren Absalon Larsen , hence the name `` Larsen Effect '' .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Audio_feedback", "rank": 6, "score": 118101 }, { "content": "Title: Electrothermal feedback Content: In electronics , electrothermal feedback is the interaction of the electric current and the temperature in a device with a temperature-dependent electrical resistance . This interaction arises from Joule heating . The temperature-dependence of the electrical resistance is described by the derivative of the resistance with respect to temperature dR/dT . Semiconductors typically exhibit a negative dR/dT . Superconductors exhibit a large positive dR/dT on the superconducting phase transition . Normal ( non-superconducting ) metals typically exhibit a positive dR/dT that decreases to zero at very low temperatures . If a device has a positive dR/dT , an increase in temperature ( for example , due to thermal fluctuations or the absorption of a photon ) will increase the electrical resistance R . If the device is biased with a constant voltage V , this increase in resistance will decrease the Joule power P = V2/R . The decrease in Joule heating will cause the device to return to its equilibrium temperature . This is known as negative electrothermal feedback , as the change in Joule heating opposes the change in temperature . If the device is instead biased with a constant current I , the Joule power P = I2R will increase if the temperature increases . Thus the Joule heating amplifies a change in temperature , an effect known as positive electrothermal feedback . The situation is reversed for the case of a negative dR/dT . Electrothermal feedback is important for describing the performance of several types of photodetectors such as the bolometer , the transition edge sensor , and the superconducting nanowire single-photon detector .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Electrothermal_feedback", "rank": 7, "score": 116984 }, { "content": "Title: Negative feedback Content: Negative feedback occurs when some function of the output of a system , process , or mechanism is fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the output , whether caused by changes in the input or by other disturbances . Whereas positive feedback tends to lead to instability via exponential growth , oscillation or chaotic behavior , negative feedback generally promotes stability . Negative feedback tends to promote a settling to equilibrium , and reduces the effects of perturbations . Negative feedback loops in which just the right amount of correction is applied with optimum timing can be very stable , accurate , and responsive . Negative feedback is widely used in mechanical and electronic engineering , but it also occurs naturally within living organisms , and can be seen in many other fields from chemistry and economics to physical systems such as the climate . General negative feedback systems are studied in control systems engineering .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Negative_feedback", "rank": 8, "score": 112009 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Runaway_climate_change", "rank": 9, "score": 102421 }, { "content": "Title: Negative-feedback amplifier Content: A negative-feedback amplifier ( or feedback amplifier ) is an electronic amplifier that subtracts a fraction of its output from its input , so that negative feedback opposes the original signal . The applied negative feedback improves performance ( gain stability , linearity , frequency response , step response ) and reduces sensitivity to parameter variations due to manufacturing or environment . Because of these advantages , many amplifiers and control systems use negative feedback . An idealized negative-feedback amplifier as shown in the diagram is a system of three elements ( see Figure 1 ) : an amplifier with gain AOL , a feedback network β , which senses the output signal and possibly transforms it in some way ( for example by attenuating or filtering it ) , a summing circuit that acts as a subtractor ( the circle in the figure ) , which combines the input and the transformed output .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Negative-feedback_amplifier", "rank": 10, "score": 101245 }, { "content": "Title: Positivity effect Content: In psychology and cognitive science , the positivity effect is a term given to three different phenomena . It is the ability to constructively analyze a situation where the desired results are not achieved ; but still obtain positive feedback that assists our future progression . When considering people we like ( including ourselves ) , we tend to make situational attributions about their negative behaviors and dispositional attributions about their positive behaviors . The reverse may be true for people we do not like . This may well be because of the dissonance between liking a person and seeing them behave negatively . Example : If a friend hits someone , one would tell them the other guy deserved it or that he had to defend himself .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Positivity_effect", "rank": 11, "score": 100012 }, { "content": "Title: Regulatory feedback network Content: Regulatory feedback networks are neural networks that perform inference using Negative feedback . The feedback is not used to find optimal learning or training weights but to find the optimal activation of nodes . In effect this approach is most similar to a non-parametric method but is different from K-nearest neighbors in that it can be shown to mathematically emulate feedforward neural networks .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Regulatory_feedback_network", "rank": 12, "score": 98606 }, { "content": "Title: Plant-soil feedback Content: Plant-soil feedback is a process where plants alter the biotic and abiotic qualities of soil they grow in , which then alters the ability of plants to grow in that soil in the future . Negative plant-soil feedback occurs when plants are less able to grow in soil that was previously occupied by a member of the same species , and positive plant-soil feedback occurs when plants are more able to grow in soil that was previously occupied by a member of the same species . Although it was originally assumed that negative plant-soil feedback was caused by plants depleting the soil of nutrients , recent work has suggested that a major cause of plant-soil feedback is a buildup of soil-borne pathogens . Mutualism and allelopathy are also thought to cause plant-soil feedback . Studies have shown that , on average , plant-soil feedback tends to be negative ; however , there have been many notable exceptions , such as many invasive species . Negative plant-soil feedback is thought to be an important factor in helping plants to coexist . If a plant is overly abundant , then soil pathogens and other negative factors will become common , hurting its growth . Similarly , if a plant becomes overly rare , then so too will its soil pathogens and other negative factors , helping its growth . This negative feedback will help populations to stay in the community . Negative plant-soil feedback has been called a particular case of the Janzen-Connell hypothesis .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Plant-soil_feedback", "rank": 13, "score": 97325 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Cloud_feedback", "rank": 14, "score": 96024 }, { "content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Iris_hypothesis", "rank": 15, "score": 95506 }, { "content": "Title: Network effect Content: In economics and business , a network effect ( also called network externality or demand-side economies of scale ) is the effect that one user of a good or service has on the value of that product to other people . When a network effect is present , the value of a product or service is dependent on the number of others using it . The classic example is the telephone . The more people who own telephones , the more valuable the telephone is to each owner . This creates a positive externality because a user may purchase a telephone without intending to create value for other users , but does so in any case . Online social networks work in the same way , with sites like Twitter and Facebook becoming more attractive as more users join . The expression `` network effect '' is applied most commonly to positive network externalities as in the case of the telephone . Negative network externalities can also occur , where more users make a product less valuable , but are more commonly referred to as `` congestion '' ( as in traffic congestion or network congestion ) . Over time , positive network effects can create a bandwagon effect as the network becomes more valuable and more people join , in a positive feedback loop .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Network_effect", "rank": 16, "score": 94452 }, { "content": "Title: Regenerative circuit Content: A regenerative circuit is one that employs an amount of positive feedback ( which is also known as regeneration ) , that is : part of the output is fed back to the input without phase inversion , to reinforce the signal . One example is the Schmitt trigger ( which is also known as a regenerative comparator ) , but the most common use of the term is in RF amplifiers , and especially regenerative receivers , to increase the gain of a single stage - effectively allowing an electronic signal to be amplified many times by the same active device . This circuit was widely used in radio receivers , called regenerative receivers , between 1915 and World War II . The regenerative receiver was invented in 1912 and patented in 1914 by American electrical engineer Edwin Armstrong when he was an undergraduate at Columbia University . Advantages of regenerative receivers include increased sensitivity with modest hardware requirements , and increased selectivity because the Q factor of the tuned circuit will be increased when the amplifying vacuum tube or transistor has its feedback loop around the tuned circuit ( via a `` tickler '' winding or a tapping on the coil ) because it introduces some negative resistance . Due partly to its tendency to radiate interference if the regeneration control is set too high , by the 1930s the regenerative receiver was largely superseded by other TRF receiver designs ( for example `` reflex '' receivers ) and especially by another Armstrong invention - superheterodyne receivers and is largely considered obsolete , . Regeneration ( now called positive feedback ) is still widely used in other areas of electronics , such as in oscillators and active filters , and bootstrapped amplifiers . A receiver circuit that used larger amounts of regeneration in a more complicated way to achieve even higher amplification , the superregenerative receiver , was also invented by Armstrong in 1922 . It was never widely used in general commercial receivers , but due to its small parts count is used in a few specialized low data rate applications , such as garage door openers , wireless networking devices , walkie-talkies and toys .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Regenerative_circuit", "rank": 17, "score": 94043 }, { "content": "Title: Thorpe–Ingold effect Content: The Thorpe -- Ingold effect , gem-dimethyl effect , or angle compression is an effect observed in organic chemistry where increasing the size of two substituents on a tetrahedral center leads to enhanced reactions between parts of the other two substituents . The effect was first reported by Beesley , Thorpe and Ingold in 1915 as part of a study of cyclization reactions . One illustration of this effect is found in the comparative rates of lactone formation ( lactonization ) of various 2-hydroxybenzenepropionic acids . The placement of an increasing number of methyl groups accelerates the cyclization process . A common application of this effect is addition of a quaternary carbon ( e.g. , a gem-dimethyl group ) in an alkyl chain to increase the reaction rate and/or equilibrium constant of cyclization reactions . An example of this is an olefin metathesis reaction : image : tiemethathesis.PNG One proposed explanation for this effect is that the increased size of the substituents increases the angle between them . As a result , the angle between the other two substituents decreases . By moving them closer together , reactions between them are accelerated . It is thus a kinetic effect . image : Thorpeingoldeffect.PNG The effect also has some thermodynamic contribution as the in silico strain energy decreases on going from cyclobutane to 1-methylcyclobutane and 1,1-dimethylcyclobutane by a value between 8 kcal/mole and 1.5 kcal/mole . A noteworthy example of Thorpe-Ingold effect in supramolecular catalysis is given by diphenylmethane derivatives provided with guanidinium groups . This compounds are active in the cleavage of the RNA model compound HPNP . Substitution of the methylene group of the parent diphenylmethane spacer with cyclohexylidene and adamantylidene moieties enhances catalytic efficiency , with gem dialkyl effect accelerations of 4.5 and 9.1 , respectively . 550px", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Thorpe–Ingold_effect", "rank": 18, "score": 92196 }, { "content": "Title: List of D-Box motion-enhanced theatrical films Content: This is the list of theatrical films featuring a D-Box motion feedback track , in addition to audio and video tracks . In select motion-enhanced cinemas , it allows the viewer to feel movement and vibration effects in sync with onscreen action .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "List_of_D-Box_motion-enhanced_theatrical_films", "rank": 19, "score": 91956 }, { "content": "Title: Cochlear amplifier Content: The cochlear amplifier is a positive feedback mechanism within the cochlea that provides acute sensitivity in the mammalian auditory system . The main component of the cochlear amplifier is the outer hair cell ( OHC ) which increases the amplitude and frequency selectivity of sound vibrations using electromechanical feedback .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Cochlear_amplifier", "rank": 20, "score": 90666 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic methane emissions Content: Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas . The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits . Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Arctic_methane_emissions", "rank": 21, "score": 89838 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Schools Project Content: Greenhouse Sports aims to develop social , thinking , emotional and physical skills for young people in London 's communities through high quality , intensive sports programmes delivered by inspirational coaches . Greenhouse Sports ( originally Greenhouse Schools Project and then later Greenhouse Charity ) was founded in 2002 when Chief Executive and founder , Michael de Giorgio , set up a multisports pilot to give young people on a local housing estate something positive to do in the school holidays . In 2004 the organisation then moved their programmes full-time into schools . By working full-time in schools and in the community the Greenhouse coaches develop strong relationships with their young people . Greenhouse help them to improve their health and fitness whilst mentoring them to improve their engagement with their education and community . Activities include football , swimming , table tennis , tennis , basketball , judo , volleyball and multisports . Greenhouse 's multisports programme is aimed at young people with special educational needs ( SEN ) and is one of Greenhouse 's largest areas with 8 school-based programmes running across London . A team of Greenhouse coaches engage children with physical disabilities and special education offering familiar sports such as football , swimming , trampolining , athletics and dodgeball alongside rebound therapy and hydrotherapy . The organisation is proud to include amongst its coaches former Commonwealth champions and Olympians . The coaches are selected based on both their sports coaching and their ability to inspire young people . The coaching is offered to those young people who face the greatest challenge , regardless of ability . The organisation prides itself on being able to adapt its programme to suit everyone from the complete novice to the elite sporting star of the future . Greenhouse reaches 10,000 young people , of which over 40 % receive free school meals and 40 % are from single parent families . A Greenhouse programme will work primarily with children attending secondary school , but it does also work with 8-11 year olds in feeder primaries to help smooth their transition from primary to secondary education . Programmes are available to all young people attending the school in which it is present . However , the organisation also works with the school to identify the young people who would gain the most from attending the programme . The young person will then have an agreement drawn up between them and the school stipulating the conditions to which they must adhere if they want to continue attending the Greenhouse programme . 30.7 % of young people on the programme last year were referred by their school for behavioural or attendance issues . The charity also runs an apprenticeship programme called Coach Core which is funded by The Royal Foundation of the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge and Prince Harry . The programme provides intense coaching and mentoring for 16 - to 24-year-olds , many from disadvantaged backgrounds , to become qualified , inspirational coaches .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Greenhouse_Schools_Project", "rank": 22, "score": 89602 }, { "content": "Title: Ferguson reflex Content: The Ferguson reflex is the name given to the neuroendocrine reflex comprising the self-sustaining cycle of uterine contractions initiated by pressure at the cervix or vaginal walls . It is an example of positive feedback in biology . The Ferguson reflex occurs in mammals .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Ferguson_reflex", "rank": 23, "score": 89345 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect (United States Supreme Court) Content: The Greenhouse Effect is a theory of Supreme Court justices ' behavior , first proposed by Hoover Institution economist Thomas Sowell and popularized by D.C. Court of Appeals Senior Judge Laurence Silberman in a speech to The Federalist Society in 1992 . Here , the word `` Greenhouse '' refers to Linda Greenhouse , a Pulitzer Prize winning reporter who covered the Supreme Court for the New York Times for 40 years . Silberman used the term to postulate a tendency of conservative Supreme Court Justices to vote with the liberals more often as their careers progress due to a desire for favorable press coverage . He said `` It seems that the primary objective of The Times 's legal reporters is to put activist heat on recently appointed Supreme Court justices . '' The existence of the Greenhouse Effect has been challenged by some commentators , who note it presumes a `` vast , hegemonic liberal control over the media and academia '' and question whether professional decision makers who have `` come to their views despite years of elite education and exposure to elite opinion '' are really so malleable . However , the evidence below suggests that conservative justices become liberal more often than liberals become conservative . Further , the existence of a more general version of the Greenhouse Effect , one not restricted to the media but rather `` elites '' in general or legal elites , is less controversial . Though this does not show causation , 75 % of law professors who began their careers after 1986 identify as liberal , while only 10 % identify as conservative . Evidence suggests more `` elite '' journalists identify as liberal than conservative .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect_(United_States_Supreme_Court)", "rank": 24, "score": 88188 }, { "content": "Title: Facial feedback hypothesis Content: The facial feedback hypothesis states that facial movement can influence emotional experience . For example , an individual who is forced to smile during a social event will actually come to find the event more of an enjoyable experience .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Facial_feedback_hypothesis", "rank": 25, "score": 87768 }, { "content": "Title: The Greenhouse (TV series) Content: The Greenhouse ( in Hebrew : '' החממה '' ; HaKhamama ) is a television series by Giora Chamizer . The series was created and aired in Israel in 2012 and was sold to Nickelodeon UK in 2013 . The series is about a school for gifted in the sea of Galilee in Israel . The school has two clubs : The Eagles and the Ravens , with the Ravens as the smarter house and the Eagles as the more athletic house . The students learn how to be leaders that will save the world . An American adaptation will premiere on Netflix in 2017 .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "The_Greenhouse_(TV_series)", "rank": 26, "score": 86563 }, { "content": "Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Anti-greenhouse_effect", "rank": 27, "score": 86463 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 28, "score": 86296 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 29, "score": 86170 }, { "content": "Title: Miller effect Content: In electronics , the Miller effect accounts for the increase in the equivalent input capacitance of an inverting voltage amplifier due to amplification of the effect of capacitance between the input and output terminals . The virtually increased input capacitance due to the Miller effect is given by where is the gain of the amplifier and C is the feedback capacitance . Although the term Miller effect normally refers to capacitance , any impedance connected between the input and another node exhibiting gain can modify the amplifier input impedance via this effect . These properties of the Miller effect are generalized in the Miller theorem . The Miller capacitance due to parasitic capacitance between the output and input of active devices like transistors and vacuum tubes is a major factor limiting their gain at high frequencies . Miller capacitance was identified in 1920 in triode vacuum tubes by John Milton Miller .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Miller_effect", "rank": 30, "score": 85688 }, { "content": "Title: Feedback Content: Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop . The system can then be said to feed back into itself . The notion of cause-and-effect has to be handled carefully when applied to feedback systems : `` Simple causal reasoning about a feedback system is difficult because the first system influences the second and second system influences the first , leading to a circular argument . This makes reasoning based upon cause and effect tricky , and it is necessary to analyze the system as a whole . ''", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Feedback", "rank": 31, "score": 85563 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 32, "score": 84985 }, { "content": "Title: Nanophotonic resonator Content: A nanophotonic resonator or nanocavity is an optical cavity which is on the order of tens to hundreds of nanometers in size . Optical cavities are a major component of all lasers , they are responsible for providing amplification of a light source via positive feedback , a process known as amplified spontaneous emission or ASE . Nanophotonic resonators offer inherently higher light energy confinement than ordinary cavities , which means stronger light-material interactions , and therefore lower lasing threshold provided the quality factor of the resonator is high . Nanophotonic resonators can be made with photonic crystals , silicon , diamond , or metals such as gold . For a laser in a nanocavity , spontaneous emission ( SE ) from the gain medium is enhanced by the Purcell effect , equal to the quality factor or Q-factor of the cavity divided by the effective mode field volume , F = Q/Vmode . Therefore , reducing the volume of an optical cavity can dramatically increase this factor , which can have the effect of decreasing the input power threshold for lasing . This also means that the response time of spontaneous emission from a gain medium in a nanocavity also decreases , the result being that the laser may reach lasing steady state picoseconds after it starts being pumped . A laser formed in a nanocavity therefore may be modulated via its pump source at very high speeds . Spontaneous emission rate increases of over 70 times modern semiconductor laser devices have been demonstrated , with theoretical laser modulation speeds exceeding 100 GHz , an order of magnitude higher than modern semiconductor lasers , and higher than most digital oscilloscopes . Nanophotonic resonators have also been applied to create nanoscale filters and photonic chips", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Nanophotonic_resonator", "rank": 33, "score": 84950 }, { "content": "Title: Goodwin model (biology) Content: In biology , the Goodwin model describes negative feedback oscillators in cellular systems , for example , circadian rhythms or enzymatic regulation ( such as lactose in bacteria ) . The Goodwin model , though , shows no stable limit cycles . limit cycles can exist , see references", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Goodwin_model_(biology)", "rank": 34, "score": 84484 }, { "content": "Title: Corrective feedback Content: Corrective feedback is a frequent practice in the field of education and in learning generally . It typically involves a student receiving either formal or informal feedback on his or her performance on various tasks by a teacher or peer ( s ) . However , learning that takes place outside of the realm of institutional schooling can also rely heavily on corrective feedback .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Corrective_feedback", "rank": 35, "score": 83359 }, { "content": "Title: Downregulation and upregulation Content: In the biological context of organisms ' production of gene products , downregulation is the process by which a cell decreases the quantity of a cellular component , such as RNA or protein , in response to an external stimulus . The complementary process that involves increases of such components is called upregulation . An example of downregulation is the cellular decrease in the number of receptors to a molecule , such as a hormone or neurotransmitter , which reduces the cell 's sensitivity to the molecule . This is an example of a locally acting negative feedback mechanism . An example of upregulation is the response of liver cells exposed to such xenobiotic molecules as dioxin . In this situation , the cells increase their production of cytochrome P450 enzymes , which in turn increases their degradation of these molecules .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Downregulation_and_upregulation", "rank": 36, "score": 82925 }, { "content": "Title: Temporal feedback Content: Temporal feedback , also referred to as interlinked or interlocked feedback , is a biological regulatory motif in which fast and slow positive feedback loops are interlinked to create `` all or none '' switches . This interlinking produces separate , adjustable activation and de-activation times . This type of feedback is thought to be important in cellular processes in which an `` all or none '' decision is a necessary response to a specific input . The mitotic trigger , polarization in budding yeast , mammalian calcium signal transduction , EGF receptor signaling , platelet activation , and Xenopus oocyte maturation are examples for interlinked fast and slow multiple positive feedback systems . In biological systems , temporal feedback is a ubiquitous signal transduction motif that allows systems to convert graded inputs into decisive , all-or-none digital outputs . A system with interlinked fast and slow feedback loops produces a dual-time switch , which is rapidly inducible and robust to noise during stimulus . In contrast , a single fast or slow loop is separately responsible for the speed of switching and the stability of switches . Computer simulation studies have shown that linking two loops of the same kind brings no overall advantage over having a single loop , however the dual-loop switch performs in a monostable regime . Both single and dual loops can behave as a bistable switch . Several computational models have been produced to demonstrate the responses of single and dual positive feedback loop switches to stimuli .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Temporal_feedback", "rank": 37, "score": 82240 }, { "content": "Title: Harold Stephen Black Content: Harold Stephen Black ( April 14 , 1898 -- December 11 , 1983 ) was an American electrical engineer , who revolutionized the field of applied electronics by inventing the negative feedback amplifier in 1927 . To some , his invention is considered the most important breakthrough of the twentieth century in the field of electronics , since it has a wide area of application . This is because all electronic devices ( vacuum tubes , bipolar transistors and MOS transistors ) are inherently nonlinear , but they can be made substantially linear with the application of negative feedback . Negative feedback works by sacrificing gain for higher linearity ( or in other words , smaller distortion/intermodulation ) . By sacrificing gain , it also has an additional effect of increasing the bandwidth of the amplifier . However , a negative feedback amplifier can be unstable such that it may oscillate . Once the stability problem is solved , the negative feedback amplifier is extremely useful in the field of electronics . Black published a famous paper , Stabilized feedback amplifiers , in 1934 .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Harold_Stephen_Black", "rank": 38, "score": 82029 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)", "rank": 39, "score": 80661 }, { "content": "Title: Small-gain theorem Content: In nonlinear systems , the formalism of input-output stability is an important tool in studying the stability of interconnected systems since the gain of a system directly relates to how the norm of a signal increases or decreases as it passes through the system . The small-gain theorem gives a sufficient condition for finite-gain stability of the feedback connection . The small gain theorem was proved by George Zames in 1966 . It can be seen as a generalization of the Nyquist criterion to non-linear time varying MIMO systems ( systems with multiple inputs and multiple outputs ) . Theorem . Assume two stable systems and are connected in a feedback loop , then the closed loop system is input-output stable if . ( The norm can be the infinity norm , that is the size of the largest singular value of the transfer function over all frequencies . Also any induced Norm will lead to the same results ) .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Small-gain_theorem", "rank": 40, "score": 80525 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 41, "score": 80429 }, { "content": "Title: Efek Rumah Kaca Content: Efek Rumah Kaca ( Greenhouse Effect ) is an Indonesian indie rock band , formed in 2001 . The band consists of Cholil Mahmud ( lead vocal , guitar ) , Adrian Yunan Faisal ( back vocals , bass , guitar ) , Airil `` Poppie '' Nur Abadiansyah ( back vocals , bass ) dan Akbar Bagus Sudibyo ( drum , back vocals ) . They are known for their satirical and thought-provoking lyrics -- usually concerning politics or everyday society . They have released three albums , Efek Rumah Kaca ( 2007 ) , Kamar Gelap ( 2008 ) , and Sinestesia ( 2015 ) .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Efek_Rumah_Kaca", "rank": 42, "score": 80339 }, { "content": "Title: Co-benefits of climate change mitigation Content: Co-benefits of climate change mitigation as defined in the 4th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change are the positive benefits related to the reduction of greenhouse gases . Examples of such climate mitigation policies include improved energy efficiency of plants , renewable energy uptake and fuel switching which might enable a range of co-benefits such as air-pollution impacts , technological innovation , energy-supply security through increased energy diversity , reduced fuel cost and employment possibilities .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation", "rank": 43, "score": 80301 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse (music group) Content: Greenhouse is an American hip hop group from Columbus , Ohio . Originally formed as Greenhouse Effect by Blueprint , Inkwel , and Manifest , it consists of Blueprint and Illogic .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Greenhouse_(music_group)", "rank": 44, "score": 80032 }, { "content": "Title: Chain reaction Content: A chain reaction is a sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions to take place . In a chain reaction , positive feedback leads to a self-amplifying chain of events . Chain reactions are one way in which systems which are in thermodynamic non-equilibrium can release energy or increase entropy in order to reach a state of higher entropy . For example , a system may not be able to reach a lower energy state by releasing energy into the environment , because it is hindered or prevented in some way from taking the path that will result in the energy release . If a reaction results in a small energy release making way for more energy releases in an expanding chain , then the system will typically collapse explosively until much or all of the stored energy has been released . A macroscopic metaphor for chain reactions is thus a snowball causing a larger snowball until finally an avalanche results ( `` snowball effect '' ) . This is a result of stored gravitational potential energy seeking a path of release over friction . Chemically , the equivalent to a snow avalanche is a spark causing a forest fire . In nuclear physics , a single stray neutron can result in a prompt critical event , which may finally be energetic enough for a nuclear reactor meltdown or ( in a bomb ) a nuclear explosion .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Chain_reaction", "rank": 45, "score": 80031 }, { "content": "Title: Delayed Auditory Feedback Content: Delayed Auditory Feedback ( DAF ) , also called delayed sidetone , is a type of altered auditory feedback that consists of extending the time between speech and auditory perception . It can consist of a device that enables a user to speak into a microphone and then hear his or her voice in headphones a fraction of a second later . Some DAF devices are hardware ; DAF computer software is also available . Most delays that produce a noticeable effect are between 50-200ms . DAF usage ( with a 175 millisecond delay ) has been shown to induce mental stress . It is a type of altered auditory feedback that -- along with frequency-altered feedback and white noise masking -- is used to treat stuttering ; it has also has demonstrated interesting discoveries about the auditory feedback system when used with non-stuttering individuals . It is most effective when used in both ears . Delayed auditory feedback devices are used in speech perception experiments in order to demonstrate the importance of auditory feedback in speech perception as well as in speech production . Delayed auditory feedback has been used with a directional microphone and speaker to create a device intended to silence an individual speaker using the mental stress induced in people not used to the effect . There are now also different mobile apps available that use DAF in phone calls .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Delayed_Auditory_Feedback", "rank": 46, "score": 79846 }, { "content": "Title: Ecological effects of biodiversity Content: The diversity of species and genes in ecological communities affects the functioning of these communities . These ecological effects of biodiversity in turn are affected by both climate change through enhanced greenhouse gases , aerosols and loss of land cover , and biological diversity , causing a rapid loss of ecosystems and extinctions of species and local populations . The current rate of extinction is sometimes considered a mass extinction , with current species extinction rates on the order of 100 to 1000 times as high as in the past . The two main areas where the effect of biodiversity on ecosystem function have been studied are the relationship between diversity and productivity , and the relationship between diversity and community stability . More biologically diverse communities appear to be more productive ( in terms of biomass production ) than are less diverse communities , and they appear to be more stable in the face of perturbations . Also animals that inhabit an area may alter the surviving conditions by factors assimilated by climate .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity", "rank": 47, "score": 79416 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Software Content: Greenhouse Software ( commonly known as Greenhouse ) is an American technology company headquartered in New York City that provides a recruiting software as a service . It was founded in 2012 by Daniel Chait and Jon Stross . The company raised $ 2.7 million in a seed round in November 2013 , $ 7.5 million in its Series A round in August 2014 , $ 13.6 million in its Series B round in March 2015 , and $ 35 million in its Series C round in August 2015 . Research firm CB Insights , in a study commissioned by The New York Times , listed Greenhouse among fifty startups predicted to become unicorns , companies with at least a $ 1 billion valuation .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Greenhouse_Software", "rank": 48, "score": 79300 }, { "content": "Title: Phelps Architecture, Construction and Engineering High School Content: Phelps Architecture , Construction and Engineering High School , or Phelps A.C.E. High School , is a public high school located in the northeast quadrant of the District of Columbia , United States . The school is often considered to be a prime example of the school investment program currently occurring in DC . Having fallen victim to time and neglect the school was rebuilt by an award winning Architect from several smaller buildings into its current form . Along with Architecture , construction and Engineering other courses are also taught there , including vehicle maintenance/repair and operation of large vehicles such as Cranes and Diggers on state of the art simulators . The school also has a small Greenhouse where plants can be tended by the students . The buildings are powered by a variety of renewable energy sources ( indicated by the colour-coded pipes inside , each colour denoting a different system ) . The students , as part of their course work , are trusted to montior and maintain parts of this system .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Phelps_Architecture,_Construction_and_Engineering_High_School", "rank": 49, "score": 78455 }, { "content": "Title: Robert D. Cess Content: Robert D. Cess is professor emeritus of atmospheric sciences at Stony Brook University . He earned his bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from Oregon State University and his master 's degree from Purdue University in Indiana in 1956 . Cess received a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in 1959 . He is a recognized leader in the fields of climate change and atmospheric radiation transfer . His research interest involve modeling of climate feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish global climate change , and interpreting surface and satellite remote sensing data . He has been a part of studies which have found problems with the ability of model the transmission of shortwave radiation through a cloud-free atmosphere , and designed an experiment to test the accuracy of the models . They reported that they found agreement between the models and the observations of clear-sky shortwave radiation at the surface for the period studied , 1985 to 1988 . Cess was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and worked with the National Science Foundation on understanding greenhouse warming and its associated policy implications .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Robert_D._Cess", "rank": 50, "score": 78433 }, { "content": "Title: Epistemic feedback Content: The term `` epistemic feedback '' is a form of feedback which refers to an interplay between what is being observed ( or measured ) and the result of the observation . The concept can apply to a process to obtain information , where the process , itself , changes the information when being obtained . For example , instead of quietly asking customers for their opinions about food in a restaurant , making an announcement about food quality , as being tested in a survey , could cause cooks to focus on having high-quality results . The concept can also apply to changing the method of observation , rather than affecting the data . For example , if after asking several customers about food , they noted the food as generally good or fair , then the questions might be changed to ask , more specifically , which food items were most/least liked . Hence , the interplay can alter either the observations , or the method of observation , or both .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Epistemic_feedback", "rank": 51, "score": 78186 }, { "content": "Title: Baroreflex Content: The baroreflex or baroreceptor reflex is one of the body 's homeostatic mechanisms that helps to maintain blood pressure at nearly constant levels . The baroreflex provides a rapid negative feedback loop in which an elevated blood pressure reflexively causes the heart rate to decrease and also causes blood pressure to decrease . Decreased blood pressure decreases baroreflex activation and causes heart rate to increase and to restore blood pressure levels . The baroreflex can begin to act in less than the duration of a cardiac cycle ( fractions of a second ) and thus baroreflex adjustments are key factors in dealing with postural hypotension , the tendency for blood pressure to decrease on standing due to gravity . The system relies on specialized neurons , known as baroreceptors , in the aortic arch , carotid sinuses , and elsewhere to monitor changes in blood pressure and relay them to the Medulla . Baroreceptors are stretch receptors and respond to the pressure induced stretching of the blood vessel in which they are found . Baroreflex induced changes in blood pressure are mediated by both branches of the autonomic nervous system -- that is the parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves . Baroreceptors are active even at normal blood pressures so that their activity informs the brain about both increases and decreases in blood pressure . The body contains two other , slower acting systems to regulate blood pressure : the heart releases atrial natriuretic peptide when blood pressure is too high , and the kidneys sense and correct low blood pressure with the renin-angiotensin system .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Baroreflex", "rank": 52, "score": 78000 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 53, "score": 77849 }, { "content": "Title: Virtuous circle and vicious circle Content: The terms virtuous circle and vicious circle ( also referred to as virtuous cycle and vicious cycle ) refer to complex chains of events which reinforce themselves through a feedback loop . A virtuous circle has favorable results , while a vicious circle has detrimental results . Both circles are complexes of events with no tendency towards equilibrium ( social , economic , ecological , etc. ) - at least in the short run . Both systems of events have feedback loops in which each iteration of the cycle reinforces the previous one ( positive feedback ) . These cycles will continue in the direction of their momentum until an external factor intervenes and breaks the cycle . A well-known example of a vicious circle in economics is hyperinflation .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Virtuous_circle_and_vicious_circle", "rank": 54, "score": 77559 }, { "content": "Title: Presence (amplification) Content: In an amplifier , a presence control boosts the upper mid-range frequencies to make the sounds of voices and instruments with similar tonal ranges seem more `` present '' . On television production studio 's sound desk , there can be several presence controls , for several different , switchable , frequencies . There is a limit to the flexibility of such controls , and they are sometimes insufficient . If the degree of mis-match between microphones is great , simply increasing presence is not enough , and instead a sound engineer will use a graphic equalizer , sometimes several , each connected to an individual sound channel . Presence controls can also be found on electric guitar amplifiers . The first presence control on a Fender amplifier , for example , appeared in 1954 on the Twin . In 1955 it appeared on the 1/15 Pro-Amp , the 3/10 Bandmaster , the 2/10 Super , and the 4/10 Bassman . The original Fender presence control acted upon the amplifier 's negative-feedback loop . As the level of `` presence '' was increased , so more and more of the higher frequencies in the negative-feedback loop were dumped to ground , leaving the low and mid-range frequencies . Increasing the presence resulted in there being less and less negative feedback on high frequencies . The effect varied according to amplitude . Later Fender amplifiers used a different presence control . The presence control on the 1975 Fender Super Twin did not modify the negative feedback loop , but was an active equalization circuit , controlling the 3.9 kHz frequency range . It had the ability to both amplify ( boost ) and attenuate ( cut ) , unlike the earlier presence control . In a 3-way loudspeaker system , with tweeter , woofer , and mid-range speaker , a presence control is simply a volume control for the mid-range speaker .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Presence_(amplification)", "rank": 55, "score": 77220 }, { "content": "Title: Depletion and enhancement modes Content: In field-effect transistors ( FETs ) , depletion mode and enhancement mode are two major transistor types , corresponding to whether the transistor is in an ON state or an OFF state at zero gate -- source voltage . Enhancement-mode MOSFETs are the common switching elements in most MOS . These devices are off at zero gate -- source voltage , and can be turned on by pulling the gate voltage either higher than the source voltage , for NMOS , or lower than the source voltage , for PMOS . In most circuits , this means pulling an enhancement-mode MOSFET 's gate voltage towards its drain voltage turns it ON . In a depletion-mode MOSFET , the device is normally ON at zero gate -- source voltage . Such devices are used as load `` resistors '' in logic circuits ( in depletion-load NMOS logic , for example ) . For N-type depletion-load devices , the threshold voltage might be about -- 3 V , so it could be turned off by pulling the gate 3 V negative ( the drain , by comparison , is more positive than the source in NMOS ) . In PMOS , the polarities are reversed . The mode can be determined by the sign of the threshold voltage ( gate voltage relative to source voltage at the point where an inversion layer just forms in the channel ) : for an N-type FET , enhancement-mode devices have positive thresholds , and depletion-mode devices have negative thresholds ; for a P-type FET , enhancement-mode negative , depletion-mode positive . Junction field-effect transistors ( JFETs ) are depletion mode , since the gate junction would forward bias if the gate were taken more than a little from source toward drain voltage . Such devices are used in gallium-arsenide and germanium chips , where it is difficult to make an oxide insulator .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Depletion_and_enhancement_modes", "rank": 56, "score": 77169 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 57, "score": 77029 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of the car on societies Content: Since the 20th century , the role of the car has become highly important though controversial . It is used throughout the world and has become the most popular mode of transport in the more developed countries . In developing countries , the effects of the car on society are not as visible , however they are significant . The development of the car built upon the transport sector first started by railways . This has introduced sweeping changes in employment patterns , social interactions , infrastructure and the distribution of goods . Nonetheless the positive effects on access to remote places and mobility comfort provided by the automobile , the negative effects of the car on everyday life have been a subject of debate . Although the introduction of the mass-produced car represented a revolution in mobility and convenience , creating job demand and tax revenue , the high motorisation rates also brought severe consequences to the society and to the environment . The modern negative consequences of heavy automotive use include the use of non-renewable fuels , a dramatic increase in the rate of accidental death , the disconnection of local community , the rise in obesity and cardiovascular diseases , the emission of air and noise pollution , the emission of greenhouse gases , generation of urban sprawl and traffic , segregation of pedestrians and other active mobility means of transport , decrease in the railway network , urban decay and the high cost per unit-distance on which the car paradigm is based .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Effects_of_the_car_on_societies", "rank": 58, "score": 76794 }, { "content": "Title: Key feedback mode Content: In cryptography key feedback mode ( KFB ) is a mode of operation for cryptographic block ciphers . It uses the block cipher output block to form the block cipher key of the next round , thereby creating a keystream generator that can be used as a synchronous stream cipher .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Key_feedback_mode", "rank": 59, "score": 76320 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Item Content: Greenhouse Item was an American nuclear test conducted on May 25 , 1951 , as part of Operation Greenhouse at the Pacific Proving Ground , specifically on the island of Engebi in the Eniwetok Atoll in the Central Pacific Ocean . This test explosion was the first test of a boosted fission weapon . In this test deuterium-tritium ( D-T ) gas was injected into the enriched uranium core of a nuclear fission bomb . The extreme heat of the fissioning bomb produced thermonuclear fusion reactions within the D-T gas , but not enough of them to be considered a full nuclear fusion bomb . This fusion reaction released a large number of free neutrons , which greatly increased the efficiency of the nuclear fission reaction . The explosive yield of this bomb was 45.5 kilotons , about twice the yield of the unboosted bomb . This bomb was known as the `` Booster '' in its development stages , a name for the mechanism coined by Edward Teller in September 1947 . Planning for it had begun in the late 1940s . According to the researcher Chuck Hansen , it was mentioned in official U.S. Atomic Energy Commission documents as early as 1947 . The main problems in development were making modifications to the fission core in order to accept the gas correctly without reducing its own efficiency . The 1951 test was primarily to test the nuclear principles involved , and to gain research data , and it was not considered a design for a weaponizable device . Even as late as 1954 , no boosted weapon had entered into the nuclear-weapons stockpile , and the only use for the Greenhouse Item nuclear test had been for its research results . The `` Booster '' device was detonated at 6:17 am on May 25 , 1951 from a 200 ft on the island of Engebi in the Enewetok Atoll , and its fusion fuel was injected by means of a cryogenic pump at the base of the tower .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Greenhouse_Item", "rank": 60, "score": 76170 }, { "content": "Title: Wind-induced surface heat exchange Content: The wind-induced surface heat exchange ( WISHE ) is a positive feedback mechanism between the ocean and atmosphere in which a stronger ocean-to-atmosphere heat flux results in a stronger atmospheric circulation , which results in a strong heat flux . It has been hypothesized that this is the mechanism by which low pressure areas in the tropics develop into tropical cyclones .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Wind-induced_surface_heat_exchange", "rank": 61, "score": 75944 }, { "content": "Title: Schottky effect Content: The Schottky effect or field enhanced thermionic emission is a phenomenon in condensed matter physics named after Walter H. Schottky . In electron emission devices , especially electron guns , the thermionic electron emitter will be biased negative relative to its surroundings . This creates an electric field of magnitude F at the emitter surface . Without the field , the surface barrier seen by an escaping Fermi-level electron has height W equal to the local work-function . The electric field lowers the surface barrier by an amount ΔW , and increases the emission current . It can be modeled by a simple modification of the Richardson equation , by replacing W by ( W − ΔW ) . This gives the equation where J is the emission Current density , T is the temperature of the metal , W is the work function of the metal , k is the Boltzmann constant , ε0 is the vacuum permittivity , and AG is the product of a universal constant A0 multiplied by a material-specific correction factor λR which is typically of order 0.5 . Electron emission that takes place in the field-and-temperature-regime where this modified equation applies is often called Schottky emission . This equation is relatively accurate for electric field strengths lower than about 108 V m − 1 . For electric field strengths higher than 108 V m − 1 , so-called Fowler-Nordheim ( FN ) tunneling begins to contribute significant emission current . In this regime , the combined effects of field-enhanced thermionic and field emission can be modeled by the Murphy-Good equation for thermo-field ( T-F ) emission . At even higher fields , FN tunneling becomes the dominant electron emission mechanism , and the emitter operates in the so-called `` cold field electron emission ( CFE ) '' regime . Thermionic emission can also be enhanced by interaction with other forms of excitation such as light . For example , excited Cs-vapours in thermionic converters form clusters of Cs-Rydberg matter which yield a decrease of collector emitting work function from 1.5 eV to 1.0 -- 0.7 eV . Due to long-lived nature of Rydberg matter this low work function remains low which essentially increases the low-temperature converter 's efficiency .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Schottky_effect", "rank": 62, "score": 75865 }, { "content": "Title: Attributional ambiguity Content: Attributional ambiguity is a psychological attribution concept describing the difficulty that members of stigmatized or negatively stereotyped groups may have in interpreting feedback . According to this concept , a person who perceives him - or herself as stigmatized can attribute negative feedback to prejudice . This can lead stigmatized group members to feel uncertainty about whether negative outcomes are due to discrimination against them or their own behavior . In comparison , they might discredit positive feedback as a form of sympathy rather than seeing it as the result of their ability and achievement . The term was coined by Jennifer Crocker , Brenda Major and their colleagues .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Attributional_ambiguity", "rank": 63, "score": 75645 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal runaway Content: Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature , often leading to a destructive result . It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback . In other words , `` thermal runaway '' describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature , in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature . In chemistry ( and chemical engineering ) , it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise . In electrical engineering , thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation , although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too . Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering , notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled -LCB- Citation needed -RCB- . In astrophysics , runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions , and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars , the `` helium flash '' . There are also concerns regarding global warming that a global average increase of 3 -- 4 degrees Celsius above the preindustrial baseline could lead to a further unchecked increase in surface temperatures . For example , releases of methane , a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2 , from wetlands , melting permafrost and continental margin seabed clathrate deposits could be subject to positive feedback .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Thermal_runaway", "rank": 64, "score": 75602 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse (car) Content: The greenhouse ( or glasshouse ) of a car comprises the windshield , rear and side windows , the pillars separating them ( designated A-pillar , B-pillar and so on , starting from the car 's front ) , and the car 's roof . The shape and position of the greenhouse have a defining influence on the looks of the car and are a prime factor in differentiating between body styles such as saloon/sedan , coupé , estate/wagon and hatchback . In the 2000s and 2010s , greenhouses have become narrower because of design trends and crash regulations . Some manufacturers incorporate trademark design features in the greenhouse that are present across several model series , one example being the BMW Hofmeister kink .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Greenhouse_(car)", "rank": 65, "score": 75592 }, { "content": "Title: CLAW hypothesis Content: The CLAW hypothesis proposes a negative feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth 's climate . The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing , and that these responses act to stabilise the temperature of the Earth 's atmosphere . The CLAW hypothesis was originally proposed by Robert Jay Charlson , James Lovelock , Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren , and takes its acronym from the first letter of their surnames .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "CLAW_hypothesis", "rank": 66, "score": 75336 }, { "content": "Title: Agracetus Content: The Agracetus Campus of Monsanto Company is the world 's largest soybean transformation laboratory . It has over 21,700 employees worldwide , and an annual revenue of USD$ 11.365 billion reported for 2008 . The first successful genetically engineered crop ever produced for the commercial market was the Roundup Ready soybean , produced at Agracetus in 1991 , and was one of fourteen successful transformation events . Scientists there used gold bead gene transfer technology coupled with the β-Glucuronidase reporter gene to produce the plant . The actual gun that shot the gold beads and produced the genetic modifications is now owned by the Smithsonian museum in Washington , DC . Every Roundup Ready soybean in the world has a relative which was genetically transformed at Agracetus . 80 % of the world 's soybeans are Roundup Ready . Agracetus was founded in 1981 as Cetus Corporation . Acquired by Monsanto in 1996 , the research and development facility is located 8 miles ( 13 km ) west of Madison in the city of Middleton , Wisconsin on 4.5 acre . The site has 100000 sqft of research space , 35000 sqft of greenhouse space , about 75 employees , and ten laboratories . Output of genetically modified soy plants is many thousands of transformation events per year . Genetically modified cotton and genetically modified rice is also an important effort at Agracetus .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Agracetus", "rank": 67, "score": 75266 }, { "content": "Title: Additive increase/multiplicative decrease Content: The additive-increase/multiplicative-decrease ( AIMD ) algorithm is a feedback control algorithm best known for its use in TCP congestion control . AIMD combines linear growth of the congestion window with an exponential reduction when a congestion takes place . Multiple flows using AIMD congestion control will eventually converge to use equal amounts of a contended link . The related schemes of multiplicative-increase/multiplicative-decrease ( MIMD ) and additive-increase/additive-decrease ( AIAD ) do not converge .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Additive_increase/multiplicative_decrease", "rank": 68, "score": 75201 }, { "content": "Title: Home energy monitor Content: A home energy monitor provides feedback on electrical energy use . Devices may also display cost of energy used , and estimates of greenhouse gas emissions . Various studies have shown a reduction in home energy use of 4-15 % through use of home energy display . Electricity use may be measured with an inductive clamp placed around the electric main , via the electric meter ( either through an optical port , or by sensing the meters actions ) , by communicating with a smart meter , or by direct connection to the electrical system . The display portion may be remote from the measurement , communicating with the sensor using a cable , network , power line communications , or using radio . Online displays are also available which allow the user to use an internet connected display to show near real-time consumption . A means to reduce household energy consumption is to provide real-time feedback to homeowners so they can change their energy use . In 2010 , UK based Current Cost announced a partnership with Google PowerMeter , a former online tool that connected to Current Cost devices , enabling users to receive real-time energy information on their customised Google homepage , wherever they were . Real-time data on how much energy is being consumed in the home was sent directly to the Google PowerMeter . The free software tool then visualised the information for users to view on their own iGoogle homepage , a personal web portal which enabled individuals to create and access a wide range of customisable information , web feeds and Google Gadgets . Note Google Power Meter is now defunct . A study using the PowerCost Monitor deployed in 500 Ontario homes by Hydro One showed an average 6.5 % drop in total electricity use when compared with a similarly sized control group . Hydro One subsequently offered free power monitors to 30,000 customers based on the success of the pilot . Blue Line Innovations also indicates 100,000 units in the market today . Another study carried out in the city of Sabadell ( Spain ) in 2009 using the efergy e2 in 29 households during a six-month period came to 11.8 % on a weekly comparison between the first and last weeks of the campaign . On a monthly basis , the savings were 14.3 % . Expected annual CO2 savings for all households is estimated to be 4.1 tonnes ; projected CO2 emissions savings for 2020 are 180.6 tonnes . In January 2009 the government of the state of Queensland , Australia began offering wireless energy monitors as part of its ClimateSmart Home Service program . By August 2009 , almost 100,000 homes had signed up for the service , by August 2010 that number had risen to 200,000 homes . By the end of the program more than 335,000 households across Queensland had received the service with the Elite energy monitoring device supplied by Efergy Technologies . In mid-2013 the government of the state of Victoria , Australia enabled Zigbee-based In-Home Displays to be connected to Victorian Smart Meter", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Home_energy_monitor", "rank": 69, "score": 74910 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 70, "score": 74802 }, { "content": "Title: Mildred Gordon (Ganas) Content: Mildred Gordon ( born 1922 - January 4 , 2015 ) was the founder and Executive Director of the Foundation for Feedback Learning ( FFL ) and co-founder of the Ganas intentional community . She was the Communications Director of ActivistSolutions.org . Category :2015 deaths Category :1922 births", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Mildred_Gordon_(Ganas)", "rank": 71, "score": 74793 }, { "content": "Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Radiative_forcing", "rank": 72, "score": 74568 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse (disambiguation) Content: Greenhouse may refer to : Greenhouse , an indoor covered place where plants are grown and cultivated Greenhouse effect , the effects on a planet when ` greenhouse gases ' cloud the atmosphere Greenhouse and icehouse Earth , periods when the greenhouse effect is dominant or absent Greenhouse effect ( United States Supreme Court ) , postulated effect whereby conservative Supreme Court Justices drift liberal for favorable press Greenhouse debt , the measure to which an entity exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Greenhouse_(disambiguation)", "rank": 73, "score": 74133 }, { "content": "Title: Frequency compensation Content: In electrical engineering , frequency compensation is a technique used in amplifiers , and especially in amplifiers employing negative feedback . It usually has two primary goals : To avoid the unintentional creation of positive feedback , which will cause the amplifier to oscillate , and to control overshoot and ringing in the amplifier 's step response . It is also used extensively to improve the bandwidth of single pole systems .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Frequency_compensation", "rank": 74, "score": 74131 }, { "content": "Title: Feedback (Dark Horse Comics) Content: Feedback is a fictional character , a superhero created and originally portrayed by actor Matthew Atherton on the reality television series Who Wants to Be a Superhero ? . As a result of winning the show , his character was made the subject of a Dark Horse Comics comic book written by Stan Lee . He also made a guest appearance in the Sci-Fi Channel original movie Mega Snake . He also has his own audio series written by and starring Atherton . The first episode of which was produced in collaboration with amateur audio groups Darker Projects and is now a continuing audio series hosted by BrokenSea Audio Productions .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Feedback_(Dark_Horse_Comics)", "rank": 75, "score": 74120 }, { "content": "Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation", "rank": 76, "score": 74063 }, { "content": "Title: Classroom walkthrough Content: Clinical supervision , or the practice of classroom observation and feedback has been one of the most often used tool in evaluating teacher performance , however the extent in which it assists teachers to improve their delivery of instruction is questionable . As a result , the classroom walkthrough , not designed for evaluation , but for the purpose of professional development , has gained increasing popularity . Instructional leadership is critical to the improvement of teaching and learning and plays a significant role with student achievement . In order for schools to respond and adapt , systems must exist that create the capacity to collectively process and apply knowledge about teaching and learning . Learning within a school is fostered when a group can identify a problem , and create a plan to collectively solve it . The walkthrough model , derived from Hewlett-Packard 's supervisory practice of Management By Wandering Around , has been portrayed as an effective and efficient system to collect data regarding instructional practices and provide feedback . Elliot Eisner suggests that in order to be effective , leaders need to spend one third of their time in classrooms , and when principals spend more time in classrooms , teachers report a positive perception of the principal . In order for teacher quality to improve , Sergiovanni states that leadership is the key . School improvement relies heavily on the working relationship between instructional leaders and teachers . The success of the organization is sustained when the leaders serve as teachers for others . The classroom walkthrough model consists of a series of frequent classroom visits where the observer ( s ) are present to look for predetermined evidence of specific practices . The observations last anywhere from two to forty-five minutes , and are intended to support the faculty in the delivery of instruction and curriculum . Carolyn Downey is known for her early work in the development of the classroom walkthrough model , however , there are several models available and some school districts have created their own . The aim of the classroom walkthrough is to provide direct and specific feedback to teachers based on the snapshot observed . The feedback can then be given to an individual , or the observer may provide a report of patterns noted during the walkthroughs . According to the National Staff Development Council , walkthroughs , sometimes referred to as `` learning walks , '' provide the opportunity to : Reinforce attention to instructional practices Gather data about instructional practice and student learning Stimulate collegial conversation about teaching and learning Learn from other participants Deepen understandings and improve practices through continuous feedback", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Classroom_walkthrough", "rank": 77, "score": 73765 }, { "content": "Title: Constant envelope Content: Constant envelope is achieved when a sinusoidal waveform reaches equilibrium in a specific system . This happens when negative feedback in a control system , such as in radio automatic gain control or in an amplifier reaches steady state . Steady state , as defined in electrical engineering , occurs after a system becomes settled . To be more specific , control systems are unstable until they reach a steady state . Constant envelope needs to occur for the system to be stable , where there is the least amount of noise and feedback gain has rendered the system steady . Feedback is used to create a feedback signal to control gain , reduce distortion , control output voltage , improve stability or create instability , as in an oscillator . Some examples of constant envelope modulations are as FSK , GFSK , MSK , GMSK and Feher 's IJF - All constant envelope modulations allow power amplifiers to operate at or near saturation levels . Although , the power spectrum efficiency of a non-constant amplitude envelope is always higher than that of a constant envelope modulation .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Constant_envelope", "rank": 78, "score": 73596 }, { "content": "Title: Eunice Newton Foote Content: Eunice Newton Foote ( July 17 , 1819 , Goshen , Connecticut -- September 30 , 1888 , Lenox , Massachusetts ) was an American scientist , inventor , and women 's rights campaigner from Seneca Falls , New York , who was an early researcher of the greenhouse effect and a signatory of the Declaration of Sentiments .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Eunice_Newton_Foote", "rank": 79, "score": 73495 }, { "content": "Title: Feedback (radio series) Content: Feedback is a BBC Radio 4 series presented by Roger Bolton dealing with listener reaction to the style and content of BBC radio broadcasting .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Feedback_(radio_series)", "rank": 80, "score": 73441 }, { "content": "Title: Peer feedback Content: Peer feedback is a practice in language education where feedback is given by one student to another . Peer feedback is used in writing classes of both first language and second language to provide students more opportunities to learn from each other . After students finish a writing assignment , the instructor has two or more than two students work together to check each other 's work and give comments to the peer partner . Comments from peers are called as peer feedback . Peer feedback can be in the form of corrections , opinions , suggestions , ideas to each other . Thus , peer feedback is a two-way process in which one cooperates with the other .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Peer_feedback", "rank": 81, "score": 73341 }, { "content": "Title: Small number Content: Within a set positive numbers , a number is small if it is close to zero . A number is smaller if it is less than another number . Within a set of positive and negative numbers there is ambiguity , because being closer to zero does not correspond to being less , but to being less in absolute value . Depending on context a negative number may be called `` smaller '' if it is closer to zero , or if it is more negative . This article deals with positive numbers , and is also applicable to negative numbers by taking the absolute value . Small numbers are numbers that are small compared with the numbers used in everyday life . Very small numbers often occur in fields such as chemistry , electronics and quantum physics .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Small_number", "rank": 82, "score": 73310 }, { "content": "Title: Input enhancement Content: Input enhancement ( IE ) is a concept in second language acquisition . Mike Sharwood Smith coined the term to cover techniques used by researchers to make salient selected features of a language for students such as word order , parts of words that express tense , agreement and number for example , accents , idioms and slang . These techniques aim to draw attention to aspects of a language that have hitherto seemed to have made insufficient impact on the learner . This need not necessarily involve making learners consciously aware of the researcher 's or teacher 's intentions . Although IE was conceived of as a research tool , the term can also be used to describe techniques deliberately or instinctively used in language teaching and also in the way parents ( again instinctively ) talk to their children as also the way people alter their speech when talking to non-native speakers who seem to have difficulty in communicating . IE may figure as a deliberate strategy in teaching methods but it has always been present implicitly in standard teaching practice . IE techniques include : Avoiding vowel reduction typical of rapid or casual speech Slowing down the rate of speech Using exaggerated stress and intonation Extensive repetition of words and phrases Less pre-verbal and more post-verbal modification Use of gestures , text enhancement such as boldface Underlining and other attention-catching textural techniques such as boldface , uppercase letters , colour-coding , etc. . IE includes use of traditional techniques to teach grammar and usage . Sharwood Smith distinguishes external input enhancement from internal input enhancement with the former referring primarily to techniques used in the deliberate teaching of a language and the latter employing ordinary events or situations . The term `` input enhancement '' was designed to replace the term ` grammatical consciousness-raising ' ( CR ) because the older term did not allow for enhanced learning that occurs in a natural or accidental setting instead of an academic or purposefully educational setting .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Input_enhancement", "rank": 83, "score": 73096 }, { "content": "Title: Gibbs–Thomson equation Content: The Gibbs -- Thomson effect , in common physics usage , refers to variations in vapor pressure or chemical potential across a curved surface or interface . The existence of a positive interfacial energy will increase the energy required to form small particles with high curvature , and these particles will exhibit an increased vapor pressure . See Ostwald -- Freundlich equation . More specifically , the Gibbs -- Thomson effect refers to the observation that small crystals are in equilibrium with their liquid melt at a lower temperature than large crystals . In cases of confined geometry , such as liquids contained within porous media , this leads to a depression in the freezing point / melting point that is inversely proportional to the pore size , as given by the Gibbs -- Thomson equation .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Gibbs–Thomson_equation", "rank": 84, "score": 73021 }, { "content": "Title: Cytokine storm Content: A cytokine storm , also known as cytokine cascade and hypercytokinemia , is a potentially fatal immune reaction consisting of a positive feedback loop between cytokines and white blood cells , with highly elevated levels of various cytokines .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Cytokine_storm", "rank": 85, "score": 72873 }, { "content": "Title: South Side High School (Rockville Centre, New York) Content: South Side High School is the only public high school in the town of Rockville Centre , New York . South Side serves grades 9 through 12 and boasts a variety of academic , extra-curricular and athletic programs , including the International Baccalaureate ( IB ) Curriculum in junior and senior years . School district boundaries can be found in Rockville Centre and South Hempstead . Once again in 2008 at # 47 , South Side is ranked in the top 100 high schools in the nation by Newsweek 's The Top of the Class : The complete list of the top 1,300 top U.S. high schools . Year after year , South Side has maintained this distinction , at # 44 in 2007 , # 32 in 2006 , # 45 in 2005 and # 65 in 2003 . The primary address for South Side is 140 Shepherd Street , Rockville Centre , New York 11570 . Located further south in Rockville Centre is the `` Greenhouse '' . Established in 1975 , the purpose of this off-site school is to provide a different approach to teaching students with academic or personal troubles as well as different scheduling and academic programs . The main building has two floors . The school is currently being run by John Murphy . As of the 2014-15 school year , the school had an enrollment of 1,092 students and 93.7 classroom teachers ( on an FTE basis ) , for a student -- teacher ratio of 11.6:1 . There were 109 students ( 10.0 % of enrollment ) eligible for free lunch and 28 ( 2.6 % of students ) eligible for reduced-cost lunch .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "South_Side_High_School_(Rockville_Centre,_New_York)", "rank": 86, "score": 72845 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals", "rank": 87, "score": 72792 }, { "content": "Title: Knowledge of results Content: Knowledge of results is a term in the psychology of learning.p619 A psychology dictionary defines it as feedback of information : '' ( a ) to a subject about the correctness of -LSB- their -RSB- responses ; ( b ) a student about success or failure in mastering material , or ( c ) a client in psychotherapy about progress '' . It describes the situation where a subject gets information which helps them to change behaviour in a desirable way , or to gain understanding . There are a number of similar terms in psychology : KCR : this means `` knowledge of correct results '' . This implies that there is always a specific correct result . Operant conditioning and reinforcement : this implies a behaviourist approach using schedules of reinforcement to `` shape behaviour '' . Feedback : this is a more general term , often used for the way systems adjust to preset limits . It is often used in general conversation , with various meanings . Corrective feedback is a version sometimes used in school education . Knowledge of results , or sometimes immediate knowledge of results , can be used for any learning where a student ( or an animal ) gets information after the action . The information is about how satisfactory the action is .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Knowledge_of_results", "rank": 88, "score": 72597 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Scholars Content: Greenhouse Scholars is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) education organization that cultivates leaders who will change low-income families and communities . Greenhouse Scholars uses what they call a Whole Person ( c ) approach , which was developed to help these students get the most out of college , graduate , and are prepared to succeed in their personal and professional lives . The vision of Greenhouse Scholars is to create a community of leaders who will evolve the communities of the world . Its values are leadership , community , relentlessness , and accountability .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Greenhouse_Scholars", "rank": 89, "score": 72537 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 90, "score": 72522 }, { "content": "Title: Integral windup Content: Integral windup , also known as integrator windup or reset windup , refers to the situation in a PID feedback controller where a large change in setpoint occurs ( say a positive change ) and the integral terms accumulates a significant error during the rise ( windup ) , thus overshooting and continuing to increase as this accumulated error is unwound ( offset by errors in the other direction ) . The specific problem is the excess overshooting .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Integral_windup", "rank": 91, "score": 72446 }, { "content": "Title: Low-key feedback Content: In human-computer interaction , low-key feedback is a type of output that takes a background role by being very subtle , sometimes nearly imperceptible . Physical machines often provide rich low-key feedback as a byproduct of their design . In computer software , the low-key feedback usually needs to be designed in . The benefit of low-key feedback is that it can provide always available indication without cluttering the user interface with explicit indicators such as text labels or indicator lights . The downside of low-key feedback is that it can be too subtle to some users and it often can not be self-describing to beginners . For example , a person driving an automobile has several means of being informed about the operation of the engine . In addition to the dashboard lights , the driver also perceives the sound and vibration of the engine . An abnormal sound or vibration alerts the driver that there may be a problem , while a typical sound or vibration assures the driver that everything is going as normal . Making the automobile completely silent might negatively impact the performance of the driver , as he must expend additional effort to stay informed about the operation of vehicle . Similarly , a computer program that has two modes of operation might employ low-key feedback to keep the user informed about the current mode . If the program had a view mode and an edit mode , background color of the workspace might subtly change from white to pale yellow when switching to edit mode . A web browser application could keep track of the pages the user has visited and alter the colors of links that point to pages the user has already viewed .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Low-key_feedback", "rank": 92, "score": 72225 }, { "content": "Title: Digital feedback reduction Content: Digital feedback reduction is the application of digital techniques to sound reinforcement in order to reduce audio feedback and increase headroom .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Digital_feedback_reduction", "rank": 93, "score": 72190 }, { "content": "Title: Self-serving bias Content: A self-serving bias is any cognitive or perceptual process that is distorted by the need to maintain and enhance self-esteem , or the tendency to perceive oneself in an overly favorable manner . It is the belief that individuals tend to ascribe success to their own abilities and efforts , but ascribe failure to external factors . When individuals reject the validity of negative feedback , focus on their strengths and achievements but overlook their faults and failures , or take more responsibility for their group 's work than they give to other members , they are protecting their ego from threat and injury . These cognitive and perceptual tendencies perpetuate illusions and error , but they also serve the self 's need for esteem . For example , a student who attributes earning a good grade on an exam to their own intelligence and preparation but attributes earning a poor grade to the teacher 's poor teaching ability or unfair test questions is exhibiting the self-serving bias . Studies have shown that similar attributions are made in various situations , such as the workplace , interpersonal relationships , sports , and consumer decisions . Both motivational processes ( i.e. self-enhancement , self-presentation ) and cognitive processes ( i.e. locus of control , self-esteem ) influence the self-serving bias . There are both cross-cultural ( i.e. individualistic and collectivistic culture differences ) and special clinical population ( i.e. depression ) considerations within the bias . Much of the research on the self-serving bias has used participant self-reports of attribution based on experimental manipulation of task outcomes or in naturalistic situations . Some more modern research , however , has shifted focus to physiological manipulations , such as emotional inducement and neural activation , in an attempt to better understand the biological mechanisms that contribute to the self-serving bias .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Self-serving_bias", "rank": 94, "score": 72098 }, { "content": "Title: Oscillation (cell signaling) Content: Oscillations are an important type of cell signaling characterized by the periodic change of the system in time . Oscillations can take place in a biological system in a multitude of ways . Positive feedback loops , on their own or in combination with negative feedback are a common feature of oscillating biological systems .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Oscillation_(cell_signaling)", "rank": 95, "score": 72091 }, { "content": "Title: Feedback (band) Content: Feedback is a Bangladeshi band , formed on 4 October 1976 .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Feedback_(band)", "rank": 96, "score": 72067 }, { "content": "Title: Learning effect (economics) Content: In economics , the learning effect is the process by which education increases productivity and results in higher wages .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Learning_effect_(economics)", "rank": 97, "score": 72058 }, { "content": "Title: Input Enhancement (Computer Science) Content: In computer science , input enhancement is the principle that processing a given input to a problem and altering it in a specific way will increase runtime efficiency or space efficiency , or both . The altered input is usually stored and accessed to simplify the problem . By exploiting the structure and properties of the inputs , input enhancement creates various speed-ups in the efficiency of the algorithm .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Input_Enhancement_(Computer_Science)", "rank": 98, "score": 71896 }, { "content": "Title: Video feedback intervention Content: Video feedback interventions are used in health and social care situations . Typically a `` guider '' helps a client to enhance communication within relationships . The client is guided to analyse and reflect on video clips of their own interactions . Applications include a caregiver and infant ( often used in attachment-based therapy ) , and other education and care home interactions . Video feedback interventions have also been used where concerns have been expressed over possible parental neglect in cases where the focus child is aged 2 -- 12 , and where the child is not the subject of a child protection plan .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "Video_feedback_intervention", "rank": 99, "score": 71411 }, { "content": "Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .", "qid": "3024", "docid": "ECOCITIES_(software)", "rank": 100, "score": 71308 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 1, "score": 171797 }, { "content": "Title: Karoo Ice Age Content: The Karoo Ice Age from 360 -- 260 million years ago ( Mya ) was the second major ice age of the Phanerozoic Eon . It is named after the tillite ( Dwyka Group ) found in the Karoo region of South Africa ( and adjacent areas ) , where evidence for this ice age was first clearly identified in the 19th century . The tectonic assembly of the continents of Euramerica ( later with the Uralian orogeny , into Laurasia ) and Gondwana into Pangaea , in the Hercynian-Alleghany Orogeny , made a major continental land mass within the Antarctic region , and the closure of the Rheic Ocean and Iapetus Ocean saw disruption of warm-water currents in the Panthalassa Ocean and Paleotethys Sea , which led to progressive cooling of summers , and the snowfields accumulating in winters , causing mountainous alpine glaciers to grow , and then spread out of highland areas , making continental glaciers which spread to cover much of Gondwana . At least two major periods of glaciation have been discovered : The first glacial period was associated with the Mississippian subperiod ( 359.2 -- 318.1 Mya ) : ice sheets expanded from a core in southern Africa and South America . The second glacial period was associated with the Pennsylvanian subperiod ( 318.1 -- 299 Mya ) ; ice sheets expanded from a core in Australia and India . The extent of ancient glaciations in Antarctica is not well known , because the present ice sheet hides the evidence .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Karoo_Ice_Age", "rank": 2, "score": 163349 }, { "content": "Title: Permo-Carboniferous Content: The Permo-Carboniferous refers to the time period including the latter parts of the Carboniferous and early part of the Permian period . Permo-Carboniferous rocks are in places not differentiated because of the presence of transitional fossils , and also where no conspicuous stratigraphic break is present . Permo-Carboniferous time , about 300 million years ago , was a period of significant glaciation . The widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments in South America , Africa , Madagascar , Arabia , India , Antarctica and Australia was one of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift , and led ultimately to the concept of a super-continent , Pangaea . Glacial activity spanned virtually the whole of Carboniferous and Early Permian time . Toward the end of the Carboniferous , around 290 million years ago , Gondwana , the southern part of Pangaea , was located near the south pole . Glacial centres expanded across the continents , producing glacial tillites and striations in pre-existing rocks . A complex centre of glaciation migrated across South America , Antarctica and South Africa between about 350 and 240 Ma . Chronological difficulties complicate the task of charting the evolution of the ice sheet over this interval . The Permo-Carboniferous ice sheet was so extensive that it would occupy a circle spanning 50 degrees of latitude centered on the pole .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Permo-Carboniferous", "rank": 3, "score": 161696 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 4, "score": 160262 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 5, "score": 151790 }, { "content": "Title: Gondwana Content: In paleogeography , Gondwana ( -LSB- pronɡɒndˈwɑːnə -RSB- ) , also Gondwanaland , is the name given to an ancient supercontinent . It is believed to have sutured about , joining East Gondwana to West Gondwana . Gondwana formed prior to Pangaea , and later became part of it . Around , Gondwana and Laurasia joined together to form the supercontinent Pangaea , which existed until approximately . Gondwana then separated from Laurasia ( the mid-Mesozoic era ) in the breakup of Pangaea , drifting farther south after the split . Gondwana itself then also broke apart . Gondwana included most of the landmasses in today 's Southern Hemisphere , including Antarctica , South America , Africa , Madagascar , and the Australian continent , as well as the Arabian Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent , which have now moved entirely into the Northern Hemisphere . The continent of Gondwana was named by Austrian scientist Eduard Suess , after the Gondwana region of central northern India which is derived from Sanskrit for `` forest of the Gonds '' . The name had been previously used in a geological context , first by H.B. Medlicott in 1872 , from which the Gondwana sedimentary sequences ( Permian-Triassic ) are also described . The adjective `` Gondwanan '' is in common use in biogeography when referring to patterns of distribution of living organisms , typically when the organisms are restricted to two or more of the now-discontinuous regions that were once part of Gondwana , including the Antarctic flora . For example , the plant family Proteaceae , known only from southern South America , South Africa , Australia , and New Zealand , is considered to have a `` Gondwanan distribution '' . This pattern is often considered to indicate an archaic , or relict , lineage .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Gondwana", "rank": 6, "score": 149647 }, { "content": "Title: South Polar dinosaur Content: The South Polar dinosaurs proliferated during the Early Cretaceous ( 145 -- 100 Ma ) while the continent of Australia was still linked to Antarctica to form East Gondwana , a continent that had rifted from Africa and drifted southward . Much of this southern continent lay inside the Antarctic Circle , and the climate there was unlike any that exists today . This led to fauna and flora that were unique to the time . Much of what is known about the fauna of Polar Australia comes from fossil beds found in Dinosaur Cove and Flat Rocks on the Victorian coast of southeast Australia .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "South_Polar_dinosaur", "rank": 7, "score": 146888 }, { "content": "Title: Huronian glaciation Content: The Huronian glaciation ( or Makganyene glaciation ) was a glaciation that extended from 2.4 billion years ago ( Ga ) to 2.1 Ga , during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods of the Paleoproterozoic era . The Huronian glaciation followed after the Great Oxygenation Event ( GOE ) , a time when increased atmospheric oxygen decreased atmospheric methane . The oxygen combined with the methane to form carbon dioxide and water , which does not retain heat as well as methane does . It is the oldest and longest ice age , occurring at a time when , in a biological sense , only simple , unicellular life existed on Earth . This ice age led to a mass-extinction on Earth .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Huronian_glaciation", "rank": 8, "score": 146654 }, { "content": "Title: Late Ordovician glaciation Content: The Late Ordovician Glaciation is a period at the end of the Ordovician that started at the border between the Katian and Hirnantian about 440-460 Ma ( million years ago ) . The major glaciation during this period is widely considered to be the leading cause of the Ordovician-Silurian extinction event . Evidence of this glaciation can be seen in places such as Morocco , Libya , and Wyoming . More evidence derived from isotopic data is that during the Late Ordovician , Tropical ocean temperatures were about 5 ° C cooler than present day , this would have been a major factor that aided in the glaciation process . The Late Ordovician is the only glacial episode that appears to have coincided with a major mass extinction of nearly 61 % of marine life . Estimates of peak ice sheet volume range from 50 to 250 million cubic kilometers , and its duration from 35 million to less than 1 million years . There were also two peaks of glaciation . Also , glaciation of the Northern Hemisphere was minimal because a large amount of the land was in the southern hemisphere .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Late_Ordovician_glaciation", "rank": 9, "score": 143552 }, { "content": "Title: Karoo-Ferrar Content: Karoo and Ferrar denote a major geologic province consisting of flood basalt , which mostly covers South Africa and Antarctica , although portions extend further into southern Africa and into South America , India , Australia and New Zealand . It formed just prior to the breakup of Gondwana in the Lower Jurassic epoch , about 183 million years ago ; this timing corresponds to the early Toarcian anoxic event and the Pliensbachian-Toarcian extinction . It covered about 3 x 106 km2 ( Cox , 1988 ) . The total original volume of the flow , which extends over a distance in excess of 6000 km ( 4000 km in Antarctica alone ) , was in excess of 2.5 x 106 km ³ ( 2.5 million cubic kilometres ) .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Karoo-Ferrar", "rank": 10, "score": 143053 }, { "content": "Title: Gondwanide orogeny Content: The Gondwanide orogeny was a orogeny active in the Permian that affected parts of Gondwana that are by current geography now located in southern South America , South Africa , Antarctica , Australia and New Guinea . The zone of deformation in Argentina extends as a belt south and west of the cratonic nucleous of Río de la Plata -- Pampia . The deformation of the orogeny is visible in the Sierra de la Ventana mountains in Argentina and the Cape Fold Belt in South Africa . The Gondwanide orogeny might have been linked with the roughly contemporary San Rafael orogeny of western Argentina . The Gondwanide orogeny is the successor to the Neoproterozoic-Paleozoic Terra Australis orogeny in Gondwana . Following the Gondwanide orogeny southwestern Gondwana entered a period of extensional tectonics and crustal thinning leading to formation of various rift basins ( e.g. Cuyo Basin ) in the Triassic .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Gondwanide_orogeny", "rank": 11, "score": 142166 }, { "content": "Title: Gondwana (India) Content: Gondwana is a region of India , named after the Gondi people who live there ( though they can also be found in other parts of India ) . The name of the ancient continent of Gondwanaland was derived from Gondwana , because some of the earliest rock formations of this continent were first investigated in part of the region , in modern Odisha . As Gondi people are spread widely across central India , and are a minority almost everywhere , there is no unambiguous boundary to the region . However , the core region can be considered to be the eastern part of the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra , the parts of Madhya Pradesh immediately to the north of it , and parts of the west of Chhattisgarh . The wider region extends beyond these , also including parts of northern Telangana , western Odisha and southern Uttar Pradesh . The region is part of the northern Deccan plateau , with an average height of about 600 -- 700 metres . Much of it is rugged and hilly . Geologically it is mostly Pre-Cambrian rock , with some areas dated to Permian and Triassic periods . Part of it is overlaid with alluvium , and in the west it is overlaid with the igneous rocks of the Deccan Traps . The climate is hot and semi-arid . The natural vegetation is dry monsoon forest , or monsoon scrub forest . Large parts of it are still forest , and it contains several national parks , including tiger populations . Gondwana has a relatively high proportion of peoples of the `` scheduled tribes '' of India , which include the Gonds . The scheduled tribes are recognised as economically and socially disadvantaged . They form a majority of the population in many districts . Gonds are followers of koyapunem ( nature based religion ) . They are accustomed by their own racial culture based on the nature and according that they are accustomed by the 750 family name as totam ( gotra ) and 33 kotam ( division )", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Gondwana_(India)", "rank": 12, "score": 141195 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 13, "score": 140959 }, { "content": "Title: Karoo Supergroup Content: The Karoo Supergroup is the most widespread stratigraphic unit in Africa south of the Sahara Desert . The supergroup consists of a sequence of units , mostly of nonmarine origin , deposited between the Late Carboniferous and Early Jurassic , a period of about 120 million years . In southern Africa , rocks of the Karoo Supergroup cover almost two thirds of the present land surface , including all of Lesotho , almost the whole of Free State , and large parts of the Eastern Cape , Northern Cape , Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal Provinces of South Africa . Karoo supergroup outcrops are also found in Namibia , Swaziland , Zambia , Zimbabwe and Malawi , as well as on other continents that were part of Gondwana . The basins in which it was deposited formed during the formation and breakup of Pangea . The type area of the Karoo Supergroup is the Great Karoo in South Africa , where the most extensive outcrops of the sequence are exposed . Its strata which consist mostly of shales and sandstones , record an almost continuous sequence of marine glacial to terrestrial deposition from the Late Carboniferous to the Early Jurassic . These accumulated in a retroarc foreland basin called the `` main Karoo '' Basin . This basin was formed by the subduction and orogenesis along the southern border of what eventually became Southern Africa , in southern Gondwana . Its sediments attain a maximum cumulative thickness of 12 km , with the overlying basaltic lavas ( the Drakensberg Group ) at least 1.4 km thick . Fossils include plants ( both macro-fossils and pollen ) , rare insects and fish , common and diverse tetrapods ( mostly therapsid reptiles , temnospondyl amphibians , and in the upper strata dinosaurs ) , and ichnofossils . Their biostratigraphy has been used as the international standard for global correlation of Permian to Jurassic nonmarine strata .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Karoo_Supergroup", "rank": 14, "score": 137278 }, { "content": "Title: Cimmeria (continent) Content: Cimmeria was an ancient continent , or , rather , a string of microcontinents or terranes , that rifted from Gondwana in the Southern Hemisphere and was accreted to Eurasia in the Northern Hemisphere . It consisted of parts of what is today Turkey , Iran , Afghanistan , Tibet , Shan -- Thai , and Malaya . Cimmeria rifted from the Gondwanan shores of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean during the Carboniferous-earliest Permian and as the Neo-Tethys Ocean opened behind it , during the Permian , the Paleo-Tethys closed in front of it . Cimmeria rifted off Gondwana from east to west , from Australia to the eastern Mediterranean . It stretched across several latitudes and spanned a wide range of climatic zones .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Cimmeria_(continent)", "rank": 15, "score": 135972 }, { "content": "Title: Pannotia Content: Pannotia ( from Greek : pan - , `` all '' , νότος , `` south '' ; meaning `` all southern land '' ) , also known as Vendian supercontinent , Greater Gondwana , and the Pan-African supercontinent , was a relatively short-lived Neoproterozoic supercontinent that formed at the end of the Precambrian during the Pan-African orogeny ( 650 -- 500 Ma ) and broke apart 560 Ma with the opening of the Iapetus Ocean . Pannotia formed when Laurentia was located adjacent to the two major South American cratons , Amazonia and Río de la Plata . The opening of the Iapetus Ocean separated Laurentia from Baltica , Amazonia , and Río de la Plata .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Pannotia", "rank": 16, "score": 135827 }, { "content": "Title: Gondwana (disambiguation) Content: Gondwana may refer to : Gondwana , a super continent also known as Gondwanaland Gondwana Game Reserve , a game reserve in the Western Cape of South Africa Gondwana ( India ) , region also known as Gondaranya Gondwana ( band ) , Chilean reggae group Gondwanaland ( Australian band ) , Australian world music band , also known as Gondwanaland Project , Gondwana , and Charlie McMahon and Gondwana Gondwanaland , a 1988 album by the above group Gondwanaland ( album ) , an album by Steroid Maximus Gondwana ( composition ) , musical composition by Tristan Murail Gondwana , a song on live album Pangaea by Miles Davis Gondwana-1 , a submarine communications cable between Australia and New Caledonia Gondwana Choirs , an Australian National Children 's Choir MV Gondwana , a ship that belonged to Greenpeace", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Gondwana_(disambiguation)", "rank": 17, "score": 134439 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 18, "score": 134179 }, { "content": "Title: Madagascar Plate Content: The Madagascar Plate or Madagascar block was once attached to the Gondwana supercontinent and later the Indo-Australian Plate . Rifting in the Somali Basin began at the end of the Carboniferous 300 million years ago , as a part of the Karoo rift system . The initiation of Gondwana breakup , and transform faulting along the Davie Fracture Zone , occurred in the Toarcian ( about 182 million years ago ) following the eruption of the Bouvet ( Karoo ) mantle plume . At this time East Gondwana , comprising the Antarctic , Madagascar , Indian , and Australian plates , began to separate from the African Plate . East Gondwana then began to break apart about 115 -- 120 million years ago when India began to move northward . Between 84 -- 95 million years ago rifting separated Seychelles and India from Madagascar . Since its formation the Madagascar block has moved roughly in conjunction with Africa , and thus there are questions as to whether the Madagascar Plate should be still considered a separate plate .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Madagascar_Plate", "rank": 19, "score": 134129 }, { "content": "Title: Gondwanascorpio emzantsiensis Content: Gondwanascorpio emzantsiensis is an extinct Gondwanan scorpion that lived 360 million years ago in the Devonian . Its fossil remains , clearly showing pincer and sting , were discovered in rocks of the Witteberg Group near Grahamstown in South Africa . At present this scorpion is the oldest known land-dwelling animal from Gondwana , which in Devonian times was separated from Laurasia by a deep ocean . At the time , the fossil site was only 15 ° from the South Pole , but rather than being freezing , the region was probably wooded , providing ample insect life for food . Previously only two scorpion species were known from the late Devonian -- Hubeiscorpio gracilitarsus from China and Petaloscorpio bureaui from Canada . The species was described by Robert Gess of Wits University in the journal African Invertebrates . The specific epithet derives from umZantsi , the isiXhosa word for `` south '' , sometimes used for South Africa . The shale containing the fossil was discovered as far back as 1985 during construction of the N2 bypass outside Grahamstown . The site consists of black carbonaceous shale formed from anaerobic mud deposited in a marine estuary on the Agulhas Sea . A variety of organic remains are found in this setting , including algae , terrestrial plants and fish . Invertebrate remains are of small bivalves , ostracods , clam shrimp , and a eurypterid . Fossil material has been greatly compressed and original tissue replaced by metamorphic mica altered to chlorite during uplift . To prevent rockfalls onto the road from the unstable formation , the steep slopes were cut back again in 1999 and once more in 2007/8 . During these upgrades Gess managed to obtain a large sample of rock blocks with the help of the road construction company , and worked intermittently on exposing their contents . Evidence of early terrestrial animal life had , until this discovery , been found only in northern Pangaea or Laurasia , currently comprising North America and Asia . Some 416 million years ago at the end of the Silurian period and during the Devonian period , primitive insects of Laurasia were being preyed upon by early scorpions and spiders , whose ancestors had also come from aquatic and marine environments . Initial life on Earth was restricted to marine environments and migration onto land at first was confined to plants , which evolved into relatively complex organisms during the Devonian period . This plant colonisation was followed by plant and detritus feeders such as primitive insects and millipedes . With the Carboniferous period , early vertebrates emerged from the water and were feeding on the invertebrates already there . Palaeontologists feel that the presence of this scorpion in Gondwana , in many ways resembling Laurasian taxa , supports the idea of a relatively uniform terrestrial ecosystem by the end of the Devonian . It was characterised by ubiquitous plant genera such as the index fossil Archaeopteris , which has also been collected from Waterloo Farm . Gondwanan and Laurasian marginal marine ecosystems also tended to resemble each other towards the end of the Devonian , possibly caused by a closing of the gap between Laurasia and Gondwana .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Gondwanascorpio_emzantsiensis", "rank": 20, "score": 130046 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Carbon_monoxide", "rank": 21, "score": 126738 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide", "rank": 22, "score": 125939 }, { "content": "Title: Vashon Glaciation Content: The Vashon Glaciation or Vashon Stade was the most recent period of very cold climate in which glaciers existed at elevations at and near sea level in the western part of present-day Washington state . It occurred during a colder than present part of the current ice age . The Vashon Glaciation lasted from about 19,000 - 16,000 BP ( Before Present - present defined as January 1 , 1950 for this scale ) . The Cordilleran Ice Sheet was an ice sheet that covered present-day southern Alaska and parts of western Canada . During the Vashon Glaciation , the Cordilleran Ice Sheet advanced into the Puget Sound region .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Vashon_Glaciation", "rank": 23, "score": 124865 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 24, "score": 124611 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Plate Content: The Antarctic Plate is a tectonic plate containing the continent of Antarctica and extending outward under the surrounding oceans . After breakup from Gondwana ( the southern part of the supercontinent Pangea ) , the Antarctic plate began moving the continent of Antarctica south to its present isolated location causing the continent to develop a much colder climate . The Antarctic Plate is bounded almost entirely by extensional mid-ocean ridge systems . The adjoining plates are the Nazca Plate , the South American Plate , the African Plate , the Indo-Australian Plate , the Pacific Plate , and , across a transform boundary , the Scotia Plate . The Antarctic plate has an area of about 60,900,000 km2 . It is the Earth 's fifth largest plate . The Antarctic plate 's movement is estimated to be at least 1 cm per year towards the Atlantic Ocean .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Antarctic_Plate", "rank": 25, "score": 123811 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 26, "score": 122839 }, { "content": "Title: Pondoland Centre of Plant Endemism Content: The Pondoland Centre of Plant Endemism is situated in the coastal region overlapping the provinces of KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape in South Africa . It is named after Pondoland and falls within the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot . The region consists of grassy plateaus incised by forested ravines and gorges . The main substrate in the area is Natal Group Sandstone , which was formed by sediments laid down about 500 million years ago in a rift underlying the eastern Agulhas Sea in the ancient continent of Gondwana . The region is about 18,800 hectares in extent , and lies along the coastline stretching about 15 kilometres inland with a maximum altitude of about 400 to 500 metres above sea level . The region is essentially a transition zone between sub-tropical and temperate climates .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Pondoland_Centre_of_Plant_Endemism", "rank": 27, "score": 120251 }, { "content": "Title: Gondwana (Murail) Content: Gondwana ( 1980 ) is a defining musical composition of spectral music for large orchestra composed by Tristan Murail using simulated synthesis to create a harmonic interpolation between an orchestrally synthesized chord derived from a simulated bell sound ( inharmonic ) and a chord derived from a trombone sound ( harmonic ) . This process is meant to evoke the shifting of continents and thus the piece is named after the former supercontinent Gondwana . The piece uses interpolation to make a smooth transformation on all musical parameters including spectral profile , envelope , and instrumental attacks . The bell sounds were created through a Frequency Modulation ( FM ) synthesis with a single modulator affecting five carriers to create five different harmonies , these being connected by interpolated chords . The components of the trombone 's frequency spectrum was derived through a Fourier transform . The piece 's long quiet or silent moments are shaped in `` long , seamlessly evolving paragraphs '' evoking the geological processes which created the continent . The first opening slowly transforms a chord before turning to trills . The opening chord is compared to Messiaen . The piece , `` incorporates a substantial passage directly modelled upon , '' Sibelius 's Lemminkäinen in Tuonela from the Four Lemminkäinen Legends op. 22 ( 1896 ) .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Gondwana_(Murail)", "rank": 28, "score": 120098 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 29, "score": 120035 }, { "content": "Title: Gondwanatheria Content: Gondwanatheria is an extinct group of mammals that lived during the Upper Cretaceous through the Miocene in the Southern Hemisphere , including Antarctica ( and possibly much earlier , if Allostaffia is a member of this group ) . They are known only from isolated teeth , a few lower jaws , two partial skulls and one complete cranium . Because of this fragmentary knowledge their placement is not clear .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Gondwanatheria", "rank": 30, "score": 120024 }, { "content": "Title: Lufilian Arc Content: The Lufilian Arc ( or Lufilian Belt ) is part of a system of orogenic belts in southern Africa formed during the Pan-African orogeny , a stage in the formation of the Gondwana supercontinent . It extends across eastern Angola , the Katanga Province of the southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and the northwest of Zambia . The arc is about 800 km long . It has global economic importance owing to its rich deposits of copper and cobalt .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Lufilian_Arc", "rank": 31, "score": 119493 }, { "content": "Title: Andean-Saharan glaciation Content: The Andean-Saharan glaciation occurred during the Paleozoic from 450 Ma to 420 Ma , during the late Ordovician and the Silurian period . According to Eyles and Young , `` A major glacial episode at c. 440 Ma , is recorded in Late Ordovician strata ( predominantly Ashgillian ) in West Africa ( Tamadjert Formation of the Sahara ) , in Morocco ( Tindouf Basin ) and in west-central Saudi Arabia , all areas at polar latitudes at the time . From the Late Ordovician to the Early Silurian the centre of glaciation moved from northern Africa to southwestern South America . '' During this period glaciation is known from Arabia , Sahara , West Africa , the south Amazon , and the Andes . The center of glaciation migrated from Sahara in the Ordovician ( 450-440 Ma ) to South America in the Silurian ( 440-420 Ma ) . The maximum extent of glaciation developed in Africa and eastern Brazil . A minor ice age , the Andean-Saharan was preceded by the Cryogenian ice ages ( 850-630 Ma , the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations ) , often referred to as Snowball Earth , and followed by the Karoo Ice Age ( 350-260 Ma ) .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Andean-Saharan_glaciation", "rank": 32, "score": 119270 }, { "content": "Title: Samfrau Orogeny Content: The Samfrau Geosyncline or Samfrau Orogeny is an orogenic belt that was active in the Palaeozoic and early Mesozoic in Gondwanaland , formed by small terranes and deep accumulations of old sediment dumped off the continent 's edge by erosion , acccreting against the Pacific-side coast of Gondwanaland due to subduction . Its name ( as `` Samfrau Geosyncline '' ) was coined by Alexander du Toit . Parts of it exist now in northern Argentina , South Africa , Antarctica , and part of the east coast region of Australia , as shown in the map at this link .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Samfrau_Orogeny", "rank": 33, "score": 118212 }, { "content": "Title: Bull Lake glaciation Content: The Bull Lake glaciation is the name of a glacial period in North America that is part of the Quaternary Ice Age . The Bull Lake glaciation began about 200,000 years ago and ended about 130,000 years ago , and was concurrent with the Illinoian Stage of the Quaternary Ice Age . There is disagreement over these time frames , however , and further research is necessary . This glacial period was identified by geologist Eliot Blackwelder . The glacial period draws its name from Bull Lake in Wyoming in the United States , where well-preserved moraines from this glacial period were first described . Although Blackwelder originally believed the Bull Lake glaciation occurred during the early Wisconsin Glaciation ( the last major advance of glaciers in the North America ) , new data generated and described by geologist Gerald M. Richmond in the 1940s and 1960s more accurately dated the glacial period to the Illinoian Stage . The Bull Lake glaciation was a local glaciation . It did not cover the entire North American continent but rather just the eastern slopes of the southern Rocky Mountains . Generally speaking , it extended from northwestern Montana south to the San Juan Mountains in Colorado . The Bull Lake glaciation has three periods -- Early , Middle and Late -- punctuated by periods of relative warmth ( during which glaciers retreated ) . The Bull Lake glaciation is generally considered to be much less extensive than the preceding glaciations . However , the reach of the glaciers varied from place to place , extending further in some areas than others . Bull Lake moraines remain relatively undisturbed , indicating that glacial periods which came later were only about 90 percent as extensive as the Bull Lake glaciation . The Bull Lake Glaciation was followed by a warm interglacial period that lasted about 60,000 years . The Pinedale Glaciation , another local glacial period , occurred after this warm period .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Bull_Lake_glaciation", "rank": 34, "score": 117311 }, { "content": "Title: Gondwanatitan Content: Gondwanatitan ( meaning `` giant from Gondwana '' ) was a titanosaurian sauropod dinosaur . Gondwanatitan was found in Brazil , at the time part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana , in the late Cretaceous Period ( 70 mya ) . Like some other sauropods , Gondwanatitan was tall and ate tough shoots and leaves off of the tops of trees . G. faustoi '' 's closest relative was Aeolosaurus . The type species is Gondwanatitan faustoi '' , formally described by Kellner and de Azevedo in 1999 .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Gondwanatitan", "rank": 35, "score": 116995 }, { "content": "Title: Karian Shola National Park Content: Karian Shola National Park is a protected area in the Western Ghats , India , nominated as a national park in 1989 . The Western Ghats are a chain of mountains running down the west of India parallel with the coast some 30 to inland . They are not true mountains , but the edge of a fault that resulted about 150 million years ago as the subcontinent of India split from Gondwanaland . They are older than the Himalayan mountain range and are clothed in ancient forests . They influence the weather in India as they intercept the incoming monsoon storm systems . The greatest rainfall occurs between June and September during the southwest monsoon , with lesser amounts falling in the northeast monsoon between October and November . The Western Ghats are a UNESCO World Heritage Site and are considered to be one of the eight most important `` hotspots '' of biological diversity in the world . The Karian Shola National Park is located at the southern end of the Western Ghats , in the Anaimalai Hills . The geographical coordinates of the park are latitude 10 ° 13.2 ' to 10 ° 33.3 ´ N , and longitude 76 ° 49.3 ' to 77 ° 21.4 ' E.", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Karian_Shola_National_Park", "rank": 36, "score": 116905 }, { "content": "Title: Terra Australis Orogen Content: The Terra Australis Orogen is an ancient orogen currently exposed in Western South America , South Africa , East Antarctica and Eastern Australia spanning much of the landmass what was once known as Gondwana . Terra Australis Orogen formed in the Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic . The decline of orogenic activity in the late Paleozoic is related to the assembly of the supercontinent Pangea . The orogeny did not end by a continental collision and was succeeded by the Gondwanide orogeny .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Terra_Australis_Orogen", "rank": 37, "score": 116692 }, { "content": "Title: Damara Orogeny Content: The Damara Orogeny created the Naukluft Mountains in central Namibia between 550 Ma and 495 Ma . The Damara Orogeny occurred late in the creation of Gondwana , at the intersection of the Congo and the Kalahari cratons . The Damara Orogeny was part of the Pan-African orogeny . It involved the suturing of the Congo -- São Francisco and Río de la Plata cratons at 580 -- 550 Ma ( together with India forming northern Gondwana ) before the amalgamation of the Kalahari and Mawson cratons in the Kuunga -- Damara orogeny at 530 Ma ( southern Gondwana ) . The Adamastor Ocean closed southwards from the Araçuaı́ Belt ( São Francisco Craton , now in South America ) to the Kaoko Belt ( Congo Craton , now in Africa ) 580 -- 550 Ma and 545 -- 530 Ma Gariep Belt ( Kalahari Craton , now in southern Africa ) . The Damara Orogeny saw a peak in deformation and metamorphism at 530 -- 500 Ma . Thrusting occurred onto the Kalahari Craton until 480 Ma . Río de la Plata docked to Congo before the closure of the Damara Belt oceans ( Mozambique and Khomas ) which made the Damara Orogeny part of the Kuunga orogeny which stretched from Antarctica to India across Africa . All African cratons had been assembled by 550 Ma and the last stages of the Damara -- Kuunga Orogeny ( the final amalgamation of north and South Gondwana ) were intra-cratonic .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Damara_Orogeny", "rank": 38, "score": 115757 }, { "content": "Title: Gondwana Research Content: Gondwana Research is a peer-reviewed scientific journal with an `` all earth science '' scope and an emphasis on the origin and evolution of continents .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Gondwana_Research", "rank": 39, "score": 115138 }, { "content": "Title: Cadomian Orogeny Content: The Cadomian Orogeny was a tectonic event or series of events in the late Neoproterozoic , about 650 -- 550 Ma , which probably included the formation of mountains . This occurred on the margin of the Gondwana continent , involving one or more collisions of island arcs and accretion of other material at a subduction zone . The precise events , and geographical position , are uncertain , but are thought to involve the terranes of Avalonia , Armorica and Iberia . Rocks deformed in the orogeny are found in several areas of Europe , including northern France , the English Midlands , southern Germany , Bohemia , southern Poland and the southwest Iberian Peninsula . The name comes from Cadomus , the Latin name for Caen , northern France . L Bertrand gave the orogeny its name in 1921 , naming it after Cadomus the Gaulish name for Caen in Normandy . He defined the end as being marked by Lower Palaeozoic red beds . The interpretation is that the belt was formed as oceanic crust subducted below the Armorica land mass in a similar way to the Andes . Sediments deposited on the continental margin were pushed up onto the continent , at the same time as intrusions of calc-alkaline magmas occurred .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Cadomian_Orogeny", "rank": 40, "score": 114935 }, { "content": "Title: Gondwana-1 Content: Gondwana-1 is a submarine communications cable network connecting New Caledonia and Australia brought into service in mid-2008 . The cable landing points are : Narrabeen beach , Sydney , New South Wales , Australia Poindimié commune , North Province , New Caledonia Mouli Island , Ouvea commune , Loyalty Islands Province , New Caledonia Xepenehe , Lifou commune , Loyalty Islands Province , New Caledonia The Australian end of the Cable was terminated in mid November 2007 by the Cable Ship Ile de Re completing the laying of the cable . The fibre optic cable is laid in the Northern Sydney Protection Zone and comes ashore at Narrabeen beach where the Southern Cross Cable and Australia-Japan Cable are also laid . The system was officially brought into service in September 2008 . Gondwana drastically boosted the capacity of the New Caledonia international gateway and decreased the latency to reach Australia and Western Europe , previously handicapped by a 500 ms round trip delay between Australian and Caledonian satellite teleport . It offers the second fibre access point in South Pacific islands after Fijian access to Southern Cross cable , commissioned in 2001 . The fibre optic cable is a two-part system , firstly linking New Caledonia to Australia ( and then on to the world via the existing Australian fibre optic cables ) and a short unrepeated cable from New Caledonia to the Loyalty Islands , with a landing stations at Poindimie ( Main island ) , Mouly ( Ouvea ) and Xepenehe ( Lifou ) . The need for the cable was the increasing demand for advanced telecommunications such as broadband and due to the high cost of satellite bandwidth .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Gondwana-1", "rank": 41, "score": 114566 }, { "content": "Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Quaternary_glaciation", "rank": 42, "score": 114328 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 43, "score": 113974 }, { "content": "Title: Puncoviscana Formation Content: Puncoviscana Formation ( Formación Puncoviscana ) is a formation of sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks Late Ediacaran and Lower Cambrian age that crop out in the Argentine Northwest . Most of the formation lies in Jujuy , Salta and Tucumán Province albeit some authors extend the formation further south to the Sierras Pampeanas near Córdoba . There are various tectonic interpretations on the origin and type of sedimentary basin that accumulated Puncoviscana Formations sediments . An early interpretation was that the sediments originated from a passive marginal basin of the ancient continent Gondwana . Others suggested an intra-cratonic rift or aulacogen basin between Río de la Plata-Pampia Craton and Arequipa Massif . Other hypotheses revolved around the idea that the Puncoviscana Formation is related to a terrane called Pampia that accreted to Gondwana causing the closure of a sea in the way .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Puncoviscana_Formation", "rank": 44, "score": 113526 }, { "content": "Title: Hangenberg event Content: The Hangenberg event is a bioevent that occurred at the end of the Famennian epoch ( late Devonian ) associated with the Late Devonian extinction ( roughly 358.9 ± 0.4 million years ago ) ; it was an anoxic event marked by a black shale . It has been proposed that this was related to a rapid sea-level fall due to the last phase of the Devonian Southern Hemisphere glaciation . It has also been suggested that it was linked to an increase in terrestrial plant cover , leading to increased nutrient supply in rivers . This may have led to eutrophication of semi-restricted epicontinental seas and could have stimulated algal blooms . It is named from the Hangenberg Shale , part of a sequence that straddles the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary , from the Rhenish Massif in Germany . Following the extinction , vertebrates experienced reduced body size for the following 36 million years , at least in part because smaller taxa diversified more successfully .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Hangenberg_event", "rank": 45, "score": 113394 }, { "content": "Title: Zimbabwe Craton Content: The Zimbabwe Craton is an area in Southern Africa of ancient continental crust , being a part of the ancient continent of Western Gondwana , with rocks dating back to the early Archean Eon , possibly as early as 3.46 billion years ago ( Ga. ) . The craton is named after the country of Zimbabwe where the majority of the craton is located . The rocks of the Zimbabwe Craton are separated from the rocks of the Kaapvaal Craton to the southeast by the 250 km wide Limpopo Belt of granulite facies tectonites . The Limpopo belt formed contemporaneously with the Zimbabwe and Kaapvaal cratons , but remained geologically active until much later . It was only in the late Archean , ca. 2.8-2 .5 Ga. , that the two cratons were stabilized together and that high-grade metamorphism ceased in the Limpopo Belt . North of the Zimbabwe Craton is the Zambezi Belt .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Zimbabwe_Craton", "rank": 46, "score": 113198 }, { "content": "Title: Laurasia Content: Laurasia ( -LSB- pronlɔːˈreɪʒə -RSB- or -LSB- lɔːˈreɪʃiə -RSB- ) was the more northern of two supercontinents ( the other being Gondwana ) that formed part of the Pangaea supercontinent around ( Mya ) . It separated from Gondwana ( beginning in the late Triassic period ) during the breakup of Pangaea , drifting farther north after the split . The name combines the names of Laurentia , the name given to the North American craton , and Eurasia . As suggested by the geologic naming , Laurasia included most of the land masses which make up today 's continents of the Northern Hemisphere , chiefly Laurentia , Baltica , Siberia , Kazakhstania , and the North China and East China cratons .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Laurasia", "rank": 47, "score": 112592 }, { "content": "Title: Western Plateau Content: The Western Plateau or sometimes referred as the Australian Shield , is Australia 's largest drainage division and is composed predominantly of the remains of the ancient rock shield of Gondwana . It incorporates two thirds of the continent ; 2,700,000 square kilometres of arid land including large parts of Western Australia , South Australia , and the Northern Territory . For comparison , it is roughly four times the size of Texas , or the same size as the whole of continental Europe from Poland west to Portugal . It is Australia 's largest drainage division . Rain rarely falls in this region and aside from a handful of permanent waterholes , surface water is absent at all times except after heavy rain . Most of the territory is flat sandy or stony desert with a sparse covering of shrubs or tussock grasses . Average rainfall varies from one area to another and is quoted at 100 to 350 mm per year ( between 4 and 14 inches ) but is highly unpredictable . There are no permanent watercourses . The general trend is for run-off to flow inland , but there is insufficient rainfall to produce any marked drainage pattern .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Western_Plateau", "rank": 48, "score": 112394 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 49, "score": 112269 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 50, "score": 111765 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 51, "score": 110984 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Plate Content: The Australian Plate is a major tectonic plate in the eastern and , largely , in the southern hemispheres . Originally a part of the ancient continent of Gondwana , Australia remained connected to India and Antarctica until approximately when India broke away and began moving north . Australia and Antarctica began rifting and completely separated roughly The Australian plate later fused with the adjacent Indian Plate beneath the Indian Ocean to form a single Indo-Australian Plate . However , recent studies suggest that the two plates have once again split apart and have been separate plates for at least 3 million years and likely longer . The Australian plate includes the continent of Australia , including Tasmania , as well portions of New Guinea , New Zealand , and the Indian Ocean basin .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Australian_Plate", "rank": 52, "score": 110729 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Carbon_cycle_re-balancing", "rank": 53, "score": 110189 }, { "content": "Title: Panjal Traps Content: The Panjal Traps or the Tethyan Plume is a large igneous province ( LIP ) that erupted during the Early -- Middle Permian in what is now north-western India . The Panjal Traps are associated with the opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean , which resulted in the dispersal of the Cimmerian continental blocks from the north-eastern margin of Gondwana and possibly the break-up of this old and large continent . In the Zanskar-Spliti-Lahaul area ( in the north-western Himalayas and south-east Ladakh ) the 30 -- thick basalts of the Panjal Traps are mostly exposed as massive ( terrestrial ) lava flows , but also as ( marine ) pillow lavas and hyaloclastites . The Panjal Traps were first documented in 1824 and were eventually named by British geologist Richard Lydekker in 1883 , but their origin , age , and relationship with surrounding and underlying rocks remained elusive for more than a century . They remained one of the most understudied LIPs before being properly dated to 289 Ma in 2011 .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Panjal_Traps", "rank": 54, "score": 109988 }, { "content": "Title: Geology of Enderby Land Content: Enderby Land is a region of Northeastern Antarctica which extends into the Southern Indian Ocean . The unique and diverse geological features of this Australian Antarctic Territory have been associated with the evolution and development of the supercontinent Gondwana . Multiple distinct geological formations are located in this region . The most prominent and important are the Napier Complex ( Archaean ) Rayner Complex ( late-Proterozoic ) Lützow-Holm Complex ( LHC ) ( early-Paleozoic ) Yamato -- Belgica Complex ( early-Paleozoic ) Both the Proterozoic and Paleozoic structures present in this region have become visible due to the initial uplift and exposure of the Archaean Napier Complex , where the oldest metamorphic rocks ( 4000 Ma ) were found in the expanding Archaean blocks .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Geology_of_Enderby_Land", "rank": 55, "score": 109851 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth", "rank": 56, "score": 109826 }, { "content": "Title: Geology of Antarctica Content: The geological history of Antarctica covers the geological development of the continent through the Proterozoic Eon , Paleozoic , Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras . More than 170 million years ago , Antarctica was part of the supercontinent Gondwana . Over time Gondwana broke apart and Antarctica as we know it today was formed around 35 million years ago .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Geology_of_Antarctica", "rank": 57, "score": 109603 }, { "content": "Title: Las Lozas volcanics Content: The Las Lozas volcanics are a geological formation in Argentina . During the Ordovician , the Famatinian orogeny on Gondwana 's western margin laid down large volcanic deposits . Some of these were later found to be younger , of Carboniferous-Pennsylvanian age . In the Las Lozas valley , this younger unit is 550 m thick and dominated by rhyolite . It lies beneath Paleozoic sediments and above a metamorphic basement . This volcanic activity occurred concurrently with crustal extension , which may be associated either with the Famatinian orogeny , the Achalian orogeny or a separate event . The Las Lozas unit has been dated at 320 million years , with previous dates for other units being between 336-298 million years . The rocks erupted during this volcanic episode were formed from much older crust of Cryogenian age , based on isotope dating of zircons . This older crust may have formed when Rodinia broke up . The structure of the deposits indicates that explosive eruptions involving lava domes were the principal sources of the Las Lozas volcanic deposits . Also present basalts formed lava flows , which may have originated from the lava domes as well . The activity occurred at high temperatures and was issued by fissure vents .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Las_Lozas_volcanics", "rank": 58, "score": 109521 }, { "content": "Title: Baykonurian glaciation Content: The Baykonurian glaciation is a glacial episode dating to around the Proterozoic -- Phanerozoic boundary -- precise dates are difficult to constrain but has been proposed -- and thus posited as a contributor to the Cambrian explosion . Its deposits are known in regions of Asia and Africa , and it apparently affected both palaeohemispheres . It is named for the Baykonur Formation in Central Asia .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Baykonurian_glaciation", "rank": 59, "score": 109481 }, { "content": "Title: Llanquihue glaciation Content: The last glacial period and its associated glaciation is known in southern Chile as the Llanquihue glaciation ( Glaciación de Llanquihue ) . Its type area lies west of Llanquihue Lake where various drifts or end moraine systems belonging to the last glacial period have been identified . The glaciation is the last episode of existence of the Patagonian Ice Sheet . The preceding interglacial is known as the Valdivia interglacial after its type locality of Valdivia .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Llanquihue_glaciation", "rank": 60, "score": 109349 }, { "content": "Title: Gondwana Game Reserve Content: Gondwana Game Reserve is a game reserve situated near the town of Mossel Bay in the Western Cape of South Africa , a malaria-free area .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Gondwana_Game_Reserve", "rank": 61, "score": 108514 }, { "content": "Title: List of South American mammals Content: This is a list of the native wild mammal species recorded in South America . South America 's terrestrial mammals fall into three distinct groups . The marsupials and xenarthrans are ` old-timers ' , their ancestors having been present on the continent since at least the very early Cenozoic Era . During the early Cenozoic , South America 's only land connection was to Antarctica , so it was effectively cut off from most of the world ; as the fragments of Gondwana continued to separate , this connection was lost , leaving South America an island continent . Caviomorph rodents and monkeys arrived as ` waif dispersers ' by rafting across the Atlantic from Africa in the Eocene epoch , 35 million or more years ago . All the remaining nonflying mammals of South America are recent arrivals , having migrated from North America via Central America during the past seven million years as part of the Great American Interchange ; this invasion , which peaked around three million years ago , was made possible when the formation of the volcanic Isthmus of Panama bridged North and South America . The newcomers out-competed and drove to extinction many unique mammals that had evolved during South America 's long period of isolation , as well as some species from other classes ( e.g. , terror birds ) . South America suffered another major loss of mammal species in the Quaternary extinction event , which started around 12500 cal BP , at roughly the time of arrival of Paleoindians , and may have lasted up to several thousand years . At least 37 genera of mammals were eliminated , including most of the megafauna . While South America currently has no megaherbivore species weighing more than 1000 kg , prior to this event it had a menagerie of about 25 of them ( consisting of gomphotheres , camelids , ground sloths , glyptodonts , and toxodontids -- 75 % of these being ` old-timers ' ) , dwarfing Africa 's present and recent total of 6 . Anthropogenic climate change and the damage to its ecosystems resulting from the rapid recent growth of the human population pose a further threat to South America 's biodiversity . The list consists of those species found in the nations or overseas territories of continental South America ( including their island possessions , such as the Galápagos ) , as well as in Trinidad and Tobago and the Falkland Islands ; Panama is not included . As of May 2012 , the list contains 1331 species , 340 genera , 62 families and 15 orders . Of the taxa from nonflying , nonmarine groups ( 992 species , 230 genera , 40 families and 12 orders ) , ` old-timers ' comprise 14 % of species , 15 % of genera , 20 % of families and 42 % of orders ; African immigrants make up 38 % of species , 30 % of genera , 40 % of families and 17 % of orders ; North American invaders constitute 49 % of species 55 % of genera , 40 % of families and 50 % of orders . At the order level , the ` old-timers ' are overrepresented because of their ancient local origins , while the African immigrants are underrepresented because of their ` sweepstakes ' mode of dispersal . Of the species , 9 are extinct , 29 are critically endangered , 64 are endangered , 111 are vulnerable , 64 are near-threatened , and 255 are data-deficient . Mammal species presumed extinct since AD 1500 ( nine or ten cases ) are included . Domestic species ( e.g. , the guinea pig , alpaca , and llama ) and introduced species are not listed . NOTE : this list is inevitably going to be incomplete , since new species are continually being recognized via discovery or reclassification . Places to check for missing species include the Wikipedia missing mammal species list , including recently removed entries , and the species listings in the articles for mammalian genera , especially those of small mammals such as rodents or bats . The following tags are used to highlight each species ' conservation status as assessed by the IUCN : The IUCN status of all listed species except bats was last updated during the period from March to June 2009 ; bats were updated in September 2009 .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "List_of_South_American_mammals", "rank": 62, "score": 108120 }, { "content": "Title: Geology of New Zealand Content: The geology of New Zealand is noted for its volcanic activity , earthquakes and geothermal areas because of its position on the boundary of the Australian Plate and Pacific Plates . Much of the basement rock of New Zealand was once part of the super-continent of Gondwana , along with South America , Africa , Madagascar , India , Antarctica and Australia . The rocks that now form the continent of Zealandia were nestled between Eastern Australia and Western Antarctica .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Geology_of_New_Zealand", "rank": 63, "score": 107448 }, { "content": "Title: Anza trough Content: The Anza trough is a rift in Kenya that was formed in the Jurassic Period of the Mesozoic Era . The trough runs inland from the coast in the northwest direction . The trough appears to be an aulacogen , a failed arm of a triple junction of a plate tectonics rift system , formed during the initial stretching phase when Gondwana was breaking up . The rift was formed by the same forces that created the rift system in South Sudan , and connects those rifts to the Lamu embayment further to the south . The separation of the other two arms of the junction allowed India-Madagascar to separate from Africa . The trough is now hidden by a cover of Quaternary sediments and volcanic rocks .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Anza_trough", "rank": 64, "score": 107246 }, { "content": "Title: Last Glacial Maximum refugia Content: Last Glacial Maximum refugia were places where humans survived during the last glacial period in the northern hemisphere , around 20,000 -- 25,000 years ago . Sub-Saharan Africa and Australia were not affected by the glaciation ( although vast areas of those continents were then too dry for human habitation of any sort , even the most primitive foragers ) , and the Americas and New Zealand had no humans at that time . Therefore , the shelters are located mainly in Eurasia . Several of them have been studied .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Last_Glacial_Maximum_refugia", "rank": 65, "score": 107080 }, { "content": "Title: Kerguelen Plateau Content: The Kerguelen Plateau ( -LSB- pronˈkɜrɡələn -RSB- , -LSB- kərˈɡeɪlən -RSB- ) is an oceanic plateau and a large igneous province ( LIP ) in the southern Indian Ocean . It is also a microcontinent and submerged continent . It is about to the southwest of Australia and is nearly three times the size of Japan . The plateau extends for more than in a northwest -- southeast direction and lies in deep water . The plateau was produced by the Kerguelen hotspot , starting with or following the breakup of Gondwana about 130 million years ago . A small portion of the plateau breaks sea level , forming the Kerguelen Islands ( a French territory ) plus the Heard and McDonald Islands ( an Australian territory ) . Intermittent volcanism continues on the Heard and McDonald Islands .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Kerguelen_Plateau", "rank": 66, "score": 107027 }, { "content": "Title: Río de la Plata Craton Content: The Río de la Plata Craton ( RPC ) is a medium-sized continental block found in Uruguay , eastern Argentina and southern Brazil . During its complex and protracted history it interacted with a series other blocks and is therefore considered important for the understanding of the amalgamation of West Gondwana . Two orogenic cycles have been identified in the RPC : a 2000 Ma-old western domain representing the old craton and a 700 -- 500 Ma-old eastern domain assigned to the Brasiliano Cycle . It is one of the five cratons ( ancient nuclei ) of the South American continent . The other four cratons are : Amazonia , São Francisco , Río Apa and Arequipa -- Antofalla .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Río_de_la_Plata_Craton", "rank": 67, "score": 106915 }, { "content": "Title: Gondwana Rainforests Content: The Gondwana Rainforests of Australia , formerly known as the Central Eastern Rainforest Reserves , are the most extensive area of subtropical rainforest in the world . Collectively , the rainforests are a World Heritage Site with fifty separate reserves totalling 366500 ha from to Brisbane . The Gondwana Rainforests are so-named because the fossil record indicates that when Gondwana existed it was covered by rainforests containing the same kinds of species that are living today . Not all Gondwanan rainforests in Australia are located in the New South WalesQueensland region ; the largest Gondwanan rainforest in Australia is located in Tasmania 's Tarkine wilderness . The number of visitors to the Gondwana rainforest reserves in New South Wales and Queensland is about 2 million per year . The World Heritage status of the region was created and negotiated initially in 1986 , with the area extended in 1994 , and carries the following inscription : The site was gazetted on the Australian National Heritage List on 21 May 2007 under the .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Gondwana_Rainforests", "rank": 68, "score": 106861 }, { "content": "Title: Gondwana Ganatantra Party Content: Gondwana Ganatantra Party was formed in 1991 to plead for the rights of the Gondi people , and to establish a separate Indian state of Gondwana in central India . The party president is Hira Singh Markam . GGP has one member in the Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha . In the Vidhan Sabha elections in Uttar Pradesh 2002 GGP had eight candidates , who together mustered 11 262 votes . In Vidhan Sabha elections in Madhya Pradesh 2003 GGP had launched 61 candidates , who together mustered 512 102 votes . Three were elected . In the Vidhan Sabha elections in Chhattisgarh 2003 GGP had 41 candidates , but no-one was elected . In total the party received 156 916 votes . In the 2004 Lok Sabha elections the party presented candidates from Madhya Pradesh , Chhattisgarh , Bihar , Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Gondwana_Ganatantra_Party", "rank": 69, "score": 106525 }, { "content": "Title: Yedoma Content: Yedoma is an organic-rich ( about 2 % carbon by mass ) Pleistocene-age permafrost with ice content of 50 -- 90 % by volume . The amount of carbon trapped in this type of permafrost is much more prevalent than originally thought and may be about 210 to 450 Gt , that is a multiple of the amount of carbon released into the air each year by the burning of fossil fuels . Thawing yedoma is a significant source of atmospheric methane ( about 4 Tg of per year ) . The Yedoma region currently occupies an area of more than one million square kilometers from northeast Siberia to Alaska and Canada , and in many regions is tens of meters thick . During the Last Glacial Maximum , when the global sea level was 120 m lower than that of today , similar deposits covered substantial areas of the exposed northeast Eurasian continental shelves . At the end of last ice age , at the Pleistocene -- Holocene transition , thawing yedoma and the resulting thermokarst lakes may have produced 33 to 87 % of the high-latitude increase in atmospheric methane concentration .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Yedoma", "rank": 70, "score": 106312 }, { "content": "Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Katsuko_Saruhashi", "rank": 71, "score": 105793 }, { "content": "Title: Sudwala Caves Content: The Sudwala Caves in Mpumalanga , South Africa , are set in Precambrian dolomite rock , which was first laid down about 3800 million years ago , when Africa was still part of Gondwana . The caves themselves formed about 240 million years ago . There are a number of speleothem structures in the cave , known by names such as the `` Lowveld Rocket '' , `` Samson 's Pillar '' , and the `` Screaming Monster '' ; some have been dated to 200 million years old . There are also microbial fossils of a cyanobacterium known as collenia in the rock ; these formed 2000 million years ago . The caves were used for shelter in prehistoric times , probably due in part to a constant supply of fresh air from an unknown source in the caves .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Sudwala_Caves", "rank": 72, "score": 105376 }, { "content": "Title: Majungasaurinae Content: Majungasaurinae ( named after the city of Mahajanga in Madagascar ) is a subfamily of large carnivorous theropods from the Upper Cretaceous , found in Madagascar , India , and France . It is a subgroup within the theropod family Abelisauridae , a Gondwanan clade known for their thick and often horned skulls and vestigial arms . The two subfamilies of Abelisauridae are Carnotaurinae , best known from the South American Carnotaurus , and Majungasaurinae , consisting of Madagascar 's Majungasaurus and its closest relatives . Their ancestors emerged in the Middle Jurassic , and the clade lasted until the Upper Cretaceous . The majungasaurines were mid-sized , bipedal predators , but relatively slow moving . Their long legs were built for striding , not running . They had tall , deep heads with powerful jaws , but small forearms without carpels in the wrists . Because of their slow gait and small arms , they likely preyed upon the larger , slower sauropods rather than the smaller , faster ornithopods . Their ancestors lived on a unified southern continent , Gondwana , in the Early Cretaceous , but as the land mass divided they became distinct from their South American cousins , and eventually from each other .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Majungasaurinae", "rank": 73, "score": 105123 }, { "content": "Title: Ephysteris gondwana Content: Ephysteris gondwana is a moth in the Gelechiidae family . It was described by Bidzilya and Mey in 2011 . It is found in Namibia and South Africa .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Ephysteris_gondwana", "rank": 74, "score": 105044 }, { "content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Amorphous_carbonia", "rank": 75, "score": 104891 }, { "content": "Title: Tethys Ocean Content: The Tethys Ocean ( Ancient Greek : Τηθύς ) was an ocean that existed between the continents of Gondwana and Laurasia during much of the Mesozoic era , before the opening of the Indian and Atlantic oceans during the Cretaceous period . It is also referred to as the Tethys Sea or Neotethys .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Tethys_Ocean", "rank": 76, "score": 104582 }, { "content": "Title: Pan-African orogeny Content: The Pan-African orogeny was a series of major Neoproterozoic orogenic events which related to the formation of the supercontinents Gondwana and Pannotia about 600 million years ago . This orogeny is also known as the Pan-Gondwanan or Saldanian Orogeny . The Pan-African orogeny and the Grenville orogeny are the largest known systems of orogenies on Earth . The sum of the continental crust formed in the Pan-African orogeny and the Grenville orogeny makes the Neoproterozoic the period of Earth 's history that has produced most continental crust .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Pan-African_orogeny", "rank": 77, "score": 104460 }, { "content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide", "rank": 78, "score": 104228 }, { "content": "Title: Kaokoxylon Content: Kaokoxylon is an extinct Gondwanan genus of gymnosperms from the Permian and Triassic . Fossils assigned to the genus or its type species , Kaokoxylon zalesskyi , have been found in South America ( Brazil , Argentina ) , India ( Bengal ) , and Antarctica . In Brazil fossil regions have been found in the region of the Brazilian paleopark , Paleorrota , in the city of Faxinal do Soturno on Linha São Luiz . This outcrop is located in Caturrita Formation .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Kaokoxylon", "rank": 79, "score": 104188 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 content Content: content ( also known as `` Total '' ) is a blood test that usually appears on a `` Chem 19 '' or an electrolyte panel . The value measures the total dissolved Carbon dioxide in blood . It is determined by combining the Bicarbonate and the partial pressure of multiplied by a factor which estimates the amount of pure that is dissolved in its natural form ( usually 0.03 ) . One given reference range is 24 -- 32 mEq/L .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "CO2_content", "rank": 80, "score": 104130 }, { "content": "Title: MV Gondwana Content: The MV Gondwana was a ship acquired by Greenpeace in 1988 , originally built in 1975 and called the Viking . Greenpeace updated the ship with a helipad and accommodation space was increased to sleep 33 people . The ship was used to supply the Greenpeace World Park Base in 1988/89 and was involved in direct action to protest against Japanese whaling in the Southern Ocean in the late 1980s .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "MV_Gondwana", "rank": 81, "score": 104076 }, { "content": "Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "ACEA_agreement", "rank": 82, "score": 104067 }, { "content": "Title: Starvation (glaciology) Content: In glaciology , starvation occurs when a glacier retreats , not because of temperature increases , but due to precipitation so low that the ice flow downward into the zone of ablation exceeds the replenishment from snowfall . Eventually , the ice will move so far down that it either calves into the ocean or melts . When starvation does occur , however , it can almost always be reversed by slight changes in precipitation , such as are brought about by mountain ranges . Thus , even if glaciers do not cover a lowland due to low precipitation , glaciation is almost certain to occur at higher elevations .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Starvation_(glaciology)", "rank": 83, "score": 104001 }, { "content": "Title: Armorican terrane Content: The Armorican terrane , Armorican terrane assemblage , or simply Armorica , was a microcontinent or group of continental fragments that rifted away from Gondwana towards the end of the Silurian and collided with Laurussia towards the end of the Carboniferous during the Variscan orogeny . The name is taken from Armorica , the Gaulish name for a large part of northwestern France that includes Brittany , as this matches closely to the present location of the rock units that form the main part of this terrane .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Armorican_terrane", "rank": 84, "score": 103824 }, { "content": "Title: Brasiliano orogeny Content: Brasiliano orogeny or Brasiliano cycle ( Orogênese Brasiliana and Ciclo Brasiliano ) refers to a series of orogenies of Neoproterozoic age exposed chiefly in Brazil but also in other parts of South America . The Brasiliano orogeny is a regional name for the larger Pan-African/Brasiliano orogeny that extended not only in South America but across most of Gondwana . In a wide sense the Brasiliano orogeny includes also the Pampean orogeny . Almeida et al. coined the term Brasiliano Orogenic Cycle in 1973 . The orogeny led to the closure of several oceans and aulacogens including the Adamastor Ocean , the Goianides Ocean , the Puncoviscana Ocean and the Peri-Franciscano Ocean . Attempts to correlate the South American Brasiliano belts with the African Pan-African belts on the other side of the Atlantic has in many cases been problematic .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Brasiliano_orogeny", "rank": 85, "score": 103722 }, { "content": "Title: Lake Nyos disaster Content: The Lake Nyos disaster occurred on 21 August 1986 , when a limnic eruption at Lake Nyos , in northwestern Cameroon , produced a large cloud of carbon dioxide , which descended onto nearby villages , killing 1,746 people and 3,500 livestock . The eruption triggered the sudden release of about 100,000 -- 300,000 tons ( some sources state as much as 1.6 million tons ) of CO2 . This gas cloud rose at nearly 100 km/h and spilled over the northern lip of the lake . It then rushed down two valleys , branching off to the north , displacing all the air and suffocating people and livestock within 25 km of the lake . A degassing system has since been installed at the lake , with the aim of reducing the concentration of in deep waters and therefore the risk of further eruptions .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Lake_Nyos_disaster", "rank": 86, "score": 103702 }, { "content": "Title: Gondwanatherium Content: Gondwanatherium is a genus of mammal from the extinct suborder Gondwanatheria that lived in Patagonia , South America during the `` Age of Dinosaurs '' , specifically the Upper Cretaceous . The genus and species were named by the Argentinian paleontologist José Bonaparte in 1986 ( Bonaparte , 1986 ) . Gondwanatherium means Gondwana beast . The position of gondwanatherians within class Mammalia is not yet clear .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Gondwanatherium", "rank": 87, "score": 103604 }, { "content": "Title: Lophozonia moorei Content: Lophozonia moorei , commonly known as Antarctic beech , is an important Gondwana relict of the rainforests of the southern hemisphere . It occurs in wet , fire-free areas at high altitude in eastern Australia .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Lophozonia_moorei", "rank": 88, "score": 103496 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 89, "score": 103434 }, { "content": "Title: Polar 3 Content: Polar 3 was a Dornier Do 228 owned and operated by the Alfred Wegener Institute that was shot down south of Dakhla , Western Sahara by guerrillas of the Polisario Front on 24 February 1985 . Polar 2 and Polar 3 were the first German airplanes to reach the South Pole when they landed there in December 1984 and were returning from a five-month mission to the Antarctic , having been based at the Gondwana Research Station . While in Antarctica , Polar 2 was damaged and the bulk of the survey work had to be carried out by Polar 3 .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Polar_3", "rank": 90, "score": 103360 }, { "content": "Title: TNM 02067 Content: TNM 02067 ( Tanzanian National Museums specimen 02067 ) is a fragmentary fossil dentary ( lower jaw ) from the Cretaceous ( between 146 and 66 million years ago ) of Tanzania . The short , deep bone is about 19.5 mm long , but the back part is broken off . It contains a large , forward-inclined incisor with a root that extends deep into the jaw , separated by a diastema ( gap ) from five cheekteeth . Very little remains of the teeth , but enough to determine that they are hypsodont ( high-crowned ) . The third cheektooth is the largest and the roots of the teeth are curved . First described in 2003 , TNM 02067 has been tentatively identified as a sudamericid -- an extinct family of high-crowned gondwanathere mammals otherwise known from South America , Madagascar , India , and Antarctica . If truly a gondwanathere , it would be the only African member of the group and may be the oldest . The describers could not exclude other possibilities , such as that the jaw represents some mammalian group known only from younger , Cenozoic times ( less than 66 million years ago ) .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "TNM_02067", "rank": 91, "score": 103343 }, { "content": "Title: Tectonic evolution of Patagonia Content: Patagonia comprises the southernmost region of South America , portions of which lie either side of the Chile -- Argentina border . It has traditionally been described as the region south of the Rio Colorado , although the physiographic border has more recently been moved southward to the Huincul fault . The region 's geologic border to the north is composed of the Rio de la Plata craton and several accreted terranes comprising the La Pampa province . The underlying basement rocks of the Patagonian region can be subdivided into two large massifs : the North Patagonian Massif and the Deseado Massif . These massifs are surrounded by sedimentary basins formed in the Mesozoic that underwent subsequent deformation during the Andean orogeny . The rocks comprising Patagonia occurred along the southwestern margin of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana . During a period of continental rifting in the Cambrian period , a portion of Patagonia was separated from Gondwana , and the resulting passive margin that formed was a site of extensive sedimentation throughout the early-middle Paleozoic era . During the Devonian period , a transition to convergence resulted in the eventual collision of the Patagonian landmass in the late Paleozoic , with contact first occurring in the mid-Carboniferous . Several theories exist for the origin of the Patagonian landmass , though there are two that have greater consensus . The first of these theories cites an allochthonous origin of the Patagonian landmass from Gondwana during the Paleozoic , while the other argues that Northern Patagonia is an autochthonous component and that only the southern portion is allochthonous . The collision of Patagonia was succeeded by the rifting and eventual breakup of Gondwana during the early Mesozoic , a process which invoked large-scale rotation of the Patagonian landmass . Further extension through the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods formed the Rocas Verdes back-arc basin , while a transition to a compressional tectonic regime in the Cenozoic concurrent with the Andean orogeny resulted in formation of the foreland Magallanes basin .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Tectonic_evolution_of_Patagonia", "rank": 92, "score": 103148 }, { "content": "Title: Indian Plate Content: The Indian Plate or India Plate is a major tectonic plate straddling the equator in the eastern hemisphere . Originally a part of the ancient continent of Gondwana , India broke away from the other fragments of Gondwana and began moving north . Once fused with the adjacent Australia to form a single Indo-Australian Plate , recent studies suggest that India and Australia have been separate plates for at least 3 million years and likely longer . The Indian plate includes most of South Asia -- i.e. the Indian subcontinent -- and a portion of the basin under the Indian Ocean , including parts of South China and Eastern Indonesia , and extending up to but not including Ladakh , Kohistan and Balochistan .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Indian_Plate", "rank": 93, "score": 102837 }, { "content": "Title: Parastacidae Content: Parastacidae is the family of freshwater crayfish found in the southern hemisphere . The family is a classic Gondwana-distributed taxon , with extant members in South America , Madagascar , Australia , New Zealand and New Guinea , and extinct taxa also in Antarctica .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Parastacidae", "rank": 94, "score": 102673 }, { "content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage", "rank": 95, "score": 102572 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic flora Content: The Antarctic flora is a distinct community of vascular plants which evolved millions of years ago on the supercontinent of Gondwana . It is now found on several separate areas of the Southern Hemisphere , including southern South America , southernmost Africa , New Zealand , Australia and New Caledonia . Joseph Dalton Hooker was the first to notice similarities in the flora and speculated that Antarctica had served as either a source or a transitional point , and that land masses now separated may have formerly been adjacent . Based on the similarities in their flora , botanist Ronald D'Oyley Good identified a separate Antarctic Floristic Kingdom that included southern South America , New Zealand , and some southern island groups . In addition , Australia was determined to be its own floristic kingdom because of the influx of tropical Eurasian flora that had mostly supplanted the Antarctic flora and included New Guinea and New Caledonia in the Paleotropical floristic kingdom .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Antarctic_flora", "rank": 96, "score": 102549 }, { "content": "Title: Geysers on Mars Content: Martian geysers (or CO2 jets) are putative sites of small gas and dust eruptions that occur in the south polar region of Mars during the spring thaw. \"Dark dune spots\" and \"spiders\" – or araneiforms – are the two most visible types of features ascribed to these eruptions. Martian geysers are distinct from geysers on Earth, which are typically associated with hydrothermal activity. These are unlike any terrestrial geological phenomenon. The reflectance (albedo), shapes and unusual spider appearance of these features have stimulated a variety of hypotheses about their origin, ranging from differences in frosting reflectance, to explanations involving biological processes. However, all current geophysical models assume some sort of jet or geyser-like activity on Mars. Their characteristics, and the process of their formation, are still a matter of debate. These features are unique to the south polar region of Mars in an area informally called the 'cryptic region', at latitudes 60° to 80° south and longitudes 150°W to 310°W; this 1 meter deep carbon dioxide (CO2) ice transition area—between the scarps of the thick polar ice layer and the permafrost—is where clusters of the apparent geyser systems are located. The seasonal frosting and defrosting of carbon dioxide ice results in the appearance of a number of features, such dark dune spots with spider-like rilles or channels below the ice, where spider-like radial channels are carved between the ground and the carbon dioxide ice, giving it an appearance of spider webs, then, pressure accumulating in their interior ejects gas and dark basaltic sand or dust, which is deposited on the ice surface and thus, forming dark dune spots. This process is rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a growth rate rather unusual in geology – especially for Mars. However, it would seem that multiple years would be required to carve the larger spider-like channels. There is no direct data on these features other than images taken in the visible and infrared spectra.", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Geysers_on_Mars", "rank": 97, "score": 102308 }, { "content": "Title: Elster glaciation Content: The Elster glaciation ( Elster-Kaltzeit , Elster-Glazial or Elster-Zeit ) or , less commonly , the Elsterian glaciation -- in the older and popular scientific literature also called the Elster Ice Age ( Elster-Eiszeit ) -- is the oldest known ice age that resulted in the large-scale glaciation of North Germany . It is temporally identified with the south German Mindel glaciation . The Elster glaciation is currently dated to about 400,000 to 320,000 years ago . It succeeded a long period of rather warmer average temperatures , the Cromerian Complex . Two ice advances were very extensive . The Elster was followed by the Holstein interglacial . The glacial period is named after the White Elster , a right tributary of the Saale .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Elster_glaciation", "rank": 98, "score": 102294 }, { "content": "Title: Prairie Pothole Region Content: The Prairie Pothole Region ( PPR ) is an area of the northern Great Plains and midgrass and tallgrass prairies that contains thousands of shallow wetlands known as potholes . These potholes are the result of glacier activity in the Wisconsin glaciation , which ended about 10,000 years ago . The decaying ice sheet left behind depressions formed by the uneven deposition of till in ground moraines . These depressions are called potholes , glacial potholes , kettles , or kettle lakes . They fill with water in the spring , creating wetlands which range in duration from temporary to semipermanent . The region covers an area of about 715000 km2 , including parts of three Canadian provinces ( Saskatchewan , Manitoba , and Alberta ) and five U.S. states ( Minnesota , Iowa , North and South Dakota , and Montana ) . Few natural surface water drainage systems occur in the region ; pothole wetlands are not connected by surface streams . They receive most of their water from spring snowmelt . Some pothole wetlands also receive groundwater inflow , so they typically last longer each year than those that only receive water from precipitation . Shorter-duration wetlands fed only by precipitation typically are sources of groundwater recharge . More than half of the potholes have been drained and converted to agriculture . Pothole loss is 90 % or more in places . Those potholes that remain are important habitats for migratory waterfowl and other wildlife , supporting more than 50 % of North America 's migratory waterfowl . The Prairie Pothole Region is one of North America 's most important areas for duck reproduction . Although the region contains only about one-tenth of the continent 's habitat area for breeding of waterfowl , roughly half the primary species of game ducks on the continent breed there . The region accounts for more than 60 % of the breeding populations of mallard , gadwall , blue-winged teal , northern shoveler , northern pintail , redhead , and canvasback ducks .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Prairie_Pothole_Region", "rank": 99, "score": 102210 }, { "content": "Title: Gondwana Link Content: Gondwana Link is one of the largest and most ambitious conservation projects proposed in Australia 's history . Designed to protect and restore the ecological integrity of land areas across south-west Western Australia , a biodiversity hotspot , the completed link will be a continuous stretch of reconnected bushland stretching for a 1000 km from the wet forests in the State 's far southwest to the dry woodlands and shrublands bordering the Nullarbor Plain .", "qid": "3032", "docid": "Gondwana_Link", "rank": 100, "score": 102022 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 1, "score": 151390 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 2, "score": 139595 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 3, "score": 137021 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 4, "score": 135311 }, { "content": "Title: Weathering Content: Weathering is the breaking down of rocks , soil , and minerals as well as wood and artificial materials through contact with the Earth 's atmosphere , waters , and biological organisms . Weathering occurs in situ ( on site ) , that is , in the same place , with little or no movement , and thus should not be confused with erosion , which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water , ice , snow , wind , waves and gravity and then being transported and deposited in other locations . Two important classifications of weathering processes exist -- physical and chemical weathering ; each sometimes involves a biological component . Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with atmospheric conditions , such as heat , water , ice and pressure . The second classification , chemical weathering , involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or biologically produced chemicals also known as biological weathering in the breakdown of rocks , soils and minerals . While physical weathering is accentuated in very cold or very dry environments , chemical reactions are most intense where the climate is wet and hot . However , both types of weathering occur together , and each tends to accelerate the other . For example , physical abrasion ( rubbing together ) decreases the size of particles and therefore increases their surface area , making them more susceptible to rapid chemical reactions . The various agents act in concert to convert primary minerals ( feldspars and micas ) to secondary minerals ( clays and carbonates ) and release plant nutrient elements in soluble forms . The materials left over after the rock breaks down combined with organic material creates soil . The mineral content of the soil is determined by the parent material ; thus , a soil derived from a single rock type can often be deficient in one or more minerals needed for good fertility , while a soil weathered from a mix of rock types ( as in glacial , aeolian or alluvial sediments ) often makes more fertile soil . In addition , many of Earth 's landforms and landscapes are the result of weathering processes combined with erosion and re-deposition .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Weathering", "rank": 5, "score": 131982 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 6, "score": 131013 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals", "rank": 7, "score": 130030 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 8, "score": 128880 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 9, "score": 124876 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 10, "score": 123630 }, { "content": "Title: Carbonate–silicate cycle Content: The carbonate -- silicate geochemical cycle describes the transformation of silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation at Earth 's surface and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism . It plays a large part in the carbon cycle , since the equilibrium point of the carbonate-silicate cycle dictates the pace of carbon release from the lithosphere . The carbonate-silicate cycle involves several chemical reactions that occur in different environments . In the atmosphere , gaseous carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) dissolves in rainwater , forming natural carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This weak acid weathers silicate rocks on continents , slowly dissolving the rock and releasing aqueous minerals through the chemical reaction CaSiO3 ( s ) ( wollastonite ) + 2CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) → Ca + 2HCO ( aq ) ( bicarbonate ) + SiO2 ( aq ) ( dissolved silica ) . These dissolved minerals are eventually carried by water to the ocean , where they are used by living organisms such as foraminifera , radiolarians , coccolithopores , and diatoms to create shells of CaCO3 ( calcite ) or SiO2 ( opal ) through the reactions Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) ( for calcite precipitation ) and SiO2 ( aq ) → SiO2 ( s ) ( for opal precipitation ) . When these organisms die , many shells are remineralized but some shells fall all the way to the sea floor and are buried . The cycle is completed when the sea floor is subducted and carbonate minerals recombine with silicate minerals under temperatures above 300 ° C to reform calcium silicates and release gaseous CO2 through volcanism ( CaCO3 ( s ) + SiO2 ( s ) → CaSiO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) ) . The carbonate-silicate cycle impacts the global carbon cycle , as carbon dioxide is removed from the Earth 's surface through the burial of weathered minerals in deep ocean sediments and returned to the atmosphere through metamorphism and volcanism . However , this process is far from being a closed loop . In Earth history generally the formation of carbonates significantly outpaces the formation of silicates , effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Because carbon dioxide is a potent greenhouse gas , the carbonate-silicate cycle is suspected to initiate ice ages by creating a negative feedback on the global temperature with a typical time scale of a few million years that is capable of countering water vapor and carbon dioxide short-term positive feedback on global temperature . The carbonate-silicate cycle equilibrium point is shifted on Venus due to surface temperatures above 300 ° C , which favor the formation of calcium silicates over weathering . Thus , Venus has a high-density carbon-dioxide atmosphere .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Carbonate–silicate_cycle", "rank": 11, "score": 122697 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 12, "score": 122026 }, { "content": "Title: Enhanced weathering Content: Enhanced weathering refers to geoengineering approaches that use the dissolution of natural or artificially created minerals to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Since the carbon dioxide is usually first removed from ocean water , these approaches would attack the problem by first reducing ocean acidification .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Enhanced_weathering", "rank": 13, "score": 121154 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 14, "score": 120502 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 15, "score": 120198 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 16, "score": 120139 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 17, "score": 119905 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 18, "score": 119706 }, { "content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Climate_sensitivity", "rank": 19, "score": 118889 }, { "content": "Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Scott_Denning", "rank": 20, "score": 118668 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 21, "score": 117755 }, { "content": "Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "William_D._Sellers", "rank": 22, "score": 117262 }, { "content": "Title: Welsbach seeding Content: Welsbach seeding is a proposed climate engineering method , involving seeding the stratosphere with small ( 10 to 100 micron ) metal oxide particles ( thorium dioxide , Aluminium oxide ) . The purpose of the Welsbach seeding would be to '' ( reduce ) atmospheric warming due to the greenhouse effect resulting from a greenhouse gases layer '' , by converting radiative energy at near-infrared wavelengths into radiation at far-infrared wavelengths , permitting some of the converted radiation to escape into space , thus cooling the atmosphere . The seeding as described would be performed by airplanes at altitudes between 7 and 13 kilometres .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Welsbach_seeding", "rank": 23, "score": 116833 }, { "content": "Title: Chicago Climate Exchange Content: The Chicago Climate Exchange ( CCX ) was North America 's only voluntary , legally binding greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reduction and trading system for emission sources and offset projects in North America and Brazil . CCX employed independent verification , included six greenhouse gases , and traded greenhouse gas emission allowances from 2003 to 2010 . The companies joining the exchange committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 6 % by 2010 . CCX had an aggregate baseline of 680 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent . CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets , although carbon exchanges were intended to still be facilitated .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Chicago_Climate_Exchange", "rank": 24, "score": 116772 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 25, "score": 116623 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 26, "score": 116508 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 27, "score": 116089 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 28, "score": 115570 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Carbon_rift", "rank": 29, "score": 114804 }, { "content": "Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Climate_footprint", "rank": 30, "score": 114335 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 31, "score": 113699 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 32, "score": 113312 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Climate_change_in_China", "rank": 33, "score": 112587 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 34, "score": 112285 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 35, "score": 111874 }, { "content": "Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Kenneth_Hare", "rank": 36, "score": 111625 }, { "content": "Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Climate_engineering", "rank": 37, "score": 111541 }, { "content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 38, "score": 111531 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 39, "score": 111138 }, { "content": "Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Michael_Raupach", "rank": 40, "score": 110418 }, { "content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson", "rank": 41, "score": 110114 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Dress Content: The Climate Dress was designed in 2009 by Danish design company Diffus Design in collaboration with the Swiss embroidery company Forster-Rohner , Alexandra Institute and the Danish School of Design . The Climate Dress is laced with hundreds of light-emitting diodes ( LEDs ) that responds to the level of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in the nearby surroundings and are powered through the conductive embroidery by an Arduino Lily pad microprocessor and a carbon dioxide detector , resulting in patterns that range from slow pulses to rapid flashes depending on the concentration of the CO2 . The Climate Dress does not rely on wiring , soldering , or crimping , which is often the case with smart textile products . All functional elements are blended into the embroidery and exposed to the viewer . The Climate Dress was presented at the Cop 15 Climate Summit in Copenhagen in 2009 , at the `` Health Environment Climate '' exhibition . In 2011 the Climate Dress won first prize in the Design That Performs contest , hosted by Samsung .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Climate_Dress", "rank": 42, "score": 109987 }, { "content": "Title: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 Content: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 is a chemical process whereby carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide or hydrocarbons by the energy of incident light . This process needs to be catalyzed either homogeneously or heterogeneously in order to proceed , and current research is aimed at developing these catalysts , most of which are semiconducting materials . Semiconducting catalysts provide favourable electron transfer kinetics . Motivation for research in this area is strong due to the current attention to atmospheric carbon dioxide as the reduction of carbon dioxide would be one route for removal and sequestration . Furthermore , the reduced species may prove to be a valuable feedstock for other processes . If the incident light utilized is solar in nature then this process also potentially represents energy routes which combine renewable energy with CO2 reduction .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Photoelectrochemical_reduction_of_CO2", "rank": 43, "score": 109220 }, { "content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction", "rank": 44, "score": 108668 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 45, "score": 108666 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 46, "score": 108329 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 47, "score": 108000 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 48, "score": 107922 }, { "content": "Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Drawdown_(climate)", "rank": 49, "score": 107483 }, { "content": "Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Evangelical_Climate_Initiative", "rank": 50, "score": 107304 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England", "rank": 51, "score": 107263 }, { "content": "Title: Mary Christina Wood Content: Mary Christina Wood ( born 1962 ) is an Oregon Philip H. Knight Professor of Law and author , best known for her writings advocating for the use of the Public trust doctrine to compel government action on climate change . Wood originated the approach , called atmospheric trust litigation , `` to hold governments worldwide accountable for reducing carbon pollution within their jurisdictions , and her research is being used in cases and petitions brought on behalf of children and youth throughout the United States and in other countries . '' In 2014 , after a number of atmospheric trust litigation and petitions were brought by young people worldwide , Forbes contributor James Conca wrote , '' ( i ) f the Supreme Court holds the government responsible for at least trying to protect our atmosphere , things could certainly change here in America . ''", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Mary_Christina_Wood", "rank": 52, "score": 106745 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Pluto Content: The atmosphere of Pluto is the tenuous layer of gases surrounding Pluto . It consists mainly of nitrogen ( N2 ) , with minor amounts of methane ( CH4 ) and carbon monoxide ( CO ) , all of which are vaporized from their ices on Pluto 's surface . It contains layered haze , probably consisting of heavier compounds which form from these gases due to high-energy radiation . The atmosphere of Pluto is notable for its strong and not completely clear seasonal changes caused by peculiarities of the orbital and axial rotation of Pluto . Surface pressure of the atmosphere of Pluto , measured by New Horizons in 2015 , is about , roughly 100,000 times less than Earth 's atmospheric pressure . Temperature on the surface is 40 to , but it quickly grows with altitude due to methane-generated greenhouse effect . Near the altitude it reaches 110 K , and then slowly decreases . Pluto is the only trans-Neptunian object with a known atmosphere . Its closest analog is the atmosphere of Triton , although in some aspects it resembles even the atmosphere of Mars . The atmosphere of Pluto has been studied since the 1980s by way of earth-based observation of occultations of stars by Pluto and spectroscopy . In 2015 , it was studied from a close distance by the spacecraft New Horizons .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Pluto", "rank": 53, "score": 106709 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 54, "score": 106535 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 55, "score": 106438 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme", "rank": 56, "score": 106192 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 57, "score": 105598 }, { "content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change", "rank": 58, "score": 105371 }, { "content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence", "rank": 59, "score": 105300 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 60, "score": 105104 }, { "content": "Title: Timothy Ball Content: Timothy Francis `` Tim '' Ball ( born November 5 , 1938 ) is a Canadian geographer . A retired professor , he taught in the department of geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until 1996 . Ball rejects the scientific opinion on climate change , stating that `` CO2 is not a greenhouse gas . '' He has worked with the Friends of Science and the Natural Resources Stewardship Project , and is a research fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Timothy_Ball", "rank": 61, "score": 105023 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 62, "score": 104983 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Carbon_leakage", "rank": 63, "score": 104726 }, { "content": "Title: Presidential Climate Action Plan Content: President Barack Obama 's Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions . It included preserving forests , encouraging the use of alternate fuels , and increased study of climate change . The plan was first established in 2008 and updated every two years since . The plan would support conservation of land and water resources and developing actionable climate science , and to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change , including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels . The plan specifically mentions methane , building efficiency , wind , solar and hydroelectricity . White House staff members who were directly tasked with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal and Michelle Patron . On the first day of the presidency of Donald Trump , the White House website announced that The Climate Action Plan would be eliminated , stating it is ` harmful and unnecessary ' .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan", "rank": 64, "score": 104100 }, { "content": "Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases", "rank": 65, "score": 103843 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 66, "score": 103585 }, { "content": "Title: Ken Caldeira Content: Kenneth Caldeira is an atmospheric scientist who works at the Carnegie Institution for Science 's Department of Global Ecology . He researches ocean acidification , climate effects of trees , intentional climate modification , and interactions in the global carbon cycle/climate system . He also acted as an inventor for Intellectual Ventures , a Seattle-based invention and patent company headed up by Nathan Myhrvold .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Ken_Caldeira", "rank": 67, "score": 102681 }, { "content": "Title: Fee and dividend Content: Fee and Dividend or Carbon Fee and Dividend ( CF&D ) is a market-based mechanism for reducing the carbon emissions that help to drive anthropogenic climate change . Carbon Fee and Dividend begins with levying imposing a progressively-rising fee on carbon-based fuels , then returning some or all of the fees collected to the public as a regular energy dividend . This is intended to incentivize a shift to low-carbon energy while protecting consumers from any increases in the costs of carbon-based fuels . Designed to maintain or improve economic vitality while speeding the transition to a sustainable energy economy , Carbon Fee and Dividend has been proposed as an alternative to emission reduction mechanisms such as cap and trade or a straightforward carbon tax .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Fee_and_dividend", "rank": 68, "score": 102448 }, { "content": "Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Solar_activity_and_climate", "rank": 69, "score": 102178 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia", "rank": 70, "score": 102063 }, { "content": "Title: Spheroidal weathering Content: Spheroidal weathering is a form of chemical weathering that affects jointed bedrock and results in the formation of concentric or spherical layers of highly decayed rock within weathered bedrock that is known as saprolite . When saprolite is exposed by physical erosion , these concentric layers peel ( spall ) off as concentric shells much like the layers of a peeled onion . Within saprolite , spheroidal weathering often creates rounded boulders , known as corestones or woolsack , of relatively unweathered rock . Spheroidal weathering is also called onion skin weathering , concentric weathering , spherical weathering , or woolsack weathering .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Spheroidal_weathering", "rank": 71, "score": 101787 }, { "content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "qid": "3034", "docid": "James_Hansen", "rank": 72, "score": 101692 }, { "content": "Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth", "rank": 73, "score": 101607 }, { "content": "Title: Tom Wigley Content: Tom Wigley is a climate scientist at the University of Adelaide . He is also affiliated with the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ( UCAR ) . He was named a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) for his major contributions to climate and carbon cycle modeling and to climate data analysis , and because he is `` one of the world 's foremost experts on climate change and one of the most highly cited scientists in the discipline . '' His h-index ( August 2014 ) is 64 , one of the highest in the discipline . He contributed to many of the reports published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) . Wigley was educated as a mathematical physicist and earned his doctorate at the University of Adelaide in Australia . He served as director of the Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia in the United Kingdom from 1978 to 1993 . In 1993 he went on to the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder , Colorado , where he was appointed a senior scientist in 1994 . He subsequently moved to the University of Adelaide where he currently ( 2014 ) holds a Professorial Fellowship . His published papers include the first paper to demonstrate 20th century warming using both land and marine data , the first paper to include the effects of aerosol cooling on projections of future climate change , the first paper to provide realistic scenarios for the stabilization of atmospheric CO2 , and the first paper to use pattern-based methods to identify a significant human influence on the climate . Wigley has also published a number of highly cited papers in aqueous geochemistry , including a now-standard method for carbon dating of groundwater . Wigley has argued in the popular media that the IPCC has been too optimistic about the prospect of averting harmful climate change by reducing greenhouse emissions through the use of renewable technologies alone , and argued that any realistic portfolio must include significant contributions from nuclear energy . He has also pointed out that `` the human-induced changes that are expected over the next 100 years are much , much greater than any changes that societies experienced in the past . '' In 2013 , with other leading experts , he was co-author of an open letter to policy makers , which stated that `` continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity 's ability to avoid dangerous climate change . ''", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Tom_Wigley", "rank": 74, "score": 101471 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 75, "score": 101456 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture", "rank": 76, "score": 101179 }, { "content": "Title: Driving the future Content: Driving the Future : Combating Climate Change with Cleaner , Smarter Cars is the first book by former Environmental Protection Agency senior director Margo T. Oge . The book covers climate science , politics , regulations , auto technology and proposes how to meet greenhouse gas reduction goals . It is organized into three sections .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Driving_the_future", "rank": 77, "score": 101044 }, { "content": "Title: Cohesion (geology) Content: Cohesion is the component of shear strength of a rock or soil that is independent of interparticle friction . In soils , true cohesion is caused by following : Electrostatic forces in stiff overconsolidated clays ( which may be lost through weathering ) Cementing by Fe2O3 , CaCO3 , NaCl , etc. . There can also be apparent cohesion . This is caused by : Negative capillary pressure ( which is lost upon wetting ) Pore pressure response during undrained loading ( which is lost through time ) Root cohesion ( which may be lost through logging or fire of the contributing plants , or through solution )", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Cohesion_(geology)", "rank": 78, "score": 100973 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming", "rank": 79, "score": 100838 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 80, "score": 100827 }, { "content": "Title: NoCO2 Certification Program Content: The NoCO2 Certification Program is a ` Climate Change actions ' certification scheme administered by Australia 's Carbon Reduction Institute", "qid": "3034", "docid": "NoCO2_Certification_Program", "rank": 81, "score": 100727 }, { "content": "Title: Terraforming of Venus Content: The terraforming of Venus is the hypothetical process of engineering the global environment of the planet Venus in such a way as to make it suitable for human habitation . Terraforming Venus was first seriously proposed by the astronomer Carl Sagan in 1961 , although fictional treatments , such as The Big Rain by Poul Anderson , preceded it . Adjustments to the existing environment of Venus to support human life would require at least three major changes to the planet . These three changes are closely interrelated , because Venus 's extreme temperature is due to the greenhouse effect caused by its dense carbon-dioxide atmosphere : Reducing Venus 's surface temperature of 462 C. Eliminating most of the planet 's dense 9.2 MPa carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide atmosphere , via removal or conversion to some other form . Addition of breathable oxygen to the atmosphere .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Terraforming_of_Venus", "rank": 82, "score": 100499 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 83, "score": 100228 }, { "content": "Title: The Climate Registry Content: The Climate Registry ( TCR ) is a non-profit organization governed by U.S. states and Canadian provinces and territories . TCR designs and operates voluntary and compliance greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reporting programs globally , and assists organizations in measuring , reporting and verifying the carbon in their operations in order to manage and reduce it . TCR also consults with governments nationally and internationally on all aspects of GHG measurement , reporting , and verification .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "The_Climate_Registry", "rank": 84, "score": 100044 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 85, "score": 99994 }, { "content": "Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Wetland_methane_emissions", "rank": 86, "score": 99974 }, { "content": "Title: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States Content: Twenty-eight states have climate action plans and nine have statewide emission targets . The states of California and New Mexico have committed most recently to emission reductions targets , joining New Jersey , Maine , Massachusetts , Connecticut , New York , Washington and Oregon . Regional initiatives can be more efficient than programs at the state level , as they encompass a broader geographical area , eliminate duplication of work , and create more uniform regulatory environments . Over the past few years , a number of regional initiatives have begun developing systems to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power plants , increase renewable energy generation , track renewable energy credits , and research and establish baselines for carbon sequestration .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States", "rank": 87, "score": 99760 }, { "content": "Title: Climate-friendly gardening Content: Climate-friendly gardening is gardening in ways which reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming . To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it and the impact they have on land use and climate . It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Climate-friendly_gardening", "rank": 88, "score": 99628 }, { "content": "Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World", "rank": 89, "score": 99416 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding", "rank": 90, "score": 99403 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Climate_Change_Act_2008", "rank": 91, "score": 99386 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Authority Content: The Climate Change Authority is an Australian statutory agency established under the Climate Change Authority Act 2011 . It began operations on 1 July 2012 . Its role is to review various climate change policies , including the Carbon Farming Initiative and National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting system , and to advise the Australian Government and Parliament on other matters as requested . The Authority has no legislative or executive powers , which remain with the Government and Parliament of the day . The Authority is presently undertaking a Special Review into Australia 's policies and targets for reducing emissions in the context of its international commitments and those of other countries . The Special Review is due to be completed by 30 June 2016 . The Authority has a Board comprising a Chair and eight permanent members : Dr Wendy Craik ( Chair ) , Stuart Allinson ( Acting Chair ) , Kate Carnell AO , Professor David Karoly , Professor John Quiggin , Professor Clive Hamilton , The Hon. John Sharp , Dr Alan Finkel and Danny Price . A tenth member , Andrew Macintosh , sits as an associate member until the conclusion of the Special Review . Dr Finkel is an ex officio member of the Authority as Australia 's Chief Scientist , replacing the former Chief Scientist Ian Chubb . The original Chair of the Authority was former Reserve Bank of Australia Governor and Treasury Secretary , Bernie Fraser . He resigned from the position in September 2015 . The agency is based in Melbourne where it has the advantage of being able to work closely with the Productivity Commission . The agency was allocated A$ 6.2 million in the 2012-13 financial year . The Australian Government , under Liberal leadership , is in the process of abolishing the Climate Change Authority , a move which has been heavily criticised .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Climate_Change_Authority", "rank": 92, "score": 99237 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 93, "score": 99165 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Carbon_finance", "rank": 94, "score": 99064 }, { "content": "Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Emission_Reduction_Unit", "rank": 95, "score": 99049 }, { "content": "Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance", "rank": 96, "score": 98970 }, { "content": "Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Landfill_gas", "rank": 97, "score": 98797 }, { "content": "Title: Recycled fuel Content: Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Recycled_fuel", "rank": 98, "score": 98789 }, { "content": "Title: Greening Earth Society Content: The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Greening_Earth_Society", "rank": 99, "score": 98717 }, { "content": "Title: Weatherization Content: Weatherization ( American English ) or weatherproofing ( British English ) is the practice of protecting a building and its interior from the elements , particularly from sunlight , precipitation , and wind , and of modifying a building to reduce energy consumption and optimize energy efficiency . Weatherization is distinct from building insulation , although building insulation requires weatherization for proper functioning . Many types of insulation can be thought of as weatherization , because they block drafts or protect from cold winds . Whereas insulation primarily reduces conductive heat flow , weatherization primarily reduces convective heat flow . In the United States , buildings use one third of all energy consumed and two thirds of all electricity . Due to the high energy usage , they are a major source of the pollution that causes urban air quality problems and pollutants that contribute to climate change . Building energy usage accounts for 49 percent of sulfur dioxide emissions , 25 percent of nitrous oxide emissions , and 10 percent of particulate emissions .", "qid": "3034", "docid": "Weatherization", "rank": 100, "score": 98415 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 1, "score": 151686 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 2, "score": 144862 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 3, "score": 143557 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 4, "score": 143026 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 5, "score": 140260 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 6, "score": 138201 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 7, "score": 138007 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 8, "score": 135785 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes", "rank": 9, "score": 131928 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 10, "score": 124638 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 11, "score": 124194 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 12, "score": 120213 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 13, "score": 119601 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth", "rank": 14, "score": 117558 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 15, "score": 116351 }, { "content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Revelle_factor", "rank": 16, "score": 115922 }, { "content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Past_sea_level", "rank": 17, "score": 113574 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainability and environmental management Content: At the global scale sustainability and environmental management involves managing the oceans , freshwater systems , land and atmosphere , according to sustainability principles . Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation , agriculture , forest , woodland , grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water , carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles . Management of the Earth 's atmosphere involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities . Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and , in turn , the food supply of both humans and other organisms .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Sustainability_and_environmental_management", "rank": 18, "score": 113331 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 19, "score": 112581 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 20, "score": 112423 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 21, "score": 111048 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric temperature Content: Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth 's atmosphere . It is governed by many factors , including incoming solar radiation , humidity and altitude . When discussing surface temperature , the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome , as measured by the Köppen climate classification .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Atmospheric_temperature", "rank": 22, "score": 110959 }, { "content": "Title: Virgin Earth Challenge Content: The Virgin Earth Challenge is a competition offering a $ 25 million prize for whoever can demonstrate a commercially viable design which results in the permanent removal of greenhouse gases out of the Earth 's atmosphere to contribute materially in global warming avoidance . The prize was conceived and financed by Sir Richard Branson , a successful British entrepreneur , and was announced in London on 9 February 2007 by Branson and former US Vice President and 2007 Nobel Prize winner Al Gore , creator of the 2006 film An Inconvenient Truth on climate change . Among more than 2600 applications , 11 finalists were announced on 2 November 2011 . These are Biochar Solutions , from the US ; Biorecro , Sweden ; Black Carbon , Denmark ; Carbon Engineering , Canada ; Climeworks , Switzerland ; COAWAY , US ; Full Circle Biochar , US ; Global Thermostat , US ; Kilimanjaro Energy , US ; Smartstones -- Olivine Foundation , Netherlands , and The Savory Institute , US .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Virgin_Earth_Challenge", "rank": 23, "score": 110444 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 24, "score": 110265 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 25, "score": 110155 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals", "rank": 26, "score": 110134 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 27, "score": 109882 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 28, "score": 108269 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 29, "score": 107771 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans", "rank": 30, "score": 106558 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 31, "score": 105358 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 32, "score": 105168 }, { "content": "Title: Global change Content: Global change refers to planetary-scale changes in the Earth system . The system consists of the land , oceans , atmosphere , polar regions , life , the planet 's natural cycles and deep Earth processes . These constituent parts influence one another . The Earth system now includes human society , so global change also refers to large-scale changes in society . More completely , the term `` global change '' encompasses : population , climate , the economy , resource use , energy development , transport , communication , land use and land cover , urbanization , globalization , atmospheric circulation , ocean circulation , the carbon cycle , the nitrogen cycle , the water cycle and other cycles , sea ice loss , sea-level rise , food webs , biological diversity , pollution , health , over fishing , and more .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Global_change", "rank": 33, "score": 104794 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 34, "score": 104692 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 35, "score": 104680 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 36, "score": 103699 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 37, "score": 103628 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 38, "score": 103529 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture", "rank": 39, "score": 103367 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 40, "score": 102993 }, { "content": "Title: Orbital effects on climate Content: There are various solar/celestial effects that exist which have an effect on Earth 's climate . These effects usually occur in cycles , and primarily include how Earth 's obliquity , the eccentricity of Earth 's orbit , and the precession of the equinoxes and solstices affect Earth 's climate . In addition to these effects , there are also other factors that have an effect on Earth 's climate . These other factors include how sun activity affects climate and how celestial phenomena , such as meteors , affect Earth 's climate . Some of these factors are n't yet well understood , for instance the ice ages occur on 100,000 year cycles , and it 's not completely understood why the various effects with this periodicity have such a strong effect on glaciation ( see the 100,000-year problem ) .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Orbital_effects_on_climate", "rank": 41, "score": 102644 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 42, "score": 102004 }, { "content": "Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Future_of_Earth", "rank": 43, "score": 101801 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Atmosphere", "rank": 44, "score": 101270 }, { "content": "Title: Greening Earth Society Content: The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Greening_Earth_Society", "rank": 45, "score": 101254 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 46, "score": 100881 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 47, "score": 100728 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 48, "score": 100328 }, { "content": "Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Politics_of_global_warming", "rank": 49, "score": 99806 }, { "content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Climate_sensitivity", "rank": 50, "score": 99670 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 51, "score": 99620 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 52, "score": 99364 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 53, "score": 99267 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 54, "score": 99180 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 55, "score": 99002 }, { "content": "Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology", "qid": "3038", "docid": "LOWERN", "rank": 56, "score": 98957 }, { "content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "qid": "3038", "docid": "James_Hansen", "rank": 57, "score": 98757 }, { "content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Global_dimming", "rank": 58, "score": 98627 }, { "content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)", "rank": 59, "score": 97765 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 60, "score": 97676 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)", "rank": 61, "score": 97616 }, { "content": "Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Scott_Denning", "rank": 62, "score": 97566 }, { "content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Kaya_identity", "rank": 63, "score": 97260 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Carbon_sequestration", "rank": 64, "score": 97112 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea", "rank": 65, "score": 96935 }, { "content": "Title: Ecological forecasting Content: Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Ecological_forecasting", "rank": 66, "score": 96877 }, { "content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change", "rank": 67, "score": 96865 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 68, "score": 96602 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "rank": 69, "score": 96440 }, { "content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson", "rank": 70, "score": 96351 }, { "content": "Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate", "rank": 71, "score": 96325 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 72, "score": 96134 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 73, "score": 96066 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Greenhouse_debt", "rank": 74, "score": 95705 }, { "content": "Title: Territorialisation of carbon governance Content: Territorialisation of Carbon Governance ( ToCG ) is a concept used in political geography or environmental policy which is considered to be a new logic of environmental governance . This method creates carbon-relevant citizens who become enrolled in the process of governing the climate . The territorialisation of carbon governance transforms climate change from a global to local issue . It embodies political practices that serve to connect the causes and consequences of global climate change to local communities . The commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) has been a key component of sustainability within governance since the early 1990s . The ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability is an international association of local governments which brings together 1200 cities , towns and the associated 70 countries in their commitment to sustainable development . Further responses that seek to address these issues , include international body the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the Rio Earth Summit and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . These organisations strive to tackle anthropogenic forces which are increasing risks of global warming . Under the territorialisation of carbon , climate and global flows of carbon are regarded as ` national sinks ' . This is a means by which the carbon cycle can be managed and territorialised through being assigned to a physical geographical space instead of being thought of as a global phenomenon . The act of territorialisation oversees the combining of material natures and state institutions into one system through the creation of carbon territories . This approach can allow individual states and governments to control and monitor their carbon emissions in order to improve their efforts in carbon governance . Carbon governance can be interpreted as the institutional arrangements under which greenhouse gas emissions are addressed and mitigated . This is achieved through regulating and controlling carbon activities . Measures and protocols exist in an attempt to address the issues surrounding greenhouse gas emissions . Carbon governance is addressed via governmental decisions made through leadership and management which attempt to improve and resolve problems related to climate change .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance", "rank": 75, "score": 95626 }, { "content": "Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Drawdown_(climate)", "rank": 76, "score": 95482 }, { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 77, "score": 95477 }, { "content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Mesopause", "rank": 78, "score": 95334 }, { "content": "Title: Mary Christina Wood Content: Mary Christina Wood ( born 1962 ) is an Oregon Philip H. Knight Professor of Law and author , best known for her writings advocating for the use of the Public trust doctrine to compel government action on climate change . Wood originated the approach , called atmospheric trust litigation , `` to hold governments worldwide accountable for reducing carbon pollution within their jurisdictions , and her research is being used in cases and petitions brought on behalf of children and youth throughout the United States and in other countries . '' In 2014 , after a number of atmospheric trust litigation and petitions were brought by young people worldwide , Forbes contributor James Conca wrote , '' ( i ) f the Supreme Court holds the government responsible for at least trying to protect our atmosphere , things could certainly change here in America . ''", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Mary_Christina_Wood", "rank": 79, "score": 95298 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 80, "score": 95108 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 81, "score": 94989 }, { "content": "Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe", "rank": 82, "score": 94559 }, { "content": "Title: Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) Carbon Neutral Resolution Content: The Presbyterian Church ( USA ) Carbon Neutral Resolution was a resolution passed at the June , 2006 , 217th General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) strongly urging all Presbyterians to ` immediately aspire to live carbon neutral lives ' . It is believed that resolution was the first in the world by a major religious denomination for its followers to become carbon neutral . The resolution also directed the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy to make available detail of how Presbyterians could take to reduce their energy consumption and recognised that ` the Christian mandate to care for creation and the biblical promise of the restoration of right relationships between God , human beings , and the rest of creation impels and inspires Presbyterians to act to reduce -LSB- their -RSB- energy usage ' . The resolution was based on a report by a task force prepared for the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy . After the Advisory Committee voted to postpone consideration of the report until the 2008 General Assembly , two General Assembly Commissioners bypassed the committee and were successful in getting the resolution adopted . The Church first noted its ` serious concern ' over global warming at the 1990 General Assembly , when it warned that ` the global atmospheric warming trend ( the greenhouse effect ) represents one of the most serious global environmental challenges to the health , security , and stability of human life and natural ecosystems ' . Despite this , a survey carried out in 2004 revealed that over half of all Presbyterians had not taken even the ` simplest steps to decrease their energy usage ' , and that most congregations had not implemented energy conservation programs .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Presbyterian_Church_(U.S.A.)_Carbon_Neutral_Resolution", "rank": 83, "score": 94449 }, { "content": "Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system", "rank": 84, "score": 94049 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting", "rank": 85, "score": 94021 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Antarctica", "rank": 86, "score": 93787 }, { "content": "Title: Ken Caldeira Content: Kenneth Caldeira is an atmospheric scientist who works at the Carnegie Institution for Science 's Department of Global Ecology . He researches ocean acidification , climate effects of trees , intentional climate modification , and interactions in the global carbon cycle/climate system . He also acted as an inventor for Intellectual Ventures , a Seattle-based invention and patent company headed up by Nathan Myhrvold .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Ken_Caldeira", "rank": 87, "score": 93680 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 88, "score": 93607 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 89, "score": 93425 }, { "content": "Title: Methanotroph Content: Methanotrophs ( sometimes called methanophiles ) are prokaryotes that metabolize methane as their only source of carbon and energy . They can grow aerobically or anaerobically and require single-carbon compounds to survive . These Methanotrophs are currently being modified to absorb methane from the atmosphere , because methane released into the atmosphere contributes to greenhouse gasses , which heat up the earth and cause global warming .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Methanotroph", "rank": 90, "score": 93097 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 91, "score": 93047 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 92, "score": 92953 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 93, "score": 92863 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth's atmosphere Content: The following articles relate to Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth 's atmosphere : Carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere Global warming Greenhouse effect", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_accumulation_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 94, "score": 92782 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Content: The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Atmospheric_Infrared_Sounder", "rank": 95, "score": 92631 }, { "content": "Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Climate_engineering", "rank": 96, "score": 92276 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan", "rank": 97, "score": 92051 }, { "content": "Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World", "rank": 98, "score": 92040 }, { "content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Black_carbon", "rank": 99, "score": 91857 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "qid": "3038", "docid": "Carbon_rift", "rank": 100, "score": 91389 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "William_D._Sellers", "rank": 1, "score": 131674 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 2, "score": 131237 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 3, "score": 123415 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 4, "score": 122854 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 5, "score": 120554 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 6, "score": 118792 }, { "content": "Title: Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action Content: The Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action ( AWG-LCA ) is one of the two negotiating tracks established under the Bali Road Map at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 's 13th Conference of the Parties ( COP13 ) in Bali in 2007 . The other one is the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) . Its purpose is to negotiate emissions reductions commitments for Non-Annex-I countries , which do n't have any mandatory reductions commitments under the Kyoto Protocol and the United States which failed to ratify it . In theory , the two negotiation tracks together would result in a comprehensive Global climate regime .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Ad_Hoc_Working_Group_on_Long-term_Cooperative_Action", "rank": 7, "score": 116762 }, { "content": "Title: Karl-Heinz Höcker Content: Karl-Heinz Höcker ( 27 December 1915 -- 17 July 1998 ) was a German theoretical nuclear physicist who worked in the German Uranverein . After World War II , he worked at the university of Stuttgart and was the founder of the Institut für Kernenergetik und Energiesysteme .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Karl-Heinz_Höcker", "rank": 8, "score": 115352 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 9, "score": 113586 }, { "content": "Title: Hockerton Housing Project Content: The Hockerton Housing Project is a small community of five earth sheltered homes on the outskirts of Hockerton , Nottinghamshire , UK . The houses were designed by ` green ' architects Professor Brenda Vale and Dr Robert Vale . Low carbon living is facilitated through the use of renewable energy , the water system , food grown on site , and the community 's approach to work and transport . The homes were completed in September 1998 after three years of planning and 18 months of construction , at a cost of about # 65,000 . Two homes have since changed ownership on the open property market .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Hockerton_Housing_Project", "rank": 10, "score": 112999 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrocarboxyl Content: The hydrocarboxyl radical , HOCO , is an unstable molecular radical important in combustion . It is formed by the reaction of the hydroxyl radical with carbon monoxide . Hydrocarboxyl then breaks up to form carbon dioxide and atomic hydrogen . Much of the carbon dioxide on Earth and Mars has been produced via the hydrocarboxyl radical . HOCO formed from OH and CO initially is in an excited state . It can transfer energy to other molecules such as N2 or other carbon monoxide molecules . The production of this radical during combustion was originally predicted by Ian W. M. Smith and Reinhard Zellner in 1973 . The HOCO radical was detected in its deuterated form DOCO by Bryce J. Bjork , Thinh Q. Bui , and Jun Ye in 2016 .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Hydrocarboxyl", "rank": 11, "score": 110333 }, { "content": "Title: Ingeborg Hochmair Content: Ingeborg J. Hochmair-Desoyer ( born 1953 ) is an Austrian electrical engineer from Technical University of Vienna . With her husband Prof. Erwin Hochmair she helped create the first micro-electronic multi-channel cochlear implant in the world . In 1980 she co-founded together with Prof. Erwin Hochmair the medical device company MED-EL and serves as its CEO and CTO . In 2013 , she was honored together with two more scientists with the Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award for developing the modern cochlear implant .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Ingeborg_Hochmair", "rank": 12, "score": 108889 }, { "content": "Title: Ziff–Gulari–Barshad model Content: The Ziff -- Gulari -- Barshad ( ZGB ) model is a simple Monte Carlo method for catalytic reactions of oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide on a surface using Monte-Carlo methods which captures correctly the essential dynamics : the phase transition between two poisoned states ( either CO2 - or O-poisoned ) and a steady-state in between . It is named after Robert M. Ziff , Erdogan Gulari , and Yoav Barshad , who published it in 1986 .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Ziff–Gulari–Barshad_model", "rank": 13, "score": 108480 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 14, "score": 107861 }, { "content": "Title: Mark Z. Jacobson Content: Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Mark_Z._Jacobson", "rank": 15, "score": 107329 }, { "content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "qid": "3039", "docid": "James_Hansen", "rank": 16, "score": 106129 }, { "content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Climate_sensitivity", "rank": 17, "score": 105587 }, { "content": "Title: Ian G. Enting Content: Ian Enting ( born 25 September 1948 ) is a mathematical physicist and the AMSI/MASCOS Professorial Fellow at the ARC Centre of Excellence for Mathematics and Statistics of Complex Systems ( MASCOS ) based at The University of Melbourne . Enting is the author of Twisted , The Distorted Mathematics of Greenhouse Denial in which he analyses the presentation and use of data by climate change deniers . More recently he has been addressing the claims made in Ian Plimer 's book `` Heaven + Earth '' . He has published a critique , `` Ian Plimer 's ` Heaven + Earth ' -- Checking the Claims '' , listing what Enting claims are numerous misrepresentations of the sources cited in the book . From 1980 to 2004 he worked in CSIRO Atmospheric Research , primarily on modelling the global carbon cycle . He was one of the lead authors of the chapter and the Carbon Cycle in the 1994 IPCC report on Radiative Forcing of Climate . Enting has published scientific papers , on mathematical physics and carbon cycle modelling , and a monograph on mathematical techniques for interpreting observations of carbon dioxide and other trace gases .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Ian_G._Enting", "rank": 18, "score": 105097 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 19, "score": 104992 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 20, "score": 104700 }, { "content": "Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Climate_model", "rank": 21, "score": 104069 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 22, "score": 103769 }, { "content": "Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Michael_Raupach", "rank": 23, "score": 103655 }, { "content": "Title: Willie Soon Content: Wei-Hock `` Willie '' Soon ( born 1966 ) is an externally-funded part-time researcher of the Smithsonian at the Solar and Stellar Physics ( SSP ) Division of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics . Soon co-authored The Maunder Minimum and the Variable Sun -- Earth Connection with Steven H. Yaskell . The book treats historical and proxy records of climate change coinciding with the Maunder Minimum , a period from 1645 to about 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare . Soon disputes the current scientific understanding of climate change , and contends that most global warming is caused by solar variation rather than by human activity . He gained visibility in part due to strong scientific criticism of the methodology of a paper which he co-wrote . Climate scientists such as Gavin Schmidt of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies have strongly refuted Soon 's arguments , and the Smithsonian does not support his conclusions . He is nonetheless frequently cited by politicians opposed to climate-change legislation .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Willie_Soon", "rank": 24, "score": 103495 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 25, "score": 103455 }, { "content": "Title: Homocitric acid Content: Homocitric acid is an organic compound with the formula HOC ( CO2H ) ( CH2CO2H ) ( C2H4CO2H ) . This tricarboxylic acid occurs naturally as a component of the iron-molybdenum cofactor of certain nitrogenase proteins . Biochemists often refer to this cofactor as homocitrate , which is the conjugate bases that predominate in neutral aqueous solutions of this species . The molecule is related to citric acid by the addition of one methylene unit , hence the prefix `` homo . '' Unlike citric acid , homocitric acid is chiral . The acid exists in equilibrium with the lactone .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Homocitric_acid", "rank": 26, "score": 103405 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 rocket Content: CO2 rockets are a very safe and simple way to experiment with model rockets . Most CO2 rockets are very small and do not travel very high or fast . The common method of construction for a CO2 rocket is to take a CO2 canister and use it as the motor to propel the projectile , or load into the air .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "CO2_rocket", "rank": 27, "score": 102982 }, { "content": "Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "C._Kumar_N._Patel", "rank": 28, "score": 102697 }, { "content": "Title: Gustav Lorentzen (scientist) Content: Gustav Fredrik Lorentzen ( 13 January 1915 -- 7 August 1995 ) was a thermodynamic scientist from Norway . Gustav Lorentzen was a professor at Norwegian Institute of Technology , and Norwegian University of Science and Technology . In the late 1980s , Gustav Lorentzen rediscovered how CO2 could be used as a refrigerant in heating and cooling applications . He developed the modern thermodynamic transcritical cycle in 1988-1991 . In 1988 Lorentzen designed a concept for a new , but simple and efficient way of regulating CO2 systems . This idea became the turning point in the re-invention of CO2 cooling technology . Meanwhile , the Japanese corporation Denso had familiarized itself with Lorentzen 's dissertation in 1993 , and was evaluating the concept as a basis for a new air-condition application in cars . A series of communications between Lorentzen and Denso followed and the result of the collaboration between Lorentzen and Denso was a fundamental step in the innovation of EcoCute which was commercialized in 2000s .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Gustav_Lorentzen_(scientist)", "rank": 29, "score": 102185 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 30, "score": 102139 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 31, "score": 101436 }, { "content": "Title: Robert Berner Content: Robert Arbuckle Berner ( November 25 , 1935 -- January 10 , 2015 ) was an American scientist known for his contributions to the modeling of the carbon cycle . He taught Geology and Geophysics from 1965 to 2007 at Yale University , where he latterly served as Professor Emeritus until his death . His work on sedimentary rocks led to the co-founding of the BLAG model of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which takes into account both geochemical and biological contributions to the carbon cycle .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Robert_Berner", "rank": 32, "score": 101395 }, { "content": "Title: Wegman Report Content: The Wegman Report ( officially called the Ad Hoc Committee Report on the ` Hockey Stick ' Global Climate Reconstruction ) was prepared in 2006 by three statisticians led by Edward Wegman at the request of Rep. Joe Barton of the United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce to validate criticisms made by Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years , in particular the reconstructions by Mann , Bradley and Hughes which had become the focus of the hockey stick controversy .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Wegman_Report", "rank": 33, "score": 101325 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 34, "score": 101160 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 35, "score": 101018 }, { "content": "Title: Karl-Friedrich Höcker Content: Karl-Friedrich Höcker ( 11 December 1911 -- 30 January 2000 ) was a Nazi war criminal and was a German commander in the SS and the adjutant to Richard Baer , who was a commandant of Auschwitz I concentration camp from May 1944 to December 1944 . In 2006 , a photo album created by Höcker ( the Höcker Album ) , with some 116 pictures from his time at Auschwitz , was given to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum , sparking new interest in his activities as a concentration camp administrator .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Karl-Friedrich_Höcker", "rank": 36, "score": 100813 }, { "content": "Title: Sepp Hochreiter Content: Sepp Hochreiter ( born Josef Hochreiter in 1967 ) is a German computer scientist . Since 2006 he has been head of the Institute of Bioinformatics at the Johannes Kepler University of Linz . Previously , he was at the Technical University of Berlin , at the University of Colorado at Boulder , and at the Technical University of Munich . Sepp Hochreiter has made numerous contributions in the fields of machine learning and bioinformatics . He developed the long short-term memory ( LSTM ) for which the first results were reported in his diploma thesis in 1991 . The main LSTM paper appeared in 1997 and is considered as a discovery that is a milestone in the timeline of machine learning . He applied biclustering methods to drug discovery and toxicology . He extended support vector machines to handle kernels that are not kernels that are not positive definite with the `` Potential Support Vector Machine '' ( PSVM ) model , and applied this model to feature selection , especially to gene selection for microarray data . Also in biotechnology , he developed `` Factor Analysis for Robust Microarray Summarization '' ( FARMS ) . In addition to his research contributions , Sepp Hochreiter is broadly active within his field : he launched the Bioinformatics Working Group at the Austrian Computer Society ; he is founding board member of different bioinformatics start-up companies ; he was program chair of the conference Bioinformatics Research and Development , ; he is conference chair of the conference Critical Assessment of Massive Data Analysis ( CAMDA ) ; and he is editor , program committee member , and reviewer for international journals and conferences . As a faculty member at Johannes Kepler Linz , he founded the Bachelors Program in Bioinformatics , which is a cross-border , double-degree study program together with the University of South-Bohemia in České Budějovice ( Budweis ) , Czech Republic . He also established the Masters Program in Bioinformatics , where he is still the acting dean of both studies .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Sepp_Hochreiter", "rank": 37, "score": 100738 }, { "content": "Title: Hockerton Content: Hockerton is a village and civil parish in Nottinghamshire . It is 2 miles from the town of Southwell on the A617 between Newark and Mansfield . Fewer than 60 houses are situated around the church , the Spread Eagle pub and village hall . The population at the 2011 Census was 146 . The local properties range from the carbon neutral housing of the Hockerton Housing Project to converted barns , 1960s and 1970s housing together with much older houses and a 19th-century Rectory . The parish church of St Nicholas is Norman with an aisleless nave and a 14th-century chancel . Part of the village contains Hockerton Housing Project . The Hockerton Housing Project is the UK 's first earth sheltered , self-sufficient ecological housing development . A group of residents formed an Industrial and Provident Society ( IPS ) called Sustainable Hockerton Limited in 2009 . Official Web Page Sustainable Hockerton , also described by everybodys-talking Sustainable Hockerton . Sustainable Hockerton is also known as SHOCK . The Society has installed a wind turbine that generates electricity equal to that used by the village . Any surplus is distributed in the parish to promote sustainable development . By 2012 the Society had made # 13,000 for the parish . The place-name Hockerton seems to contain an Old English word for a hill , hocer , + tun ( Old English ) , an enclosure ; a farmstead ; a village ; an estate . . , so ` hill or hump settlement ' .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Hockerton", "rank": 38, "score": 100296 }, { "content": "Title: Debye model Content: In thermodynamics and solid state physics , the Debye model is a method developed by Peter Debye in 1912 for estimating the phonon contribution to the specific heat ( heat capacity ) in a solid . It treats the vibrations of the atomic lattice ( heat ) as phonons in a box , in contrast to the Einstein model , which treats the solid as many individual , non-interacting quantum harmonic oscillators . The Debye model correctly predicts the low temperature dependence of the heat capacity , which is proportional to -- the Debye T3 law . Just like the Einstein model , it also recovers the Dulong -- Petit law at high temperatures . But due to simplifying assumptions , its accuracy suffers at intermediate temperatures . See M. Shubin and T. Sunada for a rigorous treatment of the Debye model .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Debye_model", "rank": 39, "score": 100075 }, { "content": "Title: Timothy Ball Content: Timothy Francis `` Tim '' Ball ( born November 5 , 1938 ) is a Canadian geographer . A retired professor , he taught in the department of geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until 1996 . Ball rejects the scientific opinion on climate change , stating that `` CO2 is not a greenhouse gas . '' He has worked with the Friends of Science and the Natural Resources Stewardship Project , and is a research fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Timothy_Ball", "rank": 40, "score": 99848 }, { "content": "Title: DICE model Content: The Dynamic Integrated Climate-Economy model , referred to as the DICE model or Dice model , is a computer-based integrated assessment model developed by William Nordhaus that `` integrates in an end-to-end fashion the economics , carbon cycle , climate science , and impacts in a highly aggregated model that allows a weighing of the costs and benefits of taking steps to slow greenhouse warming . '' Nordhaus also developed the RICE model ( Regional Integrated Climate-Economy model ) , a variant of the DICE model that was updated and developed alongside the DICE model . Others who collaborated with Nordhaus to develop the model include David Popp , Zili Yang , Joseph Boyer , and other colleagues . The DICE model is one of the three main integrated assessment models used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency , and it provides estimates intermediate between the other two models .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "DICE_model", "rank": 41, "score": 99333 }, { "content": "Title: Höcker Album Content: The Höcker Album ( or Hoecker Album ) is a collection of photographs believed to have been collected by Karl-Friedrich Höcker , an officer for the SS during the Nazi regime in Germany . It contains over one hundred images of the lives and living conditions of the officers and administrators who ran the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp complex . The album is unique , and an indispensable document of the Holocaust ; it is now in the archives of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum ( USHMM ) in Washington , D.C.", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Höcker_Album", "rank": 42, "score": 99047 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 43, "score": 98961 }, { "content": "Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Gilbert_Plass", "rank": 44, "score": 98616 }, { "content": "Title: Höcker Content: Höcker ( also transliterated Hoecker in other languages ) is a German surname . Notable people with the surname include : Bernhard Hoëcker , German comedian Carl Hoecker , Inspector General of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission Hanskurt Höcker , German Wehrmacht military officer Karl-Friedrich Höcker , German SS military officer Karl-Heinz Höcker , German theoretical nuclear physicist . Wilhelm Höcker , German politician Four notable German writers : Oskar Höcker ( 1840-1894 ) Gustav Höcker ( 1832-1911 ) ( Oskar 's brother ) Paul Oskar Höcker ( 1865-1944 ) ( Oskar 's son ) Karla Höcker ( 1901-1992 ) ( Paul Oskar 's daughter )", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Höcker", "rank": 45, "score": 98612 }, { "content": "Title: Angelo Battelli Content: Angelo Battelli ( 28 March 1862 -- 11 December 1916 ) was an Italian scientist , notable for having measured temperatures and heats of fusion of non-metallic substances , metallic conductivities and thermoelectric effects in magnetic metals , and the Thomson effect . He investigated osmotic pressures , surface tensions , and physical properties of carbon disulfide ( CS2 ) , water ( H2O ) , and alcohols , especially their vapor pressures , critical points , and densities . He studied X-rays and cathode rays . He investigated the resistance of solenoids to high-frequency alternating currents .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Angelo_Battelli", "rank": 46, "score": 98507 }, { "content": "Title: Gerald Hocker Content: Gerald W. Hocker ( born January 9 , 1948 in Lewes , Delaware ) is an American politician and a Republican member of the Delaware Senate since January 8 , 2013 representing District 20 . Hocker has served in the Delaware General Assembly continuously since 2003 , in the Delaware House of Representatives until 2013 .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Gerald_Hocker", "rank": 47, "score": 98475 }, { "content": "Title: Gustav Höcker Content: Gustav Höcker ( 28 September 1832 - 11 October 1911 ) was a German author and translator of popular historical novels .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Gustav_Höcker", "rank": 48, "score": 97475 }, { "content": "Title: Brian Andrew Hills Content: Brian Andrew Hills , born 19 March 1934 in Cardiff , Wales , died 13 January 2006 in Brisbane , Queensland , was a physiologist who worked on decompression theory . Early decompression work was done with Hugh LeMessurier 's aeromedicine group at the department of Physiology , University of Adelaide . His `` thermodynamic decompression model '' was one of the first models in which decompression is controlled by the volume of gas bubbles coming out of solution . In this model , pain only DCS is modelled by a single tissue which is diffusion-limited for gas uptake , and bubble-formation during decompression causes `` phase equilibration '' of partial pressures between dissolved and free gases . The driving mechanism for gas elimination in this tissue is inherent unsaturation , also called partial pressure vacancy or the oxygen window , where oxygen metabolised is replaced by more soluble carbon dioxide . This model was used to explain the effectiveness of the Torres Strait Islands pearl divers ' empirically developed decompression schedules , which used deeper decompression stops and less overall decompression time than the current naval decompression schedules . This trend to deeper decompression stops has become a feature of more recent decompression models . Hills made a significant contribution to the mainstream scientific literature of some 186 articles between 1967 and 2006 . The first 15 years of this contribution are mostly related to decompression theory . Other contributions to decompression science include the development of two early decompression computers , a method to detect tissue bubbles using electrical impedance , the use of kangaroo rats as animal models for decompression sickness , theoretical and experimental work on bubble nucleation , inert gas uptake and washout , acclimatisation to decompression sickness , and isobaric counterdiffusion .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Brian_Andrew_Hills", "rank": 49, "score": 97370 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 50, "score": 97284 }, { "content": "Title: Wilhelm Höcker Content: Wilhelm Höcker ( born June 29 , 1886 in Holzendorf , Mecklenburg-Schwerin ; d. November 15 , 1955 in Güstrow ) was a German politician ( SPD , SED ) and former Minister-President of Mecklenburg . Höcker was the oldest former Minister-President of East Germany from the formation of the GDR until April 12 , 1966 ; he was succeeded by Karl Steinhoff . Category :1886 births Category :1955 deaths Category : People from Ludwigslust-Parchim Category : People from the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Category : Social Democratic Party of Germany politicians Category : Socialist Unity Party of Germany politicians Category : Members of the Volkskammer Category : Recipients of the Patriotic Order of Merit Category : Ministers-President of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Wilhelm_Höcker", "rank": 51, "score": 97259 }, { "content": "Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Scott_Denning", "rank": 52, "score": 97238 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 53, "score": 96777 }, { "content": "Title: Bak–Sneppen model Content: The Bak -- Sneppen model is a simple model of co-evolution between interacting species . It was developed to show how self-organized criticality may explain key features of the fossil record , such as the distribution of sizes of extinction events and the phenomenon of punctuated equilibrium . It is named after Per Bak and Kim Sneppen . The model dynamics repeatedly eliminates the least adapted species and mutates it and its neighbors to recreate the interaction between species . A comprehensive study of the details of this model can be found in Phys . Rev. E 53 , 414 -- 443 ( 1996 ) . A solvable version of the model has been proposed in Phys . Rev. Lett . 76 , 348 -- 351 ( 1996 ) , which shows that the dynamics evolves sub-diffusively , driven by a long-range memory . An evolutionary local search heuristic based on the Bak -- Sneppen model , called extremal optimization , has been introduced in Artificial Intelligence 119 , 275 -- 286 ( 2000 ) . The Bak -- Sneppen model has been applied to the theory of scientific progress .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Bak–Sneppen_model", "rank": 54, "score": 96660 }, { "content": "Title: Bernd Höcker Content: Bernd Höcker ( b. 3 February 1953 ) is a German journalist and author from Hamburg . He is known for his campaigning against the GEZ ( German public broadcasting ) .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Bernd_Höcker", "rank": 55, "score": 96559 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 56, "score": 96486 }, { "content": "Title: Hanskurt Höcker Content: __ NOTOC __ Hanskurt Höcker ( 1 August 1894 -- 10 August 1961 ) was a German general during World War II who commanded several divisions . He was a recipient of the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross of Nazi Germany .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Hanskurt_Höcker", "rank": 57, "score": 96431 }, { "content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Simon_Tett", "rank": 58, "score": 96404 }, { "content": "Title: Hockham Mere Content: The Hockham Mere pollen data shows the rates of change in levels of vegetation using pollen samples from within the Holocene period . Hockham Mere is the site of a former lake , > 400 metres diameter , in Norfolk , East Anglia . Its biogenic sediments contain a late-Devensian & Holocene pollen record . This data can be analysed using temperature proxies to help determine climate change in the area at that time . These proxies can be the amount of pollen found in the sample , as more pollen would indicate higher flora productivity which would suggest a warmer climate . The same can be seen if data shows negligible amounts of pollen which would suggest a cooler climate . These are proxies for temperature , and not an accurate record as there are many variances that can not be monitored easily .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Hockham_Mere", "rank": 59, "score": 96296 }, { "content": "Title: Charles Bernard Desormes Content: Charles Bernard Desormes ( -LSB- dezɔʁm -RSB- ; 3 June 1777 -- 30 August 1838 ) was a French physicist and chemist . He determined the ratio of the specific heats of gases in 1819 . He did this and almost all his scientific work in collaboration with his son-in-law Nicolas Clément ( 1779 -- 1841 ) . Clément and Desormes correctly determined the composition of carbon disulfide ( CS2 ) and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in 1801 -- 02 . In 1806 they elucidated all the chemical reactions that take place during the production of sulfuric acid by the lead chamber method , as used in industrial chemistry . In 1813 they made a study of iodine and its compounds . Désormes was born in Dijon , Côte-d'Or . He was a student at the École Polytechnique in Paris from 1794 , when it opened , and subsequently worked there as a demonstrator . Désormes met Clément at the Ecole Polytechnique 1801 , beginning a scientific collaboration that lasted until 1824 . He left the Ecole 1804 to establish an alum refinery at Verberie , Oise , with Clément and Joseph Montgolfier , who had earlier pioneered balloon flight . Desormes was elected counsellor for Oise 1830 and in 1848 to the national assembly , in which he sat with the Republicans .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Charles_Bernard_Desormes", "rank": 60, "score": 96246 }, { "content": "Title: Hocker Content: Hocker may refer to Colonia Hocker , Argentinian village and municipality Willie Kavanaugh Hocker , American teacher , designer of the Arkansas State Flag See also Höcker , people with that surname", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Hocker", "rank": 61, "score": 96186 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Carbon_rift", "rank": 62, "score": 95662 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning", "rank": 63, "score": 95580 }, { "content": "Title: Land Surface Model (LSM version 1.0) Content: The Land Surface Model ( LSM ) is a unidimensional computational model developed by Gordon Bonan that describes ecological processes joined in many ecosystem models , hydrological processes found in hydrological models and flow of surface common in surface models using atmospheric models . In this way , the model examines interactions especially biogeophysics ( sensible and latent heat , momentum , albedo , emission of long waves ) and biogeochemistry ( CO2 ) of the land-atmosphere the effect of surface of the land in the climate and composition of the atmosphere . This model has a simplified treatment of the surface flows that reproduce at the very least computational cost the essential characteristics of the important interactions of the land-atmosphere for climatic simulations . As the types of surface vegetated for some species are several , have a standardization of types of covering being enclosed surfaces covered with water as lakes ( amongst others ) ; thus the model wheel for each point of independent form , with the same average of the atmospheric interactions . The model functions in a space grating that can vary of a point until global .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Land_Surface_Model_(LSM_version_1.0)", "rank": 64, "score": 95492 }, { "content": "Title: Oskar Höcker Content: Oskar Höcker ( 13 June 1840 -- 8 April 1894 ) was a German author of historical novels for children and a stage actor .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Oskar_Höcker", "rank": 65, "score": 95170 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding", "rank": 66, "score": 94944 }, { "content": "Title: Bosch reaction Content: The Bosch reaction is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and hydrogen that produces elemental carbon ( graphite ) , water , and a 10 % return of invested heat . It is named after the German chemist Carl Bosch . This reaction requires the introduction of iron as a catalyst and requires a temperature level of 530-730 degrees Celsius . The overall reaction is as follows : CO2 ( g ) + 2 H2 ( g ) → C ( s ) + 2 H2O ( g ) The above reaction is actually the result of two reactions . The first reaction , the reverse water gas shift reaction , is a fast one : CO2 + H2 → CO + H2O The second reaction controls the reaction rate : CO + H2 → C + H2O The overall reaction produces 2.3 × 103 joules for every gram of carbon dioxide reacted at 650 ° C. Reaction temperatures are in the range of 450 to 600 ° C. The reaction can be accelerated in the presence of an iron , cobalt or nickel catalyst . Ruthenium also serves to speed up the reaction . Together with the Sabatier reaction , the Bosch reaction is studied as a way to remove carbon dioxide and to generate clean water aboard a space station . The reaction is also used to produce graphite for radiocarbon dating with Accelerator Mass Spectrometry . The Bosch reaction is being investigated for use in maintaining space station life support . Though the Bosch reaction would present a completely closed hydrogen and oxygen cycle which only produces atomic carbon as waste , difficulties in maintaining its higher required temperature and properly handling carbon deposits mean that significantly more research will be required before a Bosch reactor can become a reality . One problem is that the production of elemental carbon tends to foul the catalyst 's surface , which is detrimental to the reaction 's efficiency .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Bosch_reaction", "rank": 67, "score": 94937 }, { "content": "Title: 1,6-Hexanediol Content: 1,6-Hexanediol ( HOCH2 ( CH2 ) 4CH2OH ) is a colorless crystalline solid that melts at 42 ° C and boils at 250 ° C . It is soluble in water and is hygroscopic .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "1,6-Hexanediol", "rank": 68, "score": 94812 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 69, "score": 94776 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 70, "score": 94749 }, { "content": "Title: Paul Oskar Höcker Content: Paul Oskar Höcker ( 17 December 1865 -- 6 May 1944 ) was a German editor and author , who also wrote under the pseudonym Heinz Grevenstett . He was one of the 88 signatories of the 1933 proclamation of loyalty to Adolf Hitler , the Gelöbnis treuester Gefolgschaft .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Paul_Oskar_Höcker", "rank": 71, "score": 94612 }, { "content": "Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Katsuko_Saruhashi", "rank": 72, "score": 94481 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 73, "score": 94444 }, { "content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years", "rank": 74, "score": 94395 }, { "content": "Title: Kim reformer Content: The Kim reformer is a type of syngas plant invented by Dr. Kim , Hyun Yong . It is a high temperature furnace ( as shown in figure 1 ) , filled with steam and/or carbon dioxide gas and maintaining a thermal equilibrium at a temperature just above 1200 ° C , in which the reforming reaction is at its thermodynamic equilibrium and carbonaceous substance is reformed with the highest efficiency . Dr. Kim , Hyun Yong discovered , in December 2000 , that the reforming reaction ( C + H2O ↔ CO + H2 ) proceeds at a temperature just above 1200 ° C , but not below it . This work was published in International Journal -LSB- 1 -RSB- and registered in KR patent -LSB- 2 -RSB- , US patent -LSB- 3 -RSB- , CN patent -LSB- 4 -RSB- and JP patent -LSB- 5 -RSB- .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Kim_reformer", "rank": 75, "score": 94393 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy", "rank": 76, "score": 94229 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 77, "score": 93748 }, { "content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Revelle_factor", "rank": 78, "score": 93718 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 79, "score": 93360 }, { "content": "Title: Johan Fredrik Höckert Content: Johan Fredrik Höckert ( 26 August 1826 -- 16 September 1866 ) was a well-known Swedish artist from Jönköping known for his colorful , dramatic oil paintings depicting historical events . He is one of the most famous nineteenth-century painters in Sweden , and one of the painters most often associated with Swedish national romanticism . Höckert studied at the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts from 1844 to 1845 , and at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Munich from 1846 to 1849 . During the summer of 1850 , he traveled throughout Lapland in the northern parts of Sweden . The scenery in this area became the inspiration for many of Höckert 's upcoming paintings . After moving to Paris in 1851 , Höckert made his first painting that gained attention from a larger audience , Drottning Kristina och Monaldeschi ( English : Queen Christina and Monaldeschi ) . It was awarded with a mention honorable at the Paris Salon in 1853 . Höckert rose to fame two years later , in 1855 , with Gudstjänst i Lövmokks fjällkapell ( English : Worship service in Lövmokk 's fell chapel ) . It was put on display at the 1855 World 's Fair in Paris and was later bought by Napoleon III of France . At this time , Höckert became recognized as one of Sweden 's foremost figure painters . Höckert 's success continued and he made several popular paintings during the subsequent years . He was hired as a professor at the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts in 1864 . At this time , Höckert was working on the painting Slottsbranden i Stockholm den 7 maj 1697 ( English : Castle fire in Stockholm on 7 Maj 1697 ) , which was displayed at the 1866 Scandinavian art fair in Stockholm . It is today regarded as one of Sweden 's foremost paintings . Höckert died soon thereafter , on 16 September 1866 , after several years of health issues . __ TOC __", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Johan_Fredrik_Höckert", "rank": 80, "score": 93352 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 81, "score": 93294 }, { "content": "Title: Held-Hou Model Content: The Held-Hou Model is a model for the Hadley circulation of the atmosphere that would exist in the absence of atmospheric turbulence . The model was developed by Isaac Held and Arthur Hou in 1980 . The essence of the model is that air rising from the surface at the equator conserves its angular momentum as it moves poleward . This distribution of wind , in turn , determines the distribution of temperature , which determines the latitudinal extent of the circulation by requiring energy conservation . This stands in contrast to George Hadley 's original conception of the circulation , which he argued reached the poles . The Hadley circulation has a cooling effect at and near the equator and a warming effect at higher latitudes within the Hadley Cell . This energy transport can be converted into a mass transport , to determine the strength of the circulation , by normalizing by the appropriate vertical stability . The effects of moisture and seasons on the model have been studied . Earth 's atmosphere violates the underlying assumptions of the model : angular momentum is not conserved and the tropical atmosphere is not energetically closed . As such , the Held-Hou model is a conceptual model that does not make quantitatively accurate predictions of the sensitivity of the Hadley circulation to changes in atmospheric parameters .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Held-Hou_Model", "rank": 82, "score": 93281 }, { "content": "Title: Röder HTS Höcker Content: Röder HTS Höcker ( Röder HTS ) is a German company who design and manufacture temporary structures . The main office is located in Kefenrod , Germany .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Röder_HTS_Höcker", "rank": 83, "score": 93104 }, { "content": "Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Bjørn_Lomborg", "rank": 84, "score": 92807 }, { "content": "Title: Frank Wentz Content: Frank Wentz is the CEO and director of Remote Sensing Systems , a company he founded in 1974 . Remote Sensing Systems specializes in satellite microwave remote sensing research . Together with Carl Mears , he is best known for developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) one . From 1978 to 1982 Frank was a member of NASA 's SeaSat Experiment Team involved in the development of physically based retrieval methods for microwave scatterometers and radiometers . He has also investigated the effect of climate change on satellite-derived evaporation , precipitation and surface wind values . His findings are different from most climate change model predictions .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Frank_Wentz", "rank": 85, "score": 92617 }, { "content": "Title: Petar Gburčik Content: Prof. Petar Gburčik ( Cyrillic : Петар Гбурчик ) ( 30 October 1931 - 29 October 2006 ) was a Serbian scientist and a Professor of Meteorology at the University of Belgrade . He was the author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction , which were used operationally in the Weather Service of Yugoslavia from 1970 to 1977 . In the same period he began modeling of the atmospheric diffusion of air-pollution and created the first model of the spatial distribution of air-pollution . The output of this model was used for the elaboration of the urban plan of Pančevo . For the actual research of the three-dimensional distribution of wind energy ( on the territories of Belgrade and Serbia ) he applied the integration of classic models with GIS technology . Special area of his engagements were the intentionally and inadvertently modified climates , as well as their impact on the sustainable development . These modifications destabilize the climate system and lead to big material and social damage , due to the lack of possibility of weather control . Petar Gburčik proved this with his scientific papers on weather modifications and climate change .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Petar_Gburčik", "rank": 86, "score": 92410 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 87, "score": 92394 }, { "content": "Title: Cobweb model Content: The cobweb model or cobweb theory is an economic model that explains why prices might be subject to periodic fluctuations in certain types of markets . It describes cyclical supply and demand in a market where the amount produced must be chosen before prices are observed . Producers ' expectations about prices are assumed to be based on observations of previous prices . Nicholas Kaldor analyzed the model in 1934 , coining the term `` cobweb theorem '' ( see Kaldor , 1938 and Pashigian , 2008 ) , citing previous analyses in German by Henry Schultz and .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Cobweb_model", "rank": 88, "score": 92329 }, { "content": "Title: Thomas Knutson Content: Thomas Knutson is a climate modeller at the US Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory , a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . His research covers hurricane activity , the link between climate change and hurricane incidence and intensity , and climate change detection and attribution . He served as a contributing author on working group 1 of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He is an Associate Editor of the American Meteorological Society 's Journal of Climate . He has published in Science , Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , Journal of Geophysical Research , Journal of Climate , Tropical Cyclone Research and Review , Tellus A and the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . In 2004 , Knutson published a paper suggesting that increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide would lead to more intense hurricanes . This finding was subsequently supported by independent research . Knutson was invited to discuss his thesis on Ron Reagan 's MSNBC talk show , but the invitation was withdrawn after the White House intervened . Source : New Scientist Magazine 2007-02-03 , p. 5", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Thomas_Knutson", "rank": 89, "score": 92319 }, { "content": "Title: Bruce Hocker Content: Bruce William Hocker ( born August 6 , 1894 ) was a Negro Leagues first baseman for several years before the founding of the first Negro National League . Hocker registered for the WWI draft on June 5 , 1917 , showing his current occupation as a `` musician '' at the Kipps Parkway Hotel on `` South Boulevard in Bronx Park . '' He is listed as single and no exemptions from the draft . Researchers currently show his gravesite is unknown .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Bruce_Hocker", "rank": 90, "score": 92179 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 91, "score": 92071 }, { "content": "Title: FUTBOLIN Content: FUTBOLIN ( FUll Transfer By Optimized LINe-by-line methods ) : Multi-level multiple scattering radiative transfer model for the calculation of line-by-line atmospheric emission/transmission spectra in planetary atmospheres . It has been developed by Javier Martin-Torres ( AS&M . Inc , NASA/Langley Research Center , Hampton , VA , USA ; Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , CA ; Now at IACT ( CSIC-URG ) , Granada , SPAIN ) . It allows generating high-resolution synthetic spectra in the 0.3-1000 micrometre spectral range . The code can handle spherical or plane-parallel atmospheres . It reads spectral lines in HITRAN or GEISA format and can handle CO2 line mixing and continuum absorption from H2O , O2 , N2 and CO2 . It also takes into account the Non Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium ( NLTE ) effects on the rotational , electronic and vibrational populations of the atmospheric species and allows to specify any combinations of clouds , coverage and spectral albedo . It has been used to model the Earth 's atmosphere , and the atmospheres of Mars , Venus , and Titan . The code can calculate reflection , transmission , absorption , infrared cooling rate , and flux spectra .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "FUTBOLIN", "rank": 92, "score": 92012 }, { "content": "Title: Hockney–Falco thesis Content: The Hockney -- Falco thesis is a theory of art history , advanced by artist David Hockney and physicist Charles M. Falco . Both claimed that advances in realism and accuracy in the history of Western art since the Renaissance were primarily the result of optical instruments such as the camera obscura , camera lucida , and curved mirrors , rather than solely due to the development of artistic technique and skill . Nineteenth-century artists ' use of photography had been well documented . In a 2001 book , Secret Knowledge : Rediscovering the Lost Techniques of the Old Masters , Hockney analyzed the work of the Old Masters and argued that the level of accuracy represented in their work is impossible to create by `` eyeballing it '' . Since then , Hockney and Falco have produced a number of publications on positive evidence of the use of optical aids , and the historical plausibility of such methods . The hypothesis led to a variety of conferences and heated discussions .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Hockney–Falco_thesis", "rank": 93, "score": 91851 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Carbon_sequestration", "rank": 94, "score": 91817 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_laser", "rank": 95, "score": 91601 }, { "content": "Title: Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions Content: Post-Kyoto negotiations refers to high level talks attempting to address global warming by limiting greenhouse gas emissions . Generally part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , these talks concern the period after the first `` commitment period '' of the Kyoto Protocol , which expired at the end of 2012 . Negotiations have been mandated by the adoption of the Bali Road Map and Decision 1/CP .13 ( `` The Bali Action Plan '' ) . UNFCCC negotiations are conducted within two subsidiary bodies , the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA ) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) and were expected to culminate in the United Nations Climate Change Conference taking place in December 2009 in Copenhagen ( COP-15 ) ; negotiations are supported by a number of external processes , including the G8 process , a number of regional meetings and the Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate that was launched by US President Barack Obama in March 2009 . High level talks were held at the meeting of the G8 +5 Climate Change Dialogue in February 2007 and at a number of subsequent G8 meetings , most recently leading to the adoption of the G8 leaders declaration `` Responsible Leadership for a Sustainable Future '' during the G8 summit in L ´ Aquila , Italy , in July 2009 .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Post–Kyoto_Protocol_negotiations_on_greenhouse_gas_emissions", "rank": 96, "score": 91409 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 97, "score": 91306 }, { "content": "Title: Hockering Content: Hockering is a village and civil parish in Norfolk , England . At the 2001 census the parish had a population of 628 . By 2007 the district estimated that this had risen to 665 . being measured at 711 in the 2011 Census .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Hockering", "rank": 98, "score": 91277 }, { "content": "Title: Mikhail Budyko Content: Mikhail Ivanovich Budyko ( 20 January 1920 -- 10 December 2001 ) was a Russian climatologist and one of the founders of physical climatology . He pioneered studies on global climate and calculated temperature of Earth considering simple physical model of equilibrium in which the incoming solar radiation absorbed by the Earth 's system is balanced by the energy re-radiated to space as thermal energy . Ethnically Belarussian , Budyko earned his M.Sc . in 1942 from the Division of Physics of the Leningrad Polytechnic Institute . As a researcher at the Leningrad Geophysical Observatory , he received his doctorate in physical and mathematical sciences in 1951 . Budyko served as deputy director of the Geophysical Observatory until 1954 , as director until 1972 , and as head of the Division for Physical Climatology at the observatory from 1972 until 1975 . In that year he was appointed director of the Division for Climate Change Research at the State Hydrological Institute in St. Petersburg . Budyko 's groundbreaking book , Heat Balance of the Earth 's Surface , published in 1956 , transformed climatology from a qualitative into a quantitative physical science . These new physical methods based on heat balance were quickly adopted by climatologists around the world . In 1963 , Budyko directed the compilation of an atlas illustrating the components of the Earth 's heat balance . He was the first researcher to discuss the role of humans in Pleistocene megafauna extinction .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Mikhail_Budyko", "rank": 99, "score": 91149 }, { "content": "Title: Dewar–Chatt–Duncanson model Content: The Dewar -- Chatt -- Duncanson model is a model in organometallic chemistry that explains the type of chemical bonding between an alkene and a metal ( pi-complex ) in certain organometallic compounds . The model is named after Michael J. S. Dewar , Joseph Chatt and L. A. Duncanson . The pi-acid alkene donates electron density into a metal d-orbital from a π-symmetry bonding orbital between the carbon atoms . The metal donates electrons back from ( a different ) filled d-orbital into the empty π * antibonding orbital . Both of these effects tend to reduce the carbon-carbon bond order , leading to an elongated C − C distance and a lowering of its vibrational frequency . In Zeise 's salt K -LSB- PtCl3 ( C2H4 ) -RSB- . H2O the C − C bond length has increased to 134 picometres from 133 pm for ethylene . In the nickel compound Ni ( C2H4 ) ( PPh3 ) 2 the value is 143 pm . The interaction also causes carbon atoms to `` rehybridise '' from sp2 towards sp3 , which is indicated by the bending of the hydrogen atoms on the ethylene back away from the metal . In silico calculations show that 75 % of the binding energy is derived from the forward donation and 25 % from backdonation . This model is a specific manifestation of the more general pi backbonding model .", "qid": "3039", "docid": "Dewar–Chatt–Duncanson_model", "rank": 100, "score": 91121 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Raised coral atoll Content: A raised coral atoll or uplifted coral atoll is an atoll that has been lifted high enough above sea level by tectonic forces to protect it from scouring by storms and enable soils and diverse -- often endemic -- species of flora and fauna to develop . With the exception of Aldabra Island in the Indian Ocean and Henderson Island in the Pacific , most tropical raised atolls have been dramatically altered by human activities such as species introduction , phosphate mining and even bomb testing .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Raised_coral_atoll", "rank": 1, "score": 141956 }, { "content": "Title: Microatoll Content: A microatoll is a circular colony of coral , dead on the top but living around the perimeter . Growth is mainly lateral , as upward growth is limited by exposure to air . Microatolls may be up to 6 m in diameter . They are named for their resemblance to island atolls formed during the subsidence of volcanic islands , as originally suggested by Darwin ( 1842 ) . They act as natural recorders of sea level , which allows the monitoring of sea level changes in response to global warming . They have also been used to quantify and date changes in relative sea level in seismically active areas , and to provide information on changes in sea surface temperature using oxygen isotope values as a proxy .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Microatoll", "rank": 2, "score": 141657 }, { "content": "Title: Atoll Content: An atoll ( -LSB- pronˈætɒl -RSB- , -LSB- ˈætɔːl -RSB- , -LSB- ˈætoʊl -RSB- , -LSB- əˈtɒl -RSB- , -LSB- əˈtɔːl -RSB- or -LSB- əˈtoʊl -RSB- ) , sometimes called a coral atoll , is a ring-shaped coral reef including a coral rim that encircles a lagoon partially or completely . There may be coral islands/cays on the rim . The coral of the atoll often sits atop the rim of an extinct seamount or volcano which has eroded or subsided partially beneath the water . The lagoon forms over the volcanic crater or caldera while the higher rim remains above water or at shallow depths that permit the coral to grow and form the reefs . For the atoll to persist , continued erosion or subsidence must be at a rate slow enough to permit reef growth upwards and outwards to replace the lost height .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Atoll", "rank": 3, "score": 139512 }, { "content": "Title: Union Banks Content: Union Banks is a large drowned atoll in the center of Spratly Islands in South China Sea , 230 kilometers west of the Philippine coast , containing islands and reefs whose ownership remains disputed and controversial . The closest atoll is Tizard Bank , 25 kilometers due north of Union Banks . There are only two natural islands on the rim of the reef , Sin Cowe Island and Sin Cowe East Island . The atoll is 55 kilometers long from Johnson South Reef in the southwest to Whitson Reef in the northeast , and up to 15 kilometers wide . Its total area measures 461 km ² . The central lagoon is up to 53 meters deep .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Union_Banks", "rank": 4, "score": 137010 }, { "content": "Title: Tom and Eileen Lonergan Content: Thomas Joseph Lonergan and Eileen Cassidy ( née Hains ) Lonergan , born 1964 and 1969 , respectively , were a married couple from Baton Rouge , Louisiana , United States , who were mistakenly stranded in the Coral Sea on January 25 , 1998 . The Lonergans were scuba diving with a group at St. Crispin 's Reef in Australia 's Great Barrier Reef . The boat that had transported the group to the dive site departed before the Lonergans returned from the water . None of the vessel 's crew or passengers noticed that the two had not come back aboard . At the time of the incident , the couple had recently completed a two-year tour of duty with the Peace Corps at Funafuti atoll in the small South Pacific island nation of Tuvalu and were repeating that work in Fiji .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Tom_and_Eileen_Lonergan", "rank": 5, "score": 133709 }, { "content": "Title: Meedhupparu Content: Meedhupparu is a coral island on the east of the Northern Maalhosmadulhu Atoll in the Maldives . Native wildlife consists mostly of crows , fruitbats , crabs and geckos . Following the El Niño current that decimated the Maldives ' surface coral in the late 1990s , the lagoon surrounding the island is full of dead coral , but is now interspersed with lots of new growth and the sea life is returning . At depths of 10 metres species include rays , sharks , wrasse , octopus , squid and groupers . Meedhupparu is a resort island favoured largely by Italian and British visitors . The island was for the most part unaffected by the tsunami of December 2004 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Meedhupparu", "rank": 6, "score": 132732 }, { "content": "Title: Maro Reef Content: Maro Reef ( Hawaiian : Nalukākala - `` surf that arrives in combers '' ) is a largely submerged coral atoll located in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands . It was discovered in 1820 by Captain Joseph Allen of the ship Maro , after whose ship the reef was named . With a total area of 747 sqmi , it is the largest coral reef in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands . It contains 37 species of stony coral . Unlike most atolls , the coral extends out from the center like spokes on a wheel . Located about 850 mi northwest of Honolulu , Hawaii , Maro Reef contains about 1 acre of dry land which itself can be submerged depending on the tides . Some scientists believe that it `` may be on the verge of drowning '' because the reefs are detached and are vulnerable to strong storm waves . USNS Mission San Miguel ( T-AO-129 ) ran aground on the reef , while running at full speed and in ballast , and sank on October 8 , 1957 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Maro_Reef", "rank": 7, "score": 130040 }, { "content": "Title: Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on the Maldives Content: In the Maldives , 82 people were killed and 24 reported missing and presumed dead after it was hit by a tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on 26 December 2004 . Two-thirds of the capital city Malé was flooded during the first hours of the day . Outlying low-level atolls were badly affected , and some low-lying islands , including some of the major resorts , were submerged at the peak of the tsunami . The government declared a state of national disaster and a special task force was set up to provide aid and supplies . Rescue efforts were hampered by loss of communication capability with the over one thousand islands that compose the nation , as well as by the lack of disaster planning .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Effect_of_the_2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_on_the_Maldives", "rank": 8, "score": 126814 }, { "content": "Title: Aur Atoll Content: Aur Atoll ( Marshallese : Aur , -LSB- hawwuwuhr -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of 42 islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands . Its total land area is only 5.6 sqmi , but it encloses a lagoon with an area of 240 sqmi . It is located south of Maloelap Atoll . The population of Aur Atoll was 438 in 1998 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Aur_Atoll", "rank": 9, "score": 125090 }, { "content": "Title: Ailinginae Atoll Content: Ailinginae Atoll ( Marshallese : Aelōn̄in Ae , -LSB- hayyoyoylyohnghuyn-hahayyeyeyey -RSB- ) is an uninhabited ( due to Castle Bravo nuclear testing ) coral atoll of 25 islands in the Pacific Ocean , on the northern end of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands . Its total land area is only 2.8 km2 , but it encloses a lagoon of 105.96 km2 . It is located approximately 13 km west of Rongelap Atoll . The landscape is low-lying with only the top 3 metres above sea level . The two entrances into the lagoon are ` Mogiri Pass ' and ` Eniibukku Pass ' . These are 0.9 and 0.3 miles wide respectively . The average temperature of these islands is about 27 ° C during daytime and slightly warmer during night-time due to cold weather associated with rain showers during daytime . The rainy season is from September through November . The island is covered with scrub , grasses and some stands of Casuarina trees .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Ailinginae_Atoll", "rank": 10, "score": 123979 }, { "content": "Title: Enewetak Atoll Content: Enewetak Atoll ( or Eniwetok Atoll , sometimes also spelled Eniewetok ; Ānewetak , -LSB- yaynyoyoyweweyeyThahk -RSB- , or Āne-wātak , -LSB- yaynyoyoy-wawayayThahk -RSB- ) is a large coral atoll of 40 islands in the Pacific Ocean and with its 850 people forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands . With a land area total less than 5.85 km2 , it 's not higher than 5 metres and surrounds a deep central lagoon , 80 km in circumference . It is the second-westernmost atoll of the Ralik Chain and is 305 km west from Bikini Atoll . Nuclear testing by the US totaling more than 30 megatons of TNT took place during the cold war ; in 1977 -- 1980 , a concrete dome ( the Runit Dome ) was built on Runit Island to deposit radioactive soil and debris . The Runit Dome is deteriorating and could be breached by a typhoon , though the sediments in the lagoon are even more radioactive than those which are contained .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Enewetak_Atoll", "rank": 11, "score": 122645 }, { "content": "Title: Wailagi Lala Content: Wailagi Lala ( pronounced -LSB- waiˈlaŋi ˈlala -RSB- ) is the northernmost outpost of Fiji 's Lau Islands . This tiny atoll , with an area of just 30 ha and rising no more than 3 m above mean sea level , is situated at 16.45 ° South and 179.6 ° West . It is the only true atoll in Fiji . Literally translated as `` no water or rain '' , Wailagilala lies to the eastern sea border of the Fiji archipelago in the South Pacific , and is the gateway to Fiji for ships coming or going to Samoa through the Nanuku Passage . Its crystal-clear waters are attributed to its remote location and lack of terrestrial water run-off . The island has an abandoned cast iron lighthouse , 95 feet long , built about 1909 . It is believed to have been prefabricated in England and shipped in sections to the South Pacific . The island has been uninhabited since the lighthouse was converted to automatic operation . Dominated by its lighthouse , the sand island is surrounded by spectacular lagoon and coral reefs . The reef protecting the island has a deep , wide , fairly well marked pass that appears to have been blasted through it , allowing easy passage into the lagoon and the sandy anchorage just off the island . The island is composed of carbonate sands and gravel , and beach-rock . Alexander Agassiz bored a hole there late in the 19th century . It passed through 15 m of coarse sand with coral and shell fragments before reaching `` yellow limestone '' , which continued to the end of the hole at 24 m . There are submerged terraces 5 m , 8 m and possibly 25 m below mean sea level , and marine notches 25 m and possibly 45 and 60 m below MSL . The seabird nesting colony and marine ecosystem of the atoll contribute to its national significance as outlined in Fiji 's Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan . The island was leased in early 2007 and will be developed as a luxury private retreat .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Wailagi_Lala", "rank": 12, "score": 122266 }, { "content": "Title: Indispensable Reefs Content: The Indispensable Reefs are a chain of three large coral atolls in the Coral Sea . They are located about 50 km south of Rennell Island , separated from it by Rennel Trough . The chain stretches over a length of 114 km and its average width is 18 km . Administratively the Indispensable Reef belongs to the Rennell and Bellona Province of the Solomon Islands . The three atolls are steep-to and each encloses a large deep lagoon . They are separated by deep passages 2 - wide . of the Indispensable Reef are aligned in a NW-SE direction : North Reef is 18 km long , and up to 7 km wide . The rim of the atoll has two narrow openings in the north and northwest . The reef has a total area of 100 km2 , including lagoon and reef flat . There are no islets . Middle Reef is 51 km long . Little Nottingham Islet is a small islet located near the center of the reef . Besides its main lagoon , Middle Reef has a separate smaller northern lagoon . The total area is about 300 km2 . South Reef is 21 km long and up to 8 km wide . It encloses a lagoon 18 to deep . The total area exceeds 100 km2 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Indispensable_Reefs", "rank": 13, "score": 122002 }, { "content": "Title: Hogsty Reef Content: Hogsty Reef is a uninhabited coral atoll located in the southern Bahamas . It is located between Great Inagua ( to the South ) and Acklins Island ( to the North ) . Hogsty is a bit of an oddity in the Atlantic basin . It is a 5 × 3 mile coral atoll rising up from 6,000 ft deep surrounding waters . Atolls are presumed to form from extinct volcanoes -- in a process whereby the volcano creates the sea mount which rises from the ocean depths , then subsides leaving a coral atoll . There are just a handful of these geological formations in the Atlantic , whereas there are hundreds in the Pacific . Hogsty is uninhabited and hardly anyone ever visits . There are just two tiny islands -- hardly larger than sandbars -- not enough to offer any real lee anchorage . The islands are small enough to walk/circumnavigate in 5 -- 10 minutes . They do offer good shelling . Most charts and guides call out an anchorage in the lee of NW Cay . It is also possible to anchor at the head of the lagoon . The lagoon is mostly 20 -- 30 ft deep with scattered coral heads . Good light is needed to navigate it . Once at the head of the lagoon , there is a large field of 10 ft sand to anchor in . The charts indicate areas of the reef dry at low water , which suggests good protection from surge at low tide , but as of 2009 , little of the reef actually dries . There are two impressive shipwrecks on the reef . One is a Liberty ship named Trebišnjica ( ex SS Richmond P. Hobson ) , wrecked on the northern part of the reef 17 July 1963 . These were made during World War II using a revolutionary construction technique whereby large sections of the ships were manufactured separately then welded together . At times , shipyards spat out a new Liberty ship every four days . 2,701 were made to support the transatlantic supply chain and keep ahead of the attrition rate inflicted by U-boats . As of 2009 , this Liberty ship is well on its way to being reduced to dust . The superstructure is caving in and the hull is broken . The second shipwreck is on the southern part of the reef . It 's much smaller than the Liberty ship -- and looks like a small inter-island freight boat -- maybe 120 feet long . The wreck appears to be much more recent and is in much better shape . The name is still plainly visible : Lady Eagle .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Hogsty_Reef", "rank": 14, "score": 121163 }, { "content": "Title: Arno Atoll Content: Arno Atoll ( Marshallese : Arņo , -LSB- hah ( r ) nh ^ : hewew -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of 133 islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands . Its total land area is only 5 sqmi . Unlike most other atolls , Arno encloses three different lagoons , a large central one , and two smaller ones in the north and east . Its main lagoon encloses an area of 130.77 sqmi . At a distance of only 20 km , it is the closest atoll to the Marshall Islands capital , Majuro Atoll , and can be seen looking east from Majuro on a clear day at low tide . The population of Arno Atoll was 2,069 at the 1999 census . The most populous islets are Ajeltokrok , Kobjeltak , Rearlaplap , Langor and Tutu . The largest village is Ine , Arno . People of Arno are well known for their productivity in making copra ( the dried out meat of coconuts , from which coconut oil is extracted ) . Arno women are renowned for their production of the Kili Bag , a popular handwoven handbag/purse , named after another island in the Marshall Islands ( to which the people of Bikini were eventually relocated as a result of the US nuclear tests that were conducted on their home atoll ) . Arno supposedly had a traditional `` love school '' .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Arno_Atoll", "rank": 15, "score": 120622 }, { "content": "Title: Lae Atoll Content: Lae Atoll ( Marshallese : Lae , -LSB- lyahahyeyeyey -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of 20 islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands . Its total land area is only 1.5 km2 , but it encloses a lagoon with an area of 17.7 km2 . It is located approximately 47 km east of Ujae Atoll . The population of Lae Atoll was 319 in 1998 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Lae_Atoll", "rank": 16, "score": 120572 }, { "content": "Title: Wotho Atoll Content: Wotho Atoll ( Marshallese : Wōtto , -LSB- weh ( t ) t ^ : hewew -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of 13 islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands . Its total land area is only 4.33 km2 , but it encloses a lagoon of 94.92 km2 . The name `` Wotho '' means either `` entrance through the reef '' , or `` island far away '' according to different sources . The population of Wotho Atoll was 160 in 1998 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Wotho_Atoll", "rank": 17, "score": 120416 }, { "content": "Title: Geography of the Maldives Content: See also Atolls of the Maldives for an in-depth description of the atolls . Maldives is a country of South Asia , situated in the Indian Ocean , south-southwest of India . It consists of approximately 1,190 coral islands grouped in a double chain of 26 atolls , spread over roughly 90,000 square kilometers , making this one of the most disparate countries in the world . Composed of live coral reefs and sand bars , the atolls are situated atop a submarine ridge 960 kilometers long that rises abruptly from the depths of the Indian Ocean and runs from north to south . Only near the southern end of this natural coral barricade do two open passages permit safe ship navigation from one side of the Indian Ocean to the other through the territorial waters of Maldives . For administrative purposes the Maldives government organized these atolls into nineteen administrative divisions . The largest island of Maldives is Gan , which belongs to Laamu Atoll or Hahdhummathi Maldives . In Addu Atoll the westernmost islands are connected by roads over the reef and the total length of the road is 14 km . Geographic coordinates :", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Geography_of_the_Maldives", "rank": 18, "score": 120298 }, { "content": "Title: Ailuk Atoll Content: Ailuk Atoll ( Marshallese : Aelok , -LSB- hayyoyoylyowkw -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of 57 islets in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands . It is located approximately 72 km north from Wotje . Its total land area is only 5.4 km2 , but it encloses a lagoon with an area of 177.45 km2 . The major islets are : Ajelep , Aliej , Ailuk , Alkilwe , Barorkan , Biken , Enejabrok , Enejelar , Kapen and Marib . Most of the islets are on the eastern side of the atoll . The western and southern sides of the atoll have a nearly continuous submerged coral reef , with three main passes that lead into the lagoon : Erappu Channel , Marok Channel and Eneneman Channel on the west side . Ailuk Atoll had a population of 513 in 1999 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Ailuk_Atoll", "rank": 19, "score": 119788 }, { "content": "Title: Likiep Atoll Content: Likiep Atoll ( Marshallese : Likiep , -LSB- lyuhKhuy ( y ) yeyp -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of 65 islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands . It is approximately 55 km northwest of Wotje . Its total land area is only 10.26 km2 , but that encloses a deep central lagoon of 424 km2 . Likiep Atoll also possesses the Marshall Islands ' highest point , an unnamed knoll 10 m above sea level . The population of Likiep Atoll was 482 in 1998 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Likiep_Atoll", "rank": 20, "score": 119328 }, { "content": "Title: Maloelap Atoll Content: The Maloelap Atoll ( Marshallese : M̧aļoeļap , -LSB- hahlhhewew-yeyehlhhayp -RSB- ) ( also spelled Maleolap ) is a coral atoll of 71 islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands . Its land area is only 9.8 km2 , but that encloses a lagoon of 972 km2 . It is located 18 km north of the atoll of Aur . In 1999 the population of the islands of the atoll was 856 . The largest of the islands that make up the atoll are Taroa ( the administrative center of the atoll ) , in the northeast , and Kaben in the northwest . Only three of the other islands in the atoll are inhabited : Airuk , Wolot and Jang . The island is served by Air Marshall Islands via Maloelap Airport .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Maloelap_Atoll", "rank": 21, "score": 118990 }, { "content": "Title: Caroline Island Content: Caroline Island or Caroline Atoll ( also known as Millennium Island and Beccisa Island ) , is the easternmost of the uninhabited coral atolls which comprise the southern Line Islands in the central Pacific Ocean . First sighted by Europeans in 1606 , claimed by the United Kingdom in 1868 , and part of the Republic of Kiribati since the island nation 's independence in 1979 , Caroline Island has remained relatively untouched and is considered one of the world 's most pristine tropical islands , despite guano mining , copra harvesting , and human habitation in the 19th and 20th centuries . It is home to one of the world 's largest populations of the coconut crab and is an important breeding site for seabirds , most notably the sooty tern . The atoll is currently designated as a wildlife sanctuary . In 2014 the Kiribati government established a 12-nautical-mile fishing exclusion zone around each of the southern Line Islands ( Caroline ( commonly called Millennium ) , Flint , Vostok , Malden , and Starbuck ) . The atoll is best known for its role in the millennium celebrations . A 1995 realignment of the International Date Line made Caroline Island one of the first points of land on Earth to reach January 1 , 2000 on the calendar .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Caroline_Island", "rank": 22, "score": 118548 }, { "content": "Title: Kenn Reef Content: Kenn Reef is a submerged coral atoll off the Pacific coast of Queensland , Australia . It is about 15 by 8 km and appears as either a backward facing `` L `` or a boot . The reef covers an area of approximately 40 km ² , with an islet in the Southeast part of the reef called Observatory Cay which is approximately 2 m above the high tide level It is part of the Coral Sea Islands and is over 280 nm north-east from Gladstone , Queensland . Kenn Reef is located on part of a submerged continental block , called the Kenn Plateau . This block drifted from Australia around 64 to 52 million years ago . The atoll is believed to be volcanic in origin . The reef was discovered by Mr. Alexander Kenn , Master of the ship William Shand , on her passage from Sydney to Batavia ,", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Kenn_Reef", "rank": 23, "score": 118530 }, { "content": "Title: Rongelap Atoll Content: Rongelap Atoll -LSB- ˈrɒŋɡəlæp -RSB- ( Marshallese : Ron̄ļap , -LSB- wewngw ^ wehlhhayp -RSB- ) or Namorik Atoll is a coral atoll of 61 islands ( or motus ) in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands . Its total land area is 8 sqmi . It encloses a lagoon with an area of 1000 sqmi . It is historically notable for its close proximity to US hydrogen bomb tests in 1954 , and was particularly devastated by fallout from the Castle Bravo test . Twenty people remain from the more than 300 who lived there prior to the test .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Rongelap_Atoll", "rank": 24, "score": 118215 }, { "content": "Title: Blenheim Reef Content: Blenheim Reef is a partly submerged atoll structure in the Chagos Archipelago , Indian Ocean . It includes the coral reef of Baxio Predassa in its southeastern rim , plus another completely submerged part . It is located in the northeastern part of the Chagos Archipelago . It measures almost eleven kilometres ( north -- south ) by more than four kilometres ( east -- west ) , with a total area of 36.8 square kilometres , including the lagoon of 8.5 km ² , the difference being accounted for the mostly by the reef flat . Only on the eastern side , there are a few sand cays above the water . The largest of them is East Island , which is not quite 200 metres long and 70 metres wide . The other islands in the group are North , Middle and South . Only a few grasses grow on the island . The lagoon is up to 18 metres deep and encumbered with rock . The fringing coral reef has a wide passage in the southwest . The closest land is Takamaka Island in the Salomon Islands Atoll , about 20 kilometres to the southwest .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Blenheim_Reef", "rank": 25, "score": 118146 }, { "content": "Title: Ailinglaplap Atoll Content: Ailinglaplap or Ailinglapalap ( Marshallese : Aelōn̄ļapļap , -LSB- hayyoyoylyohng ^ hehlhhayP ^ yahlhhayp -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of 56 islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain in the Marshall Islands . It is located 152 km northwest of Jaluit Atoll . Its total land area is only 14.7 km2 , but it encloses a lagoon of 750 km2 . The economy of the atoll is dominated by coconut plantations . The population of the atoll was 1,959 in 1999 . Jabat Island is located off the coast of Ailinglaplap Atoll . The former president of the Marshall Islands , Kessai Note , was born on Jeh Island , Ailinglaplap Atoll . `` Ailinglaplap '' translates as `` greatest atoll '' ( aelōn̄ ( atoll ) + ļapļap ( superlative suffix ) ) , because the greatest legends of the Marshallese people were created there . The four major population centers on Ailinglaplap Atoll are the settlements of Woja , at the westernmost end of the atoll , Jeh in the northeast , and Airok and Bouj in the south .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Ailinglaplap_Atoll", "rank": 26, "score": 117383 }, { "content": "Title: Ebon Atoll Content: Ebon Atoll ( Marshallese : Epoon , -LSB- yeyPyew ( w ) : weyn -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of 22 islands in the Pacific Ocean , forming a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands . Its land area is 5.75 km2 , and it encloses a deep lagoon with an area of 104 km2 . A winding passage , the Ebon Channel , leads to the lagoon from the southwest edge of the atoll . Ebon Atoll is approximately 155 km south of Jaluit , and it is the southernmost land mass of the Marshall Islands , on the southern extremity of the Ralik Chain . In documents and accounts from the 1800s , it was also known as Boston , Covell 's Group , Fourteen Islands , and Linnez .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Ebon_Atoll", "rank": 27, "score": 116853 }, { "content": "Title: Akiaki Content: Akiaki is a low coral atoll in the eastern area of the Tuamotu Archipelago , French Polynesia . Akiaki 's nearest neighbor is Vahitahi , which is located 41 km to the southeast . Akiaki is a small atoll rising barely above sea level . The total land surface is only 1.3 km ² . Its reef is occupied by a single flat island covered with coconut trees and other vegetation . There is no lagoon and it has only a difficult landing located on its northwestern side . Akiaki is uninhabited , but is visited occasionally for its coconut plantations .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Akiaki", "rank": 28, "score": 116760 }, { "content": "Title: Utirik Atoll Content: Utirik Atoll or Utrik Atoll ( Marshallese : Utrōk , -LSB- wuhT ^ huhrhohk -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of 10 islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands . Its total land area is only 0.94 sqmi , but it encloses a lagoon with an area of 22.29 sqmi . It is located approximately 47 km east of Ujae Atoll . The population of Utirik Atoll is 409 ; it is one of the northernmost Marshall Islands with permanent habitation . The larger islets are : Utirik ( Utrōk ) Aon ( Aon ) Bikrak ( Pekrak ) Pike ( Pike ) Āllok ( Āllok ) Nalap ( Ņa-ļap )", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Utirik_Atoll", "rank": 29, "score": 116688 }, { "content": "Title: Namu Atoll Content: Namu Atoll ( Marshallese : Nam̧o , -LSB- nyahmhhowow -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of 54 islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands . Its total land area is only 6.27 km2 , but that encloses a lagoon of 397 km2 . It is located approximately 62 km south-southwest of Kwajalein Atoll . There are four main population centres , the islands of Namu , Majkin , Loen and Mae . The population of Namu Atoll was 801 in 1998 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Namu_Atoll", "rank": 30, "score": 116632 }, { "content": "Title: Kaoa Content: Kaoa ( Rarotongan : kāoa , literally meaning ` coral rock in the lagoon ' ) is a term used in three atolls of the Cook Islands for small coral rocky outcrops that are the base for pearl farming . The three atolls , with their respective Kaoa areas , are : Penrhyn ( 15.0 km ² ) Manihiki ( 5.0 km ² ) Rakahanga ( 1.6 km ² )", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Kaoa", "rank": 31, "score": 116054 }, { "content": "Title: Rowley Shoals Content: The Rowley Shoals is a group of three atoll-like coral reefs south of the Timor Sea , about 260 km west of Broome on the northwestern Australian coast , centered on , on the edge of one of the widest continental shelves in the world . Each atoll covers an area of around 80 to 90 km ² within the rim of the reef , including the lagoons , while the land areas are negligible . They belong to Western Australia . They all rise steeply from the surrounding ocean floor . To the northeast lie the Scott and Seringapatam Reefs which are located on the same undersea platform .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Rowley_Shoals", "rank": 32, "score": 115838 }, { "content": "Title: Ujelang Atoll Content: Ujelang Atoll ( Marshallese : Wūjlan̄ , -LSB- wuyJ ^ yoylyahng -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of 30 islands in the Pacific Ocean , in the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands . Its total land area is 1.86 km2 , and it encloses a lagoon of 185.94 km2 . It is the westernmost island in the Marshall Islands , approximately 217 km southeast of Enewetak , and approximately 600 km west of the main Ralik Chain .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Ujelang_Atoll", "rank": 33, "score": 115659 }, { "content": "Title: List of islands of Tuvalu Content: Tuvalu consists of nine separate islands , six of which are atolls and three are reef islands . Since an atoll typically consists of several islets , there is a total of more than 124 islands and islets . Each island is surrounded by a coral reef . The three reef islands are actually atolls , although they have a completely closed rim of dry land , with a lagoon that has no connection to the open sea or that may be drying up as the result of coral debris filling the lagoon . For example , Niutao has two lakes , which are brackish to saline ; and are the degraded lagoon . The islands of Tuvalu are spread out between the latitude of 5 ° to 10 ° south and longitude of 176 ° to 180 ° , west of the International Date Line . The name , Tuvalu , means `` eight standing together '' in Tuvaluan . The smallest island , Niulakita , which is the 9th island in the Tuvaluan archipelago , was not continuously inhabited . From the late 19th century it had been in private ownership . It was bought by the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony administration in 1944 . The administration gave people from Vaitupu permission to settle Niulakita . However , in 1949 a later administration decided to have Niulakita settled by the community from Niutao , which was considered to be overpopulated . The removal of the Vaitupuans was controversial . Niulakita is a separate local government district but it is administered as part of Niutao . Niulakita is represented in the Parliament of Tuvalu by the members of the constituency of Niutao . -RCB- | - bgcolor = '' #ffffff '' | Nanumea | | Nanumea | | align = right | 3,87 | | align = right | 22 | | align = right | 664 | | align = right | 5 | | align = right | 2 | | | - bgcolor = '' #ffffff '' | Nui | | Tanrake | | align = right | 2,83 | | align = right | 17 | | align = right | 548 | | align = right | 21 | | align = right | 4 | | | - bgcolor = '' #ffffff '' | Nukufetau | | Savave | | align = right | 2,99 | | align = right | 145 | | align = right | 586 | | align = right | 33 | | align = right | 2 | | | - bgcolor = '' #ffffff '' | Nukulaelae | | Fangaua | | align = right | 1,82 | | align = right | 43 | | align = right | 393 | | align = right | 15 | | align = right | 2 | | | - bgcolor = '' #ffffff '' | Vaitupu | | Asau | | align = right | 5,60 | | align = right | 10 | | align = right | 1 591 | | align = right | 9 | | align = right | 7 | | | - bgcolor = '' #ffffff '' | colspan = 9 align = center bgcolor = '' #EFEFEF '' | Islands | - bgcolor = '' #ffffff '' | Nanumanga | | Tonga | | align = right | 3,00 | | align = right | 3,00 | | align = right | 589 | | align = right | 51 ) | | align = right | 2 | | | - bgcolor = '' #ffffff '' | Niulakita | | Niulakita | | align = right | 0,40 | | align = right | 0,40 | | align = right | 35 | | align = right | 1 | | align = right | 1 | | | - bgcolor = '' #ffffff '' | Niutao | | Kulia | | align = right | 2,53 | | align = right | 2,53 | | align = right | 663 | | align = right | 41 ) | | align = right | 2 | | | - style = `` background : #CCCccc ; '' | Tuvalu | | Vaiaku | | align = right | 25,44 | | align = right | 520 | | align = right | 9 561 | | align = right | 124 | | align = right | 34 | | | - | colspan = 9 bgcolor = '' #ffffff '' | 1 ) main island plus islets in landlocked lagoon | -RCB- At least 11 islands are inhabited , expanded over the biggest isles of the nine atolls , plus two islands in Funafuti . Tuvalu has ISO 3166-2 codes defined for 1 town council ( Funafuti ) and 7 island councils . Niulakita , which now has its own island council , is not listed is not listed as it is administered as part of Niutao .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "List_of_islands_of_Tuvalu", "rank": 34, "score": 115483 }, { "content": "Title: Rongerik Atoll Content: Rongerik Atoll or Rongdrik Atoll ( Marshallese : Ron̄dik , -LSB- wewngw ^ woydyuhk -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of 17 islands in the Pacific Ocean , and is located in the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands , approximately 200 km east of Bikini Atoll . Its total land area is only 1.68 km2 , but it encloses a lagoon of 144 km2 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Rongerik_Atoll", "rank": 35, "score": 115387 }, { "content": "Title: Haddhunmathi Atoll Content: Haddhunmathi or Haddummati Atoll ( Laamu ) is an administrative division of the Maldives . It corresponds to the natural atoll of the same name . It is mostly rimmed by barrier reefs , the broadest of which are topped by islands . There are many islands along its eastern and southern boundaries . This atoll is quite regular excepting for the projection of the reef at its NE corner ( Isdhū Muli ) . It closely resembles Kolhumadulhu , its neighbour further north . Owing to its typical atoll shape , it differs in no respect from atolls in the Pacific Ocean , save for its greater size . Its reefs are generally of little breadth , with no signs of vilu ( deep pools ) , except for its eastern fringes which are covered with islands that are quite large by Maldive standards . The lagoon is comparatively open , containing scattered shoal patches ; the bottom is muddy and the average depth is from 30 to . Haddhummathi Atoll forms the southern limit of Central Maldives . Beyond the Huvadhu Kandu , the broadest channel between atolls in the Maldives , lie the southern atolls . Traditionally , Maldivians call this atoll simply ` Haddhunmathi ' , without adding the word ` Atholhu ' at the end . Before that the name of the atoll was ` Sathu Dhuvu mathi ' named after the seven main islands . Kadhdhoo Domestic Airport is located in Kadhdhoo Island .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Haddhunmathi_Atoll", "rank": 36, "score": 115151 }, { "content": "Title: Namdrik Atoll Content: Namdrik Atoll or Namorik Atoll ( Marshallese : Nam̧dik , -LSB- nyahmh ^ heydyuhk -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of two islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands . Its total land area is only 2.8 km2 , but it encloses a lagoon with an area of 8.4 km2 . Namdrik Atoll is located approximately 145 km west-southwest of Jaluit , and 117 km northwest of Ebon Atoll . The atoll consists of two large wooded islets . The larger ( also called Namorik ) wraps around the central lagoon from the southwest to the northeast , while the smaller island closes off the northwest corner of the lagoon . A coral islet stands between them on the reef , with numerous black boulders . The very shallow lagoon is cut off from the sea by the drying coral reef . Boats can cross the reef with difficulty , at high water on the west side of the atoll . Landing near the west side of Namorik Islet can be effected about 90 m south of it . There is no shelter during northeast winds , and it is dangerous with strong southwest winds when there is a heavy sea . There is a fringing reef which extends about 135 m in the vicinity of the landing place . There is a depth of about 1.2 m and there are rocks in places . Two stranded wrecks lie about 90 m off the south shore along the reef line . ( Sailing Directions Pub-153 )", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Namdrik_Atoll", "rank": 37, "score": 114786 }, { "content": "Title: Beveridge Reef Content: Beveridge Reef is a submerged atoll located in the Exclusive Economic Zone of Niue , approximately 130 miles ( 209 km ) from Niue and 600 miles ( 966 km ) from the Cook Islands . The reef is normally submerged , with a small part is visible at low tide . It has been the cause of several fishing boats running aground . The wreck of the Nicky Lou of Seattle , a fiberglass hulled fishing vessel that ran aground on the reef , can be seen on the reef . Elsdon Best reported that `` according to native tradition at Rarotonga , the Beveridge Reef was once a fine isle , with many coconut-palms growing thereon , but that it was swept bare by a fierce hurricane , which carried away both trees and soil , leaving nothing but the bare rock . ''", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Beveridge_Reef", "rank": 38, "score": 114592 }, { "content": "Title: Minerva Reefs Content: The Minerva Reefs ( Tongan : Ongo Teleki ) , briefly de facto independent in 1972 as the Republic of Minerva , are a group of two submerged atolls located in the Pacific Ocean south of Fiji and Tonga . The reefs were named after the whaleship Minerva , wrecked on what became known as South Minerva after setting out from Sydney in 1829 . Many other ships would follow , for example the Strathcona , which was sailing north soon after completion in Auckland in 1914 . In both cases most of the crew saved themselves in whaleboats or rafts and reached the Lau Islands in Fiji . Of some other ships , however , no survivors are known .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Minerva_Reefs", "rank": 39, "score": 114573 }, { "content": "Title: Kunburudhoo (Haa Dhaalu Atoll) Content: Kunburudhoo ( Dhivehi : ކުނބުރުދޫ ) is a formerly inhabited island of the Haa Dhaalu Atoll administrative division and geographically part of Thiladhummathi Atoll in the north of the Maldives . The island is suffering severe land loss to the sea due to coastal erosion . During the monsoon the sand is being eroded at a greater rate than it is accreted . Plans are underway to construct a quayside and artificial reef to protect the island . Preliminary results from the 2014 Population and Housing Census report that the island of Kunburudhoo is no longer inhabited , due in part to the threat of rising sea levels . The same publication - the revised version of which was released by the National Bureau of Statistics in March 2015 - shows a total of 85 Maldivian people living on the island in 2006 . Since the government 's consolidation program launched in 2009 , the people of Kunburudhoo have been relocated to H Dh Nolhivaranfaru with the people of Maavaidhoo and Faridhoo of the same atoll .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Kunburudhoo_(Haa_Dhaalu_Atoll)", "rank": 40, "score": 114550 }, { "content": "Title: Wotje Atoll Content: Wotje Atoll ( Marshallese : Wōjjā , -LSB- wey ( j ) j ^ : yayay -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of 75 islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands . Wotje 's land area of 8.18 km2 is one of the largest in the Marshall Islands , and encloses a lagoon of 624 km2 . The atoll is oriented east and west and is 45 km at its longest point , and 18 km at its greatest width . In 1999 , the population of the islands in atoll was 900 . , the population was nearly 1,000 , which included about 200 teenagers who live on the island at the public boarding school , Northern Islands High School . The Wotje Atoll includes a number of islets , including Wotje ( the largest ) , Bodao , Enejeltalk , Ukon , Wetwirok , Kaiken , Wormej , Kimajo , Ninum , Kaben . About 125 people live on Wodmej , which is approximately 8 miles from the main island of Wotje . All other islands are uninhabited and are used only for copra production , picnics , and food gathering . There are four churches on Wotje , Wotje : Catholic ( which runs St. Thomas Elementary School ) , Protestant , Assembly of God , and Full Gospel . There are several stores , but the largest is Mama Store , managed by the Tomeing-Johnny family . This store has a small retail shop , restaurant and coffee window . Wotje Atoll has four schools : Wodmej Elementary School , Wotje Elementary School , St. Thomas Elementary School , and Northern Islands High School . The first three are public schools , funded by the national Ministry of Education . St. Thomas is managed by the Maryknoll Sisters of the Catholic Church . Wotje , Wotje is serviced by ships several times a year which bring supplies like rice , flour , and sugar . In addition , the local government and senator manage a small ship , Northern Star , which makes more frequent trips . Air services are provided by Air Marshall Islands to Wotje Airport .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Wotje_Atoll", "rank": 41, "score": 113975 }, { "content": "Title: Nikumaroro Content: Nikumaroro , or Gardner Island , is part of the Phoenix Islands , Kiribati , in the western Pacific Ocean . It is a remote , elongated , triangular coral atoll with profuse vegetation and a large central marine lagoon . Nikumaroro is approximately 7.5 km long by 2.5 km wide . There are two narrow entrances through the rim , both of which are blocked by a wide reef which is dry at low tide . The ocean beyond the reef is very deep and the only anchorage is at the island 's west end , across the reef from the ruins of a mid-twentieth-century British colonial village , but this is safe only with the southeast trade winds . Landing has always been difficult and is most often done south of the anchorage . Although occupied at various times during the past , the island is uninhabited today . Kiribati declared the Phoenix Islands Protected Area in 2006 , with the park being expanded in 2008 . The 425,300-square-kilometer ( 164,200-square-mile ) marine reserve contains eight coral atolls including Nikumaroro . Nikumaroro has been the focus of considerable speculation and exploration as a location where pilot Amelia Earhart might have crashed in July 1937 during her ill-fated final flight , attempting to circumnavigate the globe .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Nikumaroro", "rank": 42, "score": 113671 }, { "content": "Title: Woleai Content: Woleai , also known as Oleai , is a coral atoll of twenty-two islands in the eastern Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district in the Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia and is located approximately 57 km west-northwest of Ifalik and 108 km northeast of Eauripik . Woleai is also the name of the largest of the islets constituting the atoll , lying to the northeast . The population of the atoll was 1,081 in 2000 , on an area of 4.5 km2 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Woleai", "rank": 43, "score": 113628 }, { "content": "Title: Erikub Atoll Content: Erikub Atoll ( Marshallese : Ādkup , -LSB- yayd ^ yewKWwuyp -RSB- ) is an uninhabited coral atoll of fourteen islands in the Pacific Ocean , located in the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands . Its total land area is only 1.53 km ² , but it encloses a lagoon with an area of 230 km ² . It is located slightly south of Wotje .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Erikub_Atoll", "rank": 44, "score": 113355 }, { "content": "Title: Knox Atoll Content: Knox Atoll ( Marshallese : Ņadikdik , -LSB- hahahdyuhK ^ huydyuhk -RSB- ) is an uninhabited coral atoll of 18 islands in the Pacific Ocean , and is the southernmost atoll of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands . The total land area is only 0.98 km2 , but it encloses a largely sand-filled lagoon with an area of 3.42 km2 . The atoll measures 11 km in length and is 2 km wide . The largest islets , located on the western and northern sides , include Aelingeo , Nadikdik and Nariktal . The atoll is separated by the Klee Passage from the southern point of Mili Atoll to which it was once connected .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Knox_Atoll", "rank": 45, "score": 113062 }, { "content": "Title: Eauripik Content: Eauripik Island is a coral atoll of three islands in the western Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia . Its total land area is only 23.6 hectares 0.236 km2 , but it encloses a deep lagoon of 5.921 km2 . With light southwest winds , there are usually breakers on both sides of the atoll . All of the islets are covered with coconut palms . There used to be five islets , but two were washed away in the late 1970s by typhoon waves . Eauripik is located approximately 108 km southwest of Woleai . The population of Eauripik Island was 113 in 2000 . Many islanders usually reside on the Yap mainland as temporary laborers . As with all of the Caroline Islands , sovereignty passed to the Empire of Germany in 1899 . The island came under the control of the Empire of Japan after World War I , and was subsequently administered under the South Pacific Mandate . Following World War II , the island came under the control of the United States of America and was administered as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1947 , and became part of the Federated States of Micronesia from 1979 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Eauripik", "rank": 46, "score": 112633 }, { "content": "Title: Mili Atoll Content: Mili Atoll ( Marshallese : Mile , -LSB- myuylyoyoy -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of 92 islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands . It is located approximately 78 km southeast of Arno Its total land area is 14.9 km2 making it the second largest of the Marshall Islands after Kwajalein . It encloses a much smaller lagoon than Kwajalein , with an area of 760 km2 . The atoll is separated by a water channel called the Klee Passage from the Knox Atoll which is considerably smaller . The population of Mili Atoll was 1032 as of 1999 . The main village is also called Mili . Other villages include Nallu , Enejet , Lukonor , Tokewa , and Wau , Mili . Nallu , Enejet and Lukonwor are only accessible from Mili by land during lowtide . Only Mili , Mili and Enejet , Mili have runways for small planes . Mili Airport and Enejit Airport are served by Air Marshall Islands when its aircraft are operational .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Mili_Atoll", "rank": 47, "score": 112581 }, { "content": "Title: Ngulu Atoll Content: Ngulu Atoll is a coral atoll of three islands in the Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia . Ngulu extends for 36 km by 22 km with 18 reef segments enclosing a deep central lagoon of 382 km2 . The eastern portion of the reef is deeply submerged . Its total land area of the nine islets is only 0.4 km2 . Nugulu is located approximately 104 km south-southwest of Yap and is the westernmost atoll in the Federated States of Micronesia . The population of Ngulu was 26 in 2000 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Ngulu_Atoll", "rank": 48, "score": 112409 }, { "content": "Title: Egmont Islands Content: The Egmont Islands or Egmont Atoll , also known as Six Iles , is an uninhabited atoll administered by the United Kingdom . They are one of the few emerged coral atolls that make up the Chagos Archipelago , British Indian Ocean Territory . This small atoll lies less than 10 km south of the southwestern rim of the Great Chagos Bank submerged coral reef . The nearest island is Danger Island on the Great Chagos Bank , less than 30 km due north . Its total size is 29 km ² , including the lagoon and the fringing coral reef . The land area totals about 4 km ² . There are two passages into the lagoon along the Northern Rim , Fausse Passe in the northeast and a wider passage in the northwest . The Egmont Islands are one of the favorite anchoring spots for itinerant yachtsmen passing through the Chagos .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Egmont_Islands", "rank": 49, "score": 112045 }, { "content": "Title: North Keeling Content: North Keeling is a small , uninhabited coral atoll , approximately 1.2 km2 in area , about 25 km north of Horsburgh Island . It is the northernmost atoll and island of the Australian territory of the Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands . North Keeling comprises just one C-shaped island , a nearly closed atoll ring with a small opening into the lagoon , about 50 m wide , on the east side . The lagoon is about 0.5 km2 in area . The island is home to the only surviving population of the endemic , and endangered , Cocos buff-banded rail , as well as large breeding colonies of seabirds . Since 1995 , North Keeling Island and the surrounding sea to 1.5 km from shore have been within the Pulu Keeling National Park .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "North_Keeling", "rank": 50, "score": 111936 }, { "content": "Title: Acropora rongelapensis Content: Acropora rongelapensis is a species of branching scleractinian corals . It is only known from the lagoon of Rongelap Atoll in the Marshall Islands , Pacific Ocean . This coral forms colonies up to 20 cm across with main branches up to 10 cm long . It is pale brown in colour but appears white in strong light due to the dense skeleton . The main distinguishing feature from its congeners is the laterally flattened branches . It occurs at depths of 28-32 m.", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Acropora_rongelapensis", "rank": 51, "score": 111916 }, { "content": "Title: Colvocoresses Reef Content: Colvocoresses Reef is a wholly submerged atoll structure in the Northeast of the Chagos Archipelago , Indian Ocean . It is located 15 km east of Speakers Bank and 28 km northeast of Blenheim Reef . The reef measures 8 km north-south , and is 1 to 2 km wide , with a total area of about 10 km ² . Breakers are visible only during heavy seas .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Colvocoresses_Reef", "rank": 52, "score": 111724 }, { "content": "Title: Macclesfield Bank Content: Macclesfield Bank is an elongated sunken atoll of underwater reefs and shoals in the South China Sea . It lies east of the Paracel Islands , southwest of the Pratas Islands and north of the Spratly Islands . Its length exceeds 130 km southwest-northeast , with a maximal width of more than 70 km . With an ocean area of 6448 km ² within the outer rim of the reef , although completely submerged without any emergent cays or islets , it is one of the largest atolls of the world . The Macclesfield Bank is part of what China calls the Zhongsha Islands , which includes a number of geographically separate submarine features , and also refers to a county-level administrative division .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Macclesfield_Bank", "rank": 53, "score": 111675 }, { "content": "Title: Flora of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands Content: The vascular plant flora of the Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands consists of approximately 61 species native to the 22 vegetated islands and about 69 introduced species , most of which are confined to the two larger inhabited islands , Home Island and West Island . There are no plant species endemic to the islands , however one variety of Pandanus tectorius is only found growing on these islands . The native vegetation of the two atolls primarily consists of sea-dispersed shoreline plants of the Indo-Pacific region . On the lagoon shoreline , tall shrublands are dominated by Pemphis acidula and Cordia subcordata , often growing in monospecific stands . Closed forest stands are dominted by either Cocos nucifera or Pisonia grandis . Much of the area of the southern islands has been modified for coconut plantations , altering the vegetation from the pre-settlement era . North Keeling , about 25 km to the north , has been protected as part of the Pulu Keeling National Park , where 31 plants can be found , of which about six are introduced or naturalised . About half of the species on the southern atoll are introduced . In a report to Parks Australia in 2002 , of the many introduced species on the southern atoll , Chromolaena odorata ( Siam weed ) was identified as being the greatest threat to the environment . Most of the introduced species are pantropical herbaceous plants likely introduced to the southern atoll after the airfield was built in 1944 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Flora_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands", "rank": 54, "score": 111550 }, { "content": "Title: Jaluit Atoll Content: Jaluit Atoll ( Marshallese : Jālwōj , -LSB- jyaylwowoyj -RSB- , or Jālooj , -LSB- jyaylyow ( w ) : woyj -RSB- ) is a large coral atoll of 91 islands in the Pacific Ocean and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands . Its total land area is 11.34 km2 , and it encloses a lagoon with an area of 690 km2 . Most of the land area is on the largest islet ( motu ) of Jaluit ( 10.4 km ² ) . Jaluit is approximately 220 km southwest of Majuro . Jaluit Atoll is a designated conservation area and Ramsar Wetland . In 2011 the population of the islands of Jaluit Atoll was 1,788 . It was the former administrative seat of the Marshall Islands .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Jaluit_Atoll", "rank": 55, "score": 111462 }, { "content": "Title: Diving in the Maldives Content: The Maldives has become one of the world 's best scuba diving destinations , because of the white sand beaches , coral reefs , clear warm waters , scuba diving sites and rich marine life . Most holiday resorts in the Maldives have a scuba diving facility and there are a number of liveaboard operators offering scuba diving cruise holidays that take guests to many dive sites all over the Maldives . Many scuba divers are keen to dive in the Maldives because of the presence of whale sharks , manta rays , eagle rays , reef sharks , hammerhead sharks and moray eels , as well as many smaller fish and coral species . In 1998 , the Maldives were severely damaged and much of the coral was bleached by El Niño . The coral have almost returned to their pre-tsunami condition .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Diving_in_the_Maldives", "rank": 56, "score": 111222 }, { "content": "Title: List of islets of Caroline Island Content: Caroline Island , a crescent-shaped atoll located some 1500 km south of the Hawaiian Islands in the central Pacific , consists of 39 small islets surrounding a shallow central lagoon . The islets , which only rise a few meters above sea level , share a common geologic origin and consist of sand deposits and limestone rock set atop a coral reef . Three large islets -- Nake , Long , and South Islets -- make up 68 percent of the land area . The remaining assembly of small islets , divided into four groupings , was surveyed during a 1988 ecological survey , conducted by Angela and Cameron Kepler ; at that time , many of the thus-far-unnamed islets were given names of Polynesian derivation . Several of the smallest islets have been observed to appear or disappear entirely following major storms , and the shapes of some larger islets have changed significantly over the past century . Flora , the most distinguishing feature of each islet , varies as a function of both islet size and prior human habitation . Larger islets support inward zones of shrub , primarily Tournefortia argentea , and the largest possess a central forested region usually dominated by groves of Pisonia grandis trees . Artifacts , including wells , homesites , and marae , on several islets , speak to prior human habitation , as do stands of non-indigenous Cocos palms ; however , many islets have little or no evidence of human influence , despite past disturbance . __ TOC __", "qid": "3044", "docid": "List_of_islets_of_Caroline_Island", "rank": 57, "score": 110831 }, { "content": "Title: Fringing reef Content: A fringing reef is one of the three main types of coral reefs recognized by most coral reef scientists . It is distinguished from the other two main types ( barrier reefs and atolls ) in that it has either an entirely shallow backreef zone ( lagoon ) or none at all . If a fringing reef grows directly from the shoreline ( see photo , right ) the reef flat extends right to the beach and there is no backreef . In other cases ( e.g. , most of the Bahamas ) , fringing reefs may grow hundreds of yards from shore and contain extensive backreef areas with numerous seagrass meadows and patch reefs . This type of coral reef is the most common type of reef found in the Caribbean and Red Sea . Darwin believed that fringing reefs are the first kind of reefs to form around a landmass in a long-term reef growth process .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Fringing_reef", "rank": 58, "score": 110762 }, { "content": "Title: Kure Atoll Content: Kure Atoll ( -LSB- ˈkʊəriː -RSB- Mokupāpapa ) or Ocean Island is an atoll in the Pacific Ocean 48 nmi beyond Midway Atoll in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands at . The only land of significant size is called Green Island and is habitat for hundreds of thousands of seabirds . A short , unused and unmaintained runway and a portion of one building , both from a former United States Coast Guard LORAN station , are located on the island . Politically it is part of Hawaii , although separated from the rest of the state by Midway , which is a separate unorganized territory .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Kure_Atoll", "rank": 59, "score": 110740 }, { "content": "Title: Marine wildlife of Baa Atoll Content: The marine wildlife of Baa Atoll consists of marine species living in a circular archipelago in the Maldives , inside the administrative division of Baa Atoll , which is the southern part of Maalhosmadulu Atoll . Baa Atoll was named a biosphere reserve by UNESCO in 2011 . The whole is approximately 38 km by 46 km , covering a surface of 1,127 km2 . However , the atoll shelters only 5.5 km2 of emerged land , consisting of sandy islands not higher than 3.19 m , and of which half do not exceed an area of 10 hectares . The administrative subdivision of Baa , shelters 11,910 inhabitants , distributed on 13 of the 75 islands , 8 other islands being island resorts ; the capital is Eydhafushi . The archipelago has been located inside the UNESCO Biosphere reserve since 2011 . Its shallow waters , particularly rich in coral and fish as well as turtles and dolphins , madk a favored place for seaside and underwater tourism . The ecosystem is characterized by a very high rate of coral cover , highly diverse and dominated by table , digitate and branched corals of the genus Acropora . The shallow waters of this atoll and its particular richness in corals and fish have made it destination for underwater tourism . The presence of huge animals such as manta rays and whale sharks add spectacular encounters to the beauty of the place . Scientific studies suggest that the faunistic composition can vary greatly between neighbor atolls , especially in terms of benthic fauna . All of the images illustrating this article , except for the satellite view , were taken in the waters of Baa Atoll .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Marine_wildlife_of_Baa_Atoll", "rank": 60, "score": 110694 }, { "content": "Title: David Stoddart (geographer) Content: David Ross Stoddart , ( 15 November 1937 -- 23 November 2014 ) was a British physical geographer known for the study of coral reefs and atolls . He was also known for key works on the history and philosophy of geography as an academic discipline . He was a lecturer at the University of Cambridge , and then professor and later emeritus professor at the University of California , Berkeley .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "David_Stoddart_(geographer)", "rank": 61, "score": 110616 }, { "content": "Title: Ujae Atoll Content: Ujae Atoll ( Marshallese : Ujae or Wūjae , -LSB- wuyJyahahyeyeyey -RSB- ) is a coral atoll of 15 islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands . Its total land area is only 1.86 km2 , but it encloses a lagoon of 185.94 km2 . It is located about 122 km west of Kwajalein Atoll . In folklore , the Marshallese people have long considered the island to be home to timon ( demons ) . In 1998 , the population of Ujae Atoll was 448 . Its first recorded sighting was by the Spanish expedition of Álvaro de Saavedra on 21 September 1529 . Another sighting was reported by the Spanish expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos in January 1543 . In 1884 , the Empire of Germany claimed Ujae Atoll along with the rest of the Marshall Islands . After World War I , the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan . Following the end of World War II , it came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Ujae_Atoll", "rank": 62, "score": 110464 }, { "content": "Title: Turneffe Atoll Content: Turneffe Atoll , located southeast of Ambergris Caye and Caye Caulker , off the coast of Belize in Central America , 20 mi from Belize City , is one of three atolls of the Belize Barrier Reef , besides Glover 's Reef and Lighthouse Reef . It is approximately 30 mi long and 10 mi wide , making it the largest coral atoll in Belize and in the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System . The atoll was officially declared a marine reserve on November 22 , 2012 . Turneffe is home to many marine species that are threatened and/or commercially important . The land and seascape consists of a network of highly productive flats , creeks , and lagoons dotted by more than 150 mangrove islands and higher cayes with savanna and littoral forest . Large expanses of intact mangrove and seagrass habitat and shallows provide important nursery functionality for a wide array of fish species , crocodiles , lobster , conch and other invertebrates . It is home to more than 500 species of fish , 65 species of stony corals , sea turtles , manatees , dolphins , seabirds , and other wildlife . In addition , at least three known important fish spawning aggregation sites have been identified . At the northern end of the island group is Mauger Caye , with its eponymous lighthouse , the southern end has a smaller aid to navigation on Caye Bokel .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Turneffe_Atoll", "rank": 63, "score": 110448 }, { "content": "Title: Alveopora verrilliana Content: Alveopora verrilliana is a species of stony coral that is found in the Red Sea , the Gulf of Aden , the northern Indian Ocean , the central Indo-Pacific , Australia , Southeast Asia , Japan , the East China Sea , the oceanic west and central Pacific Ocean and the Johnston Atoll . It can also be found in Palau and the southern Mariana Islands . It grows on shallow coral reefs to a depth of 30 m . It is particularly susceptible to coral bleaching and is harvested for the aquarium trade .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Alveopora_verrilliana", "rank": 64, "score": 110410 }, { "content": "Title: South China Sea Islands Content: The South China Sea Islands consist of over 250 islands , atolls , cays , shoals , reefs , and sandbars in the South China Sea , none of which have indigenous people , few of which have any natural water supply , many of which are naturally under water at high tide , while others are permanently submerged .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "South_China_Sea_Islands", "rank": 65, "score": 110125 }, { "content": "Title: Cornwallis South Reef Content: Cornwallis South Reef is a coral atoll reef in the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea . It covers an area of about 10 km by 5 km , and is entirely submerged at high tide .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Cornwallis_South_Reef", "rank": 66, "score": 109914 }, { "content": "Title: Raa Atoll Content: Raa Atoll ( also known as Northern Maalhosmadulu Atoll or Maalhosmadulu Uthuruburi ) is an administrative division from the Maldives . The capital is Ungoofaaru . It includes Northern Maalhosmadulu Atoll proper and the island of Alifushi . 1 . Alifushi and Etthingili ( Powell Islands in the Admiralty Chart ) stand on a detached reef of their own with very deep waters ( no sounding ) between this faru and the northern end of the main atoll . 2 . Northern Maalhosmadulu Atoll is 35 mi in length from N to S , and 15 mi across at its broadest part . Its western fringe is composed of a series of round or oval reefs ( farus ) irregularly placed ( a feature peculiar to all the larger Northern Atolls ) . The centre is heavily dotted with coral patches ( giri ) , some submerged and some awash . The concentration of giri is especially dense towards its SW quarter , close to Kandholhudhu Island ( where there is the place most crowded with small reefs and shoals in the whole Maldives ) , but its narrower northern end is quite clear of reefs . The general depths of the lagoon are from 23 to . The capital of Northern Maalhosmadulu Atoll is Ungoofaaru . Recently , the island has been reclaimed up to the edge of the reef in order to provide land for social and economic activities for the growing population . NOTE : Haa Alifu , Haa Dhaalu , Shaviyani , Noonu , Raa , Baa , Kaafu , etc. are code letters assigned to the present administrative divisions of the Maldives . They are not the proper names of the natural atolls that make up these divisions . Some atolls are divided into two administrative divisions while other divisions are made up of two or more natural atolls . The order followed by the code letters is from North to South , beginning with the first letters of the Thaana alphabet used in Dhivehi . These code letters are not accurate from the geographical and cultural point of view . However , they have become popular among tourists and foreigners in the Maldives who find them easier to pronounce than the true atoll names in Dhivehi , ( save a few exceptions , like Ari Atoll ) . Alifushi , located at the northern end of the atoll , is an island which has been traditionally famous for its skilled boatbuilding carpenters . It now houses shipyards .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Raa_Atoll", "rank": 67, "score": 109755 }, { "content": "Title: Butaritari Content: Butaritari is an atoll in the Pacific Ocean island nation of Kiribati . The atoll is roughly four-sided . The south and southeast portion of the atoll comprises a nearly continuous islet . The atoll reef is continuous but almost without islets along the north side . Bikati and Bikatieta islets occupy a corner of the reef at the extreme northwest tip of the atoll . Small islets are found on reef sections between channels on the west side . The lagoon of Butaritari is deep and can accommodate large ships , though the entrance passages are relatively narrow . It is the most fertile of the Gilbert Islands , with relatively good soils ( for an atoll ) and high rainfall . Butaritari atoll has a land area of 13.49 km ² and a population of 4,346 . During World War II , Butaritari was known by US forces as Makin Atoll , and was the site of the Battle of Makin . Locally , Makin is the name of a separate atoll three kilometers to the northeast of Butaritari .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Butaritari", "rank": 68, "score": 109751 }, { "content": "Title: Achyranthes atollensis Content: Achyranthes atollensis ( also called atoll achyranthes or Hawaii chaff flower ) was a species of plant in the Amaranthaceae family . It was endemic to the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands of Kure , Midway , Laysan and the Pearl and Hermes Atoll . Its natural habitat was sandy shores . It became extinct due to habitat loss ( residential , commercial and military installation development ) and the introduction of non-native species , and was last seen in 1964 . It was a perennial shurb living in dry shrublands on calcareous sand and atolls .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Achyranthes_atollensis", "rank": 69, "score": 109641 }, { "content": "Title: Osprey Reef Content: Osprey Reef is a submerged atoll in the Coral Sea , northeast of Queensland , Australia . It is part of the Northwestern Group of the Coral Sea Islands . Osprey Reef is roughly oval in shape , measuring 25 by , and covers around 195 km2 . It has a perimeter of 69.5 km . The central lagoon is only 30 m deep . The reef sits atop a seamount in deep water . It is an isolated location some 60 km from other reefs . The almost vertical reef walls , which rise from a depth of about 2000 m , are home to a dwarf form of Nautilus pompilius that is isolated from other nautilus populations by more than 100 km . Schindleria brevipinguis , one of the world 's smallest fish , is found in the Osprey Reef lagoon . The reef has no intertidal or emerged sand cay . The surrounding waters are part of the South Equatorial Current . The reef is protected within the Coral Sea Commonwealth Marine Reserve .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Osprey_Reef", "rank": 70, "score": 109582 }, { "content": "Title: Faraulep Content: Faraulep Atoll is a coral atoll of three islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean , and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia . Its total land area is only 0.422 km2 , but it encloses a deep central lagoon of 7 km2 with a single opening on the southwest side . Faraulep is located approximately 100 km southwest of Gaferut , 150 km northeast of Woleai , and 700 km east of Yap . The population of Faraulep was 221 in 2000 . The first recorded sighting of Faraulep Atoll by Europeans was by a Spanish ship sailing from Manila piloted by Juan Rodríguez in 1696 . As with all of the Caroline Islands , they were sold by Spain to the Empire of Germany in 1899 . The island came under the control of the Empire of Japan after World War I , and was subsequently administered under the South Pacific Mandate . Following World War II . The island came under the control of the United States of America and was administered as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1947 , and became part of the Federated States of Micronesia from 1979 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Faraulep", "rank": 71, "score": 109544 }, { "content": "Title: Ant Atoll Content: Ant Atoll is a small atoll lying off the west coast of Pohnpei in the Federated States of Micronesia . Along with the nearby Pakin Atoll , these islands constitute the Senyavin group of islands . Ant 's first European visitor was Álvaro de Saavedra on 14 September 1529 shortly before his death , in his second attempt to return from Tidore to New Spain . It was later visited by Pedro Fernandez de Quiros , commanding the Spanish ship San Jeronimo on 23 December 1595 . Fernandez de Quirós had assumed the command of the Spanish expedition of Alvaro de Mendaña after his death Ant is a popular site with tourists for diving and snorkelling , and is the site of several colonies of seabirds , notably black noddys . The atoll is no longer inhabited .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Ant_Atoll", "rank": 72, "score": 109483 }, { "content": "Title: Kiritimati Content: Kiritimati , or Christmas Island , is a Pacific Ocean raised coral atoll in the northern Line Islands . It is part of the Republic of Kiribati . The name `` Kiritimati '' is a respelling of the English word `` Christmas '' in the Kiribati language , in which the combination ti is pronounced s , and the name is thus pronounced -LSB- kəˈrɪsməs -RSB- . The island has the greatest land area of any coral atoll in the world , about 388 km2 ; its lagoon is roughly the same size . The atoll is about 150 km in perimeter , while the lagoon shoreline extends for over 48 km . Kiritimati comprises over 70 % of the total land area of Kiribati , a country encompassing 33 Pacific atolls and islands . It lies 232 km north of the Equator , 2160 km south of Honolulu , and 5360 km from San Francisco . Kiritimati Island is in the world 's farthest forward time zone , UTC +14 , and is one of the first inhabited places on Earth to experience the New Year ( see also Caroline Atoll , Kiribati ) . Despite being 2460 km east of the 180 meridian , a 1995 realignment of the International Date Line by the Republic of Kiribati moved Kiritimati to west of the dateline . Nuclear tests were conducted on and around Kiribati by the United Kingdom in the late 1950s , and by the United States in 1962 . During these tests islanders were not evacuated . Subsequently , British , New Zealand , and Fijian servicemen as well as local islanders have claimed to have suffered from exposure to the radiation from these blasts . The entire island is a Wildlife Sanctuary ; access to five particularly sensitive areas ( see below ) is restricted .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Kiritimati", "rank": 73, "score": 109257 }, { "content": "Title: Atolls of the Maldives Content: The Maldives are formed by a number of natural atolls plus atolls in the form of a few islands and isolated reefs today which form a pattern stretching from 7 degrees 10 ' North to 0 degrees 45 ' South . The Maldives is a long and narrow country formed by 26 natural atolls . Some atolls are in the form of a number of islands by time and in the form of isolated reefs , which could be classified as smaller atoll formations . All land above the surface in the Maldives is of coralline origin . The atolls of the Maldives form a quite regular chain and , especially in the northern and central atolls , an arrayed structure is apparent . There are broad and deep channels in between some atolls . The origin of the word atoll itself is in the language of the Maldives . ` Atoll ' ( from Dhivehi ` atholhu ' ) is now used in many languages worldwide . Traditionally , Maldivians call the atolls ending in ' - madulu ' or ' - mathi ' by their name without adding the word ` Atoll ' at the end . For example , it is correct to write simply Kolhumadulhu , without adding the word ` Atholhu ' at the end . This is also the case in the atoll known as Faadhippolhu . The atolls of the Maldives are very complex structures and formerly they were very dangerous for navigators . In 1834-36 British Captain Robert Moresby undertook the laborious and difficult cartography of the Maldive Islands , drawing the first accurate maritime charts of this complicated Indian Ocean atoll group . These Admiralty charts were printed as three separate large maps by the Hydrographic Service of the Royal Navy . Although they contain a few errors , Moresby 's charts were so good that they were favoured by Maldivian pilots navigating through the treacherous waters of their atolls until the 1990s . Nowadays there are more accurate maps of the Maldives based on satellite surveys . However , Maldivian navigators still claim that Commander Moresby 's charts provide a wealth of data that the modern maps do n't give . At the time that they were drawn , the maps of the Maldives were deemed of such a high quality that they were inspected personally by Queen Victoria . Owing to the many beautiful diving grounds of the numerous atolls of the Maldives , this country has been marketed as a prime destination for scuba divers worldwide . Hence , during the last couple of decades many guides and maps of the best diving spots have been published and some of them are very accurate and give a wide array of useful hints .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Atolls_of_the_Maldives", "rank": 74, "score": 109155 }, { "content": "Title: Nikunau Content: Nikunau is a low coral atoll in the Gilbert Islands and forms a council district of the Republic of Kiribati . It consists of two parts , ( the larger one in the northwest ) , joined by an isthmus about 150 m wide . There are several landlocked , hypersaline lagoons located within the island , measuring about 30 ha in area . The island is surrounded by a narrow fringing reef . Vegetation on Nikunau is moderately dense and consists largely of coconut palms and pandanus . The population of the island averages about 2,000 Kain Nikunau I-Kiribati people . Typically , there are also a few other I-Kiribati there , working for the Republic Government or the Nikunau Island Council . From time to time United States Peace Corps and other I-Matang volunteers have been stationed there . Other external residents over the years have included castaways and beachcombers in the days of whaling and itinerant trading ; Protestant Samoan pastors ; traders and agents running the islands trade stores and cooperatives ( e.g. Andrew Turner , Tom Day , Frank Even , Kum Kee , Kwong ) ; and Roman Catholic clergy . Surf on Nikunau depends on location , but averages 2 ft to 8 ft in height . The tip of Nikunau , close to the airstrip , has the largest waves on the island . This is the point where two tides meet , clashing one wave with another , thus creating strong tides , waves , and currents .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Nikunau", "rank": 75, "score": 108836 }, { "content": "Title: Tizard Bank Content: The Tizard Bank , in Chinese known as 郑和群礁 or Zhenghe Qunjiao , is a partially sunken atoll and one of the significant maritime features in the Spratly Islands in the northern part of the Group . It was named after Thomas Henry Tizard ( 1839 -- 17 February 1924 ) a British oceanographer and surveyor who surveyed the Bank aboard HMS Rifleman in the 1860s . in 1947 the Republic of China government gave the Bank the name Zheng He Archipelago after the famous Ming-era admiral , although there is no evidence that he ever visited Tizard Bank . From before the 1870 's the islands were used by fishermen from Hainan with Itu-aba Island having a semi-permanent settlement of Chinese fishermen . The Bank raises steeply from surrounding depths ranging from 500 to 700 meters . It is 32.05 nmi in length , and extends from the Gaven Reefs to the NW of Dangerous Ground . The Atoll is up to 11.36 nmi wide . The total area is 953 km ² , and the greatest depth of the central lagoon is 80 meters . The central lagoon generally is 10 to 40 meters deep , although many coral heads have much shallower depths . There are several entrances into the lagoon . The bank contains a number of features along the rim of the reef , including shoals , reefs , islands , and cays , numerous wrecks , some lighthouses , and an ammunition dumping ground . Several coral heads with depths of 6-12m lie in the lagoon , and depths `` 3.7 m less than charted can be expected . ... Mariners should navigate with extreme caution in this vicinity . '' Features in the area include : Namyit Island ( 10 ° 11 'N 114 ° 22 ` E ) on the S side of the bank is about 12 miles S of Itu Aba . It is 18m high and covered with small trees and brush . Gaven Reefs ( 10 ° 12 'N 114 ° 13 ` E ) consists of two reefs which cover at high tide and lie 7 miles W and 8.5 miles WNW , respectively , of Namyit Island . Sand Cay Itu Aba Island ( 10 ° 23 'N 114 ° 22 ` E ) , lies on the NW corner of the bank Zhongzhou Reef lies between Itu Aba and Sand Cay Petley Reef , which dries 0.9 m , is about 1 mile in extent and lies on the N side of the bank . Eldad Reef , 7 miles ESE of Petley Reef , is the easternmost drying reef of the group . The reef is 4.5 miles long with the middle section having a depth of about 1.2 m , located at the NE end of the reef . It is neighboured by the Loaita Bank to the North , Discovery Great Reef to the west , and the Union Banks to the south .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Tizard_Bank", "rank": 76, "score": 108822 }, { "content": "Title: South Ari Atoll MPA Content: South Ari Atoll MPA ( Marine Protected Area ) is an area from the north western tip of the reef crest of Rangali island up to the North Eastern tip of Dhigurah island , the boundary extending 1 km seaward from the epipelagic reef fringe . Special features : important Maldivian aggregation area for the whale shark , Rhincodon typus . Provide a means to promote and ensure the long term conservation and protection of the South Ari Atoll ecosystem and all species that rely upon it . Category : Atolls of the Maldives", "qid": "3044", "docid": "South_Ari_Atoll_MPA", "rank": 77, "score": 108625 }, { "content": "Title: Felidhu Atoll Content: Felidhu Atoll is a natural atoll of the Maldives . It is the smallest administrative atoll in terms of population . This atoll is located 40 miles from capital Malé , 90 minutes by speedboat and 5 hours by slow boat . The Vaavu Atoll administrative division includes two geographical atolls ; Felidhu Atoll and the small egg-shaped Vattaru Reef , which has only one little islet and is 9 kilometers in diameter . The easternmost geographical point of the Maldives is located at Foiytheyo Muli , close to Foiytheyobodufushi Island . This is thought to be the least visited island in the whole of Maldives being at the far eastern extremity and 17miles from the nearest inhabited island of Keyodhoo No remains from the Buddhist period have been found on this atoll . However the island of Thinadhoo was famous for its old coral stone mosque noted for its fine masonry and woodcarvings comparable to those glorified by Thor Heyerdahl in Kudahuvadhoo . It was destroyed in the 1980s for building material and all that remains are four solid coral pillars that rest in the island school yard .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Felidhu_Atoll", "rank": 78, "score": 108332 }, { "content": "Title: Acropora humilis Content: Acropora humilis , also known as Finger coral , is a species of acroporid coral found in the Gulf of Aden , the Red Sea , the northern and southwestern Indian Ocean , Australia , the central Indo-Pacific , Japan , southeast Asia , the East China Sea , the central and western Pacific Ocean , the Johnston Atoll and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands . It also occurs in the Mariana Islands , Palau , and the Pitcairn Islands . Occurring in tropical shallow reefs on upper reef flats and slopes at depths of up to 5 m , it was described by Dana in 1846 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Acropora_humilis", "rank": 79, "score": 108327 }, { "content": "Title: Baa Atoll Biosphere Reserve Content: The Baa Atoll Biosphere Reserve is located in the central western part of the Maldives in the Indian Ocean . The atoll is situated just north of the Kashidhoo Kandhoo channel , which geographically divides the northern chain of atolls . It supports one of the largest groups of coral reefs in the Indian Ocean , and acts as a stepping stone for the transport of planktonic larvae of reef organisms from the western and eastern Indian Ocean . The reserve is home to a globally significant biodiversity among its numerous reefs and demonstrates a long history of human interaction with the environment .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Baa_Atoll_Biosphere_Reserve", "rank": 80, "score": 108215 }, { "content": "Title: Louisa Reef Content: Louisa Reef ( known as Nantong Jiao in China and Terumbu Semarang Barat Kecil in Brunei Malay ) is a coral atoll in the southern reaches of the Spratly Islands . The reef is oval in shape , approximately 1.5 km east to west and 0.5 km north to south . While most of Louisa Reef is submerged , some portions emerge at low tide and a few small rocks remain above water even at high tide . The atoll rises as deeply undercut walls and steep slopes from very deep water with extensive stony and soft corals . A navigation beacon is at its southwest point and the highest visible rock is at the southeast end . Safe anchorage is difficult to find , depending on the wind and currents , but there are sandy areas at the northwest and southwest ends . The nearest reliable shelter for boats is the lagoon at Swallow Reef , 128 km to the northeast . Malaysia previously claimed Louisa Reef and operated a small navigational light beacon there . However , Malaysia has apparently dropped its claim in deference to neighbouring Brunei .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Louisa_Reef", "rank": 81, "score": 108070 }, { "content": "Title: Kingman Reef Content: Kingman Reef -LSB- ˈkɪŋmən -RSB- is a largely submerged , uninhabited triangular shaped reef , 9.5 nmi east-west and 5 nmi north-south , located in the North Pacific Ocean , roughly halfway between the Hawaiian Islands and American Samoa at . It is the northernmost of the Northern Line Islands and lies 36 nmi northwest of the next closest island ( Palmyra Atoll ) , and 930 nmi south of Honolulu . The reef encloses a lagoon up to 270 ft deep in its western part . The total area within the outer rim of the reef is 29 mi2 . There are two small strips of dry land composed of coral rubble and giant clamshells on the eastern rim with areas of 2 and having a coastline of 2 mi . The highest point on the reef is less than 5 ft above sea level , which is wetted or awash most of the time , making Kingman Reef a maritime hazard . It has no natural resources and supports no economic activity .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Kingman_Reef", "rank": 82, "score": 108058 }, { "content": "Title: Scott and Seringapatam Reefs Content: Scott and Seringapatam Reefs is a group of atoll-like reefs in the Timor Sea more than 300 km northwest of Cape Leveque , Western Australia , on the edge of the continental shelf . There are three or four separate reef structures , depending on whether Scott Reef Central is counted separately . The group is just one of a number of reef formations off the northwest coast of Australia and belongs to Western Australia . Further to the northeast are Ashmore and Cartier Islands , and to the southwest are the Rowley Shoals .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Scott_and_Seringapatam_Reefs", "rank": 83, "score": 107919 }, { "content": "Title: Îles Maria Content: Îles Maria or simply Maria , also known as Hull Island , is a small coral atoll in the Pacific Ocean . Its original name is Nororotu . The nearest land is Rimatara situated 205 km to the ESE . The atoll consists of four islets ( îles ) , with a dense atoll forest and a very shallow lagoon , supporting numerous bird species . The island is uninhabited now , but at one time was the site of a penal colony . Copra is occasionally harvested at the island . The four islands are : Île du Sud Île Centrale Île de l' Ouest Île du Nordêt The Îles Maria should not be confused with Maria Atoll in the Gambier Islands , also in French Polynesia , which is sometimes differentiated with the name `` Maria Est '' ( East ) . There is also another island once known as Hull Island in the Phoenix Islands , which is now known as Orona .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Îles_Maria", "rank": 84, "score": 107823 }, { "content": "Title: Ahe Content: Ahe , Ahemaru or Omaru , is an almost entirely-enclosed coral atoll , located in the northern Tuamotu Archipelago , just 14 km to the west of Manihi , in French Polynesia . Ahe Atoll 's ring shape is broken by only a single small passage into the lagoon . Length 23.5 km , width 12.2 km . It has a land area of approximately 12 km2 and a lagoon area of 138 km2 . , Ahe Atoll had 553 inhabitants . The only village in Ahe is Tenukupara with approximately 100 inhabitants . It is located on an island in the south side of the Atoll . Geographically Ahe Atoll is part of the King George Islands ( Iles du Roi Georges ) subgroup , which includes Ahe , Manihi , Takapoto , Takaroa and Tikei . There are several pearl farms in Ahe 's lagoon . In the late 1970s , the famous single-handed sailor Bernard Moitessier lived on Ahe for a couple of years .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Ahe", "rank": 85, "score": 107718 }, { "content": "Title: Atoll (disambiguation) Content: An atoll is a type of island . Atoll or ATOLL may also refer to : Atolls of the Maldives , in the Indian Ocean Atoll ( band ) , a French progressive rock band atoll ( programming ) , a function in C programming language ATOLL programming language , used for automating the checking and launch of Saturn rockets Antarctic Technology Offshore Lagoon Laboratory , a floating oceanographic laboratory Vympel K-13 ( NATO reporting name ) , a Soviet and Russian air-to-air missile", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Atoll_(disambiguation)", "rank": 86, "score": 107427 }, { "content": "Title: Lyra Reef Content: Lyra Reef is a remote submerged coral atoll , about 40 km in diameter , extending over an area of 1300 km2 . It lies about 200 km north-east of New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea , and 150 km north-east of Simberi Island , the closest island , and about the same distance north-west of the Nuguria Islands . The depths around the perimeter of the reef are generally less than 37 m and in places are less than 11 m . The least depth is 6.1 m on its north side . Within the reef , in the lagoon , there are depths of exceeding 183 m . A gap on the north-west side of the reef gives access to this deep water . Depths of more than 2700 m are found within 8 km of the reef .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Lyra_Reef", "rank": 87, "score": 107392 }, { "content": "Title: Corallochytrium Content: Corallochytrium is a single-celled eukaryote which was found in coral reef lagoons of the Lakshadweep islands of the Arabian sea . Although it is an opisthokont , its closest relatives in that group are not clear ; at its discovery it was not known whether it was more closely related to animals or fungi . Newer research indicates it is part of Holozoa .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Corallochytrium", "rank": 88, "score": 107288 }, { "content": "Title: Puka-Puka Content: Puka-Puka is a small coral atoll in the north-eastern Tuamotu Archipelago , sometimes included as a member of the Disappointment Islands . This atoll is quite isolated , the nearest land being Fakahina , located 182 km to the southwest . Puka-Puka Atoll has an elliptical shape . Its length is 6 km and its maximum width 3.3 km . The lagoon is filled with silt and has become very small . The low coral islands are dry and sparsely populated . According to the 2012 census , the total population was 166 . The chief town is Te One Mahina , with about 110 inhabitants . Unlike the rest of the Tuamotus , the language of the islands , Pukapukan , is Marquesic .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Puka-Puka", "rank": 89, "score": 107161 }, { "content": "Title: Nelsons Island Content: Nelson Island or Nelsons Island or Legour Island is the northernmost and the easternmost island of the Great Chagos Bank , which is the world 's largest coral atoll structure , located in the Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean . The nearest neighbour is Île Boddam in the Salomon Islands . Nelson Island occupies the only emerging reef structure in the northern fringe of the Great Chagos Bank . This lonely island was discovered by a French explorer , Alexis Legour , in 1820 . It seems to have been always uninhabited , even between the 17th and the 20th century when there were coconut plantations in other islands of the Chagos . The island stretches in an East-West direction . Its length is 1.5 km and it is only 200 m wide in its broadest area . Owing to its remoteness there has always been a numerous population of sea turtles in this island . In terms of its geology , detailed photographic images shows evidence of a coral limestone core that has been overlaid by sandy loam . One of the major and evident problems effecting the native wildlife is the significant accumulation of plastic bottles and other assorted debris such as damaged fishnets , shoes as well as an assortment of plastic and polystyrene materials that are washed up by localized ocean currents , winds and sea-storms .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Nelsons_Island", "rank": 90, "score": 107134 }, { "content": "Title: Gay and Lesbian Kingdom of the Coral Sea Islands Content: The Gay and Lesbian Kingdom of the Coral Sea Islands ( also known as The Gay Kingdom of the Coral Sea - for example on postage stamps ) was established as a symbolic political protest by a group of gay rights activists based in Australia . Declared in 2004 in response to the Australian government 's refusal to recognise same-sex marriages , it was founded on Australia 's external overseas Territory of the Coral Sea Islands , a group of uninhabited islets east of the Great Barrier Reef . It is an expression of queer nationalism .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Gay_and_Lesbian_Kingdom_of_the_Coral_Sea_Islands", "rank": 91, "score": 106952 }, { "content": "Title: Chaetodon mertensii Content: Chaetodon mertensii , the atoll butterflyfish or Merten 's butterflyfish , is a species of butterflyfish ( family Chaetodontidae ) . It is found in the Pacific Ocean from the Ryukyu Islands to the Philippines and extending to Lord Howe Island , Rapa Iti and the Tuamotus . It grows to a maximum of 12.5 cm ( 5 in ) long . Body color is white with 5-7 chevron-shaped dark grey bands on the sides . The posterior portion of the trunk , the adjacent dorsal and anal fins , and the posterior portion of the caudal fin are orange or yellow . A vertical black bar runs across the eye and over the nape without a break ; in the similar species there is a separate nape spot and eyestripe . The atoll butterflyfish is found in deep lagoons and seaward reefs at 10 -- 120 m depth . It feeds on algae and small benthic invertebrates .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Chaetodon_mertensii", "rank": 92, "score": 106941 }, { "content": "Title: Atolla jellyfish Content: Atolla wyvillei , also known as Atolla jellyfish or Coronate medusa , is a species of deep-sea crown jellyfish ( Scyphozoa : Coronatae ) . It lives in oceans around the world . Like many species of mid-water animals , it is deep red in color . This species was named in honor of Sir Charles Wyville Thomson , chief scientist on the Challenger expedition . It typically has 20 marginal tentacles and one hypertrophied tentacle which is larger than the rest . This long trailing tentacle is thought to facilitate prey capture . This species is bioluminescent . When attacked , it will launch a series of flashes , whose function is to draw predators who will be more interested in the attacker than itself . This has earned the animal the nickname `` alarm jellyfish '' . Marine biologist Edith Widder created a device based on the Atolla jellyfish 's distress flashes called the E-jelly , which has been used successfully and efficiently to lure in mysterious and rarely seen deep-sea animals for filming and documentation . The device 's mimicry of the live animal was such that it successfully lured in a giant squid in an expedition financed by Discovery Channel and NHK to find the creature .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Atolla_jellyfish", "rank": 93, "score": 106909 }, { "content": "Title: Funamanu Content: Funamanu is a small narrow island that is part of Funafuti atoll in Tuvalu . It is a motu ( islet ) or very small island and is located 2.6 miles southwestward of the southwest tip of Funafuti . The islet is known to be covered in coconut trees which grow 70 feet high . Te Ava Pua Pua is the passage through the reef , with a least depth of 12.7 metres , between the islets of Funamanu to the north and Fale Fatu to the south , in the southeast of Funafuti atoll . Funamanu is an example of an isle on an atoll that is mainly composed of coral debris eroded from encircling reefs and pushed up onto the island by winds and waves . Paul Kench at the University of Auckland in New Zealand and Arthur Webb at the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission in Fiji released a study in 2010 on the dynamic response of reef islands to sea level rise in the central Pacific . Funamanu was mentioned in the study as being one of seven islands on the atolls of Tuvalu that have spread by more than 3 per cent on average since the 1950s . Funamanu gained 0.44 hectares , or nearly 30 per cent of its previous area . The storm surge resulting from a tropical cyclone can dramatically shift coral debris . In 1972 Funafuti was in the path of Cyclone Bebe . Tropical Cyclone Bebe was a pre-season tropical cyclone that impacted the Gilbert , Ellice Islands , and Fiji island groups . First spotted on October 20 , the system intensified and grew in size through October 22 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Funamanu", "rank": 94, "score": 106775 }, { "content": "Title: Atoll fruit dove Content: The atoll fruit dove ( Ptilinopus coralensis ) is a species of bird in the family Columbidae . It is endemic to French Polynesia . Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and plantations . It is threatened by habitat loss .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Atoll_fruit_dove", "rank": 95, "score": 106728 }, { "content": "Title: Line Islands Content: The Line Islands , Teraina Islands or Equatorial Islands , is a chain of atolls ( with partially or fully enclosed lagoons ) and coral islands ( with a surrounding reef ) . Kingman Reef is a largely submerged and Filippo Reef is shown on some maps , although its existence is doubted . The islands were formed by volcanic activity and are located in the central Pacific Ocean , south of the Hawaiian Islands . The 11 islands stretch for 2,350 km in a northwest -- southeast direction , making it one of the longest island chains of the world . Eight of the islands form part of Kiribati , while the remaining three are United States territories grouped with the United States Minor Outlying Islands . Only Kiritimati and Tabuaeran atolls and Teraina Island have a permanent population . The International Date Line passes through the Line Islands . The Southern Line Islands , that are part of Kiribati , are in the world 's farthest forward time zone , UTC +14:00 . The time of day is the same as in the U.S. state of Hawaii , but the date is one day ahead . The time is 1 day and 2 hours ahead of some other islands in Oceania like Baker Island , which uses UTC − 12:00 .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Line_Islands", "rank": 96, "score": 106676 }, { "content": "Title: Dallas Reef Content: Dallas Reef , also known as Guangxing Jiao and Nan Chiao in China , Terumbu Laya in Malaysia , đá Suối Cát in Vietnam and Rajah Matanda in the Philippines , lies on the SW extremity of Dangerous Ground ( South China Sea ) in the Spratly Islands of the South China Sea . It is approximately 7km long and 2km wide , and encloses a lagoon ~ 15m deep . It is 9km west of Ardasier Reef , and 26km north of Swallow Reef . As with all of the Spratly Islands , the ownership of the atoll is disputed . It is controlled by Malaysia , and claimed by the People 's Republic of China , the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) and Vietnam .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Dallas_Reef", "rank": 97, "score": 106572 }, { "content": "Title: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument Content: The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument ( roughly -LSB- pɑːpɑːˈhɑːnaʊmoʊˌkwɑːkeɪə -RSB- ) is a World Heritage listed U.S. National Monument encompassing 583,000 sqmi of ocean waters , including ten islands and atolls of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands . Created in June 2006 with 140,000 sqmi , it was expanded in August 2016 by moving its border to the limit of the exclusive economic zone , making it the world 's second largest protected area . It is internationally known for its cultural and natural values as follows : `` The area has deep cosmological and traditional significance for living Native Hawaiian culture , as an ancestral environment , as an embodiment of the Hawaiian concept of kinship between people and the natural world , and as the place where it is believed that life originates and to where the spirits return after death . On two of the islands , Nihoa and Makumanamana , there are archaeological remains relating to pre-European settlement and use . Much of the monument is made up of pelagic and deepwater habitats , with notable features such as seamounts and submerged banks , extensive coral reefs and lagoons . ''", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Papahānaumokuākea_Marine_National_Monument", "rank": 98, "score": 106430 }, { "content": "Title: Byramgore Reef Content: Byramgore Reef , also known as Chereapani Reef ( Cheriyapanniyam ) , is a coral atoll belonging to the Amindivi Subgroup of islands of the Union Territory of Lakshadweep , India . It has a distance of 1940 km south of the city of Delhi .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Byramgore_Reef", "rank": 99, "score": 106369 }, { "content": "Title: Nalongo and Nupani Content: Nalongo and Nupani is a small atoll in the Southwestern Pacific Ocean . It has a coral reef totally encircling a lagoon . Nupani Island , also called Nimba , is inhabited , while Nalongo has no permanent habitation . Administratively this atoll belongs to the Temotu Province of the Solomon Islands . The Nalongo and Nupani Atoll is located about 65 km to the West of the main group of the Reef Islands .", "qid": "3044", "docid": "Nalongo_and_Nupani", "rank": 100, "score": 106167 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 1, "score": 158631 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 2, "score": 143480 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 3, "score": 138029 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 4, "score": 128458 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 5, "score": 125004 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_rift", "rank": 6, "score": 119856 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 7, "score": 119378 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 8, "score": 117320 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Hypercapnia", "rank": 9, "score": 115181 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 10, "score": 114897 }, { "content": "Title: Airborne fraction Content: The airborne fraction is a scaling factor defined as the ratio of the annual increase in atmospheric to the emissions from anthropogenic sources . It represents the proportion of human emitted that remains in the atmosphere . The fraction averages about 45 % , meaning that approximately half the human-emitted is absorbed by ocean and land surfaces . There is some evidence for a recent increase in airborne fraction , which would imply a faster increase in atmospheric for a given rate of human fossil-fuel burning . However , other sources suggest that the `` fraction of carbon dioxide has not increased either during the past 150 years or during the most recent five decades '' . Changes in carbon sinks can affect the airborne fraction .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Airborne_fraction", "rank": 11, "score": 114882 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 12, "score": 114846 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 13, "score": 113329 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 14, "score": 113219 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 15, "score": 113071 }, { "content": "Title: Katsuko Saruhashi Content: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Katsuko_Saruhashi", "rank": 16, "score": 112792 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 17, "score": 112483 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 18, "score": 111600 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 19, "score": 110762 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding", "rank": 20, "score": 110513 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 21, "score": 110316 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 22, "score": 110278 }, { "content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Keith_E._Idso", "rank": 23, "score": 110155 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 24, "score": 109741 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 25, "score": 108607 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 26, "score": 108126 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_leakage", "rank": 27, "score": 108024 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 28, "score": 107702 }, { "content": "Title: Respiratory acidosis Content: Respiratory acidosis is a medical emergency in which decreased ventilation ( hypoventilation ) increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and decreases the blood 's pH ( a condition generally called acidosis ) . Carbon dioxide is produced continuously as the body 's cells respire , and this CO2 will accumulate rapidly if the lungs do not adequately expel it through alveolar ventilation . Alveolar hypoventilation thus leads to an increased PaCO2 ( a condition called hypercapnia ) . The increase in PaCO2 in turn decreases the HCO3 − / PaCO2 ratio and decreases pH.", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Respiratory_acidosis", "rank": 29, "score": 107637 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_cycle_re-balancing", "rank": 30, "score": 106811 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 31, "score": 106432 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_monoxide", "rank": 32, "score": 105937 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 33, "score": 105681 }, { "content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory", "rank": 34, "score": 105660 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_footprint", "rank": 35, "score": 105501 }, { "content": "Title: Mazuku Content: In geology , a mazuku ( Swahili : evil wind ) is a pocket of carbon dioxide-rich air that can be lethal to any human or animal life inside . Mazuku are created when carbon dioxide accumulates in pockets low to the ground . CO2 is heavier than air , which causes it to stay close to the ground , and is also undetectable by human olfactory or visual senses in most conditions . Mazuku can be related to volcanic activity or to a natural disaster known as a limnic eruption . In the first case , noxious gases are released from the Earth 's crust into the atmosphere , whereas in the second case the gases originate deep in a lake and boil rapidly to the surface . Because of their nature as sporadic and subtle events , few mazuku have been recorded , but there is a growing understanding of them based on historical and fossil evidence .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Mazuku", "rank": 36, "score": 105476 }, { "content": "Title: Estuarine acidification Content: Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation : CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Estuarine_acidification", "rank": 37, "score": 104709 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 38, "score": 103970 }, { "content": "Title: Ocean acidification Content: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean . Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level . While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins . Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Ocean_acidification", "rank": 39, "score": 103761 }, { "content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Amorphous_carbonia", "rank": 40, "score": 103544 }, { "content": "Title: Fink effect Content: The Fink effect , also known as `` diffusion anoxia '' , `` diffusion hypoxia '' , or the `` third gas effect '' , is a factor that influences the pO2 ( partial pressure of oxygen ) within the alveolus . When soluble gases ( e.g. nitrous oxide , N2O ) are breathed in large quantities they can be dissolved in body fluids rapidly . This can lead to a temporary increase in the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveolus , causing an increase in their respective partial pressures . The effect is named for Bernard Raymond Fink ( 1914 -- 2000 ) , whose 1955 paper first explained it . When a patient is recovering from N2O anaesthesia , large quantities of this gas cross from the blood into the alveolus ( down its concentration gradient ) and so for a short period of time , the O2 and CO2 in the alveolus are diluted by this gas . This could cause the partial pressure of oxygen to decrease and could temporarily lead to hypoxia . The decrease in CO2 could also potentiate this effect as ventilation would be suppressed , leading to potential hypoxaemia . Nonetheless , this effect would only last a couple of minutes and hypoxia can be avoided by increasing the fractional inspired oxygen concentration when recovering from N2O anaesthesia .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Fink_effect", "rank": 41, "score": 103462 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_sequestration", "rank": 42, "score": 102676 }, { "content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis", "rank": 43, "score": 102672 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide", "rank": 44, "score": 102620 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_sink", "rank": 45, "score": 101482 }, { "content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 46, "score": 101451 }, { "content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Kaya_identity", "rank": 47, "score": 101232 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 48, "score": 101089 }, { "content": "Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "774–775_carbon-14_spike", "rank": 49, "score": 101088 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 50, "score": 101086 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 51, "score": 101011 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Environmental_issue", "rank": 52, "score": 100670 }, { "content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Black_carbon", "rank": 53, "score": 100664 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 54, "score": 100562 }, { "content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Revelle_factor", "rank": 55, "score": 99848 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator", "rank": 56, "score": 99781 }, { "content": "Title: Bomb pulse Content: The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Bomb_pulse", "rank": 57, "score": 99610 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 58, "score": 99035 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions", "rank": 59, "score": 98995 }, { "content": "Title: Central chemoreceptors Content: Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system , located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves , are sensitive to the pH of their environment . These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues . An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries , often resulting from decreased CO2 output ( hypercapnia ) , indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic ; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma , as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood -- brain barrier . However , a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H + are not able to diffuse across the blood -- brain barrier into the CSF . Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across , reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains , in this way , distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors . The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia ( elevated CO2 , decreased O2 ) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal and in vitro slice preparation . These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term ( or emergency ) regulation . This system utilizes a negative feedback system , therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal `` set '' level , then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed . Peripheral chemoreceptors ( carotid and aortic bodies ) and central chemoreceptors ( medullary neurons ) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity . This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2 , pCO2 , and pH within appropriate physiological ranges . For example , a fall in arterial pO2 ( hypoxemia ) or an increase in arterial pCO2 ( hypercapnia ) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex . Chemoreceptor activity , however , also affects cardiovascular function either directly ( by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers ) or indirectly ( via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity ) . Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock ( these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH , and increase arterial pCO2 ) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Central_chemoreceptors", "rank": 60, "score": 98832 }, { "content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction", "rank": 61, "score": 98768 }, { "content": "Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Modified_atmosphere", "rank": 62, "score": 98550 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 63, "score": 98493 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 64, "score": 98326 }, { "content": "Title: 993–994 carbon-14 spike Content: The 993 -- 994 carbon-14 spike was a rapid increase in carbon-14 content from tree rings , and followed the 774 -- 775 carbon-14 spike . This event is also confirmed by a sharp increase of beryllium-10 and hence considered as solar-origin . It may have come from a massive solar storm as a series of auroral observations are known to be observed in late 992 .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "993–994_carbon-14_spike", "rank": 65, "score": 98162 }, { "content": "Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "C._Kumar_N._Patel", "rank": 66, "score": 98134 }, { "content": "Title: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Content: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal ( ECCO2R ) is the removal of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the bloodstream in people who have elevated levels of carbon dioxide as a result of respiratory failure . The use of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is currently considered experimental , but it has been studied in a number of situations , specifically severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in adult respiratory distress syndrome where conventional mechanical ventilation would cause excessive lung damage . It requires the insertion of a tube similar to a dialysis catheter into a large vein . Blood is pumped through a machine where the carbon dioxide is filtered out .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Extracorporeal_carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 67, "score": 97856 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming", "rank": 68, "score": 97349 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_shifting", "rank": 69, "score": 97344 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Engineering Content: Carbon Engineering is a Calgary , Alberta-based company commercializing technology to capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) directly from the atmosphere . The company was founded in 2009 by David Keith , now a professor of public policy and applied physics at Harvard University . It is based on his research conducted at the University of Calgary . Carbon Engineering is funded by several government and sustainability-focused agencies as well as by private investors , including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and oil sands financier N. Murray Edwards .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_Engineering", "rank": 70, "score": 97175 }, { "content": "Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Wetland_methane_emissions", "rank": 71, "score": 96928 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 72, "score": 96710 }, { "content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Biosequestration", "rank": 73, "score": 96682 }, { "content": "Title: Recycled fuel Content: Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Recycled_fuel", "rank": 74, "score": 96480 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "CO2_is_Green", "rank": 75, "score": 96450 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 76, "score": 96269 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 77, "score": 95998 }, { "content": "Title: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 Content: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 is a chemical process whereby carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide or hydrocarbons by the energy of incident light . This process needs to be catalyzed either homogeneously or heterogeneously in order to proceed , and current research is aimed at developing these catalysts , most of which are semiconducting materials . Semiconducting catalysts provide favourable electron transfer kinetics . Motivation for research in this area is strong due to the current attention to atmospheric carbon dioxide as the reduction of carbon dioxide would be one route for removal and sequestration . Furthermore , the reduced species may prove to be a valuable feedstock for other processes . If the incident light utilized is solar in nature then this process also potentially represents energy routes which combine renewable energy with CO2 reduction .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Photoelectrochemical_reduction_of_CO2", "rank": 78, "score": 95843 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 79, "score": 95446 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 80, "score": 95424 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning", "rank": 81, "score": 95336 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 82, "score": 94830 }, { "content": "Title: Lake Nyos disaster Content: The Lake Nyos disaster occurred on 21 August 1986 , when a limnic eruption at Lake Nyos , in northwestern Cameroon , produced a large cloud of carbon dioxide , which descended onto nearby villages , killing 1,746 people and 3,500 livestock . The eruption triggered the sudden release of about 100,000 -- 300,000 tons ( some sources state as much as 1.6 million tons ) of CO2 . This gas cloud rose at nearly 100 km/h and spilled over the northern lip of the lake . It then rushed down two valleys , branching off to the north , displacing all the air and suffocating people and livestock within 25 km of the lake . A degassing system has since been installed at the lake , with the aim of reducing the concentration of in deep waters and therefore the risk of further eruptions .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Lake_Nyos_disaster", "rank": 83, "score": 94588 }, { "content": "Title: Carbonic anhydrase II Content: Carbonic anhydrase II ( gene name CA2 ) , is one of fourteen forms of human α carbonic anhydrases . Carbonic anhydrase catalyzes reversible hydration of carbon dioxide . Defects in this enzyme are associated with osteopetrosis and renal tubular acidosis . Renal carbonic anhydrase allows the reabsorption of bicarbonate ions in the proximal tubule .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbonic_anhydrase_II", "rank": 84, "score": 94550 }, { "content": "Title: Respiratory exchange ratio Content: The respiratory exchange ratio ( RER ) is the ratio between the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) produced in metabolism and oxygen ( O2 ) used . Humans typically inhale more molecules of oxygen than they exhale of carbon dioxide because air contains much more oxygen by volume . The ratio is determined by comparing exhaled gases to room air . Measuring this ratio can be used for estimating the respiratory quotient ( RQ ) , an indicator of which fuel ( carbohydrate or fat ) is being metabolized to supply the body with energy . This estimation is only valid if metabolism is in a steady state . RER is about 0.8 at rest with a modern diet . This value however , can exceed 1 during intense exercise , as CO2 production by the working muscles becomes greater and more of the inhaled O2 gets used rather than being expelled . During moderate or higher intensity aerobic exercise and anaerobic exercise , using RER for estimating RQ loses accuracy because of factors including bicarbonate buffering of hydrogen ions , which affects the CO2 levels being expelled by the respiratory system . Calculation of RER is commonly done in conjunction with exercise tests such as the VO2 Max Test and can be used as an indicator that the participants are nearing exhaustion and the limits of their cardio-respiratory system . An RER greater than or equal to 1.15 is often used as a secondary endpoint criterion of a VO2 Max Test . An RER of 0.70 indicates that fat is the predominant fuel source , RER of 0.85 suggests a mix of fat and carbohydrates , and a value of 1.00 or above is indicative of carbohydrate being the predominant fuel source . Oxidation of a molecule of Carbohydrate 6 O2 + C6H12O6 = > 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 6 CO2/6 O2 = 1.0 Oxidation of a molecule of Fatty Acid 23 O2 + C16H32O2 = > 16 CO2 + 16 H2O + 129 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 16 CO2/23 O2 = 0.7", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Respiratory_exchange_ratio", "rank": 85, "score": 94438 }, { "content": "Title: Hypoxic drive Content: The hypoxic drive is a form of respiratory drive in which the body uses oxygen chemoreceptors instead of carbon dioxide receptors to regulate the respiratory cycle . Normal respiration is driven mostly by the levels of carbon dioxide in the arteries , which are detected indirectly by central chemoreceptors when carbon dioxide crosses the blood -- brain barrier , forming detectable hydrogen ions , and directly by peripheral chemoreceptors , and very little by the oxygen levels . An increase in carbon dioxide will cause chemoreceptor reflexes to trigger an increase in ventilation . Hypoxic drive normally accounts for 10 % of the total drive to breathe . This increases as the PaO2 drops to 70 torr and below , while hypoxic drive is no longer active when PaO2 exceeds 170 torr . The hypoxic drive is so weak that unconsciousness will develop before respiratory distress is noted and is therefore a risk for pilots flying at high altitudes . For this reason , supplemental oxygen is required by Federal Aviation Regulations for pilots flying above an altitude of about 12,500 feet in unpressurized airplanes . In the past , it was believed that in cases where there are chronically high carbon dioxide levels in the blood such as in COPD patients , the body will begin to rely more on the oxygen receptors and less on the carbon dioxide receptors . And that in this case , when there is an increase in oxygen levels the body will decrease the rate of respiration . Recent studies have proven that COPD patients who have chronically compensated elevated levels ( known as '' Retainers '' ) are not in fact dependent on hypoxic drive to breathe . However , when in respiratory failure and put on high inspired oxygen , the in their blood may increase via three mechanisms , namely the Haldane Effect , the ventilation/perfusion mismatch ( where the regional pulmonary hypoxic vasoconstriction is released ) and by the removal or reduction of the hypoxic drive itself .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Hypoxic_drive", "rank": 86, "score": 94117 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_shipping", "rank": 87, "score": 93760 }, { "content": "Title: Soil respiration Content: Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire . This includes respiration of plant roots , the rhizosphere , microbes and fauna . Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of CO2 . CO2 is acquired from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis . Plants use these organic compounds to build structural components or respire them to release energy . When plant respiration occurs below-ground in the roots , it adds to soil respiration . Over time , plant structural components are consumed by heterotrophs . This heterotrophic consumption releases CO2 and when this CO2 is released by below-ground organisms , it is considered soil respiration . The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors . The temperature , moisture , nutrient content and level of oxygen in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration . These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods . Other methods can be used to separate the source components , in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway ( C3/C4 ) , of the respired plant structures . Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity . This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years . Global climate change is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO2 , increasing temperature and shifting precipitation patterns . All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration . Increased nitrogen fertilization by humans also has the potential to effect rates over the entire Earth . Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO2 but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be effected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Soil_respiration", "rank": 88, "score": 93376 }, { "content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage", "rank": 89, "score": 92967 }, { "content": "Title: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle Content: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle is diverse . Agricultural and industrial nitrogen ( N ) inputs to the environment currently exceed inputs from natural N fixation . As a consequence of anthropogenic inputs , the global nitrogen cycle ( Fig. 1 ) has been significantly altered over the past century . Global atmospheric nitrous oxide ( N2O ) mole fractions have increased from a pre-industrial value of ~ 270 nmol/mol to ~ 319 nmol/mol in 2005 . Human activities account for over one-third of N2O emissions , most of which are due to the agricultural sector . This article is intended to give a brief review of the history of anthropogenic N inputs , and reported impacts of nitrogen inputs on selected terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle", "rank": 90, "score": 92892 }, { "content": "Title: Great Oxygenation Event Content: The Great Oxygenation Event ( GOE , also called the Oxygen Catastrophe , Oxygen Crisis , Oxygen Holocaust , Oxygen Revolution , or Great Oxidation ) was the biologically induced appearance of dioxygen ( O2 ) in Earth 's atmosphere . Although geological , isotopic , and chemical evidence suggest that this major environmental change happened around 2.45 billion years ago ( 2.45 Ga ) , ( during the Siderian period ) the actual causes and the exact date of the event are not clear . The current geochemical and biomarker evidence for the development of oxygenic photosynthesis before the Great Oxidation Event has been mostly inconclusive . Oceanic cyanobacteria , which evolved into multicellular forms more than 2.3 billion years ago ( approximately 200 million years before the GOE ) , are believed to have become the first microbes to produce oxygen by photosynthesis . Before the GOE , any free oxygen they produced was chemically captured by dissolved iron or organic matter . The GOE was the point in time when these oxygen sinks became saturated , at which point oxygen , produced by the cyanobacteria , was free to escape into the atmosphere . The increased production of oxygen set Earth 's original atmosphere off balance . Free oxygen is toxic to obligate anaerobic organisms , and the rising concentrations may have destroyed most such organisms at the time . Cyanobacteria were therefore responsible for one of the most significant extinction events in Earth 's history . Besides marine cyanobacteria , there is also evidence of cyanobacteria on land . A spike in chromium contained in ancient rock deposits formed underwater shows they had accumulated chromium washed off from continental shelves . Chromium is not easily dissolved and its release from rocks would have required the presence of a powerful acid . One such acid , sulfuric acid , might have been created through bacterial reactions with pyrite . Mats of oxygen-producing cyanobacteria can produce a thin layer , one or two millimeters thick , of oxygenated water in an otherwise anoxic environment even under thick ice , and before oxygen started accumulating in the atmosphere , these organisms would already be adapted to oxygen . Additionally , the free oxygen would have reacted with atmospheric methane , a greenhouse gas , greatly reducing its concentration and triggering the Huronian glaciation , possibly the longest episode of glaciation in Earth 's history and called snowball Earth . Eventually , the evolution of aerobic organisms that consumed oxygen established an equilibrium in its availability . Free oxygen has been an important constituent of the atmosphere ever since .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Great_Oxygenation_Event", "rank": 91, "score": 92711 }, { "content": "Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Scott_Denning", "rank": 92, "score": 92498 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_sensor", "rank": 93, "score": 92439 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting", "rank": 94, "score": 92374 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 95, "score": 92360 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_laser", "rank": 96, "score": 91976 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling (disambiguation) Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that depicts the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the twentieth century . It is named after Charles David Keeling who discovered the rise in carbon dioxide concentrations and plotted the graph . Keeling may also refer to : Keeling , Virginia North Keeling Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands Surname Charles Keeling , climatologist Edward Keeling Harold Keeling John Keeling , MP Ralph Keeling , son of Charles , also climatologist William Keeling , English sea captain", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Keeling_(disambiguation)", "rank": 97, "score": 91657 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 98, "score": 91575 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_scrubber", "rank": 99, "score": 91413 }, { "content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .", "qid": "3046", "docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide", "rank": 100, "score": 91047 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 1, "score": 193448 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 2, "score": 166095 }, { "content": "Title: Airborne fraction Content: The airborne fraction is a scaling factor defined as the ratio of the annual increase in atmospheric to the emissions from anthropogenic sources . It represents the proportion of human emitted that remains in the atmosphere . The fraction averages about 45 % , meaning that approximately half the human-emitted is absorbed by ocean and land surfaces . There is some evidence for a recent increase in airborne fraction , which would imply a faster increase in atmospheric for a given rate of human fossil-fuel burning . However , other sources suggest that the `` fraction of carbon dioxide has not increased either during the past 150 years or during the most recent five decades '' . Changes in carbon sinks can affect the airborne fraction .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Airborne_fraction", "rank": 3, "score": 165197 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_sink", "rank": 4, "score": 158964 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 5, "score": 149983 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 6, "score": 147738 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 7, "score": 147186 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 8, "score": 145909 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 9, "score": 143797 }, { "content": "Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Michael_Raupach", "rank": 10, "score": 142336 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_rift", "rank": 11, "score": 138635 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions", "rank": 12, "score": 138008 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 13, "score": 137616 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 14, "score": 137507 }, { "content": "Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 15, "score": 136757 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 16, "score": 136509 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 17, "score": 135277 }, { "content": "Title: The Green Initiative Content: The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "The_Green_Initiative", "rank": 18, "score": 132915 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 19, "score": 132875 }, { "content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Kaya_identity", "rank": 20, "score": 132725 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon credit Content: A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or the mass of another greenhouse gas with a carbon dioxide equivalent ( tCO2e ) equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide . Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . One carbon credit is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide , or in some markets , carbon dioxide equivalent gases . Carbon trading is an application of an emissions trading approach . Greenhouse gas emissions are capped and then markets are used to allocate the emissions among the group of regulated sources . The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial processes in the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive approaches than those used when there is no cost to emitting carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere . Since GHG mitigation projects generate credits , this approach can be used to finance carbon reduction schemes between trading partners and around the world . There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis . These carbon offsetters purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon development company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects . Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade , which is like a stock exchange for carbon credits . The quality of the credits is based in part on the validation process and sophistication of the fund or development company that acted as the sponsor to the carbon project . This is reflected in their price ; voluntary units typically have less value than the units sold through the rigorously validated Clean Development Mechanism .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_credit", "rank": 21, "score": 131848 }, { "content": "Title: Removal Units Content: A Removal Unit ( RMU ) is a tradable carbon credit or ` Kyoto unit ' representing an allowance to emit one metric tonne of greenhouse gases absorbed by a removal or Carbon sink activity in an Annex I country . Removal Units are generated and issued by Kyoto Protocol Annex I Parties for carbon absorption by land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) activities such as reforestation .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Removal_Units", "rank": 22, "score": 131273 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_inventory", "rank": 23, "score": 130807 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions in Kentucky Content: The report `` Kentucky Greenhouse Gas Inventory '' provides a detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions and sinks for Kentucky in 1990 . Emissions were estimated using methods from EPA 's 1995 guidance document State Workbook : Methodologies for Estimating Greenhouse Gas Emissions . In 1990 , Kentucky emitted 35.4 million metric tons of carbon equivalent ( MMTCE ) . In addition , Kentucky estimated emissions of 0.4 MMTCE from biofuels . Emissions from biofuels are not included . The principal greenhouse gases were carbon dioxide , comprising 87.9 million metric tons ( 24.0 MMTCE ) , and methane , with 1.1 million metric tons ( 6.4 MMTCE ) . Other emissions included 0.0016 million metric tons of perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) ( 4.8 MMTCE ) , and 0.003 million metric tons of nitrous oxide ( 0.2 MMTCE ) The major source of carbon dioxide emissions was fossil fuel combustion ( 96 % ) , the majority of which is utility coal . Minor emissions came from cement and lime production and forest/grassland conversion . Carbon dioxide sinks ( i.e. , an increase in forest carbon storage ) offset about 26 % of the total carbon dioxide emissions . Sources of methane emissions were coal mining ( 73 % ) , domesticated animals ( 12 % ) , landfills ( 10 % ) , manure management ( 3 % ) , and natural gas/oil extraction ( 2 % ) . Nitrous oxide emissions were from fertilizer use . Sources of perfluorocarbons were HCFC-22 production ( 91 % ) and aluminum production ( 9 % ) . Kentucky 's emissions in 1990 were 9.6 MTCE per capita , compared to 1990 U.S. emissions of 6.4 MTCE per capita . Kentucky 's per capita emissions are high due to the large volume of coal-related activities in the state .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_in_Kentucky", "rank": 24, "score": 130169 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 25, "score": 129275 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_footprint", "rank": 26, "score": 127536 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon audit regime Content: A carbon audit regime is a means of accounting for quantifiable greenhouse gas control efforts . It establishes that the claimed reductions in emissions or enhancements of carbon sinks , has actually occurred and is stable . The UK is the only nation in the world that presently has such a regime .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_audit_regime", "rank": 27, "score": 125300 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_sequestration", "rank": 28, "score": 125159 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 29, "score": 124401 }, { "content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Biosequestration", "rank": 30, "score": 124392 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 31, "score": 124338 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 32, "score": 124271 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_accounting", "rank": 33, "score": 124021 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_emission_trading", "rank": 34, "score": 123425 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 35, "score": 122728 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 36, "score": 122365 }, { "content": "Title: Project Vulcan Content: Project Vulcan is a NASA/DOE funded effort under the North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) to quantify North American fossil fuel carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions at space/time scales much finer than has been achieved in the past . The initial purpose of the Vulcan Project was to aid in quantification of the North American carbon budget , to support inverse estimation of carbon sources and sinks , and to support the demands posed by higher resolution CO2 observations . The detail and scope of the Vulcan CO2 inventory has now made it a valuable tool for policymakers , demographers , social scientists and the public at large . Project Vulcan has achieved U.S. fossil fuel CO2 emissions at < 10 km spatial scales and an hourly time scale , based on datasets such as air quality emissions reporting , census data , highway statistics , energy statistics , and econometric data . Furthermore , Vulcan includes significant process-level detail , dividing the emissions into economic sectors and sub-sectors in addition to 23 fuel types . It has been produced for the year 2002 , and an annual product spanning 1980-2006 will be available by late-2009 . The first Vulcan inventory ( v1 .0 ) was released to the public in early April 2008 . Version 1.1 was released in February 2009 and Version 1.2 is due out in early August 2009 . In addition to the data release , establishment of the Vulcan website and a press release , a video of various aspects of atmospheric transport was released on Purdue University 's YouTube website and portions of the Vulcan inventory are available on Google Earth . As of 2015 , version 2.2 has been published on a site hosted by Arizona State University .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Project_Vulcan", "rank": 37, "score": 122353 }, { "content": "Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "ACEA_agreement", "rank": 38, "score": 122227 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_offset", "rank": 39, "score": 121609 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 40, "score": 120703 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 41, "score": 120450 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting", "rank": 42, "score": 120178 }, { "content": "Title: Assigned amount units Content: An Assigned Amount Unit ( AAU ) is a tradable ` Kyoto unit ' or ` carbon credit ' representing an allowance to emit greenhouse gases comprising one metric tonne of carbon dioxide equivalents calculated using their Global Warming Potential . Assigned Amount Units are issued up to the level of initial `` assigned amount '' of an Annex 1 Party to the Kyoto Protocol . The `` assigned amounts '' are the Kyoto Protocol Annex B emission targets ( or `` quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives '' ) expressed as levels of allowed emissions over the 2008-2012 commitment period .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Assigned_amount_units", "rank": 43, "score": 120051 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 44, "score": 119144 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning", "rank": 45, "score": 119059 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_shipping", "rank": 46, "score": 119018 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon accounting Content: Carbon accounting refers generally to processes undertaken to `` measure '' amounts of carbon dioxide equivalents emitted by an entity . It is used inter alia by nation states , corporations , individuals -- to create the carbon credit commodity traded on carbon markets ( or to establish the demand for carbon credits ) . Correspondingly , examples for products based upon forms of carbon accounting can be found in national inventories , corporate environmental reports or carbon footprint calculators . Likening sustainability measurement , as an instance of ecological modernisation discourses and policy , carbon accounting is hoped to provide a factual ground for carbon-related decision-making . However , social scientific studies of accounting challenge this hope , pointing to the socially constructed character of carbon conversion factors or of the accountants ' work practice which can not implement abstract accounting schemes into reality . While natural sciences claim to know and measure carbon , for organisations it is usually easier to employ forms of carbon accounting to represent carbon . The trustworthiness of accounts of carbon emissions can easily be contested . Thus , how well carbon accounting represents carbon is difficult to exactly know . Science and Technology Studies scholar Donna Haraway 's pluralised concept of knowledge , i.e. knowledges , can well be used to understand better the status of knowledge produced by carbon accounting : carbon accounting produced a version of understanding of carbon emissions . Other carbon accountants would produce other results .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_accounting", "rank": 47, "score": 118970 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 48, "score": 118754 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide", "rank": 49, "score": 118353 }, { "content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Revelle_factor", "rank": 50, "score": 117440 }, { "content": "Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Wetland_methane_emissions", "rank": 51, "score": 117243 }, { "content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Black_carbon", "rank": 52, "score": 116999 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 53, "score": 116444 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical peat Content: Areas of tropical peat are found mostly in South East Asia ( about 70 % by area ) although are also found in Africa , Central and South America and elsewhere around the Pacific Ocean . Tropical peatlands are significant carbon sinks and store large amounts of carbon and their destruction can significantly impact on the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Tropical peatlands are vulnerable to destabilisation through human and climate induced changes . Estimates of the area ( and hence volume ) of tropical peatland vary but a reasonable estimate is in the region of 380,000 square kilometres . Although tropical peatlands only cover about 0.25 % of the Earth 's land surface they contain 50,000-70 ,000 million tonnes of carbon ( about 3 % global soil carbon ) . In addition , tropical peatlands support diverse ecosystems and are home to a number of endangered species including the orang utan . The native peat swamp forests contain a number of valuable timber-producing trees plus a range of other products of value to local communities , such as bark , resins and latex . Land-use changes and fire , mainly associated with plantation development and logging ( deforestation and drainage ) , are reducing this carbon store and contributing to greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The problems that result from development of tropical peatland stem mainly from a lack of understanding of the complexities of this ecosystem and the fragility of the relationship between peat and forest . Once the forest is removed and the peat is drained , the surface peat oxidises and loses stored carbon rapidly to the atmosphere ( as carbon dioxide ) . This results in progressive loss of the peat surface , leading to local flooding and , due to the large areas involved , global climate change . Failure to account for such emissions results in underestimates of the rate of increase in atmospheric GHGs and the extent of human induced climate change .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Tropical_peat", "rank": 54, "score": 115630 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting Content: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting is a method of calculating the amount of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) emitted by a region in a given time-scale . A National Emissions Inventory ( NEI ) measuring a country 's GHG emissions in a year is required by the UNFCCC to provide a benchmark for the country 's emission reductions , and subsequently to evaluate international climate policies such as the Kyoto protocol ( although the original has now expired , extensions have been agreed ) as well as regional climate policies such as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme ( ETS ) . There are two conflicting ways of measuring GHG emissions : production-based ( sometimes referred to as territorial-based ) or consumption-based . Production-based emissions take place `` within national territory and offshore areas over which the country has jurisdiction '' . Consumption-based emissions encompass those emissions from domestic final consumption and those caused by the production of its imports . This means the importing country takes responsibility for emissions related to production of the exporting country 's exports . By these definitions production-based emissions include exports but exclude imports and emissions embodied in international trade , whereas consumption-based emissions refer to the reverse ( Table 1 ) . Which technique is applied by policymakers is fundamental as each can generate a very different NEI . Different NEIs would result in a country 's choosing different optimal mitigation activities , the wrong choice based on wrong information being potentially damaging . The application of production-based emissions accounting is currently favoured in policy terms , although much of the literature favours consumption-based accounting . The former method is criticised in the literature principally for its inability to allocate emissions embodied in international trade/transportation and the potential for carbon leakage .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_accounting", "rank": 55, "score": 115574 }, { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 56, "score": 115013 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator", "rank": 57, "score": 114898 }, { "content": "Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme", "rank": 58, "score": 114442 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_monoxide", "rank": 59, "score": 113779 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-carbon city Content: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on renewable energy ; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet . Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal , oil and gas , unintentionally emitting carbon . Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels . To become a zero carbon city , an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease . Also , renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy , so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city . This transition which includes decarbonising electricity ( increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity ) and zero-emission transport , is undertaken as a response to climate change . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact . Instead of using established cities , many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city . This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Zero-carbon_city", "rank": 60, "score": 113630 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming", "rank": 61, "score": 113209 }, { "content": "Title: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle Content: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle is diverse . Agricultural and industrial nitrogen ( N ) inputs to the environment currently exceed inputs from natural N fixation . As a consequence of anthropogenic inputs , the global nitrogen cycle ( Fig. 1 ) has been significantly altered over the past century . Global atmospheric nitrous oxide ( N2O ) mole fractions have increased from a pre-industrial value of ~ 270 nmol/mol to ~ 319 nmol/mol in 2005 . Human activities account for over one-third of N2O emissions , most of which are due to the agricultural sector . This article is intended to give a brief review of the history of anthropogenic N inputs , and reported impacts of nitrogen inputs on selected terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle", "rank": 62, "score": 113032 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding", "rank": 63, "score": 112999 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation", "rank": 64, "score": 112485 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 65, "score": 112280 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 66, "score": 111866 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Climate_change_in_China", "rank": 67, "score": 111767 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_profiling", "rank": 68, "score": 111632 }, { "content": "Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Politics_of_global_warming", "rank": 69, "score": 111358 }, { "content": "Title: Estuarine acidification Content: Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation : CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Estuarine_acidification", "rank": 70, "score": 110982 }, { "content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Fugitive_emissions", "rank": 71, "score": 110450 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_leakage", "rank": 72, "score": 110357 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide scrubber Content: A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft , submersible craft or airtight chambers . Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere ( CA ) storage . They have also been researched for carbon capture .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_scrubber", "rank": 73, "score": 110329 }, { "content": "Title: Emission intensity Content: An emission intensity is the average emission rate of a given pollutant from a given source relative to the intensity of a specific activity ; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced , or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to gross domestic product ( GDP ) . Emission intensities are used to derive estimates of air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions based on the amount of fuel combusted , the number of animals in animal husbandry , on industrial production levels , distances traveled or similar activity data . Emission intensities may also be used to compare the environmental impact of different fuels or activities . The related terms emission factor and carbon intensity are often used interchangeably , but `` factors '' exclude aggregate activities such as GDP , and `` carbon '' excludes other pollutants . One commonly used figure is carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour , or CIPK , which is used to compare different sources of electrical power .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Emission_intensity", "rank": 74, "score": 110310 }, { "content": "Title: Airport Carbon Accreditation Content: Airport Carbon Accreditation is a global carbon management programme for airports that independently assesses and recognises airports ' efforts to manage and reduce their CO2 emissions . There are 4 different levels of accreditation : Mapping , Reduction , Optimisation and Neutrality . The programme was launched by European airports ' trade body ACI EUROPE at their Annual Congress in June 2009 . It is independently administered by WSP , an international consultancy firm . The programme provides airports with a common framework for active carbon management with measurable goal-posts . Individual airport carbon footprints are independently verified in accordance with ISO 14064 ( Greenhouse Gas Accounting ) on the basis of supporting evidence . Claims regarding airports ' carbon management processes are also independently verified by a group of 117 independent verifiers , based in 36 countries .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Airport_Carbon_Accreditation", "rank": 75, "score": 109744 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 76, "score": 109468 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 77, "score": 109350 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 78, "score": 109053 }, { "content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage", "rank": 79, "score": 108860 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide transmission rate Content: Carbon dioxide transmission rate ( COTR ) is the measurement of the amount of carbon dioxide gas that passes through a substance over a given period . It is mostly carried out on non-porous materials , where the mode of transport is diffusion , but there are a growing number of applications where the transmission rate also depends on flow through apertures of some description .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_transmission_rate", "rank": 80, "score": 108604 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Environmental_issue", "rank": 81, "score": 108491 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 82, "score": 108484 }, { "content": "Title: List of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions Content: This is a list of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions due to human activity . The data presented below from the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Energy Information Administration corresponds to emissions in 2014 . Interactive bar charts ( showing state rankings for total and per-capita emissions ) and interactive maps ( for both total emissions and per capita emissions ) for the 2014 data are available on Tableau Public . __ TOC __", "qid": "3047", "docid": "List_of_U.S._states_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions", "rank": 83, "score": 108453 }, { "content": "Title: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative Content: ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Regional_Greenhouse_Gas_Initiative", "rank": 84, "score": 108347 }, { "content": "Title: Emission Content: Emission may refer to : Emission of chemical products : Emission of air pollutants , notably : Flue gas , gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue Exhaust gas , flue gas generated by fuel combustion Emission of greenhouse gases , which absorb and emit radiation in the thermal infrared range Emission intensity , a measure of the emission rate of a given pollutant from a given source Emission standards , requirements that set specific limits on the amount of certain pollutants that can be released into the environment Emissions trading , a market-based approach used to pollution control Emission of electromagnetic radiation : Emission spectrum , a process by which energy is released in the form of photons , photoemission spectroscopy , atomic emission spectroscopy and other types of spectroscopy List of light sources Emission ( radiocommunications ) , a radio signal ( usually modulated ) emitted from a radio transmitter Emission coefficient , a coefficient in the power output per unit time of an electromagnetic source Emission line , or `` spectral line '' , a dark or bright line in an otherwise uniform and continuous spectrum Emission nebula , a cloud of ionized gas emitting light of various colors Emission theory , a competing theory for the special theory of relativity , explaining the results of the Michelson-Morley experiment Emission theory ( vision ) , the proposal that visual perception is accomplished by rays of light emitted by the eyes Other uses : Thermionic emission , the flow of charged particles called thermions from a charged metal or a charged metal oxide surface , archaically known as the Edison effect Ejaculation , the ejecting of semen from the penis ; also , specifically : Nocturnal emission , ejaculation experienced during sleep Noise emission Exhalation of air , especially in the context of musical instruments", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Emission", "rank": 85, "score": 108189 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 86, "score": 108152 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Carbon_shifting", "rank": 87, "score": 108080 }, { "content": "Title: EU Allowances Content: EU Allowances are Climate credits ( or Carbon credits ) used in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) . EU Allowances are issued by the EU Member States into Member State Registry accounts . By April 30 of each year , operators of installations covered by the EU ETS must surrender an EU Allowance for each ton of CO2 emitted in the previous year . Category : Carbon emissions in the European Union", "qid": "3047", "docid": "EU_Allowances", "rank": 88, "score": 107722 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 89, "score": 107719 }, { "content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 90, "score": 107521 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Hypercapnia", "rank": 91, "score": 107344 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 92, "score": 107322 }, { "content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Keith_E._Idso", "rank": 93, "score": 107228 }, { "content": "Title: New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme Content: The New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme ( NZ ETS ) is a partial-coverage all-free allocation uncapped highly internationally linked emissions trading scheme . The NZ ETS was first legislated in the Climate Change Response ( Emissions Trading ) Amendment Act 2008 in September 2008 under the Fifth Labour Government of New Zealand and then amended in November 2009 and in November 2012 by the Fifth National Government of New Zealand . The NZ ETS covers forestry ( a net sink ) , energy ( 42 % of total 2012 emissions ) , industry ( 7 % of total 2012 emissions ) and waste ( 5 % of total 2012 emissions ) but not pastoral agriculture ( 46 % of 2012 total emissions ) . Participants in the NZ ETS must surrender one emission unit ( either an international ` Kyoto ' unit or a New Zealand-issued unit ) for every two tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions reported or they may choose to buy NZ units from the government at a fixed price of NZ$ 25 . Individual sectors of the economy have different entry dates when their obligations to report emissions and surrender emission units take effect . Forestry , which contributed net removals of 17.5 Mts of CO2e in 2010 ( 19 % of NZ 's 2008 emissions , ) entered the NZ ETS on 1 January 2008 . The stationary energy , industrial processes and liquid fossil fuel sectors entered the NZ ETS on 1 July 2010 . The waste sector ( landfill operators ) entered on 1 January 2013 . From November 2009 , methane and nitrous oxide emissions from pastoral agriculture were scheduled to be included in the NZ ETS from 1 January 2015 . However , agriculture was indefinitely excluded from the NZ ETS in 2013 . The NZ ETS is highly linked to international carbon markets as it allows the importing of most of the Kyoto Protocol emission units . It also creates a specific domestic unit ; the ` New Zealand Unit ' ( NZU ) , which will be issued by free allocation to emitters , with no auctions intended in the short term . Free allocation of NZUs will vary by sector . The commercial fishery sector ( who are not participants ) will receive a free allocation of units on a historic basis . Owners of pre-1990 forests will receive a fixed free allocation of units . Free allocation to emissions-intensive industry , will be provided on an output-intensity basis . For this sector , there is no set limit on the number of units that may be allocated . The number of units allocated to eligible emitters will be based on the average emissions per unit of output within a defined ` activity ' . Bertram and Terry ( 2010 , p 16 ) state that as the NZ ETS does not ` cap ' emissions , the NZ ETS is not a cap and trade scheme as understood in the economics literature . Some stakeholders have criticized the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme for its generous free allocations of emission units and the lack of a carbon price signal ( the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment ) , and for being ineffective in reducing emissions ( Greenpeace Aotearoa New Zealand ) . The NZ ETS was reviewed in late 2011 by an independent panel , which reported to the public in September 2011 . In response , the NZ ETS was amended in November 2012 .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "New_Zealand_Emissions_Trading_Scheme", "rank": 94, "score": 105889 }, { "content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory", "rank": 95, "score": 105682 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita", "rank": 96, "score": 105486 }, { "content": "Title: Clean agent FS 49 C2 Content: Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an environmentally engineered , human safe , fast extinguishing Clean Agent fire extinguishing gas for gaseous fire suppression installed in a suited fire suppression system . The Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an extinguishing gas mixture that suppresses fire while maintaining breathable concentrations of oxygen in the air . This makes it possible to extinguish a fire with less danger to people in the room at extinguishing concentrations in contrast to pure Carbon Dioxide ( CO2 ) based fire suppression system which is deadly to humans when released . In the beginning the gas was called Halotron II B/FS49C2 but later only the name FS 49 C2 is used . It is a gaseous solution of 60-80 % tetrafluoroethane ( R-134a ) , 10-30 % pentafluoroethane ( R-125 ) and 10-30 % carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Former fire chief Einar Gjessing made an article about the product to inform firemen how this gas works in case they need to enter a fire site with FS 49 C2 .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Clean_agent_FS_49_C2", "rank": 97, "score": 105483 }, { "content": "Title: Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project Content: The Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project is part of the Gorgon Project , the world 's largest natural gas project . The Gorgon Project , located on Barrow Island in Western Australia , includes a liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) plant , a domestic gas plant , and a Carbon Dioxide Injection Project . The initial carbon dioxide injections are planned to take place by the end of 2017 . Once launched , the Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project will be the world 's largest CO2 injection plant , with an ability to store up to 4 million tons of CO2 per year -- approximately 120 million tons over the project 's lifetime , and 40 percent of total Gorgon Project emissions .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Gorgon_Carbon_Dioxide_Injection_Project", "rank": 98, "score": 105423 }, { "content": "Title: Compensation point Content: The ( light ) compensation point is the amount of light intensity on the light curve where the rate of photosynthesis exactly matches the rate of respiration . At this point , the uptake of CO2 through photosynthetic pathways is exactly matched to the respiratory release of carbon dioxide , and the uptake of O2 by respiration is exactly matched to the photosynthetic release of oxygen . In assimilation terms , at compensation point , the net carbon dioxide assimilation is zero . Leaves release CO2 by photorespiration and day respiration , but CO2 is also converted into carbohydrate by photosynthesis . Assimilation is therefore the difference in the rate of these processes . At a normal partial pressure of CO2 ( 0.343 hPa in 1980 ) , there is an irradiation at which the net assimilation of CO2 is zero . For instance , in the early morning and late evenings , the compensation point may be reached as photosynthetic activity decreases and respiration increases . Therefore , the partial pressure of CO2 at the compensation point , also known as gamma , is a function of irradiation . The irradiation dependence of the compensation point is explained by the RuBP ( ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ) concentration . When the acceptor RuBP is in saturated concentration , gamma is independent of irradiation . However at low irradiation , only a small fraction of the sites on RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase enzyme ( Rubisco ) have the electron acceptor RuBP . This decreases the photosynthetic activity and therefore affects gamma . The intracellular concentration of CO2 affects the rates of photosynthesis and photo respiration . At higher carbon dioxide concentrations , the photosynthesis rate is higher , while at low CO2 concentrations , photo respiration is higher .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "Compensation_point", "rank": 99, "score": 105149 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .", "qid": "3047", "docid": "CO2_is_Green", "rank": 100, "score": 105035 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 1, "score": 125596 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 2, "score": 113458 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 3, "score": 112418 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 4, "score": 110880 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_rift", "rank": 5, "score": 108746 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Hypercapnia", "rank": 6, "score": 108484 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 7, "score": 105840 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 8, "score": 105236 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 9, "score": 104611 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_leakage", "rank": 10, "score": 101512 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 11, "score": 101138 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding", "rank": 12, "score": 100542 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 13, "score": 100296 }, { "content": "Title: Respiratory acidosis Content: Respiratory acidosis is a medical emergency in which decreased ventilation ( hypoventilation ) increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and decreases the blood 's pH ( a condition generally called acidosis ) . Carbon dioxide is produced continuously as the body 's cells respire , and this CO2 will accumulate rapidly if the lungs do not adequately expel it through alveolar ventilation . Alveolar hypoventilation thus leads to an increased PaCO2 ( a condition called hypercapnia ) . The increase in PaCO2 in turn decreases the HCO3 − / PaCO2 ratio and decreases pH.", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Respiratory_acidosis", "rank": 14, "score": 100001 }, { "content": "Title: Fink effect Content: The Fink effect , also known as `` diffusion anoxia '' , `` diffusion hypoxia '' , or the `` third gas effect '' , is a factor that influences the pO2 ( partial pressure of oxygen ) within the alveolus . When soluble gases ( e.g. nitrous oxide , N2O ) are breathed in large quantities they can be dissolved in body fluids rapidly . This can lead to a temporary increase in the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveolus , causing an increase in their respective partial pressures . The effect is named for Bernard Raymond Fink ( 1914 -- 2000 ) , whose 1955 paper first explained it . When a patient is recovering from N2O anaesthesia , large quantities of this gas cross from the blood into the alveolus ( down its concentration gradient ) and so for a short period of time , the O2 and CO2 in the alveolus are diluted by this gas . This could cause the partial pressure of oxygen to decrease and could temporarily lead to hypoxia . The decrease in CO2 could also potentiate this effect as ventilation would be suppressed , leading to potential hypoxaemia . Nonetheless , this effect would only last a couple of minutes and hypoxia can be avoided by increasing the fractional inspired oxygen concentration when recovering from N2O anaesthesia .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Fink_effect", "rank": 15, "score": 97762 }, { "content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Kaya_identity", "rank": 16, "score": 96991 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 17, "score": 96479 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 18, "score": 95920 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 19, "score": 95665 }, { "content": "Title: Central chemoreceptors Content: Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system , located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves , are sensitive to the pH of their environment . These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues . An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries , often resulting from decreased CO2 output ( hypercapnia ) , indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic ; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma , as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood -- brain barrier . However , a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H + are not able to diffuse across the blood -- brain barrier into the CSF . Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across , reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains , in this way , distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors . The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia ( elevated CO2 , decreased O2 ) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal and in vitro slice preparation . These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term ( or emergency ) regulation . This system utilizes a negative feedback system , therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal `` set '' level , then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed . Peripheral chemoreceptors ( carotid and aortic bodies ) and central chemoreceptors ( medullary neurons ) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity . This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2 , pCO2 , and pH within appropriate physiological ranges . For example , a fall in arterial pO2 ( hypoxemia ) or an increase in arterial pCO2 ( hypercapnia ) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex . Chemoreceptor activity , however , also affects cardiovascular function either directly ( by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers ) or indirectly ( via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity ) . Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock ( these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH , and increase arterial pCO2 ) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Central_chemoreceptors", "rank": 20, "score": 94811 }, { "content": "Title: Carbonic anhydrase II Content: Carbonic anhydrase II ( gene name CA2 ) , is one of fourteen forms of human α carbonic anhydrases . Carbonic anhydrase catalyzes reversible hydration of carbon dioxide . Defects in this enzyme are associated with osteopetrosis and renal tubular acidosis . Renal carbonic anhydrase allows the reabsorption of bicarbonate ions in the proximal tubule .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbonic_anhydrase_II", "rank": 21, "score": 94647 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 22, "score": 94646 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_footprint", "rank": 23, "score": 94245 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 24, "score": 94091 }, { "content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Keith_E._Idso", "rank": 25, "score": 93507 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 26, "score": 93330 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting", "rank": 27, "score": 92877 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_shifting", "rank": 28, "score": 92866 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator", "rank": 29, "score": 92463 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 30, "score": 92449 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 31, "score": 92168 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_shipping", "rank": 32, "score": 92087 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning", "rank": 33, "score": 91192 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "CO2_is_Green", "rank": 34, "score": 90369 }, { "content": "Title: Airborne fraction Content: The airborne fraction is a scaling factor defined as the ratio of the annual increase in atmospheric to the emissions from anthropogenic sources . It represents the proportion of human emitted that remains in the atmosphere . The fraction averages about 45 % , meaning that approximately half the human-emitted is absorbed by ocean and land surfaces . There is some evidence for a recent increase in airborne fraction , which would imply a faster increase in atmospheric for a given rate of human fossil-fuel burning . However , other sources suggest that the `` fraction of carbon dioxide has not increased either during the past 150 years or during the most recent five decades '' . Changes in carbon sinks can affect the airborne fraction .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Airborne_fraction", "rank": 35, "score": 90365 }, { "content": "Title: Ocean acidification Content: Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean . Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level . While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins . Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Ocean_acidification", "rank": 36, "score": 89989 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 37, "score": 89940 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 38, "score": 89880 }, { "content": "Title: Estuarine acidification Content: Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation : CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Estuarine_acidification", "rank": 39, "score": 89566 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_monoxide", "rank": 40, "score": 89546 }, { "content": "Title: 993–994 carbon-14 spike Content: The 993 -- 994 carbon-14 spike was a rapid increase in carbon-14 content from tree rings , and followed the 774 -- 775 carbon-14 spike . This event is also confirmed by a sharp increase of beryllium-10 and hence considered as solar-origin . It may have come from a massive solar storm as a series of auroral observations are known to be observed in late 992 .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "993–994_carbon-14_spike", "rank": 41, "score": 89328 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 42, "score": 88625 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 43, "score": 88480 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issue Content: Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Environmental_issue", "rank": 44, "score": 88309 }, { "content": "Title: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Content: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal ( ECCO2R ) is the removal of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the bloodstream in people who have elevated levels of carbon dioxide as a result of respiratory failure . The use of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is currently considered experimental , but it has been studied in a number of situations , specifically severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in adult respiratory distress syndrome where conventional mechanical ventilation would cause excessive lung damage . It requires the insertion of a tube similar to a dialysis catheter into a large vein . Blood is pumped through a machine where the carbon dioxide is filtered out .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Extracorporeal_carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 45, "score": 88283 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 46, "score": 88066 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_laser", "rank": 47, "score": 87390 }, { "content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction", "rank": 48, "score": 87190 }, { "content": "Title: Respiratory exchange ratio Content: The respiratory exchange ratio ( RER ) is the ratio between the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) produced in metabolism and oxygen ( O2 ) used . Humans typically inhale more molecules of oxygen than they exhale of carbon dioxide because air contains much more oxygen by volume . The ratio is determined by comparing exhaled gases to room air . Measuring this ratio can be used for estimating the respiratory quotient ( RQ ) , an indicator of which fuel ( carbohydrate or fat ) is being metabolized to supply the body with energy . This estimation is only valid if metabolism is in a steady state . RER is about 0.8 at rest with a modern diet . This value however , can exceed 1 during intense exercise , as CO2 production by the working muscles becomes greater and more of the inhaled O2 gets used rather than being expelled . During moderate or higher intensity aerobic exercise and anaerobic exercise , using RER for estimating RQ loses accuracy because of factors including bicarbonate buffering of hydrogen ions , which affects the CO2 levels being expelled by the respiratory system . Calculation of RER is commonly done in conjunction with exercise tests such as the VO2 Max Test and can be used as an indicator that the participants are nearing exhaustion and the limits of their cardio-respiratory system . An RER greater than or equal to 1.15 is often used as a secondary endpoint criterion of a VO2 Max Test . An RER of 0.70 indicates that fat is the predominant fuel source , RER of 0.85 suggests a mix of fat and carbohydrates , and a value of 1.00 or above is indicative of carbohydrate being the predominant fuel source . Oxidation of a molecule of Carbohydrate 6 O2 + C6H12O6 = > 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 6 CO2/6 O2 = 1.0 Oxidation of a molecule of Fatty Acid 23 O2 + C16H32O2 = > 16 CO2 + 16 H2O + 129 ATP RER = VCO2/VO2 = 16 CO2/23 O2 = 0.7", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Respiratory_exchange_ratio", "rank": 49, "score": 87107 }, { "content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 50, "score": 87055 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions", "rank": 51, "score": 87054 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 52, "score": 87028 }, { "content": "Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "774–775_carbon-14_spike", "rank": 53, "score": 86662 }, { "content": "Title: Hypoxic drive Content: The hypoxic drive is a form of respiratory drive in which the body uses oxygen chemoreceptors instead of carbon dioxide receptors to regulate the respiratory cycle . Normal respiration is driven mostly by the levels of carbon dioxide in the arteries , which are detected indirectly by central chemoreceptors when carbon dioxide crosses the blood -- brain barrier , forming detectable hydrogen ions , and directly by peripheral chemoreceptors , and very little by the oxygen levels . An increase in carbon dioxide will cause chemoreceptor reflexes to trigger an increase in ventilation . Hypoxic drive normally accounts for 10 % of the total drive to breathe . This increases as the PaO2 drops to 70 torr and below , while hypoxic drive is no longer active when PaO2 exceeds 170 torr . The hypoxic drive is so weak that unconsciousness will develop before respiratory distress is noted and is therefore a risk for pilots flying at high altitudes . For this reason , supplemental oxygen is required by Federal Aviation Regulations for pilots flying above an altitude of about 12,500 feet in unpressurized airplanes . In the past , it was believed that in cases where there are chronically high carbon dioxide levels in the blood such as in COPD patients , the body will begin to rely more on the oxygen receptors and less on the carbon dioxide receptors . And that in this case , when there is an increase in oxygen levels the body will decrease the rate of respiration . Recent studies have proven that COPD patients who have chronically compensated elevated levels ( known as '' Retainers '' ) are not in fact dependent on hypoxic drive to breathe . However , when in respiratory failure and put on high inspired oxygen , the in their blood may increase via three mechanisms , namely the Haldane Effect , the ventilation/perfusion mismatch ( where the regional pulmonary hypoxic vasoconstriction is released ) and by the removal or reduction of the hypoxic drive itself .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Hypoxic_drive", "rank": 54, "score": 86647 }, { "content": "Title: CA1 (gene) Content: Carbonic anhydrase 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the CA1 gene . Carbonic anhydrases ( CAs ) are a large family of zinc metalloenzymes that catalyze the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide . They participate in a variety of biological processes , including cellular respiration , calcification , acid-base balance , bone resorption , and the formation of aqueous humor , cerebrospinal fluid , saliva , and gastric acid . They show extensive diversity in tissue distribution and in their subcellular localization . CA1 is closely linked to CA2 and CA3 genes on chromosome 8 , and it encodes a cytosolic protein which is found at the highest level in erythrocytes . Transcript variants of CA1 utilizing alternative polyA_sites have been described in literature .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "CA1_(gene)", "rank": 55, "score": 86599 }, { "content": "Title: Induced seismicity Content: Induced seismicity refers to typically minor earthquakes and tremors that are caused by human activity that alters the stresses and strains on the Earth 's crust . Most induced seismicity is of a low magnitude . A few sites regularly have larger quakes , such as The Geysers geothermal plant in California which averaged two M4 events and 15 M3 events every year from 2004 to 2009 . Results of ongoing multi-year research on induced earthquakes by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) published in 2015 suggested that most of the significant earthquakes in Oklahoma , such as the 1952 magnitude 5.7 El Reno earthquake may have been induced by deep injection of waste water by the oil industry . `` Earthquake rates have recently increased markedly in multiple areas of the Central and Eastern United States ( CEUS ) , especially since 2010 , and scientific studies have linked the majority of this increased activity to wastewater injection in deep disposal wells . '' Induced seismicity can also be caused by the injection of carbon dioxide as the storage step of carbon capture and storage , which aims to sequester carbon dioxide captured from fossil fuel production or other sources in earth 's crust as a means of climate change mitigation . This effect has been observed in Oklahoma and Saskatchewan . Though safe practices and existing technologies can be utilized to reduce the risk of induced seismicity due to injection of carbon dioxide , the risk is still significant if the storage is large in scale . The consequences of the induced seismicity could disrupt preexisting faults in the Earth 's crust as well as compromise the seal integrity of the storage locations . The seismic hazard from induced seismicity can be assessed using similar techniques as for natural seismicity , although accounting for non-stationary seismicity . Subsequently , a risk assessment can be performed , taking account of the seismic hazard and the vulnerability of the exposed elements at risk ( e.g. local population and the building stock ) . Finally , the risk can , theoretically at least , be mitigated , either through modifications to the hazard or a reduction to the exposure or the vulnerability .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Induced_seismicity", "rank": 56, "score": 86532 }, { "content": "Title: Mazuku Content: In geology , a mazuku ( Swahili : evil wind ) is a pocket of carbon dioxide-rich air that can be lethal to any human or animal life inside . Mazuku are created when carbon dioxide accumulates in pockets low to the ground . CO2 is heavier than air , which causes it to stay close to the ground , and is also undetectable by human olfactory or visual senses in most conditions . Mazuku can be related to volcanic activity or to a natural disaster known as a limnic eruption . In the first case , noxious gases are released from the Earth 's crust into the atmosphere , whereas in the second case the gases originate deep in a lake and boil rapidly to the surface . Because of their nature as sporadic and subtle events , few mazuku have been recorded , but there is a growing understanding of them based on historical and fossil evidence .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Mazuku", "rank": 57, "score": 85914 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation", "rank": 58, "score": 85107 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 59, "score": 84908 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming", "rank": 60, "score": 84680 }, { "content": "Title: List of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions Content: This is a list of U.S. states by carbon dioxide emissions due to human activity . The data presented below from the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Energy Information Administration corresponds to emissions in 2014 . Interactive bar charts ( showing state rankings for total and per-capita emissions ) and interactive maps ( for both total emissions and per capita emissions ) for the 2014 data are available on Tableau Public . __ TOC __", "qid": "3048", "docid": "List_of_U.S._states_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions", "rank": 61, "score": 84573 }, { "content": "Title: Cocaine esterase Content: Cocaine esterase ( , CocE , hCE2 , hCE-2 , human carboxylesterase 2 ) is an enzyme with systematic name cocaine benzoylhydrolase . This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction cocaine + H2O ecgonine methyl ester + benzoate Rhodococcus sp . strain MB1 and Pseudomonas maltophilia strain MB11L can utilize cocaine as sole source of carbon and energy . This enzyme and redesigned versions of it have been studied as a potential treatment for cocaine addiction in humans .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Cocaine_esterase", "rank": 62, "score": 84353 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_sensor", "rank": 63, "score": 84223 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 64, "score": 83946 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monoxide poisoning Content: Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs after breathing in too much carbon monoxide ( CO ) . Symptoms of mild acute poisoning include lightheadedness , confusion , headache , feeling like the world is spinning , and flu-like effects . Larger exposures can lead to toxicity of the central nervous system and heart , and death . After acute poisoning , long-term problems may occur . Carbon monoxide can also have negative effects on a baby if exposed during pregnancy . Chronic exposure to low levels of carbon monoxide can lead to depression , confusion , and memory loss . Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas , but , being colorless , odorless , tasteless , and initially non-irritating , it is difficult for people to detect . Carbon monoxide is a product of incomplete combustion of organic matter . It is often produced by motor vehicles that run on gasoline , diesel , methane , or other carbon-based fuels and from tools , gas heaters , and cooking equipment that are powered by carbon-based fuels such as propane , butane and charcoal . Exposure at 100 ppm or greater can be dangerous to human health . Carbon monoxide mainly causes adverse effects by combining with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin ( HbCO ) in the blood . This prevents hemoglobin from carrying oxygen to the tissues . Additionally , myoglobin and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase are thought to be adversely affected . Carboxyhemoglobin can revert to hemoglobin , but the recovery takes time as the HbCO complex is fairly stable . Treatment of poisoning largely consists of giving 100 % oxygen or providing hyperbaric oxygen therapy , although the optimum treatment remains controversial . Oxygen works as an antidote as it increases the removal of carbon monoxide from hemoglobin , in turn providing the body with normal levels of oxygen . The prevention of poisoning is a significant public health issue . Domestic carbon monoxide poisoning can be prevented by early detection with the use of household carbon monoxide detectors . Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal poisoning in many countries . It has also commonly been used as a method to commit suicide , usually by deliberately inhaling the exhaust fumes of a running vehicle . Modern automobiles still produce levels of carbon monoxide which will kill in an enclosed space or if the exhaust path is obstructed .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_monoxide_poisoning", "rank": 65, "score": 83891 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 66, "score": 83856 }, { "content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Amorphous_carbonia", "rank": 67, "score": 83693 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 68, "score": 83655 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monoxide-releasing molecules Content: Carbon monoxide-releasing molecules ( CO-RMs ) are chemical compounds that release controlled amounts of carbon monoxide ( CO ) to cells and tissues and are being developed as potential therapeutic agents . Although long recognized as a poison , CO also exhibits beneficial effects in small doses . These effects include anti-inflammatory activity , vasodilatation , and cardioprotection . CO is produced in mammals during the degradation of heme by heme oxygenase-1 , a redox-sensitive enzyme induced by oxidative stress . It is this enzymatic reaction that inspired the development of synthetic CO-RMs . Therapeutic drugs have historically been developed based on the similar activity of small molecules in biological signaling , examples exist in the case of both H2S and NO-releasing drugs . Synthetic CO-RMs are typically metal carbonyl complexes . A representative CO-RM that has been extensively characterized both from a biochemical and pharmacological view point is the ruthenium ( II ) complex Ru ( glycinate ) Cl ( CO ) 3 , also known as CORM-3 .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_monoxide-releasing_molecules", "rank": 69, "score": 83629 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 70, "score": 83570 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_cycle_re-balancing", "rank": 71, "score": 83457 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide cleaning Content: Carbon dioxide cleaning ( CO2 cleaning ) comprises a family of methods for parts cleaning and sterilization , using carbon dioxide in its various phases . It is often preferred for use on delicate surfaces . CO2 cleaning has found application in the aerospace , automotive , electronics , medical , and other industries . Carbon dioxide snow cleaning has been used to remove particles and organic residues from metals , polymers , ceramics , glasses , hard drives , optics , and other surfaces .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_cleaning", "rank": 72, "score": 83021 }, { "content": "Title: Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure Content: Spaceflight induced visual impairment is hypothesized to be a result of increased intracranial pressure . The study of visual changes and intracranial pressure ( ICP ) in astronauts on long-duration flights is a relatively recent topic of interest to Space Medicine professionals . Although reported signs and symptoms have not appeared to be severe enough to cause blindness in the near term , long term consequences of chronically elevated intracranial pressure is unknown . NASA has reported that fifteen long-duration male astronauts ( 45 -- 55 years of age ) have experienced confirmed visual and anatomical changes during or after long-duration flights . Optic disc edema , globe flattening , choroidal folds , hyperopic shifts and an increased intracranial pressure have been documented in these astronauts . Some individuals experienced transient changes post-flight while others have reported persistent changes with varying degrees of severity . Although the exact cause is not known at this time , it is suspected that microgravity-induced cephalad fluid shift and comparable physiological changes play a significant role in these changes . Other contributing factors may include pockets of increased CO2 and an increase in sodium intake . It seems unlikely that resistive or aerobic exercise are contributing factors , but they may be potential countermeasures to reduce intraocular pressure ( IOP ) or intracranial pressure ( ICP ) in-flight .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Visual_impairment_due_to_intracranial_pressure", "rank": 73, "score": 82591 }, { "content": "Title: Respiratory failure Content: Respiratory failure results from inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system , meaning that the arterial oxygen , carbon dioxide or both can not be kept at normal levels . A drop in the oxygen carried in blood is known as hypoxemia ; a rise in arterial carbon dioxide levels is called hypercapnia . Respiratory failure is classified as either Type I or Type II , based on whether there is a high carbon dioxide level . The definition of respiratory failure in clinical trials usually includes increased respiratory rate , abnormal blood gases ( hypoxemia , hypercapnia , or both ) , and evidence of increased work of breathing . The normal partial pressure reference values are : oxygen PaO2 more than 80 mmHg , and carbon dioxide PaCO2 lesser than 45 mmHg .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Respiratory_failure", "rank": 74, "score": 82529 }, { "content": "Title: Politics of global warming Content: The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Politics_of_global_warming", "rank": 75, "score": 82306 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 76, "score": 82212 }, { "content": "Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth", "rank": 77, "score": 82160 }, { "content": "Title: Bohr effect Content: The Bohr effect is a physiological phenomenon first described in 1904 by the Danish physiologist Christian Bohr , stating that haemoglobin 's oxygen binding affinity ( see Oxygen -- haemoglobin dissociation curve ) is inversely related both to acidity and to the concentration of carbon dioxide . Since carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid , an increase in CO2 results in a decrease in blood pH , resulting in hemoglobin proteins releasing their load of oxygen . Conversely , a decrease in carbon dioxide provokes an increase in pH , which results in hemoglobin picking up more oxygen .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Bohr_effect", "rank": 78, "score": 82152 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 79, "score": 81894 }, { "content": "Title: Causeyville Historic District Content: Causeyville , Mississippi ( also known as Increase ) is a small community in southeastern Lauderdale County , Mississippi , about twelve miles southeast of the city of Meridian . The Causeyville Historic District consists of four buildings at the center of the community -- two general stores and two residences -- that exemplify the pivotal contribution that small communities like Causeyville made to the development of Lauderdale County . The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Causeyville_Historic_District", "rank": 80, "score": 81836 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Greenhouse_debt", "rank": 81, "score": 81742 }, { "content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory", "rank": 82, "score": 81594 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 83, "score": 81587 }, { "content": "Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "ACEA_agreement", "rank": 84, "score": 81540 }, { "content": "Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 85, "score": 81364 }, { "content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Black_carbon", "rank": 86, "score": 81309 }, { "content": "Title: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle Content: Human impact on the nitrogen cycle is diverse . Agricultural and industrial nitrogen ( N ) inputs to the environment currently exceed inputs from natural N fixation . As a consequence of anthropogenic inputs , the global nitrogen cycle ( Fig. 1 ) has been significantly altered over the past century . Global atmospheric nitrous oxide ( N2O ) mole fractions have increased from a pre-industrial value of ~ 270 nmol/mol to ~ 319 nmol/mol in 2005 . Human activities account for over one-third of N2O emissions , most of which are due to the agricultural sector . This article is intended to give a brief review of the history of anthropogenic N inputs , and reported impacts of nitrogen inputs on selected terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle", "rank": 87, "score": 81208 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 (opera) Content: CO2 is an Italian opera by Giorgio Battistelli which premiered at La Scala on May 16 , 2015 . It is based on Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth , and Gore was initially a character in the opera . The libretto , primarily in English but containing passages in other languages , was written by Robert Carsen , who directed the production , and Ian Burton .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "CO2_(opera)", "rank": 88, "score": 81165 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_offset", "rank": 89, "score": 81014 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 90, "score": 80929 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 (disambiguation) Content: CO2 is the molecular formula for carbon dioxide . CO2 , Co2 or C02 may refer to :", "qid": "3048", "docid": "CO2_(disambiguation)", "rank": 91, "score": 80834 }, { "content": "Title: Clean agent FS 49 C2 Content: Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an environmentally engineered , human safe , fast extinguishing Clean Agent fire extinguishing gas for gaseous fire suppression installed in a suited fire suppression system . The Clean agent FS 49 C2 is an extinguishing gas mixture that suppresses fire while maintaining breathable concentrations of oxygen in the air . This makes it possible to extinguish a fire with less danger to people in the room at extinguishing concentrations in contrast to pure Carbon Dioxide ( CO2 ) based fire suppression system which is deadly to humans when released . In the beginning the gas was called Halotron II B/FS49C2 but later only the name FS 49 C2 is used . It is a gaseous solution of 60-80 % tetrafluoroethane ( R-134a ) , 10-30 % pentafluoroethane ( R-125 ) and 10-30 % carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Former fire chief Einar Gjessing made an article about the product to inform firemen how this gas works in case they need to enter a fire site with FS 49 C2 .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Clean_agent_FS_49_C2", "rank": 92, "score": 80799 }, { "content": "Title: Kululu Content: The kululu ( Sarotherodon steinbachi ) is a species of cichlid endemic to Lake Barombi Mbo in western Cameroon . This species can reach a length of 11.3 cm SL . It is threatened because of pollution and sedimentation due to human activities . It is potentially also threatened by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although studies indicate that Barombo Mbo lacks excess amounts of this gas . It feeds on tiny organisms such as rotifers , diatoms and sponge spicules , and organic debris .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Kululu", "rank": 93, "score": 80414 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 94, "score": 80355 }, { "content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry", "rank": 95, "score": 80287 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 96, "score": 80172 }, { "content": "Title: Cytochrome c oxidase subunit II Content: Cytochrome c oxidase subunit 2 , also known as cytochrome c oxidase polypeptide II , is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MT-CO2 gene . Cytochrome c oxidase subunit II , abbreviated COXII , COX2 , COII , or MT-CO2 , is the second subunit of cytochrome c oxidase .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Cytochrome_c_oxidase_subunit_II", "rank": 97, "score": 80162 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 98, "score": 80001 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 99, "score": 79990 }, { "content": "Title: Airport Carbon Accreditation Content: Airport Carbon Accreditation is a global carbon management programme for airports that independently assesses and recognises airports ' efforts to manage and reduce their CO2 emissions . There are 4 different levels of accreditation : Mapping , Reduction , Optimisation and Neutrality . The programme was launched by European airports ' trade body ACI EUROPE at their Annual Congress in June 2009 . It is independently administered by WSP , an international consultancy firm . The programme provides airports with a common framework for active carbon management with measurable goal-posts . Individual airport carbon footprints are independently verified in accordance with ISO 14064 ( Greenhouse Gas Accounting ) on the basis of supporting evidence . Claims regarding airports ' carbon management processes are also independently verified by a group of 117 independent verifiers , based in 36 countries .", "qid": "3048", "docid": "Airport_Carbon_Accreditation", "rank": 100, "score": 79204 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 1, "score": 159682 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 2, "score": 142852 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 3, "score": 142534 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 4, "score": 138731 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 5, "score": 132945 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 6, "score": 128945 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 7, "score": 126693 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 8, "score": 126242 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 9, "score": 126108 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 10, "score": 124679 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 11, "score": 124405 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 12, "score": 124003 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 13, "score": 121825 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 14, "score": 121326 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 15, "score": 120788 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 16, "score": 120592 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming", "rank": 17, "score": 119655 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding", "rank": 18, "score": 118246 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 19, "score": 117109 }, { "content": "Title: Wetland methane emissions Content: As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Wetland_methane_emissions", "rank": 20, "score": 116722 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 21, "score": 116233 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 22, "score": 116190 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 23, "score": 115317 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 24, "score": 115098 }, { "content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Climate_sensitivity", "rank": 25, "score": 114776 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_rift", "rank": 26, "score": 114762 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 27, "score": 114470 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_sequestration", "rank": 28, "score": 114271 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 29, "score": 113640 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 30, "score": 113428 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 31, "score": 113045 }, { "content": "Title: Keith E. Idso Content: Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 . In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Keith_E._Idso", "rank": 32, "score": 112458 }, { "content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Revelle_factor", "rank": 33, "score": 111867 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator", "rank": 34, "score": 111689 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 35, "score": 111531 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 36, "score": 111474 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 37, "score": 111005 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 38, "score": 110821 }, { "content": "Title: 774–775 carbon-14 spike Content: The 774 -- 775 Carbon-14 Spike is an observed increase of 1.2 % in the concentration of carbon-14 isotope in tree rings dated to the years 774 or 775 AD , which is about 20 times as high as the normal background rate of variation . It was discovered during a study of Japanese cedar trees , with the year of occurrence determined through dendrochronology . A surge in beryllium isotope 10Be , detected in Antarctic ice cores , has also been associated with the 774 -- 775 event . The event appears to have been global , with the same carbon-14 signal found in tree rings from Germany , Russia , the United States , and New Zealand . The signal exhibits a sharp increase of ~ 1.2 % followed by a slow decline ( see Figure 1 ) , which is typical for an instant production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere , indicating that the event was short in duration . The globally averaged production of carbon-14 for this event is calculated as Q = ( 1.1-1 .5 ) × 108 atoms/cm2 .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "774–775_carbon-14_spike", "rank": 39, "score": 110450 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sink Content: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_sink", "rank": 40, "score": 110191 }, { "content": "Title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory Content: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO ) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009 , when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent . The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit . It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica . The replacement satellite , Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 , was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument , will be installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in December 2016 .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory", "rank": 41, "score": 109512 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 42, "score": 108791 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercapnia Content: Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Hypercapnia", "rank": 43, "score": 107920 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide", "rank": 44, "score": 107886 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals", "rank": 45, "score": 107231 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 46, "score": 107122 }, { "content": "Title: Amorphous carbonia Content: Amorphous carbonia , also called a-carbonia or a-CO2 , is an exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is analogous to amorphous silica glass . It was first made in the laboratory in 2006 by subjecting dry ice to high pressures ( 40-48 gigapascal , or 400,000 to 480,000 atmospheres ) , in a diamond anvil cell . Amorphous carbonia is not stable at ordinary pressures -- it quickly reverts to normal CO2 . While normally carbon dioxide forms molecular crystals , where individual molecules are bound by Van der Waals forces , in amorphous carbonia a covalently bound three-dimensional network of atoms is formed , in a structure analogous to silicon dioxide or germanium dioxide glass . Mixtures of a-carbonia and a-silica may be a prospective very hard and stiff glass material stable at room temperature . Such glass may serve as protective coatings , e.g. in microelectronics . The discovery has implications for astrophysics , as interiors of massive planets may contain amorphous solid carbon dioxide .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Amorphous_carbonia", "rank": 47, "score": 107115 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 48, "score": 106412 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 49, "score": 106237 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_leakage", "rank": 50, "score": 106036 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 51, "score": 105611 }, { "content": "Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Scott_Denning", "rank": 52, "score": 105508 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Atmosphere", "rank": 53, "score": 105217 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 54, "score": 104790 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning", "rank": 55, "score": 104546 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 56, "score": 104451 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 57, "score": 104028 }, { "content": "Title: Mars atmospheric entry Content: Mars atmospheric entry is the entry into the atmosphere of Mars . High velocity entry into Martian air creates a CO2-N2 plasma , as opposed to O2-N2 for Earth air . Mars entry is affected by the radiative effects of hot CO2 gas and Martian dust suspended in the air . Flight regimes for entry , descent , and landing systems include aerocapture , hypersonic , supersonic , and subsonic . Thermal protection systems and atmospheric friction have been used historically to reduce most of the kinetic energy that needs to be lost prior to landing , with parachutes and , sometimes , a final bit of retropropulsion used in the final landing . High-altitude high-velocity retropropulsion is being researched for future transport flights landing heavier cargos . For example , Mars Pathfinder entered in 1997 . About 30 minutes prior to entry , the cruise stage and entry capsule separated . When the capsule hit the atmosphere it de-accelerated from about 7.3 km/s to 0.4 km/s ( 16330 mph to 900 mph ) over three minutes . As it descended the parachute opened to slow it down further , and soon after the heat shield was released . During entry a signal was relayed back to Earth , including semaphore signals for important events .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Mars_atmospheric_entry", "rank": 58, "score": 103962 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Pluto Content: The atmosphere of Pluto is the tenuous layer of gases surrounding Pluto . It consists mainly of nitrogen ( N2 ) , with minor amounts of methane ( CH4 ) and carbon monoxide ( CO ) , all of which are vaporized from their ices on Pluto 's surface . It contains layered haze , probably consisting of heavier compounds which form from these gases due to high-energy radiation . The atmosphere of Pluto is notable for its strong and not completely clear seasonal changes caused by peculiarities of the orbital and axial rotation of Pluto . Surface pressure of the atmosphere of Pluto , measured by New Horizons in 2015 , is about , roughly 100,000 times less than Earth 's atmospheric pressure . Temperature on the surface is 40 to , but it quickly grows with altitude due to methane-generated greenhouse effect . Near the altitude it reaches 110 K , and then slowly decreases . Pluto is the only trans-Neptunian object with a known atmosphere . Its closest analog is the atmosphere of Triton , although in some aspects it resembles even the atmosphere of Mars . The atmosphere of Pluto has been studied since the 1980s by way of earth-based observation of occultations of stars by Pluto and spectroscopy . In 2015 , it was studied from a close distance by the spacecraft New Horizons .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Pluto", "rank": 59, "score": 103414 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 60, "score": 103135 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon cycle re-balancing Content: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_cycle_re-balancing", "rank": 61, "score": 102998 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 62, "score": 102790 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_shifting", "rank": 63, "score": 102684 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 64, "score": 102664 }, { "content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Biosequestration", "rank": 65, "score": 102608 }, { "content": "Title: Respiratory acidosis Content: Respiratory acidosis is a medical emergency in which decreased ventilation ( hypoventilation ) increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and decreases the blood 's pH ( a condition generally called acidosis ) . Carbon dioxide is produced continuously as the body 's cells respire , and this CO2 will accumulate rapidly if the lungs do not adequately expel it through alveolar ventilation . Alveolar hypoventilation thus leads to an increased PaCO2 ( a condition called hypercapnia ) . The increase in PaCO2 in turn decreases the HCO3 − / PaCO2 ratio and decreases pH.", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Respiratory_acidosis", "rank": 66, "score": 102209 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 67, "score": 101962 }, { "content": "Title: Bomb pulse Content: The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Bomb_pulse", "rank": 68, "score": 101867 }, { "content": "Title: Modified atmosphere Content: Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package ( commonly food packages , drugs , etc. ) in order to improve the shelf life . The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen ( O2 ) , moving it from 20.9 % to 0 % , in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions . The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen ( N2 ) , commonly acknowledged as an inert gas , or carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria . Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat . Re-balancing of gases inside the packaging can be achieved using active techniques such as gas flushing and compensated vacuum or passively by designing `` breathable '' films known as equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging ( EMAP ) . Packets containing scavengers may be used .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Modified_atmosphere", "rank": 69, "score": 101835 }, { "content": "Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Kenneth_Hare", "rank": 70, "score": 101794 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric temperature range Content: Atmospheric temperature range is the numerical difference between the minimum and maximum values of temperature observed in a given location during a period of time ( e.g. , in a given day , month , year , century ) or the average ( average of all temperature ranges in a period of time ) . The variation in temperature that occurs from the highs of the day to the cool of nights is called diurnal temperature variation .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Atmospheric_temperature_range", "rank": 71, "score": 101390 }, { "content": "Title: Estuarine acidification Content: Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation : CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Estuarine_acidification", "rank": 72, "score": 101355 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 73, "score": 100756 }, { "content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction", "rank": 74, "score": 100071 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 75, "score": 99055 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_footprint", "rank": 76, "score": 98738 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite", "rank": 77, "score": 98144 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling (disambiguation) Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that depicts the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the twentieth century . It is named after Charles David Keeling who discovered the rise in carbon dioxide concentrations and plotted the graph . Keeling may also refer to : Keeling , Virginia North Keeling Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands Surname Charles Keeling , climatologist Edward Keeling Harold Keeling John Keeling , MP Ralph Keeling , son of Charles , also climatologist William Keeling , English sea captain", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Keeling_(disambiguation)", "rank": 78, "score": 98054 }, { "content": "Title: Recycled fuel Content: Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Recycled_fuel", "rank": 79, "score": 97990 }, { "content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years", "rank": 80, "score": 97764 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "CO2_is_Green", "rank": 81, "score": 97742 }, { "content": "Title: Timothy Ball Content: Timothy Francis `` Tim '' Ball ( born November 5 , 1938 ) is a Canadian geographer . A retired professor , he taught in the department of geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until 1996 . Ball rejects the scientific opinion on climate change , stating that `` CO2 is not a greenhouse gas . '' He has worked with the Friends of Science and the Natural Resources Stewardship Project , and is a research fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Timothy_Ball", "rank": 82, "score": 97529 }, { "content": "Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Gilbert_Plass", "rank": 83, "score": 97375 }, { "content": "Title: Sergei Petrovskii Content: Sergei Petrovskii is a Russian-born British mathematician who researches the modeling of natural phenomena . He is a professor of Applied Mathematics at the University of Leicester . In 2015 , he led a study that found that if the ocean temperature were to increase by about six degrees Celsius due to global warming , phytoplankton might stop producing oxygen . This would lead to shortages of oxygen in the atmosphere , which could be very harmful to humans . Petrovskii said , `` About two thirds of the planet 's total atmospheric oxygen is produced by ocean phytoplankton - and therefore cessation would result in the depletion of atmospheric oxygen on a global scale . This would likely result in the mass mortality of animals and humans . '' Petrovskii 's study appeared in the Bulletin of Mathematical Biology . Another stream of his research is modelling of biological invasions where he discovered a new phenomenon called `` patchy invasion '' . Contrary to a commonly used paradigm of alien species spread by a travelling population front , in the patchy invasion the invasive species spreads into new areas by creating individual patches not preceded by a front propagation . Patchy invasion has been observed in several invasions of insects and birds and has been studied theoretically using a variety of growth-dispersal models .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Sergei_Petrovskii", "rank": 84, "score": 97036 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 85, "score": 96899 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia", "rank": 86, "score": 96709 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric convection Content: Atmospheric convection is the result of a parcel-environment instability , or temperature difference , layer in the atmosphere . Different lapse rates within dry and moist air lead to instability . Mixing of air during the day which expands the height of the planetary boundary layer leads to increased winds , cumulus cloud development , and decreased surface dew points . Moist convection leads to thunderstorm development , which is often responsible for severe weather throughout the world . Special threats from thunderstorms include hail , downbursts , and tornadoes .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Atmospheric_convection", "rank": 87, "score": 96635 }, { "content": "Title: Stratosphere Content: The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Stratosphere", "rank": 88, "score": 96581 }, { "content": "Title: C. Kumar N. Patel Content: Chandra Kumar Naranbhai Patel ( born 2 July 1938 ) is an electrical engineer . He developed the carbon dioxide laser in 1963 ; it is now widely used in industry for cutting and welding , as a laser scalpel in surgery , and in laser skin resurfacing . Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light , CO2 lasers are also used for military rangefinding using LIDAR techniques . Patel was born in Baramati , India , and received a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree from the Government College of Engineering , the University of Pune , India and the M.S. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in 1959 and 1961 , respectively . Patel joined Bell Laboratories in 1961 , and subsequently became Executive Director of the Research , Materials Science , Engineering and Academic Affairs Division at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill , New Jersey , where he developed the carbon dioxide laser . Patel 's discovery , in 1963 , of the laser action on the vibrational-rotational transitions of carbon dioxide and his discovery , in 1964 , of efficient vibrational energy transfer between molecules , led to a series of experiments which demonstrated that the carbon dioxide laser was capable of very high continuous-wave and pulsed power output at very high conversion efficiencies . From 1993-1999 , Patel served as Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of California , Los Angeles , where he is also Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering . In 1996 , President Bill Clinton awarded Patel the National Medal of Science , '' -LSB- f -RSB- or his fundamental contributions to quantum electronics and invention of the carbon dioxide laser , which have had significant impact on industrial , scientific , medical , and defense applications . '' In addition to the carbon dioxide laser , he also developed the `` spin-flip '' infrared Raman laser . Patel currently holds 36 U.S. patents relating to lasers and laser applications . He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Science , and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences , the American Physical Society , the IEEE , the Optical Society of America , the Laser Institute of America , and the American Society of Laser Medicine .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "C._Kumar_N._Patel", "rank": 89, "score": 96496 }, { "content": "Title: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 Content: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 is a chemical process whereby carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide or hydrocarbons by the energy of incident light . This process needs to be catalyzed either homogeneously or heterogeneously in order to proceed , and current research is aimed at developing these catalysts , most of which are semiconducting materials . Semiconducting catalysts provide favourable electron transfer kinetics . Motivation for research in this area is strong due to the current attention to atmospheric carbon dioxide as the reduction of carbon dioxide would be one route for removal and sequestration . Furthermore , the reduced species may prove to be a valuable feedstock for other processes . If the incident light utilized is solar in nature then this process also potentially represents energy routes which combine renewable energy with CO2 reduction .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Photoelectrochemical_reduction_of_CO2", "rank": 90, "score": 96493 }, { "content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 91, "score": 95955 }, { "content": "Title: Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility Content: The Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility ( ZOTTO ) is a climatic research station in the Siberian taiga in the proximity of Zotino , Russia , established and operated by the Max Planck Society and the Sukachev Institute of Forest , it serves as a long-term observing platform to be operated for at least 30 years . Far from human influences , researchers aim to determine how the concentration of greenhouse gases , aerosols , and the rising temperatures of the terrestrial atmosphere affect each other mutually . The heart of the station is a 302 m tower on which precision instruments measure the concentration of carbon dioxide , methane and other greenhouse gases . The measurement data are processed directly in the station at the foot of the tower and then transferred to the Institute of Forest , in Krasnoyarsk , Russia , as well as to the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry in Jena , Germany . The station has been operational since September 2006 . It extended the project Terrestrial Carbon Observing System and was funded by the 5th framework programme of the European Union , uniting 8 European and 4 Russian partners . A main conclusion of the project is that Siberian forests constitute a substantially smaller carbon-sink than so far assumed .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Zotino_Tall_Tower_Observation_Facility", "rank": 92, "score": 95635 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_monoxide", "rank": 93, "score": 95446 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes", "rank": 94, "score": 95300 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Engineering Content: Carbon Engineering is a Calgary , Alberta-based company commercializing technology to capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) directly from the atmosphere . The company was founded in 2009 by David Keith , now a professor of public policy and applied physics at Harvard University . It is based on his research conducted at the University of Calgary . Carbon Engineering is funded by several government and sustainability-focused agencies as well as by private investors , including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and oil sands financier N. Murray Edwards .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Carbon_Engineering", "rank": 95, "score": 95201 }, { "content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Mesopause", "rank": 96, "score": 95110 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 97, "score": 95078 }, { "content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "qid": "3049", "docid": "James_Hansen", "rank": 98, "score": 95045 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho", "rank": 99, "score": 94645 }, { "content": "Title: 993–994 carbon-14 spike Content: The 993 -- 994 carbon-14 spike was a rapid increase in carbon-14 content from tree rings , and followed the 774 -- 775 carbon-14 spike . This event is also confirmed by a sharp increase of beryllium-10 and hence considered as solar-origin . It may have come from a massive solar storm as a series of auroral observations are known to be observed in late 992 .", "qid": "3049", "docid": "993–994_carbon-14_spike", "rank": 100, "score": 94195 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 1, "score": 181236 }, { "content": "Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation", "rank": 2, "score": 178899 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 3, "score": 164881 }, { "content": "Title: La Niña Content: La Niña ( -LSB- lɑːˈniːnjə -RSB- , -LSB- la ˈniɲa -RSB- ) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon that is the counterpart of El Niño as part of the broader El Niño -- Southern Oscillation climate pattern . The name La Niña originates from Spanish , meaning `` the little girl '' , analogous to El Niño meaning `` the little boy '' . It has also in the past been called anti-El Niño , and El Viejo ( meaning `` the old man '' ) . During a period of La Niña , the sea surface temperature across the equatorial Eastern Central Pacific Ocean will be lower than normal by 3 to 5 ° C . In the United States , an appearance of La Niña persists for at least five months . It has extensive effects on the weather in North America , even affecting the Atlantic Hurricane Season .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "La_Niña", "rank": 4, "score": 160272 }, { "content": "Title: 2014–16 El Niño event Content: The 2014 -- 16 El Niño was a warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean that resulted in unusually warm waters developing between the coast of South America and the International Date Line . These unusually warm waters influenced the world 's weather in a number of ways , which in turn significantly affected various parts of the world . These included drought conditions in Venezuela , Australia and a number of Pacific islands while significant flooding was also recorded . During the event more tropical cyclones than normal occurred within the Pacific Ocean , while fewer than normal occurred in the Atlantic Ocean .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "2014–16_El_Niño_event", "rank": 5, "score": 155586 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.", "qid": "3051", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves", "rank": 6, "score": 154544 }, { "content": "Title: El Niño Content: El Niño -LSB- ɛl_ˈniːnjoʊ -RSB- ( -LSB- el ˈniɲo -RSB- ) is the warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation ( commonly called ENSO ) and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific ( between approximately the International Date Line and 120 ° W ) , including off the Pacific coast of South America . El Niño Southern Oscillation refers to the cycle of warm and cold temperatures , as measured by sea surface temperature , SST , of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean . El Niño is accompanied by high air pressure in the western Pacific and low air pressure in the eastern Pacific . The cool phase of ENSO is called `` La Niña '' with SST in the eastern Pacific below average and air pressures high in the eastern and low in western Pacific . The ENSO cycle , both El Niño and La Niña , cause global changes of both temperatures and rainfall . Developing countries that are dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are usually most affected . In American Spanish , the capitalized term `` El Niño '' refers to `` the little boy '' , so named because the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest around Christmas . The original name , `` El Niño de Navidad '' , traces its origin centuries back to Peruvian fisherman , who named the weather phenomenon in reference to the newborn Christ . `` La Niña '' , chosen as the ` opposite ' of El Niño , literally translates to `` the little girl '' .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "El_Niño", "rank": 7, "score": 154531 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves", "rank": 8, "score": 148618 }, { "content": "Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Future_of_Earth", "rank": 9, "score": 146199 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 10, "score": 141488 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 11, "score": 140493 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "rank": 12, "score": 138267 }, { "content": "Title: 2010–12 La Niña event Content: The 2010 -- 12 La Niña event was one of the strongest on record . It caused Australia to experience its wettest September on record in 2010 , and its second-wettest year on record in 2010 . It also led to an unusual intensification of the Leeuwin Current , the 2010 Pakistan floods , the 2010 -- 11 Queensland floods , and the 2011 East Africa drought . It also helped keep the average global temperature below recent trends , leading to 2011 tying with 1997 for the 14th-warmest year on record .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "2010–12_La_Niña_event", "rank": 13, "score": 138090 }, { "content": "Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "1997–98_El_Niño_event", "rank": 14, "score": 136931 }, { "content": "Title: 1982–83 El Niño event Content: The 1982 -- 83 El Niño event was one of the strongest El Niño events since records were kept . It led to widespread flooding across the southern United States , droughts in Indonesia and Australia , and lack of snow in northern areas of the United States . The estimated economic impact was over US$ 8 billion . This El Niño event also led to an abnormal amount of hurricanes in the Pacific Ocean during this time span ; the strongest hurricane up to 1983 hit Hawaii during this El Niño event . It led to declines of 77 % among Galápagos penguins and 49 % among flightless cormorants . In addition to these losses in penguins and cormorants , this El Niño event caused a quarter of adult native sea lions and fur seals on Peru 's coast to starve , while the entirety of both seals ' pup populations perished . In Ecuador heavy rainfall and flooding led to high fish and shrimp harvests , however the large amounts of standing water also allowed mosquito populations to thrive , leading to large outbreaks of malaria .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "1982–83_El_Niño_event", "rank": 15, "score": 135416 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 16, "score": 134362 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in the United States Content: The El Niño -- Southern Oscillation affects the location of the jet stream , which alters rainfall patterns across the West , Midwest , the Southeast , and throughout the tropics . The shift in the jet stream also leads to shifts in the occurrence of severe weather , and the number of tropical cyclones expected within the tropics in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans affected by changes in the ocean temperature and the subtropical jet stream . The winter will have a negative phase according to the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Effects_of_the_El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation_in_the_United_States", "rank": 17, "score": 131509 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents", "rank": 18, "score": 130571 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals", "rank": 19, "score": 130390 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 20, "score": 129281 }, { "content": "Title: List of Category 4 Pacific hurricanes Content: Category 4 , the second-highest classification on the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Scale , is used for tropical cyclones that have winds of 130 -- 156 mph ( 209 -- 251 km/h ; 113 -- 136 kn ) . The division of the eastern and central Pacific basins occurs at 140 ° W ; the eastern Pacific covers area east of 140 ° W , while the central Pacific extends between 140 ° W to 180 ° W. Both basins ' division points are at 66 ° N as a northern point and the equator as the southern point . As of , 116 hurricanes have attained Category 4 status in the northeastern Pacific basins . This list does not include storms that also attained Category 5 status on the scale . Numerous climatological factors influence the formation of hurricanes in the Pacific basins . The North Pacific High and Aleutian Low , usually present between January and April , cause strong wind shear and unfavorable conditions for the development of hurricanes . During its presence , El Niño results in increased numbers of powerful hurricanes through weaker wind shear , while La Niña reduces the number of such hurricanes through the opposite . Global warming may also influence the formation of tropical cyclones in the Pacific basin . During a thirty-year period with two sub-periods , the first between 1975 and 1989 and the second between 1990 and 2004 , an increase of thirteen Category 4 or 5 storms was observed from the first sub-period . __ TOC __", "qid": "3051", "docid": "List_of_Category_4_Pacific_hurricanes", "rank": 21, "score": 128709 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 22, "score": 127872 }, { "content": "Title: Historical impacts of climate change Content: Climate has affected human life and civilization from the emergence of hominins to the present day . These historical impacts of climate change can improve human life and cause societies to flourish , or can be instrumental in civilization 's societal collapse .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Historical_impacts_of_climate_change", "rank": 23, "score": 122189 }, { "content": "Title: Migration and global environmental change (Report) Content: Migration and Global Environmental Change was a report about the influence of climate change on patterns of human migration and displacement published in 2011 . The report was produced by the Foresight unit at the UK 's Government Office of Science . It became known colloquially as ` The Foresight Report ' among people working in the field of climate-linked migration . The report was led by Professor Richard Black of Sussex University . The report was one of the first assessments of all the existing evidence and research on the connections between climate change and migration . The report authors also commissioned a number of new peer reviewed articles on migration and climate change , significant adding to the evidence base of the topic . The report attracted significant media attention on its release . The report was critical of previous predictions of the number of people who could be forced to move by climate change . It argued that making such numerical predictions was impossible because attributing climate change as the sole cause of someone 's migration was difficult . The report popularized the idea of trapped populations . The report argued that as well as being forced to move by climate change impacts , people might also be forced to stay where they are . The report drew on evidence showing that as people become poorer as a result of a degraded environment , they become less able to migrate . The idea of trapped populations had been present in the academic literature for sometime , however the media attention results from the release of the report brought the idea to a wider public for the first time . The report also popularized the idea of migration as climate change adaptation . Again , the authors drew on existing academic literature on the topic . They made the case that migration should be seen as a legitimate and empowering way for some people to adapt to the impacts of climate change .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Migration_and_global_environmental_change_(Report)", "rank": 24, "score": 122171 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 25, "score": 122132 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project Content: The Tropical Atmosphere Ocean ( TAO ) project is a major international effort that instrumented the entire tropical Pacific Ocean with approximately 70 deep ocean moorings . The development of the TAO array in 1985 was motivated by the 1982-1983 El Niño event and ultimately designed for the study of year-to-year climate variations related to El Niño and the Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Led by the TAO Project Office of the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory ( PMEL ) , the full array of 70 moorings was completed in 1994 . The completed TAO array provides in-situ data collection of high quality oceanographic and surface meteorological data for monitoring , forecasting , and understanding of climate swings associated with El Niño and La Nina . In January 2000 , the TAO array was renamed the TAO/TRITON array in recognition of the contribution made by the TRITON ( Triangle Trans-Ocean Buoy Network ) moorings . The TRITON moorings are situated along , and to the west of , 156E and are operated and managed by JAMSTEC .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Tropical_Atmosphere_Ocean_project", "rank": 26, "score": 121681 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 27, "score": 120149 }, { "content": "Title: Loss and damage Content: The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes . Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events ( climate disasters , such as cyclones ) as well as slow-onset processes ( such as sea level rise ) . Loss and damage can occur in human systems ( such as livelihoods ) as well as natural systems ( such as biodiversity ) , though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts . Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems , a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses . The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets . At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha , Qatar , it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change . A new website was launched at the conference by the Loss and Damage Vulnerable Countries Initiative . It described its aim as being `` the first dedicated site for news , resources and opinion on the issue of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change '' . Examples of types of loss and damage include farmers who can no longer grow crops to eat , or grass to feed cattle , because their soil has become too salty , and fishermen who have lost their livelihoods because rivers have dried up . In popular press , and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations , the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation . This explains why the topic raises heated debates , and tends to widen the divide between developed countries , which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions , and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . For vulnerable countries , loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change , and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation . The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has developed a work programme on loss and damage which aims to find ways to address the issue in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change . On 12 -- 14 September 2013 , it held a meeting in Fiji to consider how best to address loss and damage from ` slow-onset events ' . These are impacts of climate change that occur over time , such as sea-level rise , rather than in a single , destructive event . Bangladesh is already suffering from loss and damage resulting from sea-level rise , due to its flat terrain in the coastal region . At the 19th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2013 in Warsaw , Poland , the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts was established . At the 20th Conference of the Parties in Lima , Peru ( 2014 ) , the work plan of the executive committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism was approved . The 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 2013-2014 had no separate chapter on loss and damage , but WG2 Chapter 16 about adaptation limits and constraints , is very relevant for people interested in loss and damage . A qualitative data analysis ( QDA ) of what the IPCC 5th Assessment Report has to say about loss and damage surprisingly showed that the term was used much more often in statements about Annex 1 countries ( e.g. US , Australia or European countries ) than in text about non-Annex 1 countries ( most countries in Africa , Asia Latin America and the Pacific ) , which tend to be more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . Whether or not the IPCC 6th Assessment Report will have a chapter on loss and damage has not yet been decided .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Loss_and_damage", "rank": 28, "score": 119135 }, { "content": "Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe", "rank": 29, "score": 118644 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 30, "score": 118193 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 31, "score": 118144 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 32, "score": 118122 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and gender Content: Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_and_gender", "rank": 33, "score": 116571 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 34, "score": 116527 }, { "content": "Title: Subtropical ridge Content: The subtropical ridge , also known as the subtropical high or horse latitudes , is a significant belt of atmospheric high pressure situated around the latitudes of 30 ° N in the Northern Hemisphere and 30 ° S in the Southern Hemisphere . It is the product of the global air circulation cell known as the Hadley Cell . The subtropical ridge is characterized by mostly calm winds , which act to reduce air quality under its axis by causing fog overnight , and haze during daylight hours as a result of the stable atmosphere found near its location . The air descending from the upper troposphere flows out from its center at surface level toward the upper and lower latitudes of each hemisphere , creating both the trade winds and the westerlies . The subtropical ridge moves poleward during the summer , reaching its most northern latitude in early fall , before moving equatorward during the cold season . The El Niño southern climate oscillation ( ENSO ) can displace the northern hemisphere subtropical ridge , with La Niñas allowing for a more northerly axis for the ridge , while El Niños show flatter , more southerly ridges . The change of the ridge position during ENSO cycles changes the tracks of tropical cyclones that form around their equatorward and western peripheries . As the subtropical ridge varies in position and strength , it can enhance or depress monsoon regimes around their low-latitude periphery . The term `` horse latitudes '' refers to and is synonymous with the subtropical ridge or subtropical high .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Subtropical_ridge", "rank": 35, "score": 116132 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_(general_concept)", "rank": 36, "score": 115930 }, { "content": "Title: Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research Content: Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) is a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . OAR is also referred to as NOAA Research . NOAA Research is the research and development arm of NOAA and is the driving force behind NOAA environmental products and services aimed at protecting life and property and promoting sustainable economic growth . Research , conducted by programs within NOAA and through collaborations outside NOAA , focuses on enhancing the understanding of environmental phenomena such as tornadoes , hurricanes , climate variability , changes in the ozone layer , El Niño / La Niña events , fisheries productivity , ocean currents , deep sea thermal vents , and coastal ecosystem health . The origins of NOAA Research date back more than 200 years with the creation of the Survey of the Coast in 1807 by Thomas Jefferson . The Coast Survey , which became the U.S. Lake Survey office in 1841 , was developed to undertake `` a hydrographic survey of northwestern -LSB- Great -RSB- lakes . '' Research executed by the scientists of this group was innovative and holistic : the first current meters were developed to understand water flow rates , and forecasting techniques were greatly enhanced to predict water levels and the relationship to lakefront property . The same traits of world class , long-term research continue to define NOAA Research today . The science and technology that NOAA Research produces is not only relevant to society , it anticipates and responds to partners ' needs to demonstrates the value of technologies so that partners can deploy them into their applications . OAR works with end-users to integrate mature technologies ( and associated expertise ) into larger systems , either in NOAA operations or partner applications , via testbeds , patents , etc. .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Office_of_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Research", "rank": 37, "score": 115540 }, { "content": "Title: Atlantic Equatorial mode Content: The Atlantic Equatorial Mode or Atlantic Niño is a quasiperiodic interannual climate pattern of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean . It is the dominant mode of year-to-year variability that results in alternating warming and cooling episodes of sea surface temperatures accompanied by changes in atmospheric circulation . The term Atlantic Niño comes from its close similarity with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) that dominates the tropical Pacific basin . The Atlantic Niño is not the same as the Atlantic Meridional ( Interhemispheric ) Mode that consists of a north-south dipole and operates more on decadal timescales . The equatorial warming and cooling events associated with the Atlantic Niño are known to be strongly related to atmospheric climate anomalies , especially in African countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea . Therefore , understanding of the Atlantic Niño ( or lack thereof ) has important implications for climate prediction in those regions . Although the Atlantic Niño is an intrinsic mode to the equatorial Atlantic , there may be a tenuous causal relationship between ENSO and the Atlantic Niño in some circumstances .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Atlantic_Equatorial_mode", "rank": 38, "score": 115516 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Grenada", "rank": 39, "score": 113826 }, { "content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry", "rank": 40, "score": 111599 }, { "content": "Title: Droughts in the United States Content: Drought in the United States is similar to that of other portions of the globe . Below normal precipitation leads to drought , which is caused by an above average persistence of high pressure over the drought area . Changes in the track of extratropical cyclones , which can occur during climate cycles such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , or ENSO , as well as the North Atlantic Oscillation , Pacific Decadal Oscillation , and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation , modulates which areas would be more prone to drought and when drought develops . Increased drought frequency is expected to be one of the effects of global warming . In dry areas , removing grass cover and going with a more natural vegetation for the area can reduce the impact of drought , since a significant amount of fresh water is used to keep lawns green . Droughts are periodic , alternating with floods over a series of years . The worst droughts in the history of the United States occurred during the 1930s and 1950s , periods of time known as ` Dust Bowl ' years in which droughts lead to significant economic damages and social changes . In particular , relief and health agencies became overburdened and many local community banks had to close .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Droughts_in_the_United_States", "rank": 41, "score": 111542 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of climate change on island nations Content: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations", "rank": 42, "score": 111438 }, { "content": "Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "David_Karoly", "rank": 43, "score": 111379 }, { "content": "Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_variability", "rank": 44, "score": 111363 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 45, "score": 111137 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina", "rank": 46, "score": 111004 }, { "content": "Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change", "rank": 47, "score": 110590 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change policy of the United States Content: Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States", "rank": 48, "score": 109799 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 49, "score": 109676 }, { "content": "Title: Physical impacts of climate change Content: This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Physical_impacts_of_climate_change", "rank": 50, "score": 109569 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho", "rank": 51, "score": 109463 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture", "rank": 52, "score": 109410 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 53, "score": 109155 }, { "content": "Title: 2011 Tuvalu drought Content: The 2011 Tuvalu drought was a period of severe drought afflicting Tuvalu , a South Pacific island country of approximately 10,500 people , in the latter half of 2011 . A state of emergency was declared on September 28 , 2011 ; with rationing of available fresh-water . The La Niña event that caused the drought ended in April -- May 2012 . By August 2012 the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) Conditions indicated that the tropical Pacific Ocean was on the brink of an El Niño event .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "2011_Tuvalu_drought", "rank": 54, "score": 108852 }, { "content": "Title: Lavoisier Group Content: The Lavoisier Group is an Australian organisation formed by politicians and dominated by retired industrial businesspeople and engineers . It does not accept the science of global warming and works to influence attitudes of policy makers and politicians . The organisation downplays the risk of the effects of global warming , rejects the scientific conclusion that human activity causes it , and opposes policies designed to curtail it . Some members regard climate change as a `` scam . '' The group was named after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier ( 1743-1794 ) , the father of modern chemistry who disproved the Phlogiston theory of combustion .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Lavoisier_Group", "rank": 55, "score": 108720 }, { "content": "Title: Land surface effects on climate Content: Land surface effects on climate are wide-ranging and vary by region . Deforestation and exploitation of natural landscapes play a significant role . Some of these environmental changes are similar to those caused by the effects of global warming .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Land_surface_effects_on_climate", "rank": 56, "score": 108697 }, { "content": "Title: Global change Content: Global change refers to planetary-scale changes in the Earth system . The system consists of the land , oceans , atmosphere , polar regions , life , the planet 's natural cycles and deep Earth processes . These constituent parts influence one another . The Earth system now includes human society , so global change also refers to large-scale changes in society . More completely , the term `` global change '' encompasses : population , climate , the economy , resource use , energy development , transport , communication , land use and land cover , urbanization , globalization , atmospheric circulation , ocean circulation , the carbon cycle , the nitrogen cycle , the water cycle and other cycles , sea ice loss , sea-level rise , food webs , biological diversity , pollution , health , over fishing , and more .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Global_change", "rank": 57, "score": 108480 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan", "rank": 58, "score": 108008 }, { "content": "Title: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Content: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions", "rank": 59, "score": 107759 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting", "rank": 60, "score": 107598 }, { "content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change", "rank": 61, "score": 107431 }, { "content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change", "rank": 62, "score": 107346 }, { "content": "Title: James Elsner Content: James Brian Elsner ( born 1959 ) is an American atmospheric scientist , geographer , and applied statistician who has made substantial contributions to understanding of the spatial , temporal , and physical relationships of tropical cyclones and tornadoes , and the influence of climate change . Elsner earned a B.S. ( 1981 ) , M.S. ( 1984 ) , and Ph.D. ( 1988 ) from the University of Wisconsin -- Milwaukee ( UWM ) . He joined the faculty of Florida State University ( FSU ) in 1990 as an assistant professor in the Department of Meteorology and moved to the Department of Geography in 1998 where he has held his current position as the Earl and Sophia Shaw Professor since 2008 . He has been President of Climatek , Inc. , since 2001 . Elsner organized the biannual International Summit on Hurricanes and Climate Change in 2001 and the International Summit on Tornadoes and Climate Change , the first scientific conference on the topic , in 2014 . He is a storm chaser and leads a FSU storm intercept program . He is member of the American Association of Geographers ( AAG ) , the American Geophysical Union ( AGU ) , and the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "James_Elsner", "rank": 63, "score": 107120 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 64, "score": 106856 }, { "content": "Title: Historical climatology Content: Historical climatology is the study of historical changes in climate and their effect on human history and development . This differs from paleoclimatology which encompasses climate change over the entire history of Earth . The study seeks to define periods in human history where temperature or precipitation varied from what is observed in the present day . The primary sources include written records such as sagas , chronicles , maps and local history literature as well as pictorial representations such as paintings , drawings and even rock art . The archaeological record is equally important in establishing evidence of settlement , water and land usage .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Historical_climatology", "rank": 65, "score": 106552 }, { "content": "Title: Subatlantic Content: The Subatlantic is the current climatic age of the Holocene epoch . It started at about 2,500 years BP and is still ongoing . Its average temperatures were slightly lower than during the preceding Subboreal and Atlantic . During its course the temperature underwent several oscillations which had a strong influence on fauna and flora and thus indirectly on the evolution of human civilizations . With intensifying industrialisation , human society started to stress the natural climatic cycles with increased greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Subatlantic", "rank": 66, "score": 106531 }, { "content": "Title: 1985 Atlantic hurricane season Content: The 1985 Atlantic hurricane season had 6 U.S. landfalling hurricanes , which was the highest number in 99 years . The season officially began on June 1 and lasted until November 30 . It was an average season , with 11 named storms developing . This was partially attributed to a La Niña -- a meteorological phenomenon that produces favorable conditions across the Atlantic basin , such as lower wind shear and higher sea surface temperatures . The first storm , Ana , developed on July 15 near Bermuda and caused minor effects in Canada while transitioning into an extratropical cyclone . Three other tropical cyclones -- Claudette , Henri , and Isabel -- did not significantly affect land . Claudette developed offshore of the Southeastern United States and brushed Bermuda and the Azores . Henri and Isabel were dissipating as they approached land . However , the precursor of the latter caused a severe flood in Puerto Rico that killed 180 people . Additionally , Tropical Storm Fabian and three tropical depressions did not have any known impact on land . Although several storms caused minimal effects , several tropical cyclones also left extensive impact . Hurricane Gloria , the strongest storm of the season , resulted in 14 fatalities and about $ 900 million ( 1985 USD ) in damage in North Carolina , Virginia , the Mid-Atlantic , and New England . Hurricane Elena threatened the central Gulf Coast of the United States , then abruptly re-curved toward Florida . Unexpectedly , Elena doubled-back and struck Mississippi , resulting in two mass evacuations . The storm caused $ 1.3 billion in losses , with most of the damage in Louisiana and Mississippi . Similarly , Hurricane Juan caused $ 1.5 billion in damage due to its erratic track offshore and across Louisiana . Three other tropical cyclones -- Hurricanes Bob , Danny , and Kate -- caused moderate to extensive damage in Cuba and the United States . Overall , the tropical cyclones of this season collectively caused over $ 4.5 billion in damage and 60 deaths .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "1985_Atlantic_hurricane_season", "rank": 67, "score": 105933 }, { "content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change", "rank": 68, "score": 105718 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture", "rank": 69, "score": 105620 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 70, "score": 105443 }, { "content": "Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :", "qid": "3051", "docid": "List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis", "rank": 71, "score": 104498 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 72, "score": 104213 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 73, "score": 104099 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Peter_Doran", "rank": 74, "score": 103993 }, { "content": "Title: Cyclone Nina Content: Severe Tropical Cyclone Nina was a significant tropical cyclone , which impacted six island nations and caused several deaths . The system was first noted as a tropical low over the Cape York Peninsula on December 21 . Over the next few days the system moved south-westwards and moved into the Gulf of Carpentaria where it was named Nina , after it had developed into a tropical cyclone during December 23 . The system was subsequently steered south-eastwards by an upper level trough of low pressure , before it made landfall as a Category 2 tropical cyclone on the Cape York Peninsula near Cape Keerweer during December 25 . Over land the system weakened into a tropical low before it regenerated into a tropical cyclone over the Coral Sea during December 28 . The system subsequently moved north-eastwards , under the influence of Severe Tropical Cyclone Kina and an upper level ridge of high pressure . During January 1 , 1993 , Nina peaked with sustained wind speeds of 140 km/h ( 85 mph ) , as it affected Rennell , Bellona and Temotu provinces in the Solomon Islands . The system subsequently gradually weakened as it accelerated eastwards and affected Rotuma , Wallis and Futuna , Tonga and Niue . Nina was subsequently absorbed by Kina , while both systems were located near the Southern Cook Islands during January 5 .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Cyclone_Nina", "rank": 75, "score": 103876 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change adaptation in Nepal Content: Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal", "rank": 76, "score": 103802 }, { "content": "Title: Early anthropocene Content: The Early Anthropocene Hypothesis ( sometimes called Early Anthropogenic ) was proposed by William Ruddiman . It posits that the Anthropocene era , as some scientists call the most recent period in Earth 's history when the activities of the human race first began to have a significant global impact on Earth 's climate and ecosystems , did not begin in the eighteenth century with advent of coal-burning factories and power plants of the industrial era , as was commonly assumed , but dates back to 8,000 years ago , triggered by intense farming activities after agriculture became widespread . It was at that time that atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations stopped following the periodic pattern of rises and falls that had accurately characterized their past long-term behavior , a pattern that is explained by natural variations in Earth 's orbit known as Milankovitch cycles .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Early_anthropocene", "rank": 77, "score": 103257 }, { "content": "Title: Climate across Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary Content: The climate across the Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg or formerly the K -- T boundary ) is very important to geologic time as it marks a catastrophic global extinction event . Numerous theories have been proposed as to why this extinction event happened including an asteroid known as the Chicxulub asteroid , volcanism , or sea level changes . While the mass extinction is well documented , there is much debate about the immediate and long-term climatic and environmental changes caused by the event . The terrestrial climates at this time are poorly known , which limits the understanding of environmentally driven changes in biodiversity that occurred before the Chicxulub crater impact . Oxygen isotopes across the K -- T boundary suggest that oceanic temperatures fluctuated in the Late Cretaceous and through the boundary itself . Carbon isotope measurements of benthic foramifinera at the K -- T boundary suggest rapid , repeated fluctuations in oceanic productivity in the 3 million years before the final extinction , and that productivity and ocean circulation ended abruptly for at least tens of thousands of years just after the boundary , indicating devastation of terrestrial and marine ecosystems . Some researchers suggest that climate change is the main connection between the impact and the extinction . The impact perturbed the climate system with long-term effects that were much worse than the immediate , direct consequences of the impact .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_across_Cretaceous–Paleogene_boundary", "rank": 78, "score": 103070 }, { "content": "Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "European_Climate_Change_Programme", "rank": 79, "score": 102962 }, { "content": "Title: Late Victorian Holocausts Content: Late Victorian Holocausts : El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World is a book by Mike Davis about the connection between political economy and global climate patterns , particularly El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . By comparing ENSO episodes in different time periods and across countries , Davis explores the impact of colonialism and the introduction of capitalism , and the relation with famine in particular . Davis argues that `` Millions died , not outside the ` modern world system ' , but in the very process of being forcibly incorporated into its economic and political structures . They died in the golden age of Liberal Capitalism ; indeed , many were murdered ... by the theological application of the sacred principles of Smith , Bentham and Mill . ''", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Late_Victorian_Holocausts", "rank": 80, "score": 102953 }, { "content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years", "rank": 81, "score": 102870 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 82, "score": 102798 }, { "content": "Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Kevin_E._Trenberth", "rank": 83, "score": 102519 }, { "content": "Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_oscillation", "rank": 84, "score": 102347 }, { "content": "Title: 2000s Australian drought Content: The 2000s drought in Australia , also known as the Millennium drought is said by some to be the worst drought recorded since European settlement . The drought affected most of southern Australia , including its largest cities and largest agricultural region ( the Murray-Darling basin ) . It commenced with low rainfall conditions in late 1996 and through 1997 , and worsened through particularly dry years in 2001 and 2002 . By 2003 it was recognised as the worst drought on record . The year 2006 was the driest on record for many parts of the country and conditions remained hot and dry through to early 2010 . The emergence of La Niña weather conditions in 2010 rapidly ended the drought , and led to floods in some locations . The drought placed extreme pressure on agricultural production and urban water supply in much of southern Australia . It has led to the construction of six major seawater desalination plants to provide water to Australia 's major cities , and to changes in the management of water in the Murray-Darling basin , particularly the formation of the Murray-Darling Basin Authority .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "2000s_Australian_drought", "rank": 85, "score": 102336 }, { "content": "Title: Typhoon Nock-ten Content: Typhoon Nock-ten , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Nina , was the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded worldwide on Christmas Day ( December 25 ) in terms of 1-minute sustained winds . Forming as a tropical depression southeast of Yap and strengthening into the twenty-sixth tropical storm of the annual typhoon season on December 21 , 2016 , Nock-ten intensified into the thirteenth typhoon of the season on December 23 . Soon afterwards , the system underwent explosive intensification and became a Category 5-equivalent super typhoon early on December 25 . Nock-ten weakened shortly before making eight landfalls over the Philippines .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Typhoon_Nock-ten", "rank": 86, "score": 102161 }, { "content": "Title: 2012–13 North American drought Content: The 2012 -- 13 North American drought , an expansion of the 2010 -- 13 Southern United States drought , originated in the midst of a record-breaking heat wave . Low snowfall amounts in winter , coupled with the intense summer heat from La Niña , caused drought-like conditions to migrate northward from the southern United States , wreaking havoc on crops and water supply . The drought has inflicted , and is expected to continue to inflict , catastrophic economic ramifications for the affected states . It has exceeded , in most measures , the 1988 -- 89 North American drought , the most recent comparable drought , and is on track to exceed that drought as the costliest natural disaster in U.S. history . The drought includes most of the U.S. , parts of Mexico , and central and Eastern Canada . At its peak on July 17 , 2012 , it covered approximately 81 percent of the contiguous United States with at least abnormally dry ( D0 ) conditions . Out of that 81 % , 64 % was designated as at least moderate drought ( D1 ) conditions . Its area was comparable to the droughts in the 1930s and 1950s but it has not yet been in place for as long . In March 2013 , heavy winter rains broke a three-year pattern of drought in much of the Southeastern United States , while drought conditions still plague the Great Plains and other parts of the U.S. , according to the U.S. Drought Monitor . Drought continued in parts of North America through 2013 . Beginning in March 2013 , improved rainfall across the Midwest , southern Mississippi Valley , and Great Plains began gradually alleviating drought in these areas , while drought continued to intensify in the Western United States . Heavy rains across previously drought-stricken areas resulted in widespread flooding in portions of the Midwest , a phenomenon which was named `` weather whiplash '' . By June 2013 , approximately the eastern half of the United States was drought-free , while conditions continued to gradually improve across the Plains . Moderate to severe drought continues to impact and worsen throughout the western United States , with some portions of the United States being afflicted by the drought for over three years . Through the winter of 2013 -- 2014 , California continued to receive record low rainfall . For many locations , the calendar year of 2013 was the driest year in over 130 years . Some locations received less than half of their previous record low rainfall amounts .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "2012–13_North_American_drought", "rank": 87, "score": 102157 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 88, "score": 102028 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 89, "score": 101746 }, { "content": "Title: 2010–11 Australian bushfire season Content: The 2010 -- 11 Australian bushfire season was notable for a relative lack of bushfires along Eastern Australia due to a very strong La Niña effect , which instead contributed to severe flooding , in particular the 2010 -- 2011 Queensland floods and the 2011 Victorian floods . As a result of these weather patterns , most major fire events took place in Western Australia and South Australia . Some later significant fire activity occurred in Gippsland in eastern Victoria , an area which largely missed the rainfall that lead to the flooding in other parts of the state .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "2010–11_Australian_bushfire_season", "rank": 90, "score": 101704 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_denial", "rank": 91, "score": 101497 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 92, "score": 101413 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 93, "score": 101159 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in New Zealand Content: Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_in_New_Zealand", "rank": 94, "score": 101024 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe", "rank": 95, "score": 101011 }, { "content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Past_sea_level", "rank": 96, "score": 101005 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change", "rank": 97, "score": 100986 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 98, "score": 100663 }, { "content": "Title: Human impact on the environment Content: Human impact on the environment or anthropogenic impact on the environment includes impacts on biophysical environments , biodiversity , and other resources . The term anthropogenic designates an effect or object resulting from human activity . The term was first used in the technical sense by Russian geologist Alexey Pavlov , and was first used in English by British ecologist Arthur Tansley in reference to human influences on climax plant communities . The atmospheric scientist Paul Crutzen introduced the term `` Anthropocene '' in the mid-1970s . The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution emissions that are produced as a result of human activities but applies broadly to all major human impacts on the environment .", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Human_impact_on_the_environment", "rank": 99, "score": 100606 }, { "content": "Title: Myles Allen Content: Myles R. Allen is head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford 's Atmospheric , Oceanic and Planetary Physics Department . He is the Principal Investigator of the distributed computing project Climateprediction.net ( which makes use of computing resources provided voluntarily by the general public ) , and was principally responsible for starting this project . He is Professor of Geosystem Science in the School of Geography and the Environment , and a Fellow of Linacre College , Oxford . He has worked at the Energy Unit of the United Nations Environment Programme , the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in Oxfordshire , and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He contributed to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as a Lead Author of the Chapter on detection of change and attribution of causes , and was a Review Editor for the chapter on predictions of global climate change for the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . His research focuses on the attribution of recent climate change and assessing what these changes mean for global climate simulations of the future . In 2010 , Allen was awarded the Appleton Medal and Prize by the Institute of Physics for `` his important contributions to the detection and attribution of human influence on climate and quantifying uncertainty in climate predictions '' . Allen also provided the technical expertise for the game Fate of the World , which is `` a PC strategy game that simulates the real social and environmental impact of global climate change over the next 200 years . ''", "qid": "3051", "docid": "Myles_Allen", "rank": 100, "score": 100365 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 1, "score": 166810 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 2, "score": 133045 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 3, "score": 131996 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 4, "score": 130915 }, { "content": "Title: Judith Curry Content: Judith A. Curry is an American climatologist and former chair of the School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at the Georgia Institute of Technology . Her research interests include hurricanes , remote sensing , atmospheric modeling , polar climates , air-sea interactions , and the use of unmanned aerial vehicles for atmospheric research . She is a member of the National Research Council 's Climate Research Committee . As of 2017 , she has retired from academia . Curry is the co-author of Thermodynamics of Atmospheres and Oceans ( 1999 ) , and co-editor of Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences ( 2002 ) , as well as over 140 scientific papers . Among her awards is the Henry G. Houghton Research Award from the American Meteorological Society in 1992 . Regarding climate change , she thinks that the IPCC reports typically neglect what she calls the `` Uncertainty Monster '' in projecting future climate trends , which she calls a `` wicked problem . '' Curry also hosts a popular science blog in which she writes on topics related to climate science and the science-policy interface .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Judith_Curry", "rank": 5, "score": 129392 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 6, "score": 128269 }, { "content": "Title: Lucia Liljegren Content: Lucia Liljegren is an American mechanical engineer who has worked at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory ( on projects related to remediation and storage of radioactive waste ) and as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at Iowa State University . She is best known ( as Lucia ) for her global warming/climate change blog The Blackboard ( Where Climate Talk Gets Hot ! ) , online since 2007 . Professor Judith Curry , a climatologist at Georgia Tech , calls Lucia `` probably the least controversial person in the climate blogosphere , because of her cheerfulness and sense of humor , honesty , and open mindedness . '' In the climate change debate , Lucia classifies herself as a `` lukewarmer '' : a person who recognizes global warming , but doubts the severity of the problem , and the certainty of climate science predictions . The Blackboard was one of the first sites to post some of the CRU emails leaked in the 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Lucia_Liljegren", "rank": 7, "score": 124722 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 8, "score": 121379 }, { "content": "Title: Kerry Emanuel Content: Kerry Andrew Emanuel ( born April 21 , 1955 ) is an American professor of meteorology currently working at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge . In particular he has specialized in atmospheric convection and the mechanisms acting to intensify hurricanes . He was named one of the Time 100 influential people of 2006 . In 2007 , he was elected as a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences . He hypothesized in 1994 about a superpowerful type of hurricane which could be formed if average sea surface temperature increased another 15C more than it 's ever been ( see `` hypercane '' ) . In a March 2008 paper published in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society , he put forward the conclusion that global warming is likely to increase the intensity but decrease the frequency of hurricane and cyclone activity . Gabriel Vecchi , of NOAA said of Emanuel 's announcement , `` While his results do n't rule out the possibility that global warming has contributed to the recent increase in activity in the Atlantic , they suggest that other factors -- possibly in addition to global warming -- are likely to have been substantial contributors to the observed increase in activity . '' In 2013 , with other leading experts , he was co-author of an open letter to policy makers , which stated that `` continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity 's ability to avoid dangerous climate change . ''", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Kerry_Emanuel", "rank": 9, "score": 120095 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 10, "score": 120041 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 11, "score": 118985 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 12, "score": 116598 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 13, "score": 114852 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 14, "score": 113953 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 15, "score": 112398 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 16, "score": 111525 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 17, "score": 108685 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy", "rank": 18, "score": 107293 }, { "content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years", "rank": 19, "score": 107268 }, { "content": "Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "David_Parker_(climatologist)", "rank": 20, "score": 106612 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 21, "score": 106383 }, { "content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event", "rank": 22, "score": 106094 }, { "content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years", "rank": 23, "score": 105884 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 24, "score": 105796 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Global_temperature_record", "rank": 25, "score": 105225 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 26, "score": 104820 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 27, "score": 103579 }, { "content": "Title: Global stilling Content: Global stilling is the decrease of wind speed observed near the Earth ´ s surface ( ~ 10-meter height ) over the last three decades ( mainly since the 1980s ) , originally termed `` stilling '' . This slowdown of surface winds has mainly affected mid-latitude regions of both hemispheres , with a global average reduction of -0.140 m s-1 dec-1 ( meters per second per decade ) or between 5 and 15 % over the past 50-years . The weakening of winds has mainly occurred over continental surfaces , whereas winds has tended to strengthen over ocean regions . In the last few years , a break in this decrease of wind speed has been detected with a recovery at global scales since 2013 . The exact causes of the global stilling are uncertain and has been mainly attributed to two major drivers : ( i ) changes in large scale atmospheric circulation , and ( ii ) an increase of surface roughness due to e.g. forest growth , land use changes , and urbanization . Under a global warming scenario , changes in wind speed are currently a potential concern for the society , due to their impacts on a wide array of spheres , such as wind power generation , ecohydrological implications for agriculture and hydrology , wind-related hazards and catastrophes , or air quality and human health , among many others .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Global_stilling", "rank": 28, "score": 102758 }, { "content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Iris_hypothesis", "rank": 29, "score": 101894 }, { "content": "Title: Sergei Petrovskii Content: Sergei Petrovskii is a Russian-born British mathematician who researches the modeling of natural phenomena . He is a professor of Applied Mathematics at the University of Leicester . In 2015 , he led a study that found that if the ocean temperature were to increase by about six degrees Celsius due to global warming , phytoplankton might stop producing oxygen . This would lead to shortages of oxygen in the atmosphere , which could be very harmful to humans . Petrovskii said , `` About two thirds of the planet 's total atmospheric oxygen is produced by ocean phytoplankton - and therefore cessation would result in the depletion of atmospheric oxygen on a global scale . This would likely result in the mass mortality of animals and humans . '' Petrovskii 's study appeared in the Bulletin of Mathematical Biology . Another stream of his research is modelling of biological invasions where he discovered a new phenomenon called `` patchy invasion '' . Contrary to a commonly used paradigm of alien species spread by a travelling population front , in the patchy invasion the invasive species spreads into new areas by creating individual patches not preceded by a front propagation . Patchy invasion has been observed in several invasions of insects and birds and has been studied theoretically using a variety of growth-dispersal models .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Sergei_Petrovskii", "rank": 30, "score": 101286 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 31, "score": 100682 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 32, "score": 100654 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 33, "score": 99454 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 34, "score": 98712 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Hypercane", "rank": 35, "score": 98117 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 36, "score": 97689 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 37, "score": 96035 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Peter_Doran", "rank": 38, "score": 95277 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 39, "score": 95001 }, { "content": "Title: David Legates Content: David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university , and a former Delaware State Climatologist . Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale . Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "David_Legates", "rank": 40, "score": 94965 }, { "content": "Title: Ghrsst-pp Content: The Group for High Resolution SST ( GHRSST ) is a follow on activity form the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment ( GODAE ) high-resolution sea surface temperature pilot project ( GHRSST-PP ) provides a new generation of global high-resolution ( < 10 km ) SST data products to the operational oceanographic , meteorological , climate and general scientific community , in real time and delayed mode . See GHRSST for full details . Sea surface temperature ( SST ) measured from Earth Observation Satellites in considerable spatial detail and at high frequency , is increasingly required for use in the context of operational monitoring and forecasting of the ocean , for assimilation into coupled ocean-atmosphere model systems and for applications in short-term numerical weather prediction and longer term climate change detection . Currently there are many different SST data sets available derived from satellite systems . But , scientists and operational agencies alike are presented with a bewidering set of options in terms of SST product content , coverage , spatial resolution , timeliness , format and accuracy . The international GODAE steering committee realised that SST data products were not adequate for GODAE forecast systems and initiated the GODAE High Resolution SST Pilot Project ( GHRSST-PP ) . User Requirements were collected together to define the optimal SST data products that could be developed to suit the widest possible number of applications . In 2008 the GHRSST-PP Science Team agreed to close the Pilot Project as the GODAE project was completed . A follow on activity called the Group for High Resolution SST is now continuing the coordination of GHRSST activities .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Ghrsst-pp", "rank": 41, "score": 94382 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska", "rank": 42, "score": 93978 }, { "content": "Title: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean Content: The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean ( SHEBA ) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean , where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time . The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models , which scientists use to study global climate change .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Surface_Heat_Budget_of_the_Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 43, "score": 93681 }, { "content": "Title: Global Drifter Program Content: The Global Drifter Program ( GDP ) ( formerly known as the Surface Velocity Program ( SVP ) ) , was conceived by Prof. Peter Niiler , with the objective of collecting measurements of surface ocean currents , sea surface temperature and sea-level atmospheric pressure using drifters . It is the principal component of the Global Surface Drifting Buoy Array , a branch of NOAA 's Global Ocean Observing System ( GOOS ) and a scientific project of the Data Buoy Cooperation Panel ( DBCP ) . The project originated in February 1979 as part of the TOGA/Equatorial Pacific Ocean Circulation Experiment ( EPOCS ) and the first large-scale deployment of drifters was in 1988 with the goal of mapping the tropical Pacific Ocean 's surface circulation . The current goal of the project is to use 1250 satellite-tracked surface drifting buoys to make accurate and globally dense in-situ observations of mixed layer currents , sea surface temperature , atmospheric pressure , winds and salinity , and to create a system to process the data . Horizontal transports in the oceanic mixed layer measured by the GDP are relevant to biological and chemical processes as well as physical ones .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Global_Drifter_Program", "rank": 44, "score": 93041 }, { "content": "Title: Sea surface temperature Content: Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Sea_surface_temperature", "rank": 45, "score": 92705 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Australia", "rank": 46, "score": 92558 }, { "content": "Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet", "rank": 47, "score": 92461 }, { "content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change", "rank": 48, "score": 92306 }, { "content": "Title: William Curry (oceanographer) Content: William Curry , Ph.D. , Director , Ocean and Climate Change Institute at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute Geology and Geophysics Department . He holds a Bachelor of Science , University of Delaware , 1974 , with specialization in Geology , and a Ph.D from Brown University , 1980 , also with a specialization in Geology . Dr. Curry studies the history of earth 's climate and carbon cycle using geological records of ocean chemistry and physical properties . He is actively involved with sea going expeditions to collect deep sea sediments and uses the chemistry of fossils in the sediments to determine how climate has changed on decadal to millennial time scales . He has been a member of the Scientific Staff at WHOI since 1981 .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "William_Curry_(oceanographer)", "rank": 49, "score": 92166 }, { "content": "Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Ian_Clark_(geologist)", "rank": 50, "score": 91436 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 51, "score": 91312 }, { "content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Deglaciation", "rank": 52, "score": 90891 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 53, "score": 90508 }, { "content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "North_Report", "rank": 54, "score": 90453 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 55, "score": 90340 }, { "content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Simon_Tett", "rank": 56, "score": 90095 }, { "content": "Title: David Karoly Content: David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "David_Karoly", "rank": 57, "score": 89789 }, { "content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)", "rank": 58, "score": 89702 }, { "content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Past_sea_level", "rank": 59, "score": 89409 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 60, "score": 89335 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 61, "score": 89331 }, { "content": "Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "The_Chilling_Stars", "rank": 62, "score": 88747 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 63, "score": 88690 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy", "rank": 64, "score": 88416 }, { "content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming", "rank": 65, "score": 88387 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming", "rank": 66, "score": 88192 }, { "content": "Title: Gulf of Maine Closed Areas Content: The Gulf of Maine has been fished since the 1700s , and has been a historic fishing area since . Climate change is having significant impacts on this ecosystem ; between 2004 and 2013 , the Gulf of Maine has warmed faster than 99.9 % of the global oceans , increasing average temperature by 2 ° C. Having seen the depletion of groundfish stocks starting in the early 1990s , managers took care to create five closure areas in the Gulf of Maine . These closed areas do not prohibit all fishing , rather they prevent the further degradation of benthic habitat and groundfish species . Closed areas are different than Marine Protected Areas ( MPA ) because they allow some forms of fishing and other activities to occur that would normally not be allowed in MPA .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Gulf_of_Maine_Closed_Areas", "rank": 67, "score": 88190 }, { "content": "Title: Planetary equilibrium temperature Content: The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Planetary_equilibrium_temperature", "rank": 68, "score": 87982 }, { "content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "qid": "3052", "docid": "James_Hansen", "rank": 69, "score": 87968 }, { "content": "Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Instrumental_temperature_record", "rank": 70, "score": 87798 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 71, "score": 87774 }, { "content": "Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Seita_Emori", "rank": 72, "score": 87762 }, { "content": "Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Climate_oscillation", "rank": 73, "score": 87690 }, { "content": "Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Interglacial", "rank": 74, "score": 87563 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 75, "score": 87186 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Cloud_feedback", "rank": 76, "score": 87033 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 77, "score": 87029 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth", "rank": 78, "score": 86594 }, { "content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Leipzig_Declaration", "rank": 79, "score": 86514 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 80, "score": 86359 }, { "content": "Title: AATSR Content: The Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer ( AATSR ) is one of the Announcement of Opportunity ( AO ) instruments on board the European Space Agency ( ESA ) 's Envisat satellite . This instrument is a multi-channel imaging radiometer with the principal objective of providing data concerning global Sea Surface Temperature ( SST ) to the high levels of accuracy and stability required for monitoring and carrying out research into the behaviour of the Earth 's climate . AATSR can measure Earth 's surface temperature to a precision of 0.3 K-change , for climate research . Among the secondary objectives of AATSR is the observation of environmental parameters such as aerosols , clouds , fires , gas flares , water content , biomass , and vegetal health and growth . AATSR is the successor of ATSR-1 and ATSR-2 , payloads of ERS-1 and ERS-2 .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "AATSR", "rank": 81, "score": 86349 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Roger_Pulwarty", "rank": 82, "score": 85996 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Mars Content: The climate of Mars has been an issue of scientific curiosity for centuries , in part because Mars is the only terrestrial planet whose surface can be directly observed in detail from the Earth with help from a telescope . Although Mars is smaller than the Earth , at 11 % of Earth 's mass , and 50 % farther from the Sun than the Earth , its climate has important similarities , such as the polar ice caps , seasonal changes and the observable presence of weather patterns . It has attracted sustained study from planetologists and climatologists . While Mars 's climate has similarities to Earth 's , including periodic ice ages , there are also important differences , such as much lower thermal inertia . Mars ' atmosphere has a scale height of approximately 11 km , 60 % greater than that on Earth . The climate is of considerable relevance to the question of whether life is or was present on the planet . The climate briefly received more interest in the news due to NASA measurements indicating increased sublimation of the south polar icecap leading to some popular press speculation that Mars was undergoing a parallel bout of global warming , although Mars ' average temperature has actually cooled in recent decades . Mars has been studied by Earth-based instruments since the 17th century but it is only since the exploration of Mars began in the mid-1960s that close-range observation has been possible . Flyby and orbital spacecraft have provided data from above , while direct measurements of atmospheric conditions have been provided by a number of landers and rovers . Advanced Earth orbital instruments today continue to provide some useful `` big picture '' observations of relatively large weather phenomena . The first Martian flyby mission was Mariner 4 which arrived in 1965 . That quick two-day pass ( July 14 -- 15 , 1965 ) was limited and crude in terms of its contribution to the state of knowledge of Martian climate . Later Mariner missions ( Mariner 6 , and Mariner 7 ) filled in some of the gaps in basic climate information . Data-based climate studies started in earnest with the Viking program in 1975 and continues with such probes as the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter . This observational work has been complemented by a type of scientific computer simulation called the Mars general circulation model . Several different iterations of MGCM have led to an increased understanding of Mars as well as the limits of such models .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Climate_of_Mars", "rank": 83, "score": 85969 }, { "content": "Title: UAH satellite temperature dataset Content: The UAH satellite temperature dataset , developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from satellite measurements of radiance . It was the first global temperature datasets developed from satellite information and has been used as a tool for research into surface and atmospheric temperature changes . The dataset is published by John Christy et al. and formerly jointly with Roy Spencer .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "UAH_satellite_temperature_dataset", "rank": 84, "score": 85798 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina", "rank": 85, "score": 85764 }, { "content": "Title: David Carson (climatologist) Content: David John Carson is a climatologist . He has been director of the Hadley Centre ( around 1990-1996 ) , director of Numerical Weather Prediction at the UKMO ( around 1999-2000 ) , and was director of the World Climate Research Programme from 2000-2005 . Carson joined the UK Meteorological Office in 1969 , following his Ph.D from the Department of Applied Mathematics , University of Liverpool , working on the structure and evolution of the atmospheric boundary layer . He did early research on the development of atmospheric general circulation models . In 1982 , he was appointed to Assistant Director within the Met Office , and led the Boundary Layer Research Branch and later the Dynamical Climatology Branch . For 1987 -- 1989 Carson was seconded to the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) as their first Programme Director for atmospheric sciences . He returned to the Met . Office in January 1990 and became Director of Climate Research and then first Director of the Hadley Centre .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "David_Carson_(climatologist)", "rank": 86, "score": 85752 }, { "content": "Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Impact_winter", "rank": 87, "score": 85694 }, { "content": "Title: Office of Global Programs Content: The Office of Global Programs ( OGP ) is a division of the United States ' National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) run under the auspices of the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . The purpose of the OGP is to oversee the NOAA Climate and Global Change ( C&GC ) Program . The OGP assists NOAA in its task of providing climate forecasts by sponsoring focused scientific research , within approximately eleven research elements , aimed at understanding climate variability and its predictability .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Office_of_Global_Programs", "rank": 88, "score": 85543 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 89, "score": 85534 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)", "rank": 90, "score": 85406 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 91, "score": 85303 }, { "content": "Title: Baseline Surface Radiation Network Content: Baseline Surface Radiation Network ( BSRN ) is a project of the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) and the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) and as such is aimed detecting important changes in the Earth 's radiation field at the Earth 's surface which may be related to climate changes . The central archive of the BSRN is the World Radiation Monitoring Center ( WRMC ) which was initiated by Atsumu Ohmura in 1992 and operated at ETH until 2007 . Since 2008 the WRMC is operated by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research ( AWI ) , Germany .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Baseline_Surface_Radiation_Network", "rank": 92, "score": 85285 }, { "content": "Title: Remote Sensing Systems Content: Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California . They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction . I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Remote_Sensing_Systems", "rank": 93, "score": 85228 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Turkey", "rank": 94, "score": 85204 }, { "content": "Title: David Rose (journalist) Content: David Rose ( born 21 July 1959 ) is a British author and investigative journalist . He is a contributing editor with Vanity Fair and a special investigations writer for The Mail on Sunday . His interests include human rights , miscarriages of justice , the death penalty , racism , the war on terror , politics , energy policy and climate change . He is the author of six non-fiction books and a novel , Taking Morgan , a thriller set in Washington , Oxford , Tel Aviv and Gaza , published by Quartet in 2014 . He was named News Reporter of the Year in the Society of Editors British Press Awards for 2015 , though his journalism on climate has been criticised by climate scientists and environmentalists for an over-reliance on unsound and unscientific sources .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "David_Rose_(journalist)", "rank": 95, "score": 84501 }, { "content": "Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle", "rank": 96, "score": 84482 }, { "content": "Title: Winter of 1894–95 in the United Kingdom Content: The winter of 1894 -- 95 was severe for the British Isles with a CET of 1.27 C . Many climatologists have come to view this winter as the end of the Little Ice Age and the culmination of a decade of harsh winters in Britain . Whereas the average CET for the ten winters from 1885 -- 86 to 1894 -- 95 was 2.87 C , no winter with a CET under 3.0 C followed for twenty-two years and no month as cold as February or January 1895 until 1940 . In contrast , between 1659 and 1894 no spell with every winter CET above 3.0 C had lasted longer than twelve winters . Although this winter -- which featured the lowest North Atlantic Oscillation index between 1882 and 1962 with lower values recorded only in 1880/1881 , 1962/1963 and 1968/1969 -- affected most of Europe and North America very severely , the difficulties Britain had coping with it vis-à-vis the United States and Germany is seen as marking a beginning in the decline of British hegemony in global affairs . The severe winter led to mass unemployment and severe disruptions to shipping on the River Thames , which froze for the last time on record . Because mass political activism had not yet created the welfare state , most workers were left without sustenance and in industrial centres large soup kitchens were widespread to feed these people . There were also numerous skating festivals organised to take advantage of the unusually cold and sunny weather , with up to fifty thousand people skating on The Serpentine in London 's Hyde Park and speed skating races being widely popular and generating money to be used for relief of the poor , and in some cases to provide them with temporary work as vendors for spectators . Coal supplies dwindled as transporting coal by river was impossible , whilst many recently introduced exotic plants were killed by the cold .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Winter_of_1894–95_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 97, "score": 84382 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe", "rank": 98, "score": 84300 }, { "content": "Title: Lowest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The lowest natural temperature ever directly recorded at ground level on Earth is − 89.2 C , which was at the Soviet Vostok Station in Antarctica by ground measurements . A 2009 study estimated that under exceptional climate conditions similar to those recorded at Vostin 1983 , temperatures higher on the plateau around Dome Argus could potentially drop lower than − 95 C. On August 10 , 2010 , satellite observations measured a surface temperature of − 93.2 C at 81.8 ° S 59.3 ° E , along a ridge between Dome Argus and Dome Fuji , at 3,900 m elevation . The result was reported at the 46th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco , in December 2013 ; it is a provisional figure , and may be subject to revision . The value may not be listed as the record coldest temperature as it was measured by remote sensing satellites and not by ground-based thermometers , unlike the 1983 record . The temperature announced reflects that of the ice surface , while the Vostok readings measured the air above the ice , and so the two are not directly comparable . However , it is most likely that the real temperature on the site was lower than that recorded at Vostok .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Lowest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth", "rank": 99, "score": 83818 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic impacts on the oceans Content: Explosive volcanic eruptions affect the global climate mainly through injecting sulfur bearing gases into the stratosphere , which oxidize to form sulfate aerosols . Stratospheric sulfur aerosols spread around the globe by the atmospheric circulation , producing surface cooling by scattering solar radiation back to space . This cooling effect on the ocean surface usually lasts for several years as the lifetime of sulfate aerosols is about 2 -- 3 years . However , in the subsurface ocean the cooling signal may persist for a longer time and may have impacts on some decadal variabilities , such as the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation ( AMOC ) .", "qid": "3052", "docid": "Volcanic_impacts_on_the_oceans", "rank": 100, "score": 83638 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Mario J. Molina Content: Mario José Molina-Pasquel Henríquez ( born March 19 , 1943 ) is a Mexican chemist reputed for his pivotal role in the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole . In 2004 he became professor at the University of California , San Diego and the Center for Atmospheric Sciences at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . He was a co-recipient of the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his role in elucidating the threat to the Earth 's ozone layer of chlorofluorocarbon gases ( or CFCs ) , becoming the first Mexican-born citizen to ever receive a Nobel Prize in Chemistry . Molina is a climate policy adviser to President of Mexico , Enrique Peña Nieto .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Mario_J._Molina", "rank": 1, "score": 196570 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone depletion Content: Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s : a steady decline of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth 's stratosphere ( the ozone layer ) , and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth 's polar regions . The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole . In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena , there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events . The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning but the most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens . The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photodissociation of man-made halocarbon refrigerants , solvents , propellants , and foam-blowing agents ( chlorofluorocarbon ( CFCs ) , HCFCs , freons , halons ) . These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by winds after being emitted at the surface . Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons increased . CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances ( ODS ) . Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths ( 280 -- 315 nm ) of ultraviolet light ( UV light ) from passing through the Earth 's atmosphere , observed and projected decreases in ozone generated worldwide concern , leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs , halons , and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane . It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in sunburn , skin cancer , cataracts , damage to plants , and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean 's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Ozone_depletion", "rank": 2, "score": 187294 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Peter_Doran", "rank": 3, "score": 153728 }, { "content": "Title: Vienna Conference (1985) Content: The Vienna Conference was the first international conference on ozone layer depletion . It was held in Vienna , Austria in 1985 when a hole in the stratospheric ozone layer was observed in the South Pole marked by increased UV-B infiltration over Antarctica . A ` hole ' , marked by significant drop in ozone molecules in the layer , as large as that of United States was discovered by a British team . The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was agreed at the conference and it entered into force in 1987 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Vienna_Conference_(1985)", "rank": 4, "score": 152957 }, { "content": "Title: Jon Shanklin Content: Jonathan Shanklin is a meteorologist who has worked at the British Antarctic Survey since 1977 . Together with Joe Farman and Brian G. Gardiner he discovered the `` Ozone Hole '' in the 1980s . Shanklin has described his role at the BAS as being that of a `` general dogsbody '' at the time of the discovery of the `` ozone hole '' . He calibrated an instrument called the Dobson Ozone Spectrophotometer which provided data on atmospheric ozone . In an article discussing the discovery , the BBC quotes him as saying Perhaps the most startling lesson from the ozone hole is just how quickly our planet can change . Given the speed with which humankind can affect it , following the precautionary principle is likely to be the safest road to future prosperity . Jon maintains the ozone pages at BAS . He plays cricket , is a bell-ringer , an active local naturalist and is a keen amateur astronomer , being Director of the British Astronomical Association 's Comet Section .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Jon_Shanklin", "rank": 5, "score": 145708 }, { "content": "Title: Susan Solomon Content: Susan Solomon ( born January 19 , 1956 in Chicago ) is an atmospheric chemist , working for most of her career at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . In 2011 , Solomon joined the faculty at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , where she serves as the Ellen Swallow Richards Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry & Climate Science . Solomon , with her colleagues , was the first to propose the chlorofluorocarbon free radical reaction mechanism that is the cause of the Antarctic ozone hole . Solomon is a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , the European Academy of Sciences , and the French Academy of Sciences . In 2008 , Solomon was selected by Time magazine as one of the 100 most influential people in the world . She also serves on the Science and Security Board for the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Susan_Solomon", "rank": 6, "score": 145184 }, { "content": "Title: Cosmic Ray Deflection Society Content: The Cosmic Ray Deflection Society is a satirical/environmental pseudoscientific organization , based in New Orleans , Louisiana . A worldwide membership of over 250 members , the group believes the `` deadly cosmic rays '' are getting in through the hole in the ozone layer .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Cosmic_Ray_Deflection_Society", "rank": 7, "score": 142964 }, { "content": "Title: Centauro event Content: A Centauro event is a kind of anomalous event observed in cosmic-ray detectors since 1972 . They are so named because their shape resembles that of a centaur : i.e. , highly asymmetric . If some versions of string theory are correct , then high-energy cosmic rays could create black holes when they collide with molecules in the Earth 's atmosphere . These black holes would be tiny , with a mass of around 10 micrograms . They would also be unstable enough to explode in a burst of particles within around 10 − 27 seconds . Theodore Tomaras , a physicist at the University of Crete in Heraklion , Greece , and his Russian collaborators hypothesize that these miniature black holes could explain certain anomalous observations made by cosmic-ray detectors in the Bolivian Andes and on a mountain in Tajikistan . In 1972 , the Andean detector registered a cascade that was strangely rich in charged , quark-based particles ; far more particles were detected in the bottom portion of the detector than in the top portion . In years since , the detectors in Bolivia and Tajikistan have detected more than 40 Centauro events . Various explanations have been suggested . One possible explanation might be if the strong force between particles behaves unusually when they have extremely high energies . Exploding black holes are also a possibility . The team calculated what signal a detector would register if a cosmic ray creates a miniature black hole that explodes nearby . The researchers ' prediction is consistent with the observed Centauro events . The Tomaras team hopes that computer simulations of mini-black holes exploding , and further observations , will solve the puzzle . Solution to the Centauro puzzle In 2003 an international team of researches from Russia and Japan found out that the mysterious observation from mountain-top cosmic ray experiments can be explained with conventional physics . The new analysis of Centauro I reveals that there is a difference in the arrival angle between the upper block and lower block events , so the two are not products of the same interaction . That leaves only the lower chamber data connected to the Centauro I event . In other words , the man-horse analogy becomes redundant . There is only an obvious `` tail '' , and no `` head '' . The original detector setup had gaps between neighboring blocks in the upper chamber . Linear dimensions of gaps were comparable to the geometrical size of the event . The signal observed in the lower detector was similar to an ordinary interaction occurred at low altitude above the chamber , thus providing a natural solution : passing of a cascade of particles through a gap between the upper blocks . In 2005 it was shown that `` other Centauro events '' can be explained by peculiarities of the Chacaltaya detector . So-called `` exotic signal '' observed so far in cosmic ray experiments using a traditional X-ray emulsion chamber detector can be consistently explained within the framework of standard physics . The authors of the new analysis firmly believe that the behavior of Nature is more complex than people imagined . Nevertheless , in present case , mundane explanation without any exotic guesswork provides an answer .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Centauro_event", "rank": 8, "score": 142789 }, { "content": "Title: Brian G. Gardiner Content: Brian Gerard Gardiner is a retired British meteorologist , formerly working for the British Antarctic Survey . Together with Joe Farman and Jonathan Shanklin he discovered the `` Ozone Hole '' . Their results were first published on May 16 , 1985 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Brian_G._Gardiner", "rank": 9, "score": 139260 }, { "content": "Title: Joe Farman Content: Joseph Charles Farman CBE ( 7 August 193011 May 2013 ) was a British geophysicist who worked for the British Antarctic Survey . Together with Brian Gardiner and Jon Shanklin , he published the discovery of the ozone hole over Antarctica . Their results were first published on 16 May 1985 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Joe_Farman", "rank": 10, "score": 138329 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Impulse Transient Antenna Content: The Antarctic Impulsive Transient Antenna ( ANITA ) experiment has been designed to study ultra-high-energy ( UHE ) cosmic neutrinos by detecting the radio pulses emitted by their interactions with the Antarctic ice sheet . This is to be accomplished using an array of radio antennas suspended from a helium balloon flying at a height of about 37,000 meters . The neutrinos , with energies on the order of 1018 eV , produce radio pulses in the ice because of the Askaryan effect . It is believed that these high-energy cosmic neutrinos result from interaction of ultra-high-energy ( 1020 eV ) cosmic rays with the photons of the cosmic microwave background radiation . It is thus hoped that the ANITA experiment can shed light on the origin of these cosmic rays .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Antarctic_Impulse_Transient_Antenna", "rank": 11, "score": 136194 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone depletion potential Content: The ozone depletion potential ( ODP ) of a chemical compound is the relative amount of degradation to the ozone layer it can cause , with trichlorofluoromethane ( R-11 or CFC-11 ) being fixed at an ODP of 1.0 . Chlorodifluoromethane ( R-22 ) , for example , has an ODP of 0.05 . CFC 11 , or R-11 has the maximum potential amongst chlorocarbons because of the presence of three chlorine atoms in the molecule . The first proposal of ODP came from Wuebbles in 1983 . It was defcc , x. , sined as a measure of destructive effects of a substance compared to a reference substance . Precisely , ODP of a given substance is defined as the ratio of global loss of ozone due to given substance to the global loss of ozone due to CFC-11 of the same mass . ODP can be estimated from the molecular structure of a given substance . Chlorofluorocarbons have ODPs roughly equal to 1 . Brominated substances have usually higher ODPs in range 5 - 15 , because of more aggressive bromine reaction with ozone . Hydrochlorofluorocarbons have ODPs mostly in range 0.005 - 0.2 due to the presence of the hydrogen which causes them to react readily in the troposphere , therefore reducing their chance to reach the stratosphere where the ozone layer is present . Hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) have no chlorine content , so their ODP is essentially zero . ODP is often used in conjunction with a compound 's global warming potential ( GWP ) as a measure of how environmentally detrimental it can be . GWP represents the potential of a substance to contribute to global warming . In a broad sense , haloalkanes that contain no hydrogen are stable in the troposphere and decompose only in the stratosphere . Those compounds that contain hydrogen also react with OH radicals and can therefore be decomposed in the troposphere , as well . The ozone depletion potential increases with the heavier halogens since the C-X bond strength is lower . Note the trend of the CClF2-X series in the table below .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Ozone_depletion_potential", "rank": 12, "score": 134947 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy", "rank": 13, "score": 134661 }, { "content": "Title: Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass Experiment Content: The purpose of the Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass ( CREAM ) Experiment is to determine the composition of cosmic rays up to the 1015 eV `` knee '' in the cosmic ray spectrum . It is suspected that this knee in the cosmic ray spectrum can be explained by the theoretical maximum energy that a supernova can accelerate particles to through Fermi acceleration . This is accomplished with a timing-based charge detector and transition radiation detector at an altitude of at least 110,000 ft with the aid of a high-altitude balloon . After launching from McMurdo Station in Antarctica , the balloon will stay aloft for 60 -- 100 days gathering data on charges and energies of the unimpeded cosmic rays that strike the detectors . One of the advantages of this type of experiment is that it is possible to identify the original particle that would have caused the air shower detected by ground-based detectors . Maximum detectable energy level is determined by duration of the flight and size of the detector ; a difficult barrier to get around for experiments of this type . An accurate measurement of the composition of cosmic rays is necessary in order to understand the origins of the cosmic rays found above the `` knee '' at 1015 eV . To date , the CREAM balloon experiments have accumulated a total of 161 days of exposure , longer than any other single balloon-borne experiment .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Cosmic_Ray_Energetics_and_Mass_Experiment", "rank": 14, "score": 131397 }, { "content": "Title: Hiroshi Kanzawa Content: Hiroshi Kanzawa ( b. January 1953 in Maebashi , Gunma Prefecture , Japan ) is a Japanese meteorologist , environmental scientist and the dean of the Graduate School of Environmental Studies at the University of Nagoya . He is perhaps best known for his onsite atmospheric work in Antarctica and the papers he has co-authored on Ozone depletion , including : `` Large stratospheric sudden warming in Antarctic late winter and shallow ozone hole in 1988 '' ( with Sadao Kamaguchi ) and `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japanese colleague Seita Emori and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) . Kanzawa also sits on the board of Councilors of the Hydrospheric Atmospheric Research Center at the University of Nagoya .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Hiroshi_Kanzawa", "rank": 15, "score": 130806 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 16, "score": 130582 }, { "content": "Title: Advanced Thin Ionization Calorimeter Content: The Advanced Thin Ionization Calorimeter ( ATIC ) is a balloon-borne instrument flying in the stratosphere over Antarctica to measure the energy and composition of cosmic rays . ATIC was launched from McMurdo Station for the first time in December 2000 and has since completed three successful flights out of four .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Advanced_Thin_Ionization_Calorimeter", "rank": 17, "score": 127633 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change", "rank": 18, "score": 126553 }, { "content": "Title: Henrik Svensmark Content: Henrik Svensmark ( born 1958 ) is a physicist and professor in the Division of Solar System Physics at the Danish National Space Institute ( DTU Space ) in Copenhagen . He is known for his theory on the effects of cosmic rays on cloud formation as an indirect cause of global warming . He detailed his work in the book The Chilling Stars as well as the film The Cloud Mystery .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Henrik_Svensmark", "rank": 19, "score": 126324 }, { "content": "Title: 2,2-Dichloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane Content: 2,2-Dichloro-1 ,1,1 - trifluoroethane or HCFC-123 is considered as an alternative to CFC-11 in low pressure refrigeration/HVAC systems , and should not be used in foam blowing processes or solvent applications . Its ozone depletion potential is ODP = 0.012 , and global warming potential is GWP = 76 . HCFC-123 will eventually be phased out under the current schedule of the Montreal Protocol , but can continue to be used in new HVAC equipment until 2020 in developed countries , and will still be produced for service use of HVAC equipment until 2030 . Developing countries can use in new equipment until 2030 , and can be produced for use in service until 2040 . HCFC-123 is used in large tonnage centrifugal chiller applications , and is the most efficient refrigerant currently in use in the marketplace for HVAC applications . HCFC-123 is also used as a testing agent for bypass leakage of carbon adsorbers in gas filtration systems , and as the primary chemical in Halotron I fire-extinguishing agent . Storage tanks carrying HCFC-123 should be a light grey . Isomers are 1,2-dichloro-1 ,1,2 - trifluoroethane ( R-123a ) with CAS 354-23-4 and 1,1-dichloro-1 ,2,2 - trifluoroethane ( R-123b ) with CAS 812-04-4 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "2,2-Dichloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane", "rank": 20, "score": 126137 }, { "content": "Title: Hofmann Spur Content: Hofmann Spur is an ice-covered spur between Allison Glacier and Dale Glacier on the west side of the Royal Society Range , Victoria Land , Antarctica . It was named after David J. Hofmann of the University of Wyoming and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , who has conducted upper atmospheric research through high-altitude ballooning in Antarctica for over 15 years , contributing greatly to the understanding of the ozone hole .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Hofmann_Spur", "rank": 21, "score": 125545 }, { "content": "Title: Robert Jacklyn Content: Robert Jacklyn ( January 13 , 1922 -- June 18 , 2014 ) was an Australian cosmic ray physicist , and former head of the Australian Antarctic Division 's research program . Mount Jacklyn , located in the Athos Range of Antarctica , is named after him for his important research at Mawson Station in 1956 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Robert_Jacklyn", "rank": 22, "score": 121266 }, { "content": "Title: General Antiparticle Spectrometer Content: General Antiparticle Spectrometer ( GAPS ) is a planned experiment that will utilize a high-altitude balloon flying in Antarctica to look for antideuteron particles from outer space cosmic rays , in an effort to search for dark matter . Anti-deuterons can be produced by the annihilation of hypothetical weakly interacting massive particles ( WIMPs ) . The goal of the GAPS experiment is to captured anti-deuterons in a target material , to form an exotic atom in an excited state . The exotic atom would quickly decay , producing detectable X-rays energies with pion signature from nuclear annihilation . The GAPS ground test was successfully using an particle accelerator at KEK in 2004 and 2005 . The first high-altitude balloon test was done in June 2012 with six Si ( Li ) detectors .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "General_Antiparticle_Spectrometer", "rank": 23, "score": 121070 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet", "rank": 24, "score": 121017 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Antarctica", "rank": 25, "score": 120035 }, { "content": "Title: GRB 110328A Content: Swift J1644 +57 ( also indicated as GRB 110328A when it was discovered ) is the name of the event that was observed on March 28 , 2011 , the tidal disruption of a star by a supermassive black hole . It has been detected by the Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission on March 28 , 2011 . It occurred in the center of a small galaxy in the Draco constellation , about 3.8 billion light-years away . Studied by dozens of telescopes , it is one of the most puzzling cosmic blasts of high-energy radiation ever observed when it comes to brightness , variability and durability . It probably occurred when a star wandered too close to the central black hole in the galaxy , and was gravitationally torn apart and swallowed by it . Timing considerations suggest that the tidally disrupted star was a white dwarf and not a regular main sequence star . Debris now encircles the black hole in an accretion disk , which launches bipolar jets at near the speed of light . Jet plasma emits the γ - and X-rays . The beam of radiation from one of these jets points directly toward Earth , enhancing the apparent brightness . Repetitive dimming and softening of the X-rays implies that the jet temporarily tilts away from us , due to precession of the warped disk . The jets drive shocks into the surrounding interstellar medium , resulting in a radio to infrared afterglow . Detection of the relativistically expanding afterglow confirmed the identity of the host galaxy . Observed linear polarization of the infrared radiation is consistent with synchrotron emission from the afterglow shock . `` This is truly different from any explosive event we have seen before , '' said Joshua Bloom of the University of California at Berkeley , the lead author of the study published in the June 2011 issue of Science .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "GRB_110328A", "rank": 26, "score": 119547 }, { "content": "Title: Pentafluoroethane Content: Pentafluoroethane is a refrigerant with the formula CF3CHF2 . Although it has zero ozone depletion potential , it has high global warming potential , reported by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) as 3450 times that of carbon dioxide . Pentafluoroethane in a near zeotropic mixture with difluoromethane is known as R-410A , a common replacement for various chlorofluorocarbons ( commonly known as Freon ) in new refrigerant systems . Pentafluoroethane is also used as a fire suppression agent in fire suppression systems .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Pentafluoroethane", "rank": 27, "score": 119511 }, { "content": "Title: Montreal Protocol Content: The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer ( a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer ) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion . It was agreed on 16 September 1987 , and entered into force on 01 January 1989 , followed by a first meeting in Helsinki , May 1989 . Since then , it has undergone eight revisions , in 1990 ( London ) , 1991 ( Nairobi ) , 1992 ( Copenhagen ) , 1993 ( Bangkok ) , 1995 ( Vienna ) , 1997 ( Montreal ) , 1998 ( Australia ) , 1999 ( Beijing ) and 2016 ( Kigali , adopted , but not in force ) . As a result of the international agreement , the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering . Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070 . Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international co-operation , with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that `` perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol '' . In comparison , effective burden sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factors for the ozone depletion challenge , where global regulation based on the Kyoto Protocol has failed to do so . In this case of the ozone depletion challenge , there was global regulation already being installed before a scientific consensus was established . Also , overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks . The two ozone treaties have been ratified by 197 parties , which includes 196 states and the European Union , making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations history . These truly universal treaties have also been remarkable in the expedience of the policy making process at the global scale , where only 14 years lapsed between a basic scientific research discovery ( 1973 ) and the international agreement signed ( 1985 & 1987 ) .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Montreal_Protocol", "rank": 28, "score": 119475 }, { "content": "Title: Chlorofluorocarbon Content: A chlorofluorocarbon ( CFC ) is an organic compound that contains only carbon , chlorine , and fluorine , produced as volatile derivative of methane , ethane , and propane . They are also commonly known by the DuPont brand name Freon . The most common representative is dichlorodifluoromethane ( R-12 or Freon-12 ) . Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants , propellants ( in aerosol applications ) , and solvents . Because CFCs contribute to ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere , the manufacture of such compounds has been phased out under the Montreal Protocol , and they are being replaced with other products such as hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) ( e.g. , R-410A ) and R-134a .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Chlorofluorocarbon", "rank": 29, "score": 119048 }, { "content": "Title: Polar stratospheric cloud Content: Polar stratospheric clouds or PSCs , also known as nacreous clouds ( -LSB- ˈneɪkriː.əs -RSB- , from nacre , or mother of pearl , due to its iridescence ) , are clouds in the winter polar stratosphere at altitudes of 15000 - . They are best observed during civil twilight when the sun is between 1 and 6 degrees below the horizon as well as in winter and in more northerly latitudes . They are implicated in the formation of ozone holes . The effects on ozone depletion arise because they support chemical reactions that produce active chlorine which catalyzes ozone destruction , and also because they remove gaseous nitric acid , perturbing nitrogen and chlorine cycles in a way which increases ozone destruction .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Polar_stratospheric_cloud", "rank": 30, "score": 118627 }, { "content": "Title: Cosmic ray spallation Content: Cosmic ray spallation is a form of naturally occurring nuclear fission and nucleosynthesis . It refers to the formation of chemical elements from the impact of cosmic rays on an object . Cosmic rays are highly energetic charged particles from outside of Earth ranging from protons , alpha particles , and nuclei of many heavier elements . About 1 % of cosmic rays also consist of free electrons . Cosmic rays cause spallation when a ray particle ( e.g. a proton ) impacts with matter , including other cosmic rays . The result of the collision is the expulsion of large numbers of nucleons ( protons and neutrons ) from the object hit . This process goes on not only in deep space , but in Earth 's upper atmosphere and crustal surface ( typically the upper ten meters ) due to the ongoing impact of cosmic rays .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Cosmic_ray_spallation", "rank": 31, "score": 116435 }, { "content": "Title: Raytheon Polar Services Company Content: Raytheon Polar Services Company ( RPSC ) is a division of Raytheon that provided logistics , operations , and staffing for the National Science Foundation 's operations in Antarctica and Antarctic waters . Its contract with the United States Antarctic Program expired on March 30 , 2012 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Raytheon_Polar_Services_Company", "rank": 32, "score": 116282 }, { "content": "Title: Bell Peak Content: Bell Peak is a peak , 1620 m high , surmounting a southeast trending spur of the Herbert Range , just southwest of Sargent Glacier . The peak was probably observed by Roald Amundsen 's south polar party in 1911 , and was later roughly mapped by the Byrd Antarctic Expedition , 1928 -- 30 . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for G. Grant Bell who studied cosmic rays at McMurdo Station , winter party 1962 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Bell_Peak", "rank": 33, "score": 115836 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic oscillation Content: The Antarctic oscillation ( AAO , to distinguish it from the Arctic oscillation or AO ) is a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the southern hemisphere . It is also known as the Southern Annular Mode ( SAM ) . It is defined as a belt of westerly winds or low pressure surrounding Antarctica which moves north or south as its mode of variability . In its positive phase , the westerly wind belt contracts towards Antarctica , while its negative phase involves this belt moving towards the Equator . In 2014 , Dr Nerilie Abram used a network of temperature-sensitive ice core and tree growth records to reconstruct a 1000-year history of the Southern Annular Mode . This work suggests that the Southern Annular Mode is currently in its most extreme positive phase over at least the last 1000 years , and that recent positive trends in the SAM are attributed to increasing greenhouse gas levels and later stratospheric ozone depletion .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Antarctic_oscillation", "rank": 34, "score": 115444 }, { "content": "Title: Micro black hole Content: Micro black holes , also called quantum mechanical black holes or mini black holes , are hypothetical tiny black holes , for which quantum mechanical effects play an important role . The concept that black holes may exist that are smaller than stellar mass was introduced in 1971 by Stephen Hawking . It is possible that such quantum primordial black holes were created in the high-density environment of the early Universe ( or big bang ) , or possibly through subsequent phase transitions . They might be observed by astrophysicists in the near future , through the particles they are expected to emit by Hawking radiation . Some hypotheses involving additional space dimensions predict that micro black holes could be formed at energies as low as the TeV range , which are available in particle accelerators such as the LHC ( Large Hadron Collider ) . Popular concerns have then been raised over end-of-the-world scenarios ( see Safety of particle collisions at the Large Hadron Collider ) . However , such quantum black holes would instantly evaporate , either totally or leaving only a very weakly interacting residue . Beside the theoretical arguments , the cosmic rays hitting the Earth do not produce any damage , although they reach center of mass energies in the range of hundreds of TeV .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Micro_black_hole", "rank": 35, "score": 115084 }, { "content": "Title: Askaryan effect Content: The Askaryan effect is the phenomenon whereby a particle traveling faster than the phase velocity of light in a dense dielectric ( such as salt , ice or the lunar regolith ) produces a shower of secondary charged particles which contain a charge anisotropy and thus emits a cone of coherent radiation in the radio or microwave part of the electromagnetic spectrum . It is similar to the Cherenkov effect . It is named after Gurgen Askaryan , a Soviet-Armenian physicist who postulated it in 1962 . The effect was first observed experimentally in 2000 , 38 years after its theoretical prediction . So far the effect has been observed in silica sand , rock salt , ice , and Earth 's atmosphere . The effect is of primary interest in using bulk matter to detect ultra-high energy neutrinos . The Antarctic Impulse Transient Antenna ( ANITA ) experiment uses antennas attached to a balloon flying over Antarctica to detect the Askaryan radiation produced as cosmic neutrinos travel through the ice . Several experiments have also used the Moon as a neutrino detector based on detection of the Askaryan radiation .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Askaryan_effect", "rank": 36, "score": 114949 }, { "content": "Title: 11th Soviet Antarctic Expedition Content: The Eleventh Soviet Antarctic Expedition was an expedition by the Soviet Union to Antarctica based at Mirny Station . The Expedition did research into ; the climate , the state of the ionosphere , the northern lights , cosmic rays , the geomagnetic field , and the source of radio waves . One major task of the Expedition was to relay meteorological information to Soviet whaling ships in the southern latitudes . This expedition was the first Soviet expedition to use aqua-lungs in biological exploration . Explorations using this technology were made from December to March in the Antarctic summer of 1966/7 . The three months of work resulted in a large collection of animals which were presented to the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in Leningrad . During eleventh Antarctic Expedition in Nov. 1991/March 1992 SODAR ( SOnic Detection And Ranging ) was installed .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "11th_Soviet_Antarctic_Expedition", "rank": 37, "score": 114612 }, { "content": "Title: ANDRILL Content: ANDRILL ( ANtarctic DRILLing Project ) is a scientific drilling project in Antarctica gathering information about past periods of global warming and cooling . The project involves scientists from Germany , Italy , New Zealand , and the United States . At two sites in 2006 and 2007 , ANDRILL team members drilled through ice , seawater , sediment and rock to a depth over more than 1,200 m and recovered a virtually continuous core record from the present to nearly 20 million years ago . The project is based at McMurdo Station in Antarctica . In studying the cores , ANDRILL scientists from various disciplines are gathering detailed information about past periods of global warming and cooling . A major goal of the project is to significantly improve the understanding of Antarctica 's impact on the world 's oceans currents and the atmosphere by reconstructing the behavior of Antarctic sea-ice , ice-shelves , glaciers and sea currents over tens of millions of years . Initial results imply rapid changes and dramatically different climates at various times on the southernmost continent.Quirin Scheirmeier , `` Sediment cores reveal Antarctica 's warmer past , '' Nature News , April 24 , 2008 . The $ 30 million project has achieved its operational goal of retrieving a continuous core record of the last 17 million years , filling crucial gaps left by previous drilling projects . Making use of knowledge gained through prior Antarctic drilling projects , ANDRILL employed novel techniques to reach record depths at its two drilling sites . Among the innovations deployed were a hot-water drilling system that allowed for easier ice-boring and a flexible drill pipe that could accommodate tidal oscillations and strong currents . On December 16 , 2006 , ANDRILL broke the previous record of 999.1 m set in 2000 by the Ocean Drilling Program 's drill ship , the Joides Resolution . The Antarctic-record 1285 m of core ANDRILL went on to recover represents geologic time to about 13 million years ago . In 2007 , drilling at the Southern McMurdo Sound , ANDRILL scientists recovered another 1138 meters ( 3733.6 ft ) of core . One goal in 2006 was to look at a period of around 3 to 5 million years ago in the Pliocene , which scientists know to be warmer . The team 's sedimentologists identified more than 60 cycles in which ice sheets or glaciers advanced and retreated across McMurdo Sound .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "ANDRILL", "rank": 38, "score": 113156 }, { "content": "Title: Fred Singer Content: Siegfried Fred Singer ( born September 27 , 1924 ) is an Austrian-born American physicist and emeritus professor of environmental science at the University of Virginia . Singer trained as an atmospheric physicist and is known for his work in space research , atmospheric pollution , rocket and satellite technology , his questioning of the link between UV-B and melanoma rates , and that between CFCs and stratospheric ozone loss , his public downplaying of the health risks of passive smoking , and as an advocate for climate change denial . He is the author or editor of several books including Global Effects of Environmental Pollution ( 1970 ) , The Ocean in Human Affairs ( 1989 ) , Global Climate Change ( 1989 ) , The Greenhouse Debate Continued ( 1992 ) , and Hot Talk , Cold Science ( 1997 ) . He has also co-authored Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years ( 2007 ) with Dennis Avery , and Climate Change Reconsidered ( 2009 ) with Craig Idso . Singer has had a varied career , serving in the armed forces , government , and academia . He designed mines for the U.S. Navy during World War II , before obtaining his Ph.D. in physics from Princeton University in 1948 and working as a scientific liaison officer in the U.S. Embassy in London . He became a leading figure in early space research , was involved in the development of earth observation satellites , and in 1962 established the National Weather Bureau 's Satellite Service Center . He was the founding dean of the University of Miami School of Environmental and Planetary Sciences in 1964 , and held several government positions , including deputy assistant administrator for the Environmental Protection Agency , and chief scientist for the Department of Transportation . He held a professorship with the University of Virginia from 1971 until 1994 , and with George Mason University until 2000 . In 1990 Singer founded the Science & Environmental Policy Project , and in 2006 was named by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation as one of a minority of scientists said to be creating a stand-off on a consensus on climate change . Singer argues there is no evidence that global warming is attributable to human-caused increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide , and that humanity would benefit if temperatures do rise . He is an opponent of the Kyoto Protocol , and has claimed that climate models are neither based on reality nor evidence . Singer has been accused of rejecting peer-reviewed and independently confirmed scientific evidence in his claims concerning public health and environmental issues .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Fred_Singer", "rank": 39, "score": 112188 }, { "content": "Title: Chlorine monoxide Content: Chlorine monoxide is a chemical radical with the chemical formula ClO . It plays an important role in the process of ozone depletion . In the stratosphere , chlorine atoms react with ozone molecules to form chlorine monoxide and oxygen . Cl · + → ClO · + This reaction causes the depletion of the ozone layer . This reaction can go on and the ClO · radicals can go on to react as such : ClO · + O · → Cl · + regenerating the chlorine radical . In this way , the overall reaction for the decomposition of ozone is catalyzed by chlorine , as ultimately chlorine remains unchanged . The overall reaction is : O · + → + 2 This has been a significant impact of the use of CFCs on the upper stratosphere , however many countries have agreed to ban the use of CFCs . The nonreactive nature of CFC 's allows them to pass into the stratosphere , where they undergo photo-dissociation to form Cl radicals . These then readily form chlorine monoxide , and this cycle can continue until two radicals react to form dichlorine monoxide , terminating the radical reaction . Because the concentration of CFCs in atmosphere is very low , the probability of a terminating reaction is exceedingly low , meaning each radical can decompose many thousands of molecules of ozone . Even though the use of CFCs was banned in many countries , CFCs can stay in the atmosphere for about 50-500 years . This cause many chlorine radicals to be produced and hence a significant amount of ozone molecules are decomposed before the chlorine radicals are able to react with chlorine monoxide to form Dichlorine monoxide .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Chlorine_monoxide", "rank": 40, "score": 110946 }, { "content": "Title: Chile Fracture Zone Content: The Chile Fracture Zone ( CFZ ) is a major strike slip fault and fracture zone in the Chile Rise . The Chile Fracture Zone runs in an eastwest direction almost parallel to nearby Juan Fernández Ridge and makes up a large part of the Antarctic -- Nazca Plate boundary .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Chile_Fracture_Zone", "rank": 41, "score": 110846 }, { "content": "Title: Radio Ice Cherenkov Experiment Content: Radio Ice Cerenkov Experiment ( RICE ) is an experiment designed to detect the Cherenkov emission in the radio regime of the electromagnetic spectrum from the interaction of high energy neutrinos ( greater than 1 PeV ) with the Antarctic ice cap . The goals of this experiment are to determine the potential of the radio-detection technique for measuring the high energy cosmic neutrino flux , determining the sources of this flux , and measuring neutrino-nucleon cross sections at energies above those accessible with existing accelerators . Such an experiment also has sensitivity to neutrinos from gamma ray bursts , as well as highly ionizing charged particles ( monopoles , e.g. ) traversing the Antarctic icecap .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Radio_Ice_Cherenkov_Experiment", "rank": 42, "score": 110338 }, { "content": "Title: SN 1979C Content: SN 1979C was a supernova about 50 million light-years away in Messier 100 , a spiral galaxy in the constellation Coma Berenices . The Type II supernova was discovered April 19 , 1979 by Gus Johnson , a school teacher and amateur astronomer . This type of supernova is known as a core collapse and is the result of the internal collapse and violent explosion of a large star . A star must have at least 9 times the mass of the Sun in order to undergo this type of collapse . The star that resulted in this supernova was estimated to be in the range of 20 solar masses . On November 15 , 2010 NASA announced that evidence of a black hole had been detected as a remnant of the supernova explosion . Scientists led by Dr. Dan Patnaude from the Harvard -- Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics in Cambridge , MA evaluated data gathered between 1995 and 2007 from several space based observatories . NASA 's Chandra X-ray Observatory , the Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission , as well as the European Space Agency 's XMM-Newton , and Germany 's ROSAT all participated in the examination . The researchers observed a steady source of X-rays and determined that it was likely that this was material being fed into the object either from the supernova or a binary companion . However , an alternative explanation would be that the X-ray emissions could be from the pulsar wind nebula from a rapidly spinning pulsar , similar to the one in the center of the Crab Nebula . These two ideas account for several types of known X-ray sources . In the case of black holes the material that falls into the black hole emits the X-rays and not the black hole itself . Gas is heated by the fall into the strong gravitational field . SN 1979C has also been studied in the radio frequency spectrum . A light curve study was performed between 1985 and 1990 using the Very Large Array radio telescope in New Mexico .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "SN_1979C", "rank": 43, "score": 110207 }, { "content": "Title: The E and B Experiment Content: The E and B Experiment ( EBEX ) will measure the cosmic microwave background radiation of a part of the sky during two sub-orbital ( high-altitude ) balloon flights . It is an experiment to make large , high-fidelity images of the CMB polarization anisotropies . By using a telescope which flies at over 42,000 metres high , it is possible to reduce the atmospheric absorption of microwaves to a minimum . This allows massive cost reduction compared to a satellite probe , though only a small part of the sky can be scanned and for shorter duration than a typical satellite mission such as WMAP . The first flight was an engineering flight over North America in 2009 . For the science flight , EBEX was launched on 29 December 2012 , near McMurdo Station in Antarctica . It circled around the South Pole using the polar vortex winds before landing on 24 January 2013 about 400 miles from McMurdo .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "The_E_and_B_Experiment", "rank": 44, "score": 109609 }, { "content": "Title: BOOMERanG experiment Content: In astronomy and observational cosmology , The BOOMERanG experiment ( Balloon Observations Of Millimetric Extragalactic Radiation ANd Geophysics ) was an experiment which measured the cosmic microwave background radiation of a part of the sky during three sub-orbital ( high-altitude ) balloon flights . It was the first experiment to make large , high-fidelity images of the CMB temperature anisotropies , and is best known for the discovery in 2000 that the geometry of the universe is close to flat , with similar results from the competing MAXIMA experiment . By using a telescope which flew at over 42,000 meters high , it was possible to reduce the atmospheric absorption of microwaves to a minimum . This allowed massive cost reduction compared to a satellite probe , though only a tiny part of the sky could be scanned . The first was a test flight over North America in 1997 . In the two subsequent flights in 1998 and 2003 the balloon was launched from McMurdo Station in the Antarctic . It was carried by the Polar vortex winds in a circle around the South Pole , returning after two weeks . From this phenomenon the telescope took its name . The BOOMERanG team was led by Andrew E. Lange of Caltech and Paolo de Bernardis of the University of Rome La Sapienza .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "BOOMERanG_experiment", "rank": 45, "score": 109388 }, { "content": "Title: DeZafra Ridge Content: DeZafra Ridge is a narrow but prominent rock ridge , 5 nmi long , which extends north from the northeast cliffs of Longhurst Plateau in the Cook Mountains of Antarctica . The ridge is 2.5 nmi west of Fault Bluff and rises 350 m above the ice surface north of the plateau . It was named after Robert L. deZafra , Professor of Physics at the State University of New York , Stony Brook , whose research at the South Pole and McMurdo Sound provided breakthrough contributions to understanding the formation of the Antarctic ozone hole .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "DeZafra_Ridge", "rank": 46, "score": 108825 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal", "rank": 47, "score": 108783 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 48, "score": 108723 }, { "content": "Title: Ice and the Sky Content: Ice and the Sky ( La Glace et le ciel , also known as Antarctica : Ice and Sky ) is a 2015 French documentary film directed by Luc Jacquet about the work of Claude Lorius , who began studying Antarctic ice in 1957 , and , in 1965 , was the first scientist to be concerned about global warming . The film was selected to close the 2015 Cannes Film Festival .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Ice_and_the_Sky", "rank": 49, "score": 108607 }, { "content": "Title: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer Content: The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is a Multilateral Environmental Agreement . It was agreed upon at the Vienna Conference of 1985 and entered into force in 1988 . In terms of universality , it is one of the most successful treaties of all time , having been ratified by 197 states ( all United Nations members as well as the Holy See , Niue and the Cook Islands ) as well as the European Union . It acts as a framework for the international efforts to protect the ozone layer . However , it does not include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs , the main chemical agents causing ozone depletion . These are laid out in the accompanying Montreal Protocol .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Vienna_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_the_Ozone_Layer", "rank": 50, "score": 108388 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrofluoroolefin Content: Hydrofluoroolefins ( HFOs ) are unsaturated organic compounds composed of hydrogen , fluorine and carbon . These organofluorine compound are of interest as refrigerants . Unlike traditional hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) and chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) , which are saturated , HFOs are olefins , otherwise known as alkenes . HFO refrigerants are categorised as having zero ODP ( Ozone Depletion Potential ) and low GWP and so offer a more environmentally friendly alternative to CFCs , HCFCs and HFCs . HFOs are being developed as `` fourth generation '' refrigerants with 0.1 % of the global-warming potential of HFCs . HFOs currently in use include 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene ( HFO-1234yf ) and 1,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene ( HFO-1234ze ) . 1-chloro-3 ,3,3 - trifluoropropene ( HFO-1233zd ) is also under development .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Hydrofluoroolefin", "rank": 51, "score": 108363 }, { "content": "Title: 1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane Content: Trichlorotrifluoroethane , also called 1,1,2-Trichloro-1 ,2,2 - trifluoroethane or CFC-113 is a chlorofluorocarbon . It has the formula Cl2FC-CClF2 . This colorless gas is a versatile solvent . It has attracted much attention for its role in the depletion of stratospheric ozone . The amount of CFC-113 in the atmosphere has remained at about 80 parts per trillion , since the early 1990s . It is isomeric with 1,1,1-Trichloro-2 ,2,2 - trifluoroethane , known as CFC-113a , which has the structural formula CF3-CCl3 . The Montreal Protocol in 1987 called for the phase out of all CFC 's , including CFC-113 by 2010 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane", "rank": 52, "score": 108129 }, { "content": "Title: Cosmic ray Content: Cosmic rays are high-energy radiation , mainly originating outside the Solar System . Upon impact with the Earth 's atmosphere , cosmic rays can produce showers of secondary particles that sometimes reach the surface . Composed primarily of high-energy protons and atomic nuclei , they are of mysterious origin . Data from the Fermi Space Telescope ( 2013 ) have been interpreted as evidence that a significant fraction of primary cosmic rays originate from the supernovae explosions of stars . Active galactic nuclei probably also produce cosmic rays .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Cosmic_ray", "rank": 53, "score": 107997 }, { "content": "Title: Cosmic background radiation Content: Cosmic background radiation is electromagnetic radiation with no discernible source . The origin of this radiation depends on the region of the spectrum that is observed . One component is the cosmic microwave background . This component is redshifted photons that have freely streamed from an epoch when the Universe became transparent for the first time to radiation . Its discovery and detailed observations of its properties are considered one of the major confirmations of the Big Bang . The discovery ( by chance in 1965 ) of the cosmic background radiation suggests that the early universe was dominated by a radiation field , a field of extremely high temperature and pressure . The Sunyaev -- Zel ` dovich effect shows the phenomena of radiant cosmic background radiation interacting with `` electron '' clouds distorting the spectrum of the radiation . There is also background radiation in the infrared , x-rays , etc. , with different causes , and they can sometimes be resolved into an individual source . See cosmic infrared background and X-ray background . See also cosmic neutrino background and extragalactic background light .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Cosmic_background_radiation", "rank": 54, "score": 107687 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment Content: The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Sea_Ice_Physics_and_Ecosystem_eXperiment", "rank": 55, "score": 107560 }, { "content": "Title: Matthew Kleban Content: Matthew Benjamin Kleban is an American theoretical physicist who works on string theory and theoretical cosmology . He is an associate professor at New York University , a member of the Center for Cosmology and Particle Physics , and a former member at the Institute for Advanced Study . His contributions to physics include : The discovery of the first distinct signature of the black hole singularity in AdS/CFT ( with Lukasz Fidkowski , Veronika Hubeny and Stephen Shenker ) Pioneering work on the subtleties of very late-time cosmology in the presence of a positive cosmological constant , and the `` Boltzmann brain '' problem ( with Lisa Dyson and Leonard Susskind ) A determination of the effects of cosmic bubble collisions on the microwave background radiation and other cosmological observables .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Matthew_Kleban", "rank": 56, "score": 107023 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 57, "score": 106843 }, { "content": "Title: Kane Rocks Content: The Kane Rocks form an east -- west trending ridge , 3 nmi long , forming a rock median between the upper reaches of Koski Glacier and Vandament Glacier in the Dominion Range , Antarctica . The ridge was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Henry Scott Kane , a United States Antarctic Research Program cosmic rays scientist at South Pole Station , winter 1964 , and a member of the South Pole -- Queen Maud Land Traverse I and II , 1964 -- 65 and 1965 -- 66 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Kane_Rocks", "rank": 58, "score": 106623 }, { "content": "Title: Barnes Peak Content: Barnes Peak is a peak , 3360 m high , standing 4 nmi southeast of Mount Dickerson in the Queen Alexandra Range . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Elwood E. Barnes , a United States Antarctic Research Program cosmic rays scientist at Hallett Station , 1963 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Barnes_Peak", "rank": 59, "score": 106380 }, { "content": "Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "The_Cloud_Mystery", "rank": 60, "score": 106240 }, { "content": "Title: Volcano Ranch experiment Content: The Volcano Ranch experiment was an array of particle detectors in Volcano Ranch , New Mexico , used to measure ultra-high-energy cosmic rays . The array was built by John Linsley and Livio Scarsi in 1959 . On February 22 , 1962 , Linsley observed an air shower at Volcano Ranch created by a primary particle with an energy greater than 1020 eV , the highest energy cosmic ray particle ever detected at the time . Linsley continued to operate Volcano Ranch until 1978 , when it was closed due to lack of funding .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Volcano_Ranch_experiment", "rank": 61, "score": 106014 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity and Extreme Magnetism Content: The Gravity and Extreme Magnetism SMEX ( GEMS ) mission was a cancelled space observatory mission . The main scientific goal of GEMS was to be the first mission to systematically measure the polarization of cosmic X-Ray sources . GEMS would have provided data to help scientists study the shape of space that has been distorted by a spinning black hole 's gravity and the structure and effects of the magnetic fields around Neutron stars . It was cancelled by NASA in June 2012 for potential cost overruns due to delays in developing the technology . GEMS was managed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASA , the United States space agency , at the Goddard Space Flight Center . The project was an astrophysics program reporting to NASA 's Science Mission Directorate ( SMD ) in Washington , D.C. . The spacecraft would have been launched on in July 2014 on a nine-month mission with a possible 15-month extension for a guest observer phase ; but the mission was terminated at the Confirmation Review stage on May 10 , 2012 due to expected cost overruns . Cancelled missions can be reinstated for example NuSTAR was cancelled in 2006 , but reinstated a year later and launched in June 2012 . However , NuSTAR was not cancelled due to project overruns , but rather due to changes in the overall NASA budget , so the circumstances for cancellation were very different . Of course small missions of the Explorer program offer a lot of flexibility and launch opportunities , and the lessons learned can be applied to the same missions goals , but on a different mission ( Compare Vanguard 1 to Explorer 1 ) Just a couple years later two new X-ray polarimetry mission won a NASA award to develop a X-ray polarimetry missions .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Gravity_and_Extreme_Magnetism", "rank": 62, "score": 105822 }, { "content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Global_dimming", "rank": 63, "score": 105809 }, { "content": "Title: CLOUD experiment Content: Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets or CLOUD is an experiment being run at CERN by a group of researchers led by Jasper Kirkby to investigate the microphysics between galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) and aerosols under controlled conditions . The experiment began operation in November 2009 . The primary goal is to understand the influence of galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) on aerosols and clouds , and their implications for climate . Although its design is optimised to address the cosmic ray question , ( as posed by Henrik Svensmark and colleagues in 1997 ) CLOUD allows as well to measure aerosol nucleation and growth under controlled laboratory conditions . Atmospheric aerosols and their effect on clouds are recognised by the IPCC as main source of uncertainty in present radiative forcing and climate models .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "CLOUD_experiment", "rank": 64, "score": 105770 }, { "content": "Title: Chlorotrifluoromethane Content: Chlorotrifluoromethane , R-13 , CFC-13 , or Freon 13 , is a non-flammable , non-corrosive chlorofluorocarbon ( CFC ) and also a mixed halomethane . It is used as a refrigerant , however , due to concerns about its ozone-depleting potential , its use has been phased out due to the Montreal Protocol .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Chlorotrifluoromethane", "rank": 65, "score": 105283 }, { "content": "Title: 1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane Content: 1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane , or R-114 , also known as cryofluorane ( INN ) , is a chlorofluorocarbon ( CFC ) with the molecular formula ClF2CCF2Cl . Its primary use has been as a refrigerant . It is a non-flammable gas with a sweetish , chloroform-like odor with the critical point occurring at 145.6 ° C and 3.26 MPa . When pressurized or cooled , it is a colorless liquid . It is listed on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's list of ozone depleting chemicals , and is classified as a Montreal Protocol Class I , group 1 ozone depleting substance . When used as a refrigerant , R-114 is classified as a medium pressure refrigerant . The US Navy uses R-114 in its centrifugal chillers in preference to R-11 to avoid air and moisture leakage into the system . While the evaporator of an R-11 charged chiller runs at a vacuum during operation , R-114 yields approximately 0 psig operating pressure in the evaporator .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane", "rank": 66, "score": 104722 }, { "content": "Title: Ray Klebesadel Content: Ray Klebesadel is a scientist , now retired , who was a member of the gamma-ray astronomy group at the Los Alamos National Laboratory ( LANL ) in New Mexico that discovered cosmic gamma-ray bursts using data from the Vela satellites , which were deployed by the United States after the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963 , to police the ban on nuclear tests in space . The unexplained gamma-ray flashes were first detected in 1967 , but remained classified until it was determined that they were of cosmic origin , not related to treaty violations . The discovery was published in 1973 as an Astrophysical Journal Letter , co-authored by Ian Strong and Roy Olson also of LANL , entitled `` Observations of Gamma-Ray Bursts of Cosmic Origin '' . It was published again in 1976 in the Scientific American . Klebesadel was selected as a Fellow of the Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1989 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Ray_Klebesadel", "rank": 67, "score": 104676 }, { "content": "Title: Hawking radiation Content: Hawking radiation is blackbody radiation that is predicted to be released by black holes , due to quantum effects near the event horizon . It is named after the physicist Stephen Hawking , who provided a theoretical argument for its existence in 1974 , and sometimes also after Jacob Bekenstein , who predicted that black holes should have a finite entropy . Hawking 's work followed his visit to Moscow in 1973 where the Soviet scientists Yakov Zeldovich and Alexei Starobinsky showed him that , according to the quantum mechanical uncertainty principle , rotating black holes should create and emit particles . Hawking radiation reduces the mass and energy of black holes and is therefore also known as black hole evaporation . Because of this , black holes that do not gain mass through other means are expected to shrink and ultimately vanish . Micro black holes are predicted to be larger emitters of radiation than larger black holes and should shrink and dissipate faster . In June 2008 , NASA launched the Fermi space telescope , which is searching for the terminal gamma-ray flashes expected from evaporating primordial black holes . In the event that speculative large extra dimension theories are correct , CERN 's Large Hadron Collider may be able to create micro black holes and observe their evaporation . In September 2010 , a signal that is closely related to black hole Hawking radiation ( see analog gravity ) was claimed to have been observed in a laboratory experiment involving optical light pulses . However , the results remain unverified and debatable . Other projects have been launched to look for this radiation within the framework of analog gravity .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Hawking_radiation", "rank": 68, "score": 104620 }, { "content": "Title: John Linsley Content: John David Linsley ( 12 March 1925 -- 25 September 2002 ) was an American physicist who performed pioneering research on cosmic rays , particularly ultra-high-energy cosmic rays . He did his most significant work from 1959 to 1978 using a ground-based array of detectors at Volcano Ranch in New Mexico . He is best known for being the first to detect an air shower created by a primary particle with an energy of 1020 eV . This was the highest energy cosmic ray observed up to that point . Linsley 's observations suggested that not all cosmic rays are confined within the galaxy and showed the first evidence of a flattening of the cosmic ray spectrum at energies above 1018 eV .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "John_Linsley", "rank": 69, "score": 104164 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 70, "score": 104067 }, { "content": "Title: Health threat from cosmic rays Content: The health threat from cosmic rays is the danger posed by galactic cosmic rays ( GCR ) and solar energetic particles to astronauts on interplanetary missions or any missions that venture through the Van-Allen Belts or outside the Earth 's magnetosphere . Space radiation health risks also occur for mission in low Earth orbit such as the International Space Station ( ISS ) where GCR dominate organ dose equivalents , while radiation exposure limits can be reached for cumulative times on ISS of about 2 years ( with variable maximum durations dependent on crew age at mission and sex ) . Galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) consist of high energy protons ( 85 % ) , helium ( 14 % ) and other high energy nuclei ( HZE ions ) . Solar energetic particles consist primarily of protons accelerated by the Sun to high energies via proximity to solar flares and coronal mass ejections . They are one of the most important barriers standing in the way of plans for interplanetary travel by crewed spacecraft . Heavy ions and low energy protons and helium particles are highly ionizing forms of radiation , which produce distinct biological damage compared to X-rays and gamma-rays . Microscopic energy deposition from highly ionizing particles consists of a core radiation track due to direct ionizations by the particle and low energy electrons produced in ionization , and a penumbra of higher energy electrons that may extend hundreds of microns from the particles path in tissue . The core track produces extremely large clusters of ionizations within a few nanometres , which is qualitatively distinct from energy deposition by X-rays and gamma rays ; hence human epidemiology data which only exists for these latter forms of radiation is limited in predicting the health risks from space radiation to astronauts . In October 2015 , the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to space exploration , including a human mission to Mars .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays", "rank": 71, "score": 103818 }, { "content": "Title: Gamma-ray burst Content: In gamma-ray astronomy , Gamma-ray bursts ( GRBs ) are extremely energetic explosions that have been observed in distant galaxies . They are the brightest electromagnetic events known to occur in the universe . Bursts can last from ten milliseconds to several hours . After an initial flash of gamma rays , a longer-lived `` afterglow '' is usually emitted at longer wavelengths ( X-ray , ultraviolet , optical , infrared , microwave and radio ) . The intense radiation of most observed GRBs is believed to be released during a supernova or hypernova as a rapidly rotating , high-mass star collapses to form a neutron star , quark star , or black hole . A subclass of GRBs ( the `` short '' bursts ) appear to originate from a different process : the merger of binary neutron stars . The cause of the precursor burst observed in some of these short events may be the development of a resonance between the crust and core of such stars as a result of the massive tidal forces experienced in the seconds leading up to their collision , causing the entire crust of the star to shatter . The sources of most GRBs are billions of light years away from Earth , implying that the explosions are both extremely energetic ( a typical burst releases as much energy in a few seconds as the Sun will in its entire 10-billion-year lifetime ) and extremely rare ( a few per galaxy per million years ) . All observed GRBs have originated from outside the Milky Way galaxy , although a related class of phenomena , soft gamma repeater flares , are associated with magnetars within the Milky Way . It has been hypothesized that a gamma-ray burst in the Milky Way , pointing directly towards the Earth , could cause a mass extinction event . GRBs were first detected in 1967 by the Vela satellites , which had been designed to detect covert nuclear weapons tests . Following their discovery , hundreds of theoretical models were proposed to explain these bursts , such as collisions between comets and neutron stars . Little information was available to verify these models until the 1997 detection of the first X-ray and optical afterglows and direct measurement of their redshifts using optical spectroscopy , and thus their distances and energy outputs . These discoveries , and subsequent studies of the galaxies and supernovae associated with the bursts , clarified the distance and luminosity of GRBs , definitively placing them in distant galaxies .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Gamma-ray_burst", "rank": 72, "score": 103706 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array Content: The Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array ( AMANDA ) is a neutrino telescope located beneath the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station . In 2005 , after nine years of operation , AMANDA officially became part of her successor project , the IceCube Neutrino Observatory . AMANDA consists of optical modules , each containing one photomultiplier tube , sunk in Antarctic ice cap at a depth of about 1500 to 1900 metres . In her latest development stage , known as AMANDA-II , AMANDA is made up of an array of 677 optical modules mounted on 19 separate strings that are spread out in a rough circle with a diameter of 200 metres . Each string has several dozen modules , and was put in place by `` drilling '' a hole in the ice using a hot-water hose , sinking the cable with attached optical modules in , and then letting the ice freeze around it . AMANDA detects very high energy neutrinos ( 50 + GeV ) which pass through the Earth from the northern hemisphere and then react just as they are leaving upwards through the Antarctic ice . The neutrino interacts with nuclei of oxygen or hydrogen atoms contained in the surrounding water ice through the weak nuclear force , producing a muon and a hadronic shower . The optical modules detect the Cherenkov radiation from these latter particles , and by analysis of the timing of photon hits can approximately determine the direction of the original neutrino with a spatial resolution of approximately 2 degrees . AMANDA 's goal was an attempt at neutrino astronomy , identifying and characterizing extra-solar sources of neutrinos . Compared to underground detectors like Super-Kamiokande in Japan , AMANDA was capable of looking at higher energy neutrinos because it is not limited in volume to a manmade tank ; however , she had much less accuracy because of the less controlled conditions and wider spacing of photomultipliers . Super-Kamiokande can look at much greater detail at neutrinos from the Sun and those generated in the Earth 's atmosphere ; however , at higher energies , the spectrum should include neutrinos dominated by those from sources outside the solar system . Such a new view into the cosmos could give important clues in the search for Dark Matter and other astrophysical phenomena . After two years of integrated operation as part of IceCube , the AMANDA counting house ( in the Martin A. Pomerantz Observatory ) was decommissioned in July and August 2009 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Antarctic_Muon_And_Neutrino_Detector_Array", "rank": 73, "score": 103265 }, { "content": "Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "The_Chilling_Stars", "rank": 74, "score": 103256 }, { "content": "Title: Polar mesospheric summer echoes Content: Polar mesospheric summer echoes ( PMSE ) is the phenomenon of anomalous radar echoes found between 80-90 km in altitude from May through early August in the Arctic , and from November through to February in the Antarctic . These strong radar echoes are associated with the extremely cold temperatures that occur above continental Antarctica during the summer . Rocket and radar measurements indicate that a partial reflection from a multitude of ion layers and constructive interference causes at least some of the PMSE . Generally PMSE exhibits dramatic variations in height and intensity as well as large variations in Doppler shift . PMSE exhibit strong signal power enhancements of scattering cross section at VHF radar frequencies in the range 50 MHz to 250 MHz , at times even to over 1 GHz , that occur in summer at high latitudes . The peak PMSE height is slightly below the summer mesopause temperature minimum at 88 km , and above the noctilucent cloud ( NLC ) and/or polar mesospheric cloud ( PMC ) layer at 83 -- 84 km . The usual instrument for observing PMSE is the a VHF Mesosphere-Stratosphere-Troposphere ( MST ) radar , although LIDARs and sounding rockets have also been used . PMSE is believed to be caused by structural irregularities in the ionospheric electron density at lower altitudes . The exact cause of PMSE is not yet known , although theorists have proposed steep electron density gradients , heavy positive ions , dressed aerosols , gravity waves and turbulence as possible explanations . PMSE occurs in both the Arctic and Antarctic regions , and is sometimes accompanied by noctilucent clouds .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Polar_mesospheric_summer_echoes", "rank": 75, "score": 102943 }, { "content": "Title: CFESat Content: CFESat , the Cibola Flight Experiment Satellite , examines radio spectra for ionospheric and lightning studies , using field-programmable gate arrays ( FPGAs ) . As well as science observation , the mission aims to show use of reconfigurable FPGAs to work in the radiation environment of low Earth orbit . The satellite payloads were built by Los Alamos National Laboratory , and the bus was built by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd. . CFESat was launched from Cape Canaveral on 8 March 2007 , alongside Orbital Express , MidSTAR-1 and FalconSAT-3 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "CFESat", "rank": 76, "score": 102891 }, { "content": "Title: Mount Deardorff Content: Mount Deardorff is a prominent peak , 2,380 m high , surmounting the massive ridge dividing the heads of Moffett Glacier and Steagall Glacier in the Queen Maud Mountains . It was first mapped from ground surveys and air photos by the Byrd Antarctic Expedition , 1928 -- 30 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for J. Evan Deardorff who made cosmic ray studies at McMurdo Station in 1964 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Mount_Deardorff", "rank": 77, "score": 102243 }, { "content": "Title: Cos-B Content: COS-B was the first European Space Research Organisation mission to study cosmic gamma ray sources . COS-B was first put forward by the European scientific community in the mid-1960s and approved by the ESRO council in 1969 . The mission consisted of a satellite containing gamma-ray detectors , which was launched by NASA on behalf of the ESRO on August 9 , 1975 . The mission was completed on April 25 , 1982 , after the satellite had been operational for more than 6.5 years , four years longer than planned and had increased the amount of data on gamma rays by a factor of 25 . Scientific results included the 2CG Catalogue listing around 25 gamma ray sources and a map of the Milky Way . The satellite also observed the X-ray binary Cygnus X-3 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Cos-B", "rank": 78, "score": 102214 }, { "content": "Title: GRB 050509B Content: GRB 050509B was a gamma ray burst ( GRB ) observed by the NASA Swift satellite on May 9 , 2005 . It was the first short duration GRB for which an accurate positional measurement was made , accurate enough to locate it near to an elliptical galaxy lying at a redshift of 0.225 . The significance of this finding is that it lends support to the theory that short bursts are formed during the catastrophic merger of two neutron stars , or a neutron star and a black hole . The orbital decay ( via gravitational radiation ) of stellar binaries consisting of these exotic compact objects is believed to take hundreds of millions of years , hence gamma ray bursts produced this way would be expected to be located in old ( misleadingly called `` early type '' ) galaxies . In contrast , long-duration gamma ray bursts , which are believed to result from the collapse of a single massive star , are expected to be located preferentially in young galaxies .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "GRB_050509B", "rank": 79, "score": 102049 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Volcanic_winter", "rank": 80, "score": 101873 }, { "content": "Title: Explorer 7 Content: Explorer 7 was launched October 13 , 1959 at 10:36 a.m. Eastern Time by a Juno II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to an orbit of 573 km by 1073 km and inclination of 50.27 ° . It was designed to measure solar x-ray and Lyman-alpha flux , trapped energetic particles , and heavy primary cosmic rays . Also Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration and molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance . Launch was originally scheduled for late September 1959 , but the mission was delayed for a week after a Jupiter IRBM test on an adjacent pad failed shortly after liftoff , causing flying debris to hit Explorer 7 's launch vehicle . However , the damage to the booster was minor and could be easily repaired . Significantly , it also carried Verner Suomi 's flat-plate radiometer , improved with the help of Robert Parent , that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate . Using both satellite observations of the Earth 's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes , Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy . These observations established that Earth 's energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds , the surface albedo , and other absorbing constituents . Using these instruments , Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun 's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget . The satellite weighed 41.5 kg , was 75 cm high and 75 cm wide . Powered by solar cells it also carried 15 nickel-cadmium batteries around its equator . It transmitted data continuously through to February 1961 and went dead on August 24 , 1961 . It is still in orbit .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Explorer_7", "rank": 81, "score": 101424 }, { "content": "Title: Global Impact Content: Global Impact is a non-profit organization that works with international charities based in the United States and administers four of the largest Combined Federal Campaigns ( CFC ) , including the Combined Federal Campaign of the National Capital Area , and the Combined Federal Campaign-Overseas . The CFC is a program to raise money from federal employees for local , national , and international charities . Global Impact affiliated charities include CARE , Doctors Without Borders , Heifer International , Save the Children , the U.S. Fund for UNICEF and World Vision . In 2016 , Global Impact launched a counterpart organization in the United Kingdom -- Global Impact UK . In FY2016 Global Impact raised more than $ 42 million in total contributions , generating nearly $ 22 million in employee giving pledges for more than 100 charity alliance partners , and helping more than 45 corporate and nonprofit partners accomplish their philanthropic goals by providing advisory and backbone services .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Global_Impact", "rank": 82, "score": 101262 }, { "content": "Title: Starbuck Crater Content: Starbuck Crater is a small snow-filled crater at the base of the west slope of the Mount Bursey massif in Marie Byrd Land . Mapped by United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from ground surveys and U.S. Navy air photos , 1959-66 . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for James E. Starbuck of Bartol Research Foundation , who studied cosmic rays at the South Pole Station in 1970 . Category : Geography of Antarctica Category : Marie Byrd Land", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Starbuck_Crater", "rank": 83, "score": 100975 }, { "content": "Title: Erich Regener Content: Erich Rudolf Alexander Regener ( 12 November 1881 -- 27 February 1955 ) was a German physicist known primarily for the design and construction of instruments to measure cosmic ray intensity at various altitudes . He is also known for predicting a cosmic background radiation , for the invention of the scintillation counter which contributed to the discovery of the structure of the atom , for his calculation of the charge of an electron and for his early work on atmospheric ozone . He is also credited with the first use of rockets for scientific research . Regener was born in Schleusenau ( Wilczak ) near Bromberg ( Bydgoszcz ) , West Prussia . He studied physics from 1900 to 1905 at the University of Berlin under Emil Warburg and from 1909 worked with Heinrich Rubens . In 1911 he became professor of experimental physics and meteorology at the Agricultural University of Berlin . In 1920 he became the professor in experimental physics at the University of Stuttgart working alongside the theoretical physicist Paul Peter Ewald . During this time , he developed instruments to measure cosmic rays at various altitudes . Regener 's leadership in this field is not always fully recognised as he was persecuted during the Nazi era because his wife was of Jewish ancestry . It has been argued that the naming of terms such as Pfotzer maximum after his student Georg Pfotzer is misleading as Regener was the principal scientist for this work . Bruno Rossi wrote of this period that `` In the late 1920s and early 1930s the technique of self-recording electroscopes carried by balloons into the highest layers of the atmosphere or sunk to great depths under water was brought to an unprecedented degree of perfection by the German physicist Erich Regener and his group . To these scientists we owe some of the most accurate measurements ever made of cosmic-ray ionization as a function of altitude and depth . '' Ernest Rutherford stated in 1931 that `` thanks to the fine experiments of Professor Millikan and the even more far-reaching experiments of Professor Regener , we have now got for the first time , a curve of absorption of these radiations in water which we may safely rely upon . '' . In 1937 Regener was forced into `` provisional retirement '' by the National Socialists . He then founded the private `` Research Laboratory for the Physics of the Stratosphere '' in Friedrichshafen on Lake Constance , which later became a part of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society . In 1939 he was invited to work at the German Army-Air Force rocket research station in Peenemünde where he developed a spectrograph protected by a steel casing . This instrument , later called the Regener-Tonne was the first scientific payload for a rocket designed to reach high altitude . Regener overcame the problems of getting the parachute canopy to open at extreme high altitudes by inflating the parachute with compressed air . After a successful test flight the project was cancelled in September 1944 and the rockets were used as long-range missiles against Britain . The capsule disappeared after Peenemunde tests in 1944 but later resurfaced in the United States . In 1948 Regener was appointed the first vice president of the Max Planck Society . He was also cofounder of the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research with Walter Dieminger and was instrumental in attracting physicists back to post-war Germany . Regener was the father of Victor H. Regener and Erika Regener . Erika Regener later married one of Erich Regener 's students , Henri Daniel Rathgeber .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Erich_Regener", "rank": 84, "score": 100859 }, { "content": "Title: Natural refrigerant Content: Natural refrigerants are substances that are viable , environmentally sustainable , natural substitute refrigerants , used in refrigeration systems ( including refrigerators , HVAC , and air conditioning ) . They are alternatives to hydrofluorocarbon ( HFC ) , hydrochlorofluorocarbon ( HCFC ) and chlorofluorocarbon ( CFC ) based refrigerants . Unlike other refrigerants , they are not synthetic chemicals that are not ever found in nature . HFC , HCFC , CFC classes of chemicals are all potent greenhouse gases . HCFC and CFC classes of chemicals are damaging to the ozone layer , with CFCs being a primary culprit . Natural refrigerants , though they may exist in nature , are not in themselves harmless or nontoxic .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Natural_refrigerant", "rank": 85, "score": 100751 }, { "content": "Title: TopHat (telescope) Content: TopHat was a scientific experiment launched from McMurdo Station in January 2001 to measure the cosmic microwave background radiation produced 300,000 years after the Big Bang . The balloon was launched on January 2 , 2001 and proceeded to fly for 644 hours over the continent of Antarctica before landing on January 31 , 2001 . The balloon flew over the continent 38 kilometers ( 125,000 ft ) above the ground . The working payload was shut down on January 10 , 2001 after the liquid cryogens cooling the detectors were exhausted , and the balloon simply circled the continent until it was safe to land . The vorticial winds that typically carry balloons around the continent dissipated part of the way through the flight , and the balloon had to be terminated in a suboptimal location . The landing missed the targeted ice shelf by around one half mile , and while the discs containing the information were recovered safely using a Twin Otter , the gondola itself had not been recovered by August 2001 . The telescope was called part of the `` Submillimeter Astrophysics Experiment '' for Dr. Edward Cheng of NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center . It took roughly 6 years to build and deploy . It was built in association with NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center , the University of Chicago , the University of Wisconsin -- Madison and the Danish Space Research Institute . TopHat experiment was the first of its kind in that it placed the telescope on top of the actual balloon , where it rotated at a constant rate around a vertical axis and covered a 48-degree-diameter window of the sky . The placement allowed for the telescope to gain a unique view of the sky , with no obstructions . The balloon itself took up 29.5 million cubic feet ( 835,000 m3 ) of space . TopHat was built in part to follow up the observations of the BOOMERanG experiment which also studied the cosmic background radiation . TopHat was attempting to detect the clumpiness of matter , how much matter was in the universe , how the universe was expanding , and if it was indeed flat as had been observed by BOOMERANG . Around 300,000 years after the big bang , the temperature of the universe cooled enough so that hydrogen atoms formed and the photons of energy ( the radiation of energy from the explosion ) were able to escape and travel indefinitely . This oldest source of radiation has a temperature of 2.73 K and is uniform except for one part in 100,000 where the temperature is slightly different . The patchiness of matter indicates the earliest structures being formed in the universe and TopHat was designed to detect this patchiness on roughly degree scales .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "TopHat_(telescope)", "rank": 86, "score": 100747 }, { "content": "Title: Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling Content: The Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling ( CPOM ) is a centre for research into polar region processes which may affect : polar atmosphere and ocean circulation ; the Earth 's albedo ; and global sea levels . It is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council , a UK Research Council . CPOM comprises research groups from 3 Universities : University College London , University of Bristol , and University of Edinburgh . In 2006 , research carried out by CPOM resulted in the press report `` Secret rivers found in Antarctic '' . The survey used the European Space Agency 's ERS-2 satellite radar to measure a region in East Antarctica with some of the oldest , thickest ice on the continent . The survey revealed synchronous changes in ice surface height ( both rise and falls ) at locations hundreds of kilometres apart . According to CPOM Director , Duncan Wingham , the only conceivable mechanism for the observations was the movement of water .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Centre_for_Polar_Observation_&_Modelling", "rank": 87, "score": 100627 }, { "content": "Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "John_H._Mercer", "rank": 88, "score": 100371 }, { "content": "Title: 1,1,1-Trifluoroethane Content: 1,1,1-Trifluoroethane , or R-143a or simply trifluoroethane , is a hydrofluorocarbon compound that is a clear , colorless gas . It should not be confused with the much more commonly used gas R-134a or the isomeric compound 1,1,2-trifluoroethane . It has a critical temperature of 73 ° C. It is used as a refrigerant either by itself or more commonly as a component of blended mixtures . Unlike CFCs used as refrigerants , trifluoroethane has no chlorine atoms and is therefore not an ozone-depleting chemical , though its high chemical stability and infra-red absorbency make it a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential of 4300 , higher than many other commonly used HFC refrigerants . Trifluoroethane is also used as a propellant in canned air products used to clean electronic equipment .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "1,1,1-Trifluoroethane", "rank": 89, "score": 100143 }, { "content": "Title: Cryomyces antarcticus Content: Cryomyces antarcticus is a fungus of uncertain placement in the class Dothideomycetes , division Ascomycota . Found in Antarctica , it was described as new to science in 2005 . It has been found to be able to survive the harsh outer space environment and cosmic radiation .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Cryomyces_antarcticus", "rank": 90, "score": 99838 }, { "content": "Title: Neville Parsons Content: Neville Ronsley Parsons is a retired Australian physicist and Antarctic researcher . Parsons was born in Tasmania in 1926 , and educated at Scotch College , Launceston and the Universities of Tasmania and Melbourne . From 1949 Parsons spent fourteen years on the staff of the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions ( ANARE ) , spending 1950 at Macquarie Island and 1955 at Mawson Station in Antarctica as a cosmic ray and auroral physicist , establishing cosmic ray observatories in each case . He also spent the summers of 1961-62 and 1963-64 at Macquarie Island participating in joint programs with the University of California of high-altitude balloon studies of x-rays associated with auroral displays . During his time at Mawson Station in Antarctica he was a member of a five-man party led by John Béchervaise which , in early January 1956 , made the first ever visits to the Masson , David and Casey ranges south west of the station . Mount Parsons , a prominent peak in the David Range bears his name . It features on one of the Australia Post series of stamps , issued in 2013 , featuring Antarctic mountains . Neville Parsons was awarded the Polar Medal in 1956 . He was a founding member of the ANARE Club in 1951 . In 1964 he moved to the University of Calgary in Canada where he continued auroral research , becoming Professor of Physics and then Head of the Faculty of Science . He returned to Brisbane in 1978 and , in 1988 , retired from the position of Director of the Brisbane College of Advanced Education , resettling back in his native Tasmania . His first wife , Jean ( née McKechnie ) , died in 1983 . Their son Targ lives in Hong Kong and daughter Alessandra ( Sasha ) lives in Brisbane . He was remarried in 1986 to Jennifer ( née Clifford ) with whom he lives in Hobart , Tasmania .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Neville_Parsons", "rank": 91, "score": 99687 }, { "content": "Title: Forbush decrease Content: A Forbush decrease is a rapid decrease in the observed galactic cosmic ray intensity following a coronal mass ejection ( CME ) . It occurs due to the magnetic field of the plasma solar wind sweeping some of the galactic cosmic rays away from Earth . The term Forbush decrease was named after the American physicist Scott E. Forbush , who studied cosmic rays in the 1930s and 1940s .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Forbush_decrease", "rank": 92, "score": 99460 }, { "content": "Title: LOFT Content: The Large Observatory for X-ray Timing ( LOFT ) is a proposed ESA space mission originally slated to launch around 2022 , and now proposed to launch around 2025 . The mission will be devoted to the study of neutron stars , black holes and other compact objects by means of their very rapid X-ray variability . LOFT is supported by a large international collaboration , led by researchers spread over most of the European countries , including Italy , Switzerland , Germany , Denmark , United Kingdom , Greece , Ireland , the Netherlands , Poland , Czech Republic , Spain , and with contributions from Brazil , Canada , Israel , United States and Turkey . SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research acts as principal investigator . The mission was submitted to the ESA Cosmic Vision M3 call for proposals , and was selected , together with other three missions , for an initial Assessment Phase . On February 19 , 2014 , the PLATO mission was selected in favour of the other candidates in the programme , including LOFT . In spite of this , LOFT has been submitted to the Cosmic Vision M4 call for proposals for a planned launch date of 2025 , if selected .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "LOFT", "rank": 93, "score": 99448 }, { "content": "Title: Thompson Peaks Content: Thompson Peaks is a two peaks on the divide between upper Moody Glacier and Bingley Glacier in the Queen Alexandra Range . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for Douglas C. Thompson , United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) cosmic rays scientist at McMurdo Station , 1963 ; South Pole Station , 1965 . Category : Mountains of the Ross Dependency Category : Shackleton Coast", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Thompson_Peaks", "rank": 94, "score": 99441 }, { "content": "Title: GRB 101225A Content: GRB 101225A , also known as the `` Christmas burst '' , was a cosmic explosion first detected by NASA 's Swift observatory on Christmas Day 2010 . The gamma-ray emission lasted at least 28 minutes , which is unusually long . Follow-up observations of the burst 's afterglow by the Hubble Space Telescope and ground-based observatories were unable to determine the object 's distance using spectroscopic methods . In papers published in the journal Nature , two different groups of astronomers proposed different theories about the event 's origin . Sergio Campana 's group proposes that the event was caused by a comet crashing onto a neutron star within our own galaxy . Christina Thöne 's group prefers a more conventional supernova mechanism , involving a merger between a helium star and a neutron star at a distance of about 5.5 billion light years from Earth .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "GRB_101225A", "rank": 95, "score": 99139 }, { "content": "Title: Mount Humble Content: Mount Humble is , at 1,450 m , the highest mountain in the Raggatt Mountains of Antarctica . It was plotted from air photos taken by the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions in 1956 , and was named by the Antarctic Names Committee of Australia for John Edmund Humble , a cosmic ray physicist at Mawson Station in 1960 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Mount_Humble", "rank": 96, "score": 99071 }, { "content": "Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Carnian_Pluvial_Event", "rank": 97, "score": 98963 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 98, "score": 98947 }, { "content": "Title: Kerr/CFT correspondence Content: The Kerr/CFT correspondence is an extension of the AdS/CFT correspondence or gauge-gravity duality to rotating black holes ( which are described by the Kerr metric ) . The duality works for black holes whose near-horizon geometry can be expressed as a product of AdS3 and a single compact coordinate . The AdS/CFT duality then maps this to a two-dimensional conformal field theory ( the compact coordinate being analogous to the S5 factor in Maldacena 's original work ) , from which the correct Bekenstein entropy can then be deduced . The original form of the duality applies to black holes with the maximum value of angular momentum , but it has now been speculatively extended to all lesser values .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Kerr/CFT_correspondence", "rank": 99, "score": 98814 }, { "content": "Title: Fairchild Peak Content: Fairchild Peak is a conspicuous rock peak , 2,180 m high , standing 1.6 nmi south-southeast of Portal Rock , at the south side of the mouth of Tillite Glacier . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for William W. Fairchild , a United States Antarctic Research Program cosmic ray scientist at McMurdo Sound , 1961 .", "qid": "3056", "docid": "Fairchild_Peak", "rank": 100, "score": 98702 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 1, "score": 115082 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 2, "score": 112988 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 3, "score": 112904 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 4, "score": 111008 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 5, "score": 105930 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 6, "score": 105784 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 7, "score": 101100 }, { "content": "Title: Lowest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The lowest natural temperature ever directly recorded at ground level on Earth is − 89.2 C , which was at the Soviet Vostok Station in Antarctica by ground measurements . A 2009 study estimated that under exceptional climate conditions similar to those recorded at Vostin 1983 , temperatures higher on the plateau around Dome Argus could potentially drop lower than − 95 C. On August 10 , 2010 , satellite observations measured a surface temperature of − 93.2 C at 81.8 ° S 59.3 ° E , along a ridge between Dome Argus and Dome Fuji , at 3,900 m elevation . The result was reported at the 46th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco , in December 2013 ; it is a provisional figure , and may be subject to revision . The value may not be listed as the record coldest temperature as it was measured by remote sensing satellites and not by ground-based thermometers , unlike the 1983 record . The temperature announced reflects that of the ice surface , while the Vostok readings measured the air above the ice , and so the two are not directly comparable . However , it is most likely that the real temperature on the site was lower than that recorded at Vostok .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Lowest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth", "rank": 8, "score": 97820 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 9, "score": 96469 }, { "content": "Title: Sea surface temperature Content: Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Sea_surface_temperature", "rank": 10, "score": 96162 }, { "content": "Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Impact_winter", "rank": 11, "score": 95322 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_temperature_record", "rank": 12, "score": 95117 }, { "content": "Title: Planetary equilibrium temperature Content: The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Planetary_equilibrium_temperature", "rank": 13, "score": 94884 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Turkey", "rank": 14, "score": 94691 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 15, "score": 94586 }, { "content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_dimming", "rank": 16, "score": 93320 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 17, "score": 93178 }, { "content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event", "rank": 18, "score": 92960 }, { "content": "Title: Ghrsst-pp Content: The Group for High Resolution SST ( GHRSST ) is a follow on activity form the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment ( GODAE ) high-resolution sea surface temperature pilot project ( GHRSST-PP ) provides a new generation of global high-resolution ( < 10 km ) SST data products to the operational oceanographic , meteorological , climate and general scientific community , in real time and delayed mode . See GHRSST for full details . Sea surface temperature ( SST ) measured from Earth Observation Satellites in considerable spatial detail and at high frequency , is increasingly required for use in the context of operational monitoring and forecasting of the ocean , for assimilation into coupled ocean-atmosphere model systems and for applications in short-term numerical weather prediction and longer term climate change detection . Currently there are many different SST data sets available derived from satellite systems . But , scientists and operational agencies alike are presented with a bewidering set of options in terms of SST product content , coverage , spatial resolution , timeliness , format and accuracy . The international GODAE steering committee realised that SST data products were not adequate for GODAE forecast systems and initiated the GODAE High Resolution SST Pilot Project ( GHRSST-PP ) . User Requirements were collected together to define the optimal SST data products that could be developed to suit the widest possible number of applications . In 2008 the GHRSST-PP Science Team agreed to close the Pilot Project as the GODAE project was completed . A follow on activity called the Group for High Resolution SST is now continuing the coordination of GHRSST activities .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Ghrsst-pp", "rank": 19, "score": 91642 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Cloud_feedback", "rank": 20, "score": 90025 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Hypercane", "rank": 21, "score": 89841 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 22, "score": 89685 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 23, "score": 89128 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)", "rank": 24, "score": 88943 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 25, "score": 88876 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on oceans Content: Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans", "rank": 26, "score": 88846 }, { "content": "Title: Global stilling Content: Global stilling is the decrease of wind speed observed near the Earth ´ s surface ( ~ 10-meter height ) over the last three decades ( mainly since the 1980s ) , originally termed `` stilling '' . This slowdown of surface winds has mainly affected mid-latitude regions of both hemispheres , with a global average reduction of -0.140 m s-1 dec-1 ( meters per second per decade ) or between 5 and 15 % over the past 50-years . The weakening of winds has mainly occurred over continental surfaces , whereas winds has tended to strengthen over ocean regions . In the last few years , a break in this decrease of wind speed has been detected with a recovery at global scales since 2013 . The exact causes of the global stilling are uncertain and has been mainly attributed to two major drivers : ( i ) changes in large scale atmospheric circulation , and ( ii ) an increase of surface roughness due to e.g. forest growth , land use changes , and urbanization . Under a global warming scenario , changes in wind speed are currently a potential concern for the society , due to their impacts on a wide array of spheres , such as wind power generation , ecohydrological implications for agriculture and hydrology , wind-related hazards and catastrophes , or air quality and human health , among many others .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_stilling", "rank": 27, "score": 88565 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 28, "score": 87822 }, { "content": "Title: AATSR Content: The Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer ( AATSR ) is one of the Announcement of Opportunity ( AO ) instruments on board the European Space Agency ( ESA ) 's Envisat satellite . This instrument is a multi-channel imaging radiometer with the principal objective of providing data concerning global Sea Surface Temperature ( SST ) to the high levels of accuracy and stability required for monitoring and carrying out research into the behaviour of the Earth 's climate . AATSR can measure Earth 's surface temperature to a precision of 0.3 K-change , for climate research . Among the secondary objectives of AATSR is the observation of environmental parameters such as aerosols , clouds , fires , gas flares , water content , biomass , and vegetal health and growth . AATSR is the successor of ATSR-1 and ATSR-2 , payloads of ERS-1 and ERS-2 .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "AATSR", "rank": 29, "score": 87664 }, { "content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Deglaciation", "rank": 30, "score": 87460 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 31, "score": 86729 }, { "content": "Title: Global Drifter Program Content: The Global Drifter Program ( GDP ) ( formerly known as the Surface Velocity Program ( SVP ) ) , was conceived by Prof. Peter Niiler , with the objective of collecting measurements of surface ocean currents , sea surface temperature and sea-level atmospheric pressure using drifters . It is the principal component of the Global Surface Drifting Buoy Array , a branch of NOAA 's Global Ocean Observing System ( GOOS ) and a scientific project of the Data Buoy Cooperation Panel ( DBCP ) . The project originated in February 1979 as part of the TOGA/Equatorial Pacific Ocean Circulation Experiment ( EPOCS ) and the first large-scale deployment of drifters was in 1988 with the goal of mapping the tropical Pacific Ocean 's surface circulation . The current goal of the project is to use 1250 satellite-tracked surface drifting buoys to make accurate and globally dense in-situ observations of mixed layer currents , sea surface temperature , atmospheric pressure , winds and salinity , and to create a system to process the data . Horizontal transports in the oceanic mixed layer measured by the GDP are relevant to biological and chemical processes as well as physical ones .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_Drifter_Program", "rank": 32, "score": 86511 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 33, "score": 85676 }, { "content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm", "rank": 34, "score": 84610 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 35, "score": 84085 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 36, "score": 84041 }, { "content": "Title: UAH satellite temperature dataset Content: The UAH satellite temperature dataset , developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from satellite measurements of radiance . It was the first global temperature datasets developed from satellite information and has been used as a tool for research into surface and atmospheric temperature changes . The dataset is published by John Christy et al. and formerly jointly with Roy Spencer .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "UAH_satellite_temperature_dataset", "rank": 37, "score": 84016 }, { "content": "Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Instrumental_temperature_record", "rank": 38, "score": 83450 }, { "content": "Title: Dropsonde Content: A dropsonde is an expendable weather reconnaissance device created by the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) , designed to be dropped from an aircraft at altitude to more accurately measure ( and therefore track ) tropical storm conditions as the device falls to the surface . The sonde contains a GPS receiver , along with pressure , temperature , and humidity ( PTH ) sensors to capture atmospheric profiles and thermodynamic data . It typically relays these data to a computer in the aircraft by radio transmission . The device 's descent is slowed and stabilized by a small square-cone parachute , allowing for multiple readings to be taken before it reaches the ocean surface . The sonde is a lightweight system designed to be operated by one person and is launched through a chute installed in the measuring aircraft , with immediate deployment of the parachute to reduce or eliminate any pendulum effect , and typically drops from three to five minutes . The sonde has a casing of stiff cardboard . During a typical hurricane season , the 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron Hurricane Hunters deploys 1000 to 1500 sondes on training and storm missions .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Dropsonde", "rank": 39, "score": 83265 }, { "content": "Title: Baseline Surface Radiation Network Content: Baseline Surface Radiation Network ( BSRN ) is a project of the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) and the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) and as such is aimed detecting important changes in the Earth 's radiation field at the Earth 's surface which may be related to climate changes . The central archive of the BSRN is the World Radiation Monitoring Center ( WRMC ) which was initiated by Atsumu Ohmura in 1992 and operated at ETH until 2007 . Since 2008 the WRMC is operated by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research ( AWI ) , Germany .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Baseline_Surface_Radiation_Network", "rank": 40, "score": 83242 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Antarctica", "rank": 41, "score": 83112 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 42, "score": 83106 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 43, "score": 82887 }, { "content": "Title: Kerry Emanuel Content: Kerry Andrew Emanuel ( born April 21 , 1955 ) is an American professor of meteorology currently working at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge . In particular he has specialized in atmospheric convection and the mechanisms acting to intensify hurricanes . He was named one of the Time 100 influential people of 2006 . In 2007 , he was elected as a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences . He hypothesized in 1994 about a superpowerful type of hurricane which could be formed if average sea surface temperature increased another 15C more than it 's ever been ( see `` hypercane '' ) . In a March 2008 paper published in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society , he put forward the conclusion that global warming is likely to increase the intensity but decrease the frequency of hurricane and cyclone activity . Gabriel Vecchi , of NOAA said of Emanuel 's announcement , `` While his results do n't rule out the possibility that global warming has contributed to the recent increase in activity in the Atlantic , they suggest that other factors -- possibly in addition to global warming -- are likely to have been substantial contributors to the observed increase in activity . '' In 2013 , with other leading experts , he was co-author of an open letter to policy makers , which stated that `` continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity 's ability to avoid dangerous climate change . ''", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Kerry_Emanuel", "rank": 44, "score": 82842 }, { "content": "Title: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean Content: The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean ( SHEBA ) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean , where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time . The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models , which scientists use to study global climate change .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Surface_Heat_Budget_of_the_Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 45, "score": 82415 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe", "rank": 46, "score": 82355 }, { "content": "Title: Rewarming shock Content: Rewarming Shock ( also known as rewarming collapse ) has been described as a drop in blood pressure following the warming of a person who is very cold . The real cause of this rewarming shock is unknown . There was a theoretical concern that external rewarming rather than internal rewarming may increase the risk . These concerns were partly believed to be due to afterdrop , a situation detected during laboratory experiments where there is a continued decrease in core temperature after rewarming has been started . Recent studies have not supported these concerns , and problems are not found with active external rewarming .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Rewarming_shock", "rank": 47, "score": 81989 }, { "content": "Title: Cold drop Content: The cold drop ( gota fría ) is a weather phenomenon often occurring in the Spanish autumn . It is experienced particularly along the western Mediterranean and as such , most frequently affects the east coast of Spain . It is a closed upper-level low which has become completely displaced ( cut off ) from basic westerly current , and moves independently of that current . Cutoff lows may remain nearly stationary for days , or on occasion may move westward opposite to the prevailing flow aloft ( i.e. , retrogression ) . The term is also used to describe the meteorological phenomenon associated . In Spain , it appears when a front of very cold polar air , a jet stream , advances slowly over Western Europe , at high altitude ( normally 5 -- 9 km or 3 -- 5.5 mi ) .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Cold_drop", "rank": 48, "score": 81875 }, { "content": "Title: Ultrahydrophobicity Content: Ultrahydrophobic ( or superhydrophobic ) surfaces are highly hydrophobic , i.e. , extremely difficult to wet . The contact angles of a water droplet exceed 150 ° . This is also referred to as the lotus effect , after the superhydrophobic leaves of the lotus plant . A droplet impacting on these kind of surfaces can fully rebound like an elastic ball , or pancake .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Ultrahydrophobicity", "rank": 49, "score": 81854 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.", "qid": "3058", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves", "rank": 50, "score": 81667 }, { "content": "Title: TEMP (meteorology) Content: TEMP ( upper air soundings ) is a set of World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) alphanumerical codes used for reporting weather observations of the upper regions of the atmosphere made by weather balloons released from the surface level ( either at land or at sea ) . The WMO designates the FM-35 numerical code for surface TEMPs and the FM-36 numerical code for ship-based TEMPs . Category : Earth sciences data formats", "qid": "3058", "docid": "TEMP_(meteorology)", "rank": 51, "score": 81620 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal runaway Content: Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature , often leading to a destructive result . It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback . In other words , `` thermal runaway '' describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature , in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature . In chemistry ( and chemical engineering ) , it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise . In electrical engineering , thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation , although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too . Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering , notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled -LCB- Citation needed -RCB- . In astrophysics , runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions , and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars , the `` helium flash '' . There are also concerns regarding global warming that a global average increase of 3 -- 4 degrees Celsius above the preindustrial baseline could lead to a further unchecked increase in surface temperatures . For example , releases of methane , a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2 , from wetlands , melting permafrost and continental margin seabed clathrate deposits could be subject to positive feedback .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Thermal_runaway", "rank": 52, "score": 81620 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 53, "score": 81357 }, { "content": "Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Climate_oscillation", "rank": 54, "score": 81170 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming taxes Content:", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_warming_taxes", "rank": 55, "score": 80882 }, { "content": "Title: Ostwald–Freundlich equation Content: The Ostwald -- Freundlich equation governs boundaries between two phases ; specifically , it relates the surface tension of the boundary to its curvature , the ambient temperature , and the vapor pressure or chemical potential in the two phases . The Ostwald -- Freundlich equation for a droplet or particle with radius is : : Atomic volume : Boltzmann constant : Surface tension ( J m − 2 ) : Equilibrium partial pressure ( or chemical potential or concentration ) : Partial pressure ( or chemical potential or concentration ) : Absolute temperature One consequence of this relation is that small liquid droplets ( i.e. , particles with a high surface curvature ) exhibit a higher effective vapor pressure , since the surface is larger in comparison to the volume . Another notable example of this relation is Ostwald ripening , in which surface tension causes small precipitates to dissolve and larger ones to grow . Ostwald ripening is thought to occur in the formation of orthoclase megacrysts in granites as a consequence of subsolidus growth . See rock microstructure for more .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Ostwald–Freundlich_equation", "rank": 56, "score": 80880 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect", "rank": 57, "score": 80304 }, { "content": "Title: Dropwise condensation Content: In dropwise condensation the condensate liquid collects in the form of countless droplets of varying diameters on the condensing surface instead of forming a continuous film and does not wet the solid cooling surface . The droplets develop at a point of surface imperfection ( pit , scratch ) , called nucleation sites and grow in size as more vapour condenses on its exposed surface . When the size of droplets is large there comes a time the droplet breakaway from the surface and knock off other droplets and carries it downstream . The moving droplet devours the droplets of smaller size . Dropwise condensation is one of the most effective mechanism of heat transfer and extremely large heat transfer coefficients can be achieved with this mechanism . There is no liquid film in this case to resist heat transfer as a result heat transfer coefficients can be achieved more than 10 times larger than those associated with film condensation . Heat transfer coefficients is large so designers to achieve a specified heat transfer rate with a smaller surface area and thus a smaller and less expensive condenser . Dropwise condensation is achieved by adding a promoter chemical into the vapor , highly polished surface and surface contaminated with impurities like fatty acids and organic compounds , known as dropwise promoters . Dropwise condensation is provoked artificially with the help of silicons , teflons , assortment of waxes and fatty acids . These promoters are used to promote dropwise condensation but promoters are highly unstable and lose their effectiveness with time due to oxidation , fouling and removal of the promoter from the surface . Dropwise condensation sustain for a long time by the combined effects of surface coating and periodic injection of the promoter into the vapor neither it does not continue long time and converts to filmwise condensation . So most condensers are designed on the assumption that film condensation will take place on the surface . The total amount of heat transfer through a single droplet is a function of it 's radius and the size distribution over the condensation surface . The important factors which are involved in the mechanism of heat transfer through a single droplets are : Thermal conduction through a single droplet Thermal conduction in the substrate material Interphase matter transfer at the vapour liquid interface Curvature of vapour liquid interface", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Dropwise_condensation", "rank": 58, "score": 79723 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 59, "score": 79678 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves", "rank": 60, "score": 79676 }, { "content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Iris_hypothesis", "rank": 61, "score": 79673 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 62, "score": 79610 }, { "content": "Title: Hurricane Katrina and global warming Content: The tremendous destruction caused by recent Atlantic Ocean tropical cyclones , such as Hurricanes Katrina , Wilma , and Sandy caused a substantial upsurge in interest in the subject of global warming by news media and the wider public , and concerns that global climatic change may have played a significant role in those events . Time Magazine , for example , published an article titled , `` Is Global Warming Fueling Katrina ? '' -- however , the article itself addressed hurricanes in general , rather than Katrina specifically , and was inconclusive . Shortly after the hurricane , former Boston Globe reporter Ross Gelbspan wrote an op-ed piece for the Globe titled , `` Katrina 's Real Name '' , declaring that the hurricane 's `` real name is global warming . '' Gelbspan went on to assert : `` Although Katrina began as a relatively small hurricane that glanced off south Florida , it was supercharged with extraordinary intensity by the relatively blistering sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico . '' Gelbspan did not single out Katrina from other recent storms in that regard ; in the article he went on to attribute other major weather events over the preceding year to global warming , including a blizzard in Los Angeles , high winds in Scandinavia , wildfires in Spain , and a drought centered in Missouri . Britain 's then deputy prime minister , John Prescott , has linked Katrina with global warming , and statements made shortly after the hurricane by Germany 's environment minister , Jürgen Trittin , indicate he believes that global warming is responsible for an increase in the frequency of destructive natural events . Kerry Emanuel had recently published a paper in the journal Nature that found a good correlation between hurricane intensity and sea surface temperatures . Some journalists have claimed Emanuel 's paper concludes that the recent increase in intense Atlantic storms is due to global warming , but Emanuel stated that `` it would be absurd to attribute the Katrina disaster to global warming '' . The Internet blog RealClimate has written that `` there is no way to prove that Katrina either was , or was not , affected by global warming '' .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Hurricane_Katrina_and_global_warming", "rank": 63, "score": 79570 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on South Asia Content:", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_South_Asia", "rank": 64, "score": 79396 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 65, "score": 79394 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 66, "score": 79267 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes", "rank": 67, "score": 79052 }, { "content": "Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Drawdown_(climate)", "rank": 68, "score": 79032 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 69, "score": 78844 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 70, "score": 78726 }, { "content": "Title: Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program Content: The Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program ( GTSPP ) is a cooperative international project that seeks to develop and maintain a global ocean Temperature-Salinity resource with up-to-date and high quality data .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_Temperature-Salinity_Profile_Program", "rank": 71, "score": 78508 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Global_cooling_(disambiguation)", "rank": 72, "score": 78471 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 73, "score": 78420 }, { "content": "Title: Leidenfrost effect Content: thumb | Leidenfrost droplet thumb | Demonstration of the Leidenfrost effect The Leidenfrost effect is a physical phenomenon in which a liquid , in near contact with a mass significantly hotter than the liquid 's boiling point , produces an insulating vapor layer keeping that liquid from boiling rapidly . Due to this ` repulsive force ' , a droplet hovers over the surface rather than making physical contact with it . This is most commonly seen when cooking : one sprinkles drops of water in a pan to gauge its temperature : if the pan 's temperature is at or above the Leidenfrost point , the water skitters across the pan and takes longer to evaporate than in a pan below the temperature of the Leidenfrost point ( but still above boiling temperature ) . The effect is also responsible for the ability of liquid nitrogen to skitter across floors . It has also been used in some potentially dangerous demonstrations , such as dipping a wet finger in molten lead or blowing out a mouthful of liquid nitrogen , both enacted without injury to the demonstrator . The latter is potentially lethal , particularly should one accidentally swallow the liquid nitrogen . It is named after Johann Gottlob Leidenfrost , who discussed it in A Tract About Some Qualities of Common Water in 1756 .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Leidenfrost_effect", "rank": 74, "score": 78237 }, { "content": "Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system", "rank": 75, "score": 78227 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "rank": 76, "score": 78153 }, { "content": "Title: Cretaceous Thermal Maximum Content: Cretaceous Thermal Maximum , also known as Cretaceous Thermal Optimum , was a period early in the Late Cretaceous notable for its dramatic increase in global temperatures .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Cretaceous_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 77, "score": 78144 }, { "content": "Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Glacier_mass_balance", "rank": 78, "score": 78143 }, { "content": "Title: 2013 World Championships in Athletics – Men's 10,000 metres Content: The men 's 10,000 metres at the 2013 World Championships in Athletics were held at the Luzhniki Stadium on 10 August . With the temperature at the start of the race over 27º the competitors were taking heat precautions . Olympic Champion Mo Farah dropped to last place in the early stages , later there occasions when he would go to the front of the pack , though he made no effort to quicken the pace from the lead . With the lead pack down to about 10 , with a kilometer to go , American Dathan Ritzenhein charged around the pack and into the lead . That woke up the rest of the contenders , quickly swallowing up Ritzenhein 's effort . After some jockeying by a host of contenders , Farah seized the lead just before the last lap . Down the backstretch , the remaining contenders , Ibrahim Jeilan , Paul Tanui and Galen Rupp sprinted to keep up with Farah and rounding the final turn , defending champion Jeilan seemed to be moving into position to repeat his sprint past Farah to the finish . But unlike 2011 , Farah had an extra gear to hold off Jeilan , crossing the line holding his hands high , before doing his post race `` Mobot '' dance . The 27:21.71 sets a new Russian all comers record .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "2013_World_Championships_in_Athletics_–_Men's_10,000_metres", "rank": 79, "score": 78112 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 80, "score": 78074 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska", "rank": 81, "score": 78072 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric temperature Content: Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth 's atmosphere . It is governed by many factors , including incoming solar radiation , humidity and altitude . When discussing surface temperature , the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome , as measured by the Köppen climate classification .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Atmospheric_temperature", "rank": 82, "score": 78008 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina", "rank": 83, "score": 77973 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 84, "score": 77965 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic impacts on the oceans Content: Explosive volcanic eruptions affect the global climate mainly through injecting sulfur bearing gases into the stratosphere , which oxidize to form sulfate aerosols . Stratospheric sulfur aerosols spread around the globe by the atmospheric circulation , producing surface cooling by scattering solar radiation back to space . This cooling effect on the ocean surface usually lasts for several years as the lifetime of sulfate aerosols is about 2 -- 3 years . However , in the subsurface ocean the cooling signal may persist for a longer time and may have impacts on some decadal variabilities , such as the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation ( AMOC ) .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Volcanic_impacts_on_the_oceans", "rank": 85, "score": 77892 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 86, "score": 77709 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 87, "score": 77221 }, { "content": "Title: Surface weather observation Content: Surface weather observations are the fundamental data used for safety as well as climatological reasons to forecast weather and issue warnings worldwide . They can be taken manually , by a weather observer , by computer through the use of automated weather stations , or in a hybrid scheme using weather observers to augment the otherwise automated weather station . The ICAO defines the International Standard Atmosphere ( ISA ) , which is the model of the standard variation of pressure , temperature , density , and viscosity with altitude in the Earth 's atmosphere , and is used to reduce a station pressure to sea level pressure . Airport observations can be transmitted worldwide through the use of the METAR observing code . Personal weather stations taking automated observations can transmit their data to the United States mesonet through the Citizen Weather Observer Program ( CWOP ) , the UK Met Office through their Weather Observations Website ( WOW ) , or internationally through the Weather Underground Internet site . A thirty-year average of a location 's weather observations is traditionally used to determine the station 's climate .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Surface_weather_observation", "rank": 88, "score": 77134 }, { "content": "Title: Land surface effects on climate Content: Land surface effects on climate are wide-ranging and vary by region . Deforestation and exploitation of natural landscapes play a significant role . Some of these environmental changes are similar to those caused by the effects of global warming .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Land_surface_effects_on_climate", "rank": 89, "score": 76824 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 90, "score": 76693 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Volcanic_winter", "rank": 91, "score": 76610 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka", "rank": 92, "score": 76464 }, { "content": "Title: 4O Content: 4O or 4-O may refer to : 4 ° ( also 4o ) , an abbreviation for Quarto 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , discussing issues involving a 4 ° C rise in average global surface temperature 4o Sector , see Quaternary sector of the economy 4O , IATA code for Interjet 4º , abbreviation for fourth 4º Supermag Rally Italia Sardinia , see 2007 Rally d'Italia Sardegna", "qid": "3058", "docid": "4O", "rank": 93, "score": 76415 }, { "content": "Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Solar_gain", "rank": 94, "score": 76327 }, { "content": "Title: Intermediate General Circulation Model Content: The Reading Intermediate General Circulation Model ( IGCM ) , is a simplified or `` intermediate '' Global climate model , which is developed by members of the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading , and by members of the Stratospheric Dynamics and Chemistry Group of the Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences at McGill University . The IGCM is based on the primitive-equations baroclinic model of Hoskins and Simmons , which has been converted to run on workstations . Several variations have been developed by adjusting representations of the physics . IGCM1 : Portable version of the original spectral , dry baroclinic model formulated in sigma-levels , with an option for Newtonian relaxation and Rayleigh friction , with no surface . IGCM2 : Includes simplified moist parameterisations , a cheap `` radiation scheme '' ( i.e. constant tropospheric cooling ) , a bulk formulation scheme for the boundary layer , fixed surface temperatures and humidity , uniform vertical diffusion , and can advect tracers . IGCM3x : Intermediate climate model that includes more sophisticated moisture/clouds parameterisations , a radiation scheme with various gas absorbers and a more realistic surface with an orography and land and sea surface schemes . The adiabatic version , IGCM1 , is freely available . Access to IGCM2 and IGCM3 is restricted to members of the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading and collaborating researchers .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Intermediate_General_Circulation_Model", "rank": 95, "score": 76239 }, { "content": "Title: Highest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The standard measuring conditions for temperature are in the air , 1.5 meters above the ground , and shielded from direct sunlight . The highest confirmed temperature on Earth recorded according to these measures was 56.7 C in Furnace Creek Ranch , California , located in the Death Valley desert in the United States , on July 10 , 1913 . The former highest official temperature on Earth , held for 90 years by ` Aziziya , Libya , was de-certified by the WMO ( World Meteorological Organization ) in January 2012 as the record for the world 's highest surface temperature ( this temperature of 57.8 ° C ( 136 ° F ) , registered on 13 September 1922 , is currently considered to have been a recorder 's error ) . Christopher C. Burt , the weather historian writing for Weather Underground who shepherded the Libya reading 's 2012 disqualification , believes that the 1913 Death Valley reading is `` a myth '' , and is at least four or five degrees Fahrenheit too high , as do other weather historians Dr. Arnold Court and William Taylor Reid . Burt proposes that the highest reliably recorded temperature on Earth is still at Death Valley , but is instead 53.9 C recorded five times : 20 July 1960 , 18 July 1998 , 20 July 2005 , 7 July 2007 , and 30 June 2013 . Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 ° C . A ground temperature of 84 ° C ( 183.2 ° F ) has been recorded in Port Sudan , Sudan . A ground temperature of 93.9 ° C ( 201 ° F ) was recorded also in Furnace Creek Ranch on 15 July 1972 ; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded . The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 ° C for dry , darkish soils of low thermal conductivity . Temperature measurements via satellite also tend to capture occurrence of higher records but are considered less reliable than ground-positioned thermometers . There is a satellite record of 66.8 C measured in the Flaming Mountains of China in 2008 . Other satellite measurements of ground temperature taken between 2003 and 2009 , taken with the MODIS infrared spectroradiometer on the Aqua satellite , found a maximum temperature of 70.7 ° C ( 159.3 ° F ) , which was recorded in 2005 in the Lut Desert , Iran . The Lut Desert was also found to have the highest maximum temperature in 5 of the 7 years measured ( 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 and 2009 ) . These measurements reflect averages over a large region and so are lower than the maximum point surface temperature .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Highest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth", "rank": 96, "score": 76155 }, { "content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming", "rank": 97, "score": 76051 }, { "content": "Title: Monthly Climatic Data for the World Content: Monthly Climatic Data for the World ( MCDW ) is a monthly publication of the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) division of the National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the United States . According to the website , each monthly issue `` contains monthly mean temperature , pressure , precipitation , vapor pressure , and sunshine for approximately 2,000 surface data collection stations worldwide and monthly mean upper air temperatures , dew point depressions , and wind velocities for approximately 500 observing sites . This is the final quality controlled copy and generally has a 4 - 6 month time lag . '' The issues are available for download in portable document format .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Monthly_Climatic_Data_for_the_World", "rank": 98, "score": 76039 }, { "content": "Title: Seasonal Attribution Project Content: The Seasonal Attribution Project is a Climateprediction.net sub-project , with support from the WWF . It runs a high resolution model in order to try to determine the extent to which extreme weather events are attributable to human-induced global warming . The project did cease giving out more work , however there has been a project extension to try a fourth sea surface temperature pattern . Current work will still be accepted and used for collaborations and possibly revisions of papers during the review process . A further extension will start soon .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Seasonal_Attribution_Project", "rank": 99, "score": 75847 }, { "content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .", "qid": "3058", "docid": "Reasons_for_concern", "rank": 100, "score": 75831 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Content: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions", "rank": 1, "score": 145816 }, { "content": "Title: Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride Content: Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride , CF3SF5 , is a rare industrial greenhouse gas , first published in 2000 by a group of researchers from Germany , the United Kingdom and the United States . Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride is considered to be one of the several super greenhouse gases . On a per molecule basis , it is considered to be the most potent greenhouse gas present in Earth 's atmosphere . However , the current concentration of Trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride remains at a level that is unlikely to measurably contribute to earth 's warming . The source of the gas is attributed to anthropogenic sources , possibly a by-product of the manufacture of fluorochemicals , originating from reactions of SF6 with fluoropolymers used in electronic devices and in microchips , or the formation can be associated with high voltage equipment created from SF6 ( a breakdown product of high voltage equipment ) reacting with CF3 to form the CF3SF5 molecule .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Trifluoromethyl_sulphur_pentafluoride", "rank": 2, "score": 139249 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 3, "score": 129827 }, { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 4, "score": 128564 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 5, "score": 128327 }, { "content": "Title: Chlorofluorocarbon Content: A chlorofluorocarbon ( CFC ) is an organic compound that contains only carbon , chlorine , and fluorine , produced as volatile derivative of methane , ethane , and propane . They are also commonly known by the DuPont brand name Freon . The most common representative is dichlorodifluoromethane ( R-12 or Freon-12 ) . Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants , propellants ( in aerosol applications ) , and solvents . Because CFCs contribute to ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere , the manufacture of such compounds has been phased out under the Montreal Protocol , and they are being replaced with other products such as hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) ( e.g. , R-410A ) and R-134a .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Chlorofluorocarbon", "rank": 6, "score": 127406 }, { "content": "Title: Natural refrigerant Content: Natural refrigerants are substances that are viable , environmentally sustainable , natural substitute refrigerants , used in refrigeration systems ( including refrigerators , HVAC , and air conditioning ) . They are alternatives to hydrofluorocarbon ( HFC ) , hydrochlorofluorocarbon ( HCFC ) and chlorofluorocarbon ( CFC ) based refrigerants . Unlike other refrigerants , they are not synthetic chemicals that are not ever found in nature . HFC , HCFC , CFC classes of chemicals are all potent greenhouse gases . HCFC and CFC classes of chemicals are damaging to the ozone layer , with CFCs being a primary culprit . Natural refrigerants , though they may exist in nature , are not in themselves harmless or nontoxic .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Natural_refrigerant", "rank": 7, "score": 127050 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 8, "score": 126717 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone depletion Content: Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s : a steady decline of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth 's stratosphere ( the ozone layer ) , and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth 's polar regions . The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole . In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena , there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events . The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning but the most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens . The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photodissociation of man-made halocarbon refrigerants , solvents , propellants , and foam-blowing agents ( chlorofluorocarbon ( CFCs ) , HCFCs , freons , halons ) . These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by winds after being emitted at the surface . Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons increased . CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances ( ODS ) . Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths ( 280 -- 315 nm ) of ultraviolet light ( UV light ) from passing through the Earth 's atmosphere , observed and projected decreases in ozone generated worldwide concern , leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs , halons , and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane . It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in sunburn , skin cancer , cataracts , damage to plants , and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean 's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Ozone_depletion", "rank": 9, "score": 125690 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 10, "score": 125569 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 11, "score": 123129 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 12, "score": 121342 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 13, "score": 119771 }, { "content": "Title: Fluorinated gases Content: Fluorinated gases ( F-gases ) are man-made gases that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries and contribute to a global greenhouse effect . There are four types : hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) and nitrogen trifluoride ( NF3 ) .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Fluorinated_gases", "rank": 14, "score": 118796 }, { "content": "Title: 2,2-Dichloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane Content: 2,2-Dichloro-1 ,1,1 - trifluoroethane or HCFC-123 is considered as an alternative to CFC-11 in low pressure refrigeration/HVAC systems , and should not be used in foam blowing processes or solvent applications . Its ozone depletion potential is ODP = 0.012 , and global warming potential is GWP = 76 . HCFC-123 will eventually be phased out under the current schedule of the Montreal Protocol , but can continue to be used in new HVAC equipment until 2020 in developed countries , and will still be produced for service use of HVAC equipment until 2030 . Developing countries can use in new equipment until 2030 , and can be produced for use in service until 2040 . HCFC-123 is used in large tonnage centrifugal chiller applications , and is the most efficient refrigerant currently in use in the marketplace for HVAC applications . HCFC-123 is also used as a testing agent for bypass leakage of carbon adsorbers in gas filtration systems , and as the primary chemical in Halotron I fire-extinguishing agent . Storage tanks carrying HCFC-123 should be a light grey . Isomers are 1,2-dichloro-1 ,1,2 - trifluoroethane ( R-123a ) with CAS 354-23-4 and 1,1-dichloro-1 ,2,2 - trifluoroethane ( R-123b ) with CAS 812-04-4 .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "2,2-Dichloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane", "rank": 15, "score": 118397 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite", "rank": 16, "score": 117099 }, { "content": "Title: 1,1,1-Trifluoroethane Content: 1,1,1-Trifluoroethane , or R-143a or simply trifluoroethane , is a hydrofluorocarbon compound that is a clear , colorless gas . It should not be confused with the much more commonly used gas R-134a or the isomeric compound 1,1,2-trifluoroethane . It has a critical temperature of 73 ° C. It is used as a refrigerant either by itself or more commonly as a component of blended mixtures . Unlike CFCs used as refrigerants , trifluoroethane has no chlorine atoms and is therefore not an ozone-depleting chemical , though its high chemical stability and infra-red absorbency make it a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential of 4300 , higher than many other commonly used HFC refrigerants . Trifluoroethane is also used as a propellant in canned air products used to clean electronic equipment .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "1,1,1-Trifluoroethane", "rank": 17, "score": 116901 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrofluorocarbon Content: Hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , organic compounds that contain fluorine and hydrogen atoms , are the most common type of organofluorine compounds . They are commonly used in air conditioning and as refrigerants in place of the older chlorofluorocarbons such as R-12 and hydrochlorofluorocarbons such as R-21 . They do not harm the ozone layer as much as the compounds they replace ; however , they do contribute to global warming . Their atmospheric concentrations and contribution to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are rapidly increasing , causing international concern about their radiative forcing . Fluorocarbons with few C -- F bonds behave similarly to the parent hydrocarbons , but their reactivity can be altered significantly . For example , both uracil and 5-fluorouracil are colourless , high-melting crystalline solids , but the latter is a potent anti-cancer drug . The use of the C-F bond in pharmaceuticals is predicated on this altered reactivity . Several drugs and agrochemicals contain only one fluorine center or one trifluoromethyl group . Unlike other greenhouse gases in the Paris Agreement , hydrofluorocarbons have other international negotiations . In September 2016 , the so-called New York Declaration urged a global reduction in the use of HFCs . On 15 October 2016 , due to these chemicals ' contribution to climate change , negotiators from 197 nations meeting at the summit of the United Nations Environment Programme in Kigali , Rwanda reached a legally-binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) in an amendment to the Montreal Protocol .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Hydrofluorocarbon", "rank": 18, "score": 116382 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )", "qid": "3059", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita", "rank": 19, "score": 114234 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 20, "score": 113659 }, { "content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Simon_Tett", "rank": 21, "score": 112967 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 22, "score": 112276 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 23, "score": 112245 }, { "content": "Title: 1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane Content: Trichlorotrifluoroethane , also called 1,1,2-Trichloro-1 ,2,2 - trifluoroethane or CFC-113 is a chlorofluorocarbon . It has the formula Cl2FC-CClF2 . This colorless gas is a versatile solvent . It has attracted much attention for its role in the depletion of stratospheric ozone . The amount of CFC-113 in the atmosphere has remained at about 80 parts per trillion , since the early 1990s . It is isomeric with 1,1,1-Trichloro-2 ,2,2 - trifluoroethane , known as CFC-113a , which has the structural formula CF3-CCl3 . The Montreal Protocol in 1987 called for the phase out of all CFC 's , including CFC-113 by 2010 .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane", "rank": 24, "score": 111895 }, { "content": "Title: Constant fraction discriminator Content: A constant fraction discriminator ( CFD ) is an electronic signal processing device , designed to mimic the mathematical operation of finding a maximum of a pulse by finding the zero of its slope . Some signals do not have a sharp maximum , but short rise times . Typical input signals for CFDs are pulses from plastic scintillation counters , such as those used for lifetime measurement in positron annihilation experiments . The scintillator pulses have identical rise times that are much longer than the desired temporal resolution . This forbids simple threshold triggering , which causes a dependence of the trigger time on the signal 's peak height , an effect called time walk ( see diagram ) . Identical rise times and peak shapes permit triggering not on a fixed threshold but on a constant fraction of the total peak height , yielding trigger times independent from peak heights .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Constant_fraction_discriminator", "rank": 25, "score": 111229 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 26, "score": 110278 }, { "content": "Title: Integrated Carbon Observation System Content: Integrated Carbon Observation System ( ICOS ) is a new strategic research infrastructure to quantify the greenhouse gas balance in Europe and adjacent regions . It consists of a harmonized network of ecosystem long-term observation sites , a network of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration sites and a network of ocean observations . The network will be coordinated through a set of central facilities , including an atmospheric and an ecosystem thematic center , a central data center , an analytical laboratory and an oceanic thematic center . ICOS will provide the essential long-term observations required to understand the present state and predict future behavior of the global carbon cycle and greenhouse gas emissions . It will monitor and assess the effectiveness of carbon sequestration and/or greenhouse gases emission reduction activities on global atmospheric composition levels , including attribution of sources and sinks by region and sector . Standardized network will improved access to data and enable the development of flux products for research and political application . ICOS will be a state-of-the-art facility for the European research community . It will contribute the European share to global greenhouse gas observations under GEO , WMO-GAW and GTOS programs .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Integrated_Carbon_Observation_System", "rank": 27, "score": 109832 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Grenada Content: The issue of climate change has received significant public and political attention in Grenada . As of 2013 , the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the Government of Grenada , which seeks to set an example through innovation and green technology . Given its small size , Grenada is not a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , but does use fossil fuel to generate 90 % of its electricity . The Government of Grenada has set a goal of generating 50 % of its energy from solar and wind power by 2030 , and is taking steps to abolish Grenlec , the state-run electric utility . Because tourism is a mainstay of the economy , there is also interest in exploring the use of seawater for air-conditioning . As of 2013 , Grenada had a US$ 6.9 million pilot project to adapt its irrigation system to climate change and conduct local and regional water planning , funded by the German International Climate Initiative ( IKI ) . Groundwater depletion , lower water tables , disruption of water supply by hurricanes ( such as Hurricane Ivan ) , saltwater intrusion , and rising sea levels pose challenges for providing a consistent water supply for agriculture and tourism . In 2013 , the newspaper The Washington Diplomat profiled Grenada 's ambassador to the United States , Angus Friday , who has served as a `` senior climate policy specialist at the World Bank . '' In his earlier posting as Grenadian Ambassador to the United Nations , `` he frequently advocated for small Caribbean and Pacific island nations threatened by rising ocean levels . ''", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Grenada", "rank": 28, "score": 108915 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 29, "score": 108746 }, { "content": "Title: Total equivalent warming impact Content: Total equivalent warming impact or TEWI is besides global warming potential measure used to express contributions to global warming . It is defined as sum of the direct emissions ( chemical ) and indirect emissions ( energy use ) of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Total_equivalent_warming_impact", "rank": 30, "score": 108724 }, { "content": "Title: CarbonFix Standard Content: The CarbonFix Standard ( CFS ) is an initiative supported by over 60 organisations promotes the development of climate forestation projects to sequester carbon from the atmosphere . The CarbonFix Standard is administered by CarbonFix , a non-profit association based in Germany . The CarbonFix Standard has been favourably assessed in 2008 , by the University of Canterbury , New Zealand and in 2009 by the Imperial College of London . CarbonPositive ( 2009 ) placed the CarbonFix Standard between the Voluntary Carbon Standard and the CCB Standard , `` aiming for a best of both worlds approach '' .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "CarbonFix_Standard", "rank": 31, "score": 108209 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas monitoring Content: Greenhouse gas monitoring is the direct measurement of greenhouse gas emissions and levels . Methods include satellite monitoring such as the Orbiting Carbon Observatory and networks of ground stations such as the Integrated Carbon Observation System . The individual units of ground stations often use an infrared detector to assess the concentration of a certain gas .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_monitoring", "rank": 32, "score": 107991 }, { "content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry", "rank": 33, "score": 107946 }, { "content": "Title: Circulating fluidized bed Content: The circulating fluidized bed ( CFB ) is a developing technology for coal combustion to achieve lower emission of pollutants . By using this technology , up to 95 % of pollutants can be absorbed before being emitted to the atmosphere .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Circulating_fluidized_bed", "rank": 34, "score": 107922 }, { "content": "Title: 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene Content: 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene , or HFO-1234yf , is a hydrofluoroolefin ( HFO ) with the formula CH2 = CFCF3 . This colorless gas has been proposed as a replacement for R-134a as a refrigerant in automobile air conditioners . HFO-1234yf is the first in a new class of refrigerants acquiring a global warming potential ( GWP ) rating one 335th that of R-134a ( and only 4 times higher than carbon dioxide , which can also be used as a refrigerant but which has properties significantly different from those of R134a , especially requiring operation at around 5 times higher pressure ) and an atmospheric lifetime of about 400 times shorter .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene", "rank": 35, "score": 107826 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_inventory", "rank": 36, "score": 107740 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Greenhouse_debt", "rank": 37, "score": 107443 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 38, "score": 107421 }, { "content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Fugitive_emissions", "rank": 39, "score": 107409 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 40, "score": 106276 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Low-carbon_diet", "rank": 41, "score": 106103 }, { "content": "Title: Chicago Climate Exchange Content: The Chicago Climate Exchange ( CCX ) was North America 's only voluntary , legally binding greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reduction and trading system for emission sources and offset projects in North America and Brazil . CCX employed independent verification , included six greenhouse gases , and traded greenhouse gas emission allowances from 2003 to 2010 . The companies joining the exchange committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 6 % by 2010 . CCX had an aggregate baseline of 680 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent . CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets , although carbon exchanges were intended to still be facilitated .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Chicago_Climate_Exchange", "rank": 42, "score": 105833 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_accounting", "rank": 43, "score": 105817 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 44, "score": 105809 }, { "content": "Title: Veerabhadran Ramanathan Content: Veerabhadran Ramanathan ( Tamil : வீரபத்ரன் இராமநாதன் ) is Victor Alderson Professor of Applied Ocean Sciences and director of the Center for Atmospheric Sciences at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography , University of California , San Diego . He has contributed to many areas of the atmospheric sciences including developments to general circulation models , atmospheric chemistry , and radiative transfer . He has been a part of major projects such as the Indian Ocean Experiment ( INDOEX ) and the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , and is known for his contributions to the area of atmospheric aerosol research . He has received numerous awards , and is a member of the US National Academy of Sciences . He has spoken about the topic of global warming , and written that `` the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming is , in my opinion , the most important environmental issue facing the world today . ''", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Veerabhadran_Ramanathan", "rank": 45, "score": 105634 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 46, "score": 105204 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 47, "score": 104789 }, { "content": "Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform", "rank": 48, "score": 104616 }, { "content": "Title: Fee and dividend Content: Fee and Dividend or Carbon Fee and Dividend ( CF&D ) is a market-based mechanism for reducing the carbon emissions that help to drive anthropogenic climate change . Carbon Fee and Dividend begins with levying imposing a progressively-rising fee on carbon-based fuels , then returning some or all of the fees collected to the public as a regular energy dividend . This is intended to incentivize a shift to low-carbon energy while protecting consumers from any increases in the costs of carbon-based fuels . Designed to maintain or improve economic vitality while speeding the transition to a sustainable energy economy , Carbon Fee and Dividend has been proposed as an alternative to emission reduction mechanisms such as cap and trade or a straightforward carbon tax .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Fee_and_dividend", "rank": 49, "score": 104179 }, { "content": "Title: Direct carbon fuel cell Content: A Direct Carbon Fuel Cell ( DCFC ) is a fuel cell that uses a carbon rich material as a fuel such as bio-mass or coal . The cell produces energy by combining carbon and oxygen , which releases carbon dioxide as a by-product . It also called coal fuel cells ( CFCs ) , carbon-air fuel cells ( CAFCs ) , direct carbon/coal fuel cells ( DCFCs ) , and DC-SOFC . The total reaction of the cell is C + O2 → CO2 . The process in half cell notation : Anode : C + 2 O2 − → CO2 + 4 e − Cathode : O2 + 4 e − → 2 O2 − Despite this release of carbon dioxide , the direct carbon fuel cell is more environmentally friendly than traditional carbon burning techniques . Due to its higher efficiency , it requires less carbon to produce the same amount of energy . Also , because pure carbon dioxide is emitted , carbon capture techniques are much cheaper than for conventional power stations . Utilized carbon can be in the form of coal , coke , char , or a non-fossilized source of carbon . At least four types of DCFC exist : The first one is based on the Solid oxide fuel cell ( SOFC ) concept . Overall reaction in the solid oxide electrolyte based DCFC C + O2 → CO2 . Anode reaction <Direct electrochemical oxidation path> C + 2O2 − → CO2 + 4e − C + O2 − → CO + 2e − <Indirect electrochemical oxidation path> CO + O2 − → CO2 + 2e − <Boudouard reaction:indirect chemical reaction path> C + CO2 → 2CO Cathode reaction O2 + 4e − → 2O2 − The second one is molten hydroxides fuel cell . William W. Jacques obtained an US Patent 555,511 in this type of fuel cell in 1896 . Prototypes have been demonstrated by the research group , SARA , Inc. . The third one is based on the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell ( MCFC ) concept . William W. Jacques obtained a Canadian patent in this type of fuel cell in 1897 . It has been developed further at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory . The fourth is a molten tin anode solid oxide fuel cell design , which utilizes molten tin and tin oxide as an inter stage reaction between oxidation of the carbon dissolving in the anode and reduction of oxygen at the solid oxide cathode .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Direct_carbon_fuel_cell", "rank": 50, "score": 104178 }, { "content": "Title: Fred Singer Content: Siegfried Fred Singer ( born September 27 , 1924 ) is an Austrian-born American physicist and emeritus professor of environmental science at the University of Virginia . Singer trained as an atmospheric physicist and is known for his work in space research , atmospheric pollution , rocket and satellite technology , his questioning of the link between UV-B and melanoma rates , and that between CFCs and stratospheric ozone loss , his public downplaying of the health risks of passive smoking , and as an advocate for climate change denial . He is the author or editor of several books including Global Effects of Environmental Pollution ( 1970 ) , The Ocean in Human Affairs ( 1989 ) , Global Climate Change ( 1989 ) , The Greenhouse Debate Continued ( 1992 ) , and Hot Talk , Cold Science ( 1997 ) . He has also co-authored Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years ( 2007 ) with Dennis Avery , and Climate Change Reconsidered ( 2009 ) with Craig Idso . Singer has had a varied career , serving in the armed forces , government , and academia . He designed mines for the U.S. Navy during World War II , before obtaining his Ph.D. in physics from Princeton University in 1948 and working as a scientific liaison officer in the U.S. Embassy in London . He became a leading figure in early space research , was involved in the development of earth observation satellites , and in 1962 established the National Weather Bureau 's Satellite Service Center . He was the founding dean of the University of Miami School of Environmental and Planetary Sciences in 1964 , and held several government positions , including deputy assistant administrator for the Environmental Protection Agency , and chief scientist for the Department of Transportation . He held a professorship with the University of Virginia from 1971 until 1994 , and with George Mason University until 2000 . In 1990 Singer founded the Science & Environmental Policy Project , and in 2006 was named by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation as one of a minority of scientists said to be creating a stand-off on a consensus on climate change . Singer argues there is no evidence that global warming is attributable to human-caused increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide , and that humanity would benefit if temperatures do rise . He is an opponent of the Kyoto Protocol , and has claimed that climate models are neither based on reality nor evidence . Singer has been accused of rejecting peer-reviewed and independently confirmed scientific evidence in his claims concerning public health and environmental issues .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Fred_Singer", "rank": 51, "score": 104022 }, { "content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence", "rank": 52, "score": 103301 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 53, "score": 102769 }, { "content": "Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network", "rank": 54, "score": 102702 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 55, "score": 102404 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 56, "score": 102274 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 57, "score": 101989 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monofluoride Content: Carbon monofluoride ( CF , CFx , or ( CF ) x ) , also called polycarbon monofluoride ( PMF ) , polycarbon fluoride , poly ( carbon monofluoride ) , and graphite fluoride , is a material formed by high-temperature reaction of fluorine gas with graphite , charcoal , or pyrolytic carbon powder . It is a highly hydrophobic microcrystalline powder . Its CAS number is . In contrast to graphite intercalation compounds it is a covalent graphite compound . Carbon is stable in a fluorine atmosphere up to about 400 ° C , but between 420-600 ° C a reaction takes place to give substoichiometric carbon monofluoride , CF0 .68 appearing dark grey . With increasing temperature and fluorine pressure stoichiometries up to CF1 .12 are formed . With increasing fluorine content the colour changes from dark grey to cream white indicating the loss of the aromatic character . The fluorine atoms are located in an alternating fashion above and under the former graphene plane , which is now buckled due to formation of covalent carbon-fluorine bonds . Reaction of carbon with fluorine at even higher temperature successively destroys the graphite compound to yield a mixture of gaseous fluorocarbons such as tetrafluorocarbon , CF4 , and tetrafluoroethylene , C2F4 . In a similar fashion the recently found carbon allotrope fullerene , C60 reacts with fluorine gas to give fullerene fluorides with stoichiometries up to C60F48 . A precursor of carbon monofluoride is the fluorine-graphite intercalation compound , also called fluorine-GIC . Other intercalation fluorides of carbon are poly ( dicarbon fluoride ) ( ( C2F ) n ) ; tetracarbon monofluoride ( TCMF , C4F ) . Graphite fluoride is a procursor for preparation of graphene fluoride by a liquid phase exfoliation .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Carbon_monofluoride", "rank": 58, "score": 101870 }, { "content": "Title: Shale gas Content: Shale gas is natural gas that is found trapped within shale formations . Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States since the start of this century , and interest has spread to potential gas shales in the rest of the world . In 2000 shale gas provided only 1 % of U.S. natural gas production ; by 2010 it was over 20 % and the U.S. government 's Energy Information Administration predicts that by 2035 , 46 % of the United States ' natural gas supply will come from shale gas . Some analysts expect that shale gas will greatly expand worldwide energy supply . China is estimated to have the world 's largest shale gas reserves . The Obama administration believed that increased shale gas development would help reduce greenhouse gas emissions . In 2012 , US carbon dioxide emissions dropped to a 20-year low . A 2013 review by the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Climate Change noted that most studies of the subject have estimated that life-cycle greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from shale gas are similar to those of conventional natural gas , and are much less than those from coal , usually about half the greenhouse gas emissions of coal ; the noted exception was a 2011 study by Howarth and others of Cornell University , which concluded that shale GHG emissions were as high as those of coal . More recent studies have also concluded that life-cycle shale gas GHG emissions are much less than those of coal , among them , studies by Natural Resources Canada ( 2012 ) , and a consortium formed by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory with a number of universities ( 2012 ) . Some 2011 studies pointed to high rates of decline of some shale gas wells as an indication that shale gas production may ultimately be much lower than is currently projected . But shale-gas discoveries are also opening up substantial new resources of tight oil / `` shale oil '' .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Shale_gas", "rank": 59, "score": 101771 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 60, "score": 101254 }, { "content": "Title: CFSMC Content: CFSMC , or Carbon Fiber Sheet Molding Compound ( also known as CF-SMC or SMC-CF ) , is a ready to mold carbon fiber reinforced polymer composite material used in compression molding . While traditional SMC utilizes chopped glass fibers in a polymer resin , CFSMC utilizes chopped carbon fibers . The length and distribution of the carbon fibers is more regular , homogeneous , and constant than the standard glass SMC . CFSMC offers much higher stiffness and usually higher strength than standard SMC , but at a higher cost . In the automotive industry , SMCs have been used for over 30 years as a material for body panels in select sport cars such as the Chevrolet Corvette . CFSMCs are a recent development of SMC materials , and have been used for significant structural components of the 2003 Dodge Viper , the 2009 Lexus LFA , 2015 Lamborghini Huracán , and 2017 McLaren chassis . In addition , CFSMCs have been used for some components of the Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren and Porsche 918 Spyder . Major producers of CFSMC for the automotive industry include Quantum Composites and Mitsubishi Rayon , while others are being developed . CFSMC is also utilized in a more advanced form as the foundational material for Forged Composite technology . Compared to standard CFSMC , Forged Composite technology uses higher fiber volume content , higher performance polymer resins , and improved compression molding procedures with advanced engineering design criteria . When molded , CFSMC has a very different appearance than traditional carbon fiber fabric composites , which traditionally appear with a woven checkerboard pattern . CFSMC has the appearance of black and grey marble or burl .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "CFSMC", "rank": 61, "score": 100757 }, { "content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 62, "score": 100685 }, { "content": "Title: Tetrafluoromethane Content: Tetrafluoromethane , also known as carbon tetrafluoride , is the simplest fluorocarbon ( CF4 ) . It has a very high bond strength due to the nature of the carbon -- fluorine bond . It can also be classified as a haloalkane or halomethane . Because of the multiple carbon -- fluorine bonds , and the high electronegativity of fluorine , the carbon in tetrafluoromethane has a significant positive partial charge which strengthens and shortens the four carbon -- fluorine bonds by providing additional ionic character . Tetrafluoromethane is a potent greenhouse gas .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Tetrafluoromethane", "rank": 63, "score": 100551 }, { "content": "Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 64, "score": 100422 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 65, "score": 100343 }, { "content": "Title: Continued fraction factorization Content: In number theory , the continued fraction factorization method ( CFRAC ) is an integer factorization algorithm . It is a general-purpose algorithm , meaning that it is suitable for factoring any integer n , not depending on special form or properties . It was described by D. H. Lehmer and R. E. Powers in 1931 , and developed as a computer algorithm by Michael A. Morrison and John Brillhart in 1975 . The continued fraction method is based on Dixon 's factorization method . It uses convergents in the regular continued fraction expansion of . Since this is a quadratic irrational , the continued fraction must be periodic ( unless n is square , in which case the factorization is obvious ) . It has a time complexity of , in the O and L notations .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Continued_fraction_factorization", "rank": 66, "score": 100240 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrofluoroolefin Content: Hydrofluoroolefins ( HFOs ) are unsaturated organic compounds composed of hydrogen , fluorine and carbon . These organofluorine compound are of interest as refrigerants . Unlike traditional hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) and chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) , which are saturated , HFOs are olefins , otherwise known as alkenes . HFO refrigerants are categorised as having zero ODP ( Ozone Depletion Potential ) and low GWP and so offer a more environmentally friendly alternative to CFCs , HCFCs and HFCs . HFOs are being developed as `` fourth generation '' refrigerants with 0.1 % of the global-warming potential of HFCs . HFOs currently in use include 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene ( HFO-1234yf ) and 1,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene ( HFO-1234ze ) . 1-chloro-3 ,3,3 - trifluoropropene ( HFO-1233zd ) is also under development .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Hydrofluoroolefin", "rank": 67, "score": 99915 }, { "content": "Title: Pentafluoroethane Content: Pentafluoroethane is a refrigerant with the formula CF3CHF2 . Although it has zero ozone depletion potential , it has high global warming potential , reported by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) as 3450 times that of carbon dioxide . Pentafluoroethane in a near zeotropic mixture with difluoromethane is known as R-410A , a common replacement for various chlorofluorocarbons ( commonly known as Freon ) in new refrigerant systems . Pentafluoroethane is also used as a fire suppression agent in fire suppression systems .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Pentafluoroethane", "rank": 68, "score": 99787 }, { "content": "Title: Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences Content: The Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences ( CFCAS ) was Canada 's main funding body for university-based research on climate , atmospheric and related oceanic work . It is now the Canadian Climate Forum . As an autonomous , charitable foundation established in 2000 , CFCAS funded research that improved the scientific understanding of processes and predictions , provided relevant science to policy makers and improved understanding of the ways in which these challenges affect human health and the natural environment in addition to strengthening Canada 's scientific capacity . Its chair is Gordon McBean . CFCAS fosters partnerships in support of innovation , investment , policy , skills development and service delivery . It funds the generation of new knowledge that is essential to the competitiveness of industries and to the health and safety of Canadians . The foundation has invested over $ 117 million in university-based research related to climate and atmospheric sciences , in 24 collaborative networks , 2 major initiatives , and 158 projects . Several of the networks are linked to international research programs ; all involved multiple partners . Complementary ( leveraged ) support for networks has doubled the resources available to them . The Foundation has also hosted or co-hosted a number of workshops and symposia on topics such as extreme weather and Arctic climate , and provides support to international project offices .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Canadian_Foundation_for_Climate_and_Atmospheric_Sciences", "rank": 69, "score": 99582 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrofluoroether Content: A Hydrofluoroether ( HFE ) is a complex organic solvent . As a non-ozone-depleting chemical , it was developed originally as a replacement for CFCs , HFCs , HCFCs , and PFCs HFE does not occur naturally . It is colorless , odorless , tasteless , low toxicity , low viscosity , and liquid at room temperature . It is visually indistinguishable from water at room temperature . The vapor-point of HFE varies by chemistry from 50C to nearly 100C . Due to its high molecular weight , it remains in the atmosphere for less than two weeks , being absorbed into the ground rather than remaining dissolved in the atmosphere . Although it is a greenhouse gas , the EPA does not regulate its use due to its short atmospheric lifetime and zero ozone depletion potential compared to alternative chemicals . Industrial uses are many and varied : Vapor de-greasing solvent Refrigerant and heat-transfer fluid Anhydrous fluid cleaner Although 3M first developed HFEs , other manufacturers have begun producing them .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Hydrofluoroether", "rank": 70, "score": 99177 }, { "content": "Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Landfill_gas", "rank": 71, "score": 98799 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming", "rank": 72, "score": 98790 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia", "rank": 73, "score": 98450 }, { "content": "Title: Methanotroph Content: Methanotrophs ( sometimes called methanophiles ) are prokaryotes that metabolize methane as their only source of carbon and energy . They can grow aerobically or anaerobically and require single-carbon compounds to survive . These Methanotrophs are currently being modified to absorb methane from the atmosphere , because methane released into the atmosphere contributes to greenhouse gasses , which heat up the earth and cause global warming .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Methanotroph", "rank": 74, "score": 98434 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 75, "score": 98167 }, { "content": "Title: Canadian Film Centre Content: The Canadian Film Centre ( CFC ) , based in Toronto , Ontario , Canada and founded by Academy Award-nominated director Norman Jewison , aims to `` accelerate the careers of the brightest talent in film , television , screen acting , music , and digital media . '' A charitable organization , the CFC `` is committed to promoting and investing in Canada 's diverse talent ; providing exhibition , financial , and distribution opportunities , industry collaborations and creative partnerships for top creative content leaders . CFC makes a significant cultural and economic contribution to Canada by launching the country 's most creative ideas and voices to the world . ''", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Canadian_Film_Centre", "rank": 76, "score": 98088 }, { "content": "Title: Mario J. Molina Content: Mario José Molina-Pasquel Henríquez ( born March 19 , 1943 ) is a Mexican chemist reputed for his pivotal role in the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole . In 2004 he became professor at the University of California , San Diego and the Center for Atmospheric Sciences at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . He was a co-recipient of the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his role in elucidating the threat to the Earth 's ozone layer of chlorofluorocarbon gases ( or CFCs ) , becoming the first Mexican-born citizen to ever receive a Nobel Prize in Chemistry . Molina is a climate policy adviser to President of Mexico , Enrique Peña Nieto .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Mario_J._Molina", "rank": 77, "score": 97910 }, { "content": "Title: Chlorotrifluoromethane Content: Chlorotrifluoromethane , R-13 , CFC-13 , or Freon 13 , is a non-flammable , non-corrosive chlorofluorocarbon ( CFC ) and also a mixed halomethane . It is used as a refrigerant , however , due to concerns about its ozone-depleting potential , its use has been phased out due to the Montreal Protocol .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Chlorotrifluoromethane", "rank": 78, "score": 97868 }, { "content": "Title: CFC domain Content: In molecular biology , the CFC domain ( Cripto_Frl-1_Cryptic domain ) is a protein domain found at the C-terminus of a number of proteins including Cripto ( or teratocarcinoma-derived growth factor ) . It is structurally similar to the C-terminal extracellular portions of Jagged 1 and Jagged 2 . CFC is approx 40-residues long , compacted by three internal disulphide bridges , and binds Alk4 via a hydrophobic patch . CFC is structurally homologous to the VWFC-like domain . The CFC domain appears to play a crucial role in the tumourigenic activity of Cripto proteins , as it is through the CFC domain that Cripto interferes with the onco-suppressive activity of Activins , either by blocking the Activin receptor ALK4 or by antagonising proteins of the TGF-beta family .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "CFC_domain", "rank": 79, "score": 97686 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 80, "score": 97655 }, { "content": "Title: Virgin Earth Challenge Content: The Virgin Earth Challenge is a competition offering a $ 25 million prize for whoever can demonstrate a commercially viable design which results in the permanent removal of greenhouse gases out of the Earth 's atmosphere to contribute materially in global warming avoidance . The prize was conceived and financed by Sir Richard Branson , a successful British entrepreneur , and was announced in London on 9 February 2007 by Branson and former US Vice President and 2007 Nobel Prize winner Al Gore , creator of the 2006 film An Inconvenient Truth on climate change . Among more than 2600 applications , 11 finalists were announced on 2 November 2011 . These are Biochar Solutions , from the US ; Biorecro , Sweden ; Black Carbon , Denmark ; Carbon Engineering , Canada ; Climeworks , Switzerland ; COAWAY , US ; Full Circle Biochar , US ; Global Thermostat , US ; Kilimanjaro Energy , US ; Smartstones -- Olivine Foundation , Netherlands , and The Savory Institute , US .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Virgin_Earth_Challenge", "rank": 81, "score": 97495 }, { "content": "Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 82, "score": 97414 }, { "content": "Title: Methane emissions Content: Global methane emissions are major part of the global greenhouse gas emissions . Methane in the atmosphere has a 100-year global warming potential of 34 .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Methane_emissions", "rank": 83, "score": 97313 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 84, "score": 97157 }, { "content": "Title: Emissions Reduction Currency System Content: Emissions Reduction Currency Systems ( ERCS ) are schemes that provide a positive economic and or social reward for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions , either through distribution or redistribution of national currency or through the publishing of coupons , reward points , local currency , or complementary currency .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Emissions_Reduction_Currency_System", "rank": 85, "score": 96841 }, { "content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources", "rank": 86, "score": 96835 }, { "content": "Title: CFD-DEM Content: The CFD-DEM model , or Computational Fluid Dynamics / Discrete Element Method model , is a process used to model or simulate systems combining fluids with solids or particles . In CFD-DEM , the motion of discrete solids or particles phase is obtained by the Discrete Element Method ( DEM ) which applies Newton 's laws of motion to every particle , while the flow of continuum fluid is described by the local averaged Navier -- Stokes equations that can be solved using the traditional Computational Fluid Dynamics ( CFD ) approach . The interactions between the fluid phase and solids phase is modeled by use of Newton 's third law . The direct incorporation of CFD into DEM to study the gas fluidization process so far has been attempted by Tsuji et al. and most recently by Hoomans et al. , Deb et al. and Peng et al. .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "CFD-DEM", "rank": 87, "score": 96806 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 88, "score": 96746 }, { "content": "Title: Computational Fluid Dynamics for Phase Change Materials Content: Computational Fluid Dynamics ( CFD ) modeling and simulation for phase change materials ( PCMs ) is a technique to analyze the performance and behavior of PCMs . The CFD models have been successful in studying and analyzing the air quality , natural ventilation and stratified ventilation , air flow initiated by buoyancy forces and temperature space for the systems integrated with PCMs . Simple shapes like flat plates , cylinders or annular tubes , fins , macro - and micro-encapsulations with containers of different shape are often modeled in CFD software 's to study . Typically the CFD models generally include Reynold 's Averaged Navier-Stokes equation ( RANS ) modeling and Large Eddy Simulation ( LES ) . Conservation equations of mass , momentum and energy ( Navier -- Stokes ) are linearised , discretised , and applied to finite volumes to obtain a detailed solution for field distributions of air pressure , velocity and temperature for both indoor spaces integrated with PCMs .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Computational_Fluid_Dynamics_for_Phase_Change_Materials", "rank": 89, "score": 96550 }, { "content": "Title: CFD-ACE+ Content: CFD-ACE + is a commercial computational fluid dynamics solver developed by ESI Group . It solves the conservation equations of mass , momentum , energy , chemical species and other scalar transport equations using the finite volume method . These equations enable coupled simulations of fluid , thermal , chemical , biological , electrical and mechanical phenomena . CFD-ACE + solver allows for coupled heat and mass transport along with complex multi-step gas-phase and surface reactions which makes it especially useful for designing and optimizing semiconductor equipment and processes such as chemical vapor deposition ( CVD ) . Researchers at the Ecole Nationale Superieure d'Arts et Metiers used CFD-ACE + to simulate the rapid thermal chemical vapor deposition ( RTCVD ) process . They predicted the deposition rate along the substrate diameter for silicon deposition from silane . They also used CFD-ACE + to model transparent conductive oxide ( TCO ) thin film deposition with ultrasonic spray chemical vapor deposition ( CVD ) . The University of Louisville and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory used CFD-ACE + to develop the yttria-stabilized zirconia CVD process for application of thermal barrier coatings for fossil energy systems . CFD-ACE + was used by the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay to model the interplay of multiphysics phenomena involved in microfluidic devices such as fluid flow , structure , surface and interfaces etc. . Numerical simulation of electroosmotic effect on pressure-driven flows in the serpentine channel of a micro fuel cell with variable zeta potential on the side walls was investigated and reported . Based on their extensive study of CFD software tools for microfluidic applications , researchers at IMTEK , University of Freiburg concluded that generally CFD-ACE + can be recommended for simulation of free surface flows involving capillary forces . CFD-ACE + has also been used to design and optimize the various fuel cell components and stacks . Researchers at Ballard Power Systems used the PEMFC module in CFD-ACE + to improve the design of its latest fuel-cell . Amongst other energy applications , CFD-ACE + was employed by ABB researchers to simulate the three-dimensional geometry of a high-current constricted vacuum arc drive by a strong magnetic field . Flow velocities were up to several thousand meters per second so the time step of the simulation was in the range of tens of nanoseconds . A movement of the arc over almost one full circle was simulated . Researchers at the University of Akron used CFD-ACE + to simulation flow patterns and pressure profiles inside a rectangular pocket of a hydrostatic journal bearing . The numerical results made it possible to determine the three-dimensional flow field and pressure profile throughout the pocket , clearance and adjoining lands . The inertia effects and pressure drops across the pocket were incorporated in the numerical model . Stanford University researchers used CFD-ACE + to investigate the suppression of wake instabilities of a pair of circular cylinders in a freestream flow at a Reynolds number of 150 . The simulation showed that when the cylinders are counter-rotated , unsteady vortex wakes can be eliminated .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "CFD-ACE+", "rank": 90, "score": 96429 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act Content: __ NOTOC __ The Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act of the Canadian province of Alberta was the first law of its type to impose greenhouse gas cuts on large industrial facilities . Starting from July 1 , 2007 , Alberta facilities that emit more than 100,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases per year will be required to reduce their emissions intensity by 12 percent under the Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act . Companies have three ways to meet their reductions : they can make operating improvements , buy an Alberta-based credit , or contribute to the Climate Change and Emissions Management Fund . The regulations apply to about 100 large facilities which emit more than 100,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases a year . Those facilities account for about 70 per cent of Alberta 's industrial greenhouse gas emissions . The annual cost of compliance is estimated to be $ 177 million - or less than one tenth of one per cent of Alberta 's nominal GDP ( $ 242 billion in 2006 ) .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Climate_Change_and_Emissions_Management_Amendment_Act", "rank": 91, "score": 96210 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 92, "score": 96190 }, { "content": "Title: Representative Concentration Pathways Content: Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) are four greenhouse gas concentration ( not emissions ) trajectories adopted by the IPCC for its fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) in 2014 . It supersedes Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) projections published in 2000 . The pathways are used for climate modeling and research . They describe four possible climate futures , all of which are considered possible depending on how much greenhouse gases are emitted in the years to come . The four RCPs , RCP2 .6 , RCP4 .5 , RCP6 , and RCP8 .5 , are named after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values ( +2.6 , +4.5 , +6.0 , and +8.5 W/m2 , respectively ) .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Representative_Concentration_Pathways", "rank": 93, "score": 96110 }, { "content": "Title: Pastoral Greenhouse Gas Research Consortium Content: __ NOTOC __ The Pastoral Greenhouse Gas Research Consortium ( PGGRC ) carries out research to find methods of reducing greenhouse gas emissions from livestock . The consortium , established in 2004 , has a Memorandum of Understanding with the New Zealand Government . Almost half of the greenhouse gas emissions in New Zealand are due to agriculture and since the New Zealand government has signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol methods are being sought to seek a reduction of these emissions . In 2003 the Government attempted to impose an Agricultural emissions research levy on farmers to fund research into agricultural emissions reduction but it proved to be unpopular and the proposal was abandoned . The PGGRC is an alternative method of addressing agricultural emissions . An independent review in 2006 found that the PGGRC was producing world-leading research and is excellent value for money .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Pastoral_Greenhouse_Gas_Research_Consortium", "rank": 94, "score": 96006 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 95, "score": 95822 }, { "content": "Title: Combustion models for CFD Content: Combustion models for CFD refers to combustion models for computational fluid dynamics . Combustion is defined as a chemical reaction in which a hydrocarbon fuel reacts with an oxidant to form products , accompanied with the release of energy in the form of heat . Being the integral part of various engineering applications like : internal combustion engines , aircraft engines , rocket engines , furnaces , and power station combustors , combustion manifests itself as a wide domain during the design , analysis and performance characteristics stages of the above-mentioned applications . With the added complexity of chemical kinetics and achieving reacting flow mixture environment , proper modeling physics has to be incorporated during computational fluid dynamic ( CFD ) simulations of combustion . Hence the following discussion presents a general outline of the various adequate models incorporated with the Computational fluid dynamic code to model the process of combustion .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Combustion_models_for_CFD", "rank": 96, "score": 95627 }, { "content": "Title: Chess Federation of Canada Content: The Chess Federation of Canada or CFC ( French name : Fédération canadienne des échecs ) is Canada 's national chess organization . Founded in 1872 as the Canadian Chess Association , it was replaced in 1932 by the Canadian Chess Federation ( CCF ) , which for the first time included representation from all major cities in Canada . In 1945 the name was changed to avoid confusion with the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation . The CFC organizes tournaments and publishes national ratings . The highest rated player in Canada is Evgeny Bareev of Toronto .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Chess_Federation_of_Canada", "rank": 97, "score": 95522 }, { "content": "Title: 1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane Content: 1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane , or R-114 , also known as cryofluorane ( INN ) , is a chlorofluorocarbon ( CFC ) with the molecular formula ClF2CCF2Cl . Its primary use has been as a refrigerant . It is a non-flammable gas with a sweetish , chloroform-like odor with the critical point occurring at 145.6 ° C and 3.26 MPa . When pressurized or cooled , it is a colorless liquid . It is listed on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's list of ozone depleting chemicals , and is classified as a Montreal Protocol Class I , group 1 ozone depleting substance . When used as a refrigerant , R-114 is classified as a medium pressure refrigerant . The US Navy uses R-114 in its centrifugal chillers in preference to R-11 to avoid air and moisture leakage into the system . While the evaporator of an R-11 charged chiller runs at a vacuum during operation , R-114 yields approximately 0 psig operating pressure in the evaporator .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane", "rank": 98, "score": 95417 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas removal Content: Greenhouse gas removal projects are a type of climate engineering that seek to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere , and thus they tackle the root cause of global warming . These techniques either directly remove greenhouse gases , or alternatively seek to influence natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly . The discipline overlaps with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration , and some projects listed may not be considered to be geoengineering by all commentators , instead being described as mitigation .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_removal", "rank": 99, "score": 95351 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "3059", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 100, "score": 95300 } ]